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A Study of Cross-Cultural Communication, Arabs and Americans : Paradigms and Skills

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A Study of Cross-Cultural Communication, Arabs and Americans : Paradigms and Skills University of Massachusetts Amherst ScholarWorks@UMass Amherst Doctoral Dissertations 1896 - February 2014 1-1-1980 A study of cross-cultural communication, Arabs and Americans : paradigms and skills. Catherine Kano Kikoski University of Massachusetts Amherst Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.umass.edu/dissertations_1 Recommended Citation Kikoski, Catherine Kano, "A study of cross-cultural communication, Arabs and Americans : paradigms and skills." (1980). Doctoral Dissertations 1896 - February 2014. 3589. https://scholarworks.umass.edu/dissertations_1/3589 This Open Access Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by ScholarWorks@UMass Amherst. It has been accepted for inclusion in Doctoral Dissertations 1896 - February 2014 by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks@UMass Amherst. For more information, please contact [email protected]. A STUDY OF CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION ARABS AND AMERICANS: PARADIGMS AND SKILLS A Dissertation Presented By Catherine Kano Kikoski Submitted to the Graduate School of the University of Massachusetts in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF EDUCATION September 1980 Education A STUDY OF CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION, ARABS AND AMERICANS: PARADIGMS AND SKILLS A Dissertation Presented By Catherine Kano Kikoski Approved as to style and content by: Allen E. Ivey, Chairper/on of Committee Bob H. Suzuki , Member ' npp G. _Membgr ^ School of Education ii © Catherine Kano Kikoski 1980 All Rights Reserved iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to express my thanks to my advisor. Dr. Allen Ivey, for his encouragement and guidance throughout this study. I also with to express my appreciation to Dr. Bob Suzuki, and Dr. Dee Appley, my committee members for their assistance. My special thanks to Dr. Otto Payton who helped with the scoring in the research. Finally, a debt of gratitude to Janice Gifford for her help and assistance in the statistical analysis of this research. Last, but hardly least, I want to thank my lovely family — John, John N., Andre, and Nicole — for helping me, each in their own way. ABSTRACT A STUDY OF CROSS -CULTRUAL COMMUNICATION, ARABS AND AMERICANS: PARADIGMS AND SKILLS (September 1980) Catherine Kano Kikoski, B.A. , American University of Beirut, Lebanon, M.A. , Wesleyan University, Ed.D., University of Massachusetts Directed by: Professor Allen Ivey In this research study we examined the cross-cultural communica- tion modes of individuals in two different cultures: Middle Eastern and American. This was accomplished on two levels: the theoretical and the experimental. Our theoretical foundation was based upon Kuhn’s concept of para- digm: that there exists in every culture unconscious patterns of communication which are deeply and unconsciously shared. The experi- mental research approach was used to isolate the implicit structures of communication behavior among Lebanese Arabs and Americans in order to make explicit the implicit paradigm so as to enhance our understanding of communication modes in these two cultures. Experimentally, this study sought to isolate the effects of culture and gender on counseling in the two cultures. Very specifically, we focused on two aspects of interaction: (1) the identification of the problem; (2) counseling skills utilized. The subjects for this research were selected from two different university student populations, one in the United States and the other V , in Labanon. All subjects viewed a series of six videotaped vignettes. Each vignette portrayed a male or female role player presenting a prob- lem in English. There were three themes to these problems: the indi- vidual, the family, and work. Upon viewing each vignette subjects responded in writing to the questions: "What do you think is the prob- lem?" and "What would you say to this person?". The data collected was rated by trained scorers according to two scoring systems. The subjects’ responses to the first question were scored as falling into one of four categories: individual focus, family focus, social context focus and topic focus. The responses to the second question were scored according to the skills of the Ivey Taxonomy. A total of nine skills were utilized for the scoring. Upon tabulation of the responses to the two questions it was found that the individual focus (I), along with the skills of direction (D) and expression of content (EC) accounted for the highest mean occurrence of all foci and skills in our sample. For the analysis of the results a two-way multivariate analysis was used. We combined the three variables of I, D, and EC as the dependent measures with culture and gender as the two factors or independent measures for this analysis. The results of the multivariate analysis results test strongly supported the culture effect. In a general way these support our two hypotheses which have to do with the impact of culture test for upon communication modes in helping situations. The univariate significance for the I the three variables I, D, and EC yielded a high which states that focus. This strongly supports our first hypothesis them more from an indi- Americans tend to perceive problems and identify vi vidual focus, whereas Arabs will tend to do so more from family, social and topic foci. The univariate test for EC pointed to the exis- tence of a trend, since the results were not significant, though much higher than in the case of D. The trend can be explained by United States subjects using this skill with much higher frequency than the Lebanese Arab subjects. The univariate test for D did not yield any significant results. Implications for further research were discussed. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page I. INTRODUCTION 1 Preface 1 Purpose 2 Hypotheses 2 Dissertation Overview 4 Paradigms 4 II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE: CROSS-CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES 11 Culture: The Middle East 11 Childrearing: The Middle East 14 Nonverbal Communication: The Middle East 21 The Impact of Language upon Communication: The Middle East 25 Values and Communication: The Middle East .... 28 III. THE IVEY TAXONOMY: CROSS-CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES ... 32 The Ivey Taxonomy 32 The Taxonomy of Micro training : Quantitative and Qualitative Skills 33 The Ivey Taxonomy: Cross-Cultural Contexts .... 35 Conclusion 41 IV. METHODOLOGY 43 Subjects 43 The Instrument 45 Development of the Vignettes 46 Procedure 48 V. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS 53 Introduction Multivariate Analysis of Variance 60 Univariate Analysis Tests 61 Discussion of Results Summary of Results Implications for Further Study 71 VI. SUMMARY CHAPTER 73 An Overview viii Method Results 75 Implications and Limitations 77 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 78 APPENDIX I. Pilot Study 81 II. Transcript of Videotape Vignettes 88 III. Instructions for Respondents 92 IV. Written Questionnaire 94 V. Scoring Manual 99 LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Percent of Interrater Agreement for Problem Solving ... 51 2. Percent of Interrater Agreement for Skills Scoring ... 51 3. Subject Responses by Foci 54 4. Subject Responses by Skills 54 5. Average Percent of Focil Usage: Individual (I) and Others (0) 55 6. Average Percent of Skills Usage: Direction (D) , Expres- sion of Content (EC) , and Others (0) 57 7. Multivariate and Univariate Analysis Tests 59 8. Table of Multivariate Analysis 76 X LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. The Taxonomy of Micro training : Quantitative and Qualitative Skills 33 2. Twelve Counseling and Psychotherapy Teories: Their Use of Quantitative, Qualitative, and Focus Skills . 40 3. Graph of Means for Individual Foci by Sex 62 4. Graph of Means by Sex for Expression of Content ... 65 5. Graph of Means by Sex for Direction 67 xi I want to lovingly dedicate this work to my beautiful family these words as symbols of a still deeper debt. ’’The future depends on man’s transcending the limits of individual culture." E.T. Hall, Beyond Culture xiii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Preface The purpose of this research is to study cross-cultural conununica- tion styles through the vehicle of counseling. The responses of Lebanese and American subjects to counseling situations will be compared. The goal is to delineate the different communication modes reflective of each culture. Until recently, the primary focus in counseling research was upon process and the individual: by process we mean the thrust toward iden- tifying teachable and transferable skills to enhance the counselor's effectiveness; the individual's "personal growth" and "self actualiza- tion" were the ends of these skill-means. More recently a "globalizing" trend has developed which takes more into account factors external to the counseling process and the individual. Race and gender have become the recent foci of research in the United States with the emergence of the black and feminist movements (Berman, 1978; Katz, Glass and Cohen, 1973). The realization has grown that social and environmental factors impact upon the individual and, therefore, upon the counseling process as a whole. Researchers have begun to grapple with culture as a signi- ficant factor in counseling (Ivey, 1977; Pedersen, Lonner and Draguns, only 1976). The research and training which reflect these issues are the beginning. 1 . 2 Purpose The heart of this thrust is aimed at identifying the necessary skills for maximal communication with individuals, groups and cultures. These communication skills, once identified, will be a clue to more effective inter-cultural communication. The applicability of these findings could have significant impact upon the development of the cross-cultural trend within the field, and the teaching and training of such skills. The par- ticular value of this research is that it seeks to enhance the under- standing between two cultures, Arab and American, wherein the inherent difficulty of communication is exactly matched by its contemporary critical need. Hypotheses The goal of this research is to demonstrate the existence of basic gender and cultural differences in the communication skills of Arabs and Americans in helping situations. Our assumption here is that Leba- nese Arabs tend to exhibit a great deal of compassion and empathy toward their friends, and to be more deeply involved with them when these friends are in need of support.
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