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PRINCIPLES of REMOTE Sensing1x PRINCIPLES OF REMOTE SENSING Introduction Definition Remote sensing means acquiring information about a phenomenon, object or surface while at a distance from it. This name is attributed to recent technology in which satellites and spacecraft are used for collecting information about the earth's surface. This was an outcome of developments in various technological fields from 1960 onward. Stages in Remote Sensing Emission of electromagnetic radiation, or EMR (sun/self- emission) Transmission of energy from the source to the surface of the earth, as well as absorption and scattering Interaction of EMR with the earth's surface: reflection and emission Transmission of energy from the surface to the remote sensor Sensor data output Data transmission, processing and analysis What We See At temperature above absolute zero, all objects radiate electromagnetic energy by virtue of their atomic and molecular oscillations. The total amount of emitted radiation increases with the body's absolute temperature and peaks at progressively shorter wavelengths. The sun, being a major source of energy, radiation and illumination, having a sharp power peak around 0.5 µm, allows to capture reflected light with conventional (and some not-so- conventional) cameras and films. The basic strategy for sensing electromagnetic radiation is clear. Everything in nature has its own unique distribution of reflected, emitted and absorbed radiation. These spectral characteristics, if ingeniously exploited, can be used to distinguish one thing from another or to obtain information about shape, size and other physical and chemical properties. In so far as we know the spectral characteristics, we can pick an appropriate detector to 1 make the desired measurement, remembering that for a given collector's diameter we get our greatest spatial resolution where wavelengths are shortest and energies greatest, and that these energies decrease at longer wavelengths and distances. Modern Remote Sensing Technology versus Conventional Aerial Photography The use of different and extended portions of the electromagnetic spectrum, development in sensor technology, different platforms for remote sensing (spacecraft, in addition to aircraft), emphasis on the use of spectral information as compared to spatial information, advancement in image processing and enhancement techniques, and automated image analysis in addition to manual interpretation are points for comparison Modern Remote Sensing Technology versus Conventional Aerial Photography The use of different and extended portions of the electromagnetic spectrum, development in sensor technology, different platforms for remote sensing (spacecraft, in addition to aircraft), emphasis on the use of spectral information as compared to spatial information, advancement in image processing and enhancement techniques, and automated image analysis in addition to manual interpretation are points for comparison of conventional aerial photography with modern remote sensing system. During early half of twentieth century, aerial photos were used in military surveys and topographical mapping. Main advantage of aerial photos has been the high spatial resolution with fine details and therefore they are still used for mapping at large scale such as in route surveys, town planning, construction project surveying, cadastral mapping etc. Modern remote sensing system provide satellite images suitable for medium scale mapping used in natural resources surveys and monitoring such as forestry, geology, watershed management etc. However the future generation satellites are going to provide much high resolution images for more versatile applications. Remote Sensing in India Indian remote sensing programme was started in late seventies with Indian built Bhaskara-I and Bhaskara-II satellites launched from Soviet Union in June 1978 and November, 1981 respectively. Indigenous launch capability have also been developed to launch 1000 Kg. Remote Sensing Satellite into polar orbit. The Department of Space (DOS)/ Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) has been actively engaged in development of state of art remote sensing capablities along with other related activities. ISRO Satellite Centre (ISAC), Bangalore is responsible for design, development and management of remote sensing satellites. Space Application Centre (SAC), Ahmedabad is engaged in development of sensors ( cameras & scanners) & data processing software, analysis of remote sensing data, and related research. National Remote Sensing Agency 2 (NRSA), Hyderabad is responsible for acquisition, processing and dissemination of remote sensing data, analysis of data for different applications and training of users. The National Natural Resources Management System (NNRMS) is responsible for execution of application projects through the establishment of a no. of Regional Remote Sensing Service Centre (RRSSC) throughout the country. Many user agencies, Govt. Departments, State Governments, and academic institutes have also established remote sensing infrastructure for various applications. HISTORY OF DEVELOPMENT OF REMOTE SENSING Remote sensing was evolved as the ability of man to observe in regions of electromagnetic spectrum, beyond the range of human vision. The development of remote sensing involved the development of conventional photography, multispectral & infrared photography, nonphotographic sensors & scanners, platforms for remote sensing such as aircraft & satellite, communication & data transmission, data processing and computer technology. The first photograph, a permanent impression of image created by light, was reportedly made by Daguerre & Niepce (France) in the year 1839. In the year 1858 a French photographer, Gaspard Felix Tournachon, and Laussedat attempted succesfully to take aerial photographs from a balloon over the city of Paris with a camera using wet plate process. In 1871 dry photographic film, with gelatine emulsion of silver halide grains was available. In 1903, pigeons with camera mounted on them were also used for taking aerial photographs. Many experiments were also conducted for using balloons, kites and rockets for reconnaissance purpose during world war I. This was the time when importance of aerial recconaissance was recognised for military purpose. The first recorded photographs from aeroplane were taken by Wilbur Wright on April 24, 1909 over Centocelli, Italy. During the period between world war I and II, many developments and improvements took place in the technology of photography, film, camera, processing equipment, interpretation of photographs and related techniques. Photogrammetry & Photointerpretation was recognised as a specialisation. American Society of Photogrammetry published its official journal, named "Photogrammetric Engineering" first time in the year 1934. Many non-military applications also started during this period in America and western world, such as in geology, agriculture, forestry and landuse. Many new photogrammetric instuments were also developed such as Zeiss Stereoplanigraph (1923), Zeiss Multiplex (1920), Bausch & Lomb Multiplex (1930), Kelsh Plotter (1940). The European manufacturers such as Wild (Switzerland), Santoni, Mistri(Italy), Poivilliers(France), Hilger-Watts(U.K.) also brought out their similar instruments. 3 In the year 1918, "Air Shipping and Transport Company" was established in India by British Government for carrying out the jobs such as aerial photography for reconnaissance and mapping. The same company was renamed as "Air Survey Company of India" in the year 1954, with Headquarters at Dumdum, Calcutta. The same year, Survey of India recieved a number of Photogrammetric instruments under United Nations Aid programme and persons were trained to do photogrammetric mapping. During the world war II, aerial photographs were extensively used for topographic mapping and military intelligance. The German, British, French and later American and Japanese forces established their aerial reconnaissance units for extensive survillance of enemy areas. Thousands of photographs were processed almost overnight during operations. Aerial photography to observe movement of enemy forces was done repeatedly at an interval of few days, and in some cases, flights were flown even in morning and evening. Large number of photointerpreters were trained by army. During this period, aerial photographs were also used for non military applications such as geology, forestry, soil survey, route alignment etc. After the world war, many of the technologies developed during war time were transferred to civil areas of application. However new developments still continued. Most important of them have been launching of spacecraft, development of non photographic sensors, operating in ultra-violet, infra-red, thermal and microwave regions of electromagnetic regions, satellite communication and data processing on computers. In the year 1957 first artificial satellite "Sputnik I" was launched and in 1961 manned as well as unmanned spacecraft were used to take orbital photographs. Tiros, Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo series of satellites are examples of such experiments. The name "remote sensing" as first used in the early 1960's, when it was felt necessary to find a suitable name for the new type of "images" obtained from a completely different type of "cameras",(known as scanners), formed using energy outside the visible spectrum as the term "photograph" was no longer suitable to describe new kind of images (also called as imageries). The launch of LANDSAT
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