Stalking ^ a Contemporary Challenge for Forensic and Clinical Psychiatry
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BRITISH JOURNAL OF PSYCHIATRY (2000), 176, 206^209 REVIEW ARTICLE Stalking ^ a contemporary challenge for forensic As often found with recently developed behavioural concepts, there is no consensus and clinical psychiatry about the exact definition of stalking. Most of the disagreement seems to centre on the degree of emphasis placed on the extent to J. H. KAMPHUIS and P. M. G. EMMELKAMP which the stalking evokes a subjective sense of threat. Generally, the various definitions have the following elements in common: &a) a pattern of intrusive behaviour, akin to harassment; &b) an implicit or explicit threat that emanates from the behavioural pattern; and &c) as a result, the target Background StalkingisStalking is causing Stalking gained major media attention by experiences considerable real fear &Meloy, pervasive andandintense intense personal suffering the often-spectacular accounts of celebrity 1998). In this article we use Meloy and stalking. Well-known cases from the United Gothard's definition: ``Stalking is typically andis an area of psychiatry thatisthat is States include the stalkers of Madonna and defined as the wilful, malicious, and re- currently overlooked. Jodie Foster. However, repeated intrusive peated following or harassing of another communication and harassment is by no person that threatens his or her safety'' Aims To reviewdemographic and means limited to fans targeting the rich &Meloy & Gothard, 1995, p. 258). clinical characteristics of stalkers as wellwellas as and famous. Much more common is the the psychological consequences for scenario in which stalker and `stalkee' had victims of stalking. some sort of `real' prior relationship: they NATURE AND PREVALENCE were often prior acquaintances or inti- OF STALKING MethodMethod A Medline and PsycLit search mates, but professional contacts can also was conducted on stalking, forensic give rise to stalking later &e.g. by clients of Stalking behaviour typically consists of in- psychiatry,personalitydisorders,psychiatry,personality disorders, de psychiatrists or lawyers; or by rejected job trusive following of a `target': for example, applicants). by placing one's self in front of the target's CleClerambault¨ rambault syndrome and erotomania, Forensic psychiatry has given scant at- home, or other unexpected and unwelcome with respect to the relevance of the tention to the phenomenon of stalking. appearances in their private domain. Stalk- articles selected for stalking. Few studies have investigated the psycholo- ers most often persecute their targets by un- gical make-up of stalkers, and to date only wanted communications, which can consist ResultsResults Stalkers arebestthoughtof as a one study &Pathe & Mullen, 1997) has re- of frequent &often nightly) telephone calls, heterogeneousgroupheterogeneous group whose behaviour ported on the psychological impact of stalk- letters, e-mail, graffiti, notes &e.g. left on can be motivated by differentforms of ing on its victims. There are no reports of the target's car), or packages &e.g. gifts, the development of any specific treatment pictures). Somewhat more extreme forms psychopathology,includingpsychopathology, including psychosis and programmes, either for stalkers or for their include ordering goods and services in the severe personalitydisorders. victims. This article aims to give an overview victim's name and charging to the victim's of stalking and its clinical ramifications. account, placing false advertisements or Conclusions There is a clear need to announcements, ordering funeral wreaths, arrive at a consensus on a typologyoftypology of CURRENT DEFINITION spreading rumours about the victim, start- stalkers and associated diagnostic criteria. ing numerous frivolous law suits, smearing The effectiveness of psychological and Partly as a result of publications in the med- the victim's home or destroying or moving ia on stalking of celebrities, research into their property, threatening the victim with pharmacologicalpharmacologicaltreatments treatments have not yet marital violence, and anti-stalking laws in violence, or actually attacking them. Stalk- beenbeeninvestigated.Treatment investigated.Treatment may need to some countries, mental health workers have ers sometimes involve third parties, which be supplemented with external incentives recently started to study stalkers. It became leads to victimisation by association of provided by the legal system. apparent that a proportion of stalkers suf- their family, friends, colleagues, lawyers, fered from erotomania. Originally, eroto- psychiatrists or psychologists, etc. Stalking Declaration of interest None. mania &or de CleClerambault'sÂrambault's syndrome) was can be of brief duration, but it can also last a term reserved for women who held the for many years. Research from the United delusional belief that a man, typically of a States shows that in slightly over half the higher social class or social esteem, was cases, stalking ceases within one year, while deeply in love with them. However, a delu- in one-quarter of the cases it lasts for 2±5 sional disorder of the erotomanic type, as it years &Tjaden & Thoenness, 1997). is currently classified in DSM±IV &Ameri- In some cases, the violence may escalate can Psychiatric Association, 1994), only ac- until the stalker actually murders the victim counts for a very limited subset of episodes and/or his/her children. In the United States, of stalking; stalking can result from many it is estimated that between 21% and different motivations and constellations of 25% of forensic stalking cases culminate psychopathological symptoms. ininsignificant violence &Harmon et aletal,, 206206 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. 29 Sep 2021 at 15:48:13, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use. STALKING 1995; Meloy & Gothard, 1995). The inci- Gothard, 1995; Harmon et aletal, 1995; Mul- knowledge of the identity of the stalker. dence of murder or manslaughter in stalk- lenlen et aletal, 1999), all conducted from forensic Finally, Mullen et aletal &1999) distinguish five ing cases in the United States is estimated settings. The findings suggest the following types of stalkers: &a) the rejected stalker, at 2% &Meloy, 1996). Fritz &1995) showed tentative profile of the `typical' stalker: a who has had a relationship with the victim that 90% of women killed by their ex- single or divorced man in his thirties, often and who is often characterised by a mixture husband had previously been stalked. unemployed, of above-average intelligence, of revenge and desire for reconciliation; &b) These numbers should probably not be with a criminal and psychiatric history. the stalker seeking intimacy, which includes extrapolated unreservedly to the European However, the overall &composite) sample individuals with erotomanic delusions; &c) situation: for one reason, because of differ- does not represent the more ordinary the incompetent stalker ± usually intellec- ences in the availability and possession of &non-&non-criminal)criminal) stalking cases. The attrition tually limited and socially incompetent in- firearms.firearms. at eachateachstep of the sequence: stalking com- dividuals; &d) the resentful stalker, who Obtaining reliable data regarding the plaint±plaint±policepolice report±arrest±criminal pros- stalks to frighten and distress the victim; prevalence and incidence of stalking is a ecution, makes it at least doubtful whether and finally &e) the predatory stalker, who formidable international problem. Inconsis- the entire spectrum of stalkers is adequately is preparing a sexual attack. In addition to tent definition and demarcation of the con- represented. Stalkers form a heterogeneous these categories, there are reports on the cept is partly responsible for this state of group with widely different psychopatho- so-called `false victimisation syndrome', affairs. In some European countries stalk- logical motivations, and it is unlikely that during which the `victim' pretends to have ing by itself is not considered a distinct legal the erotomanic stalker, the psychopathic been stalked, by pursuing herself, in order offence which compounds the problem of stalker and the `other cluster B stalker' to gain attention &Pathe et aletal, 1999).,1999). monitoring and tracking cases for both can be treated equally. There is a clear need to derive a consensus police and forensic researchers. As a result, on a typology of stalkers, with associated estimates of prevalence and incidence are diagnostic criteria. At present, there is no based on very few, predominantly Ameri- Typology of stalkers evidence that one proposed typology is can studies. The US National Violence Several authors have proposed stalker superior to another. The typology eventually Against Women Survey contacted 8000 typologies &Zona et aletal, 1993; Harmon etet agreed upon should have clear implications women and 8000 men by telephone, and alal, 1995; Wright et aletal, 1996; Mullen et aletal,, for treatment. asked them about stalking experiences 1999) based on purported psychological &Tjaden & Thoenness, 1997): 8% of the characteristics of the stalker and/or the women and 2% of the men had been relationship between the stalker and the Personality of stalkers stalked at some point in their life. This victim. Most authors agree on the import- To date, no systematic research has investi- research also illustrates that criminal stalk- ance of the distinction between stalking in gated the motivations and personality of ing cases merely reflect the tip of the ice-ice-