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Principles of Sedimentary Basin Analysis Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg GmbH Andrew D. Miall

Principles of Sedimentary Basin Analysis

Third, updated and enlarged edition

With 468 Figures and 24 Tables

Springer Professor Andrew D. Miall University of Toronto Department 22 Russell Street Toronto, Ontario MSS 3Bl Canada e-mai!: [email protected]

ISBN 978-3-642-08506-2

Cataloging-in-Publication Data applied for Die Deutsche Bibliothek - CIP-Einheitsaufnahme Miall, Andrew 0.: Principles of sedimentary basin analysis / Andrew D. Miall. - 3., updated and en!. ed.

ISBN 978-3-642-08506-2 ISBN 978-3-662-03999-1 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-662-03999-1

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilm or in any other way, and storage in date banks. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is only permitted under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, in its version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer-Verlag. Violations are liable for prosecution under the German Copyright Law. © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2000 Originally published by Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York io 2000 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 3rd edition 2000

The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and re• gulations and therefore free for general use. Production Editor: Christiane Messerschmidt, Rheinau Typesetting: Fotosatz-Service Köhler GmbH, Würzburg Cover design: Design & Production GmbH, Heidelberg Cover: Models of overfilled and underfilled foreland basins (from Jordan, 1995; see Fig. 7.31) superimposed on a sand isolith map of an ancient -dominated delta (from Bhattacharya, 1991; see Fig. 5.6) SPIN: 10723024 32/3020 - 5432 1 0 - Printed on acid-free paper Por Charlene Preface

Basin analysis is a proeess that requires the eolleetion and integration of a wide variety of different types of data. Many review articles and books are available that deal with some of the individual speeialized fields that together eonstitute basin analysis, such as stratigraphie methods, facies analysis, geophysical methods, and teeto• nics, and ; but this is one of the few books that has attempted, now through three editions, to show how these different types of data and the varying types of analytical methodology used in basin analysis need to be brought together to tackle specific basin-analysis problems. The emphasis in this book continues to be on the traditional geologieal skills of observation, deseription and synthesis. Some of the major components of basin analysis have stabilized over the last de• eade. Facies analysis and the definition of proeess-response models (Chap. 4) consti• tute an area that has reached a level of maturity and stability to the extent that only minor refinements are now to be expeeted, although many more case studies explor• ing local variability will continue to be generated. The methods of lithostratigraphy and biostratigraphy (Chap. 3) have also ehanged little in reeent years, whereas the widespread aeceptance of sequenee-stratigraphie principles and the introduction of allostratigraphie mapping methods (Chap. 6) have led to fundamental changes in the nature of regional basin analysis. These developments, in turn, have lent support to the continuing complex, interdisciplinary effort to improve the aceuraey and preci• sion of the geological time scale and its practical applieability to loeal and regional problems of dating and correlation (Chap. 3). Many questions about the extent and origins of stratigraphie sequences require precise chronostratigraphic correlation, and much remains to be done in this area. The refinements in data eollection brought about by the inereasing resolution of the reflection -seismic method (Chaps. 5,6) con• tinue to demonstrate a complexity in the preserved stratigraphie record that challen• ges our powers of description and interpretation. Methods for numerieal and graphical modeling of sedimentary basins and basin fills continue to provide exciting new insights, such as the new links em erging between climate, supply and basin rates, but the causes of crustal subsi• dence and uplift and the relationship of these motions to mantle processes and seem to have been largely worked out. The most signifieant ehanges in basin analysis methods sinee publication of the se• cond edition of this book are in the area of sequenee stratigraphy (Chap. 6). The defi• nitions of systems traets had only just appeared when the last edition of this book was being eompleted, and the applieation of sequence models to an analysis of the evolv• ing paleogeography of a basin was a subject in its infancy. In addition, we now have a mueh more eomplete base of case studies from which to assess the many and varied mechanisms that generate stratigraphie sequenees, so that the rather simplistic ideas about global eustasy that were popular a decade ago can now be re-evaluated. All this has required complete rewriting of Chapters 6 and 8 of this book, whereas the remain• ing chapters have been substantially rewritten while retaining their original form, and have been updated with new and useful case studies. Developments in such fields as dynamic topography and basin have been added to Chapter 7, and improve• ments in our understanding of foreland basins and in the tee tonic processes of the Preeambrian eonstitute some of the more substantial ehanges to Chapter 9. VIII Preface

Much work remains to be done in the area ofbasin analysis. The search for non-re• newable resources will continue into the foreseeable future, with many frontier basins remaining to be explored, while the task of extracting additional reserves from the heterogeneities in mature fields provides basin analysts with some of their most complex challenges. The development of water resources, the search for sedi• ment-hosted minerals, and the need to integrate basin histories into broad-based stu• dies of regional, national and continental geologieal histories will continue to create a demand for basin analysis and the skills with which to perform it. The need for this new edition of the book is therefore clear, and it is to be hoped that it will continue to provide a useful reference manual and resource of ideas for advanced students and professionals.

Acknowledgments. The writing of the first edition of this book took about 3 years, but the ideas and experience on which it was based had been accumulating since I first discovered geology at the age of 15 years, during an optional one-period-a-week course at Brighton Grammar School. I am deeply indebted to the late Arnold Berry, geography master at the school, for his lectures and field trips, which rapidly con• vinced me I had found my vocation. I received every encouragement during my undergraduate years at the University of London (Queen Mary and Westfield College), where instruction in stratigraphy and historieal geology was given by Professor Kirkaldy. My introduction to modern sedimentological principles came through the stimu• lating graduate seminars held by Brian Rust at the University of Ottawa. Later, the op• portunity to gain extensive practical experience was made possible by Don Stott, who took me on staff at the Geologieal Survey of Canada. Writing of this book began shortly after I moved to the fertile academie climate of the University of Toronto, an appointment brought about by the efforts of Frank Beales, Geoff Norris, and David Strangway. Many colleagues helped me formulate my ideas on basin analysis during the 1970s and 1980s, and I am grateful to them for their stimulating company over the years. Foremost among these are Don Campbell and John Stuart-Smith at J.c. Sproule and Associates and my former Survey colleagues Jim Dixon, Ashton Embry, Ulrieh Mayr, Ross McLean, Ray Thorsteinsson, and Hans Trettin. More recently, my understanding of sequence stratigraphy has been aided by contact with individuals such as Phil Allen, Makoto Ho, Dale Leckie, Dag Nummedal, Guy Plint, and Roger Walker. For specific advice relating to specialized parts of this book, I am indebted to Norm Evensen (radiometrie dating), Gary Jarvis (geophysical basin models and plate pro• cesses), George Klein (backare basins and shelf depositional systems), and Geoff Norris (stratigraphie methods). Photographs were contributed by Jim Dixon, Ashton Embry, Rolf Ludvigsen, Brian Pratt, A. Easton Wren, and the Royal Ontario Museum. My particular thanks to David Rudkin at the museum for his assistance with the photographs of fossils in Chapter 2. Neil Ollerenshaw and the staff at GSC, Calgary, are thanked for assistance in obtaining two illustrations for the sections on the dipmeter. About one-third of the figures in the book were drafted by Subash Shanbhag and the remainder in the first edition were re• produced from other sources by photographer Brian O'Donovan. Their efforts and their patience during the long gestation of the manuscript are much appreciated. During preparation of the first edition, Geoff Orton and Winston Mottley worked as research assistants for short but crucial periods. Typing and word processing were carried out by Diane Gardner and Naomi Frankei, with the final text prepared at the University of Toronto Secretarial Services unit under the supervision of Vera Baker. The text of the second and third editions were prepared by the author, thanks to the magie ofWindows '95 and Microsoft Word. Andy Baillie and Tony Tankard undertook the task of critieally reading the entire manuscript of the first edition. Their comments were most useful and are much ap• preciated. In addition, the author is grateful to Roger Walker (who read parts of Preface IX

Chap. 4), Geoff Norris (Chap. 3), and Ray Ingersoll (Chap. 9), who provided some much-needed specialized commentary. Comments from students and colleagues were of considerable use in the prepara• tion of the second edition of the book, as were published reviews of the first edition, which made several valuable points. A one-semester administrative leave from teach• ing and other duties in the fall of 1988 enabled me to complete the initial draft, and I am grateful to the University of Toronto for making this time available to me. The en• tire manuscript was then critically read by Ray Ingersoll. I am honored by his wil• lingness to undertake this considerable task, and I wish to express my considerable gratitude for the conscientious and thoughtful way in which he completed it. While we do not agree on all of the finer points of basin analysis, his comments have been invaluable in helping me to re fine the final draft. However, the content of the book, induding any errors or omissions, remains my responsibility. Chapters 6 and 8 of the third edition were critically read by Guy Plint and, once again, Ray Ingersoll provided critical reading of the material dealing with sedimenta• tion and tectonics - Chapters 7 and 9. The assistance of these colleagues is much ap• preciated. Finally, I must thank my wife Charlene, whose assistance, advice, and support throughout my career have been irreplaceable. I am particularly grateful for her love and patience during my long obsession with "the book:'

Toronto, July 1999 Andrew D. Miall Preface to the First Edition

This book is intended as a practical handbook for those engaged in the task of analyz• ing the paleogeographic of ancient sedimentary basins. The science of stratigraphy and sedimentology is central to such endeavours, but although several excellent text• books on sedimentology have appeared in re cent years, litde has been written about modern stratigraphic methods. Sedimentology textbooks te nd to take a theoretical approach, building from physical and chemical theory and studies of modern en• vironments. It is commonly difficult to apply this information to practical problems in ancient rocks, and very little guidance is given on methods of observation, map• ping, and interpretation. In this book, theory is downplayed and the emphasis is on what a can ac• tuaIly see in outcrops, weIl records, and cores and what can be obtained using geo• physical techniques. A new approach is taken to stratigraphy, which attempts to ex• plain the genesis of lithostratigraphic units and to de-emphasize the importance of formal description and naming. There are also sections explaining principles of facies analysis, basin mapping methods, depositional systems, and the study of basin sub• sidence history and thermal history, so important to the genesis of fuels and mine• rals. Last, an attempt is made to tie everything together by considering basins in the context of plate tectonics and eustatic sea -level changes. The vast and important sub• jects of paleoclimatology, diagenesis, and sedimentary geochemistry are not dealt with here, except for some aspects of diagenetic change that can be related to burial his tory. None of these areas is crucial to the main theme of the book, although geo• chemical data are becoming increasingly important in the study of chemical sedi• ments and their depositional environments. The economoc applications ofbasin ana• lysis (e. g., exploring sediment-mineral associations and types of stratigraphic hydro• carbon traps) are not discussed in detail, although some implications for exploration are pointed out at several places in the book. It is hoped that this book will be useful to those engaged in exploration for the va• rious nonrenewable fuel and mineral resources and to students and other carrying out local or regional basin analysis studies, beginning with undergraduates about to leave for their first field school. The book is divided into two parts. Part 1 comprises Chapters 1 to 6; it deals with the stratigraphy and sedimentology ofbasins and is written mainly at an undergraduate level. Part 2 consists of Chapters 7 to 10 and deals with the global controls of basin development, including plate tectonics. This part of the book is addressed to senor undergraduates, graduate students, and pro• fessional geologists; a working knowledge of the principles of plate tectonics is as• sumed for this final part of the book. It is intended that the book be used throughout an individual's training and professional employment.

Andrew D. MiaIl Preface to the Second Edition

Five years between the editions of this book might not seem like a very long time, but advances in some areas of basin analysis have been very rapid. In order for this book to remain a useful textbook, it became dear very soon after the initial publication in 1984 that revisions would have to be undertaken. Accordingly, I began to keep files of critical references - these now number more than one thousand - and rewritting was star ted in the fall of 1987. The new developments that have occurred, or at least have become more important since 1984, indude the publication of new stratigraphie codes and the widespread ap• plication of the stratotype concept to chronostratigraphic subdivisions, new research into the significance of stratigraphyic completeness, unconformity-bounded se• quences and sequence stratigraphy, fission-track dating as applied to stratigraphie problems, developments in our understanding of facies architecture, induding the erection of hierarchis of bounding surfaces for many types of deposits, 3-Dseisrnie methods, Milankovitch cydes, evolution in our thinking regarding the importance of tectonic versus eustatic controls of regional and global cydes, evolution of ideas regarding the interpretations about sea-Ievel change that can be made from seismic stratigraphie records, and many refinements of geophysically based basin-subsidence models. These developments have required a virtually complete rewriting of Chapters 7 and 8 and substantial additions and minor modifications to most of the remaining chap• ters. Although it is hoped that this has recreated a fairly up-to-date book, continuing developments are inevitable, and the files of material for the third edition have already been started.

Andrew D. Miall Contents

Part 1. The Stratigraphy and Sedimentology of Sedimentary Basins

1 Introduction ...... 3 1.1 Seope and Purpose of Book ...... 3 1.2 The Modern Revolution in Stratigraphy 4 1.2.1 Traditional Stratigraphy .... 4 1.2.2 Modern Developments . . . . . 4 1.2.3 The New Stratigraphie Method 8 1.3 Time in Stratigraphy ...... 9 1.4 Types of Projeet and Data Problems 10 1.4.1 Regional Surfaee Stratigraphie Mapping Projeet 10 1.4.2 Loeal Stratigraphie-Sedimentologie Mapping Projeet 11 1.4.3 Regional Subsurfaee Mapping Projeet ...... 12 1.4.4 Loeal Subsurfaee Mapping Projeet ...... 17 1.5 Summary of Research and Reporting Proeedures 18 Referenees ...... 19

2 The Stratigraphic-Sedimentologic Database 22 2.1 Introduetion ...... 22 2.2 Deseribing Surfaee Stratigraphie Seetions 22 2.2.1 Methods of Measuring and Reeording the Data: Vertieal Stratigraphie Seetions ...... 22 2.2.2 Methods of Measuring and Reeording the Data: the Construetion of Lateral Profiles ...... 24 2.2.3 Types of Field Observation ...... 26 2.2.3.1 Sub division of the Seetion into Deseriptive Units 26 2.2.3.2 Lithology and Grain Size 26 2.2.3.3 Porosity 29 2.2.3.4 Color ...... 29 2.2.3.5 Bedding ...... 29 2.2.3.6 Sedimentary Struetures Produeed by Hydrodynamie Molding ofthe Bed ...... 30 2.2.3.7 Sedimentary Struetures Produeed by Hydrodynamie ofthe Bed ...... 34 2.2.3.8 Liquefaetion, Load, and Fluid -Loss Struetures 40 2.2.3.9 Fossils ...... 50 2.2.3.10 Biogenie Sedimentary Struetures 55 2.2.4 Sampling Plan . . . . 55 2.2.4.1 Illustrative Samples . . . 59 2.2.4.2 Petrographie Samples 59 2.2.4.3 Biostratigraphie Samples 62 2.2.5 Plotting the Seetion . . . 63 2.3 Deseribing Subsurfaee Stratigraphie Seetions 64 2.3.1 Methods of Measuring and Reeording the Data 64 2.3.1.1 Examination of WeIl Cuttings ...... 64 XVI Contents

2.3.1.2 Examination of Core ...... 66 2.3.2 Types of Cutting and Core Observation ...... 67 2.3.2.1 Subdivision of the Seetion into Deseriptive Units 67 2.3.2.2 Lithology and Grain Size 67 2.3.2.3 Porosity 68 2.3.2.4 Color ...... 68 2.3.2.5 Bedding ...... 68 2.3.2.6 Sedimentary Struetures 68 2.3.2.7 Fossils ...... 68 2.3.2.8 Biogenie Sedimentary Struetures 69 2.3.3 Sampling Plan . . . 69 2.3.4 Plotting the Seetion 69 2.4 Petrophysieal Logs 71 2.4.1 Gamma-Ray Log 72 2.4.2 Spontaneous-Potential Log 72 2.4.3 Resistivity Logs .... . 73 2.4.4 Sonie Log ...... 75 2.4.5 Formation-Density Log 75 2.4.6 Neutron Log 75 2.4.7 Crossplots 75 Referenees . 77

3 Stratigraphie Correlation 79 3.1 Introduetion ...... 79 3.2 Types of Stratigraphie Unit 80 3.3 Stratigraphie Proeedures . . 81 3.3.1 North Ameriean and International Stratigraphie Codes 81 3.3.2 Establishing Named Units ...... 82 3.3.3 The Six Steps Involved in Dating and Correlation 84 3.4 Lithostratigraphy ...... 85 3.4.1 Reeognition of a Lithostratigraphie Subdivision . 85 3.4.2 Types of Lithostratigraphie Units and their Definition 86 3.4.2.1 The Formation 86 3.4.2.2 The Group ... 87 3.4.2.3 TheMember .. 87 3.4.2.4 Tongue or Lentil 87 3.4.2.5 Bed ...... 87 3.4.2.6 Choice of Names 87 3.4.2.7 Changes in Rank 88 3.4.3 Mapping and Correlation Proeedures 88 3.4.3.1 Surfaee Mapping 88 3.4.3.2 Event Stratigraphy 91 3.4.3.3 Seetion Matehing . 94 3.5 Biostratigraphy .. 98 3.5.1 The Nature of the Biostratigraphie Record 99 3.5.1.1 Biostratigraphy and Evolution ...... 99 3.5.1.2 Biostratigraphy and Biogeography ... 102 3.5.1.3 Life, Death, and Reworked Assemblages 105 3.5.1.4 ConcIusions .... . 106 3.5.2 Biozones ...... 106 3.5.2.1 Assemblage Biozone 107 3.5.2.2 Range Biozone 107 3.5.2.3 Coneurrent- Range Biozone 107 3.5.2.4 Lineage Biozone ...... 108 3.5.2.5 Other Biozone Terms . . . . 108 3.5.3 Quantitative Methods in Biostratigraphy 109 Contents XVII

3.5.3.1 The Graphie Correlation Teehnique 110 3.5.3.2 Use of Multivariate Statisties . . . . 112 3.6 Uneonformity-Bounded Units ... 114 3.7 Chronostratigraphy and Geoehronometry 114 3.7.1 Chronostratigraphie and Geoehronometrie Seales 115 3.7.2 The Stage ...... 116 3.7.3 Chronostratigraphie Boundaries 118 3.7.4 Radiometrie Dating . . 119 3.7.4.1 Radiometrie Methods 119 3.7.4.2 Uses in Stratigraphy 120 3.7.5 Magnetostratigraphy . 122 3.7.5.1 Development of the Teehnique 122 3.7.5.2 Uses in Stratigraphy 123 3.7.6 Chemostratigraphie-Dating Teehniques 125 3.7.7 Other Correlation Teehniques 126 3.7.8 Stratigraphie Completeness 127 3.7.9 The Global Time Seale 127 3.7.9.1 The Phanerozoie 128 3.7.9.2 The Preeambrian 131 Referenees . . . 134

4 Fades Analysis 141 4.1 Introduetion . . 141 4.2 The Meaning of Fades 141 4.3 Reeognition and Definition of Facies Types 142 4.3.1 Philosophy and Methods . . . . . 142 4.3.2 Field Examples of Fades Sehemes 144 4.3.3 Establishing a Fades Seheme 146 4.3.4 Facies Arehiteeture ...... 149 4.4 Facies Assoeiations and Models . 150 4.4.1 The Assoeiation and Ordering of Facies 151 4.4.2 The Theory of Facies Models ...... 152 4.4.3 The Present as the Key to the Past and Viee Versa 154 4.4.4 To Classify and Codify or Not? ...... 157 4.4.5 Facies Analysis and Sequenee Stratigraphy 159 4.5 Review of Environmental Criteria 159 4.5.1 Grain Size and Texture 160 4.5.2 Petrology ...... 163 4.5.3 Bedding ...... 165 4.5.4 Sedimentary Struetures Produeed by Hydrodynamie Molding ofthe Bed ...... 167 4.5.5 Sedimentary Struetures Produeed by Hydrodynamie Erosion ofthe Bed ...... 174 4.5.6 Liquefaetion, Load, and Fluid-Loss Struetures 175 4.5.7 Paleoeeology ...... 175 4.5.8 Vertieal Profiles ...... 184 4.5.9 Arehiteetural Elements and Bounding Surfaees 191 4.5.9.1 Arehiteetural Seale and Bounding-Surfaee Hierarehies 194 4.5.9.2 Arehiteetural Elements ...... 198 4.6 Facies Models for a New Millenium 200 4.6.1 Fluvial Environments . . . 201 4.6.2 Deltaie Environments . . . 204 4.6.3 Laeustrine Environments 206 4.6.4 Eolian Environments . . . 207 4.6.5 Clastie Shorelines . . . . . 208 4.6.6 Arid Shorelines and Evaporites 212 XVIII Contents

4.6.7 Clastic Continental Shelves 213 4.6.8 Carbonate Environments ...... 216 4.6.9 Clastic Continental Slope and Deep-Oceanic Environments 222 4.6.10 Glacial Environments ...... 228 4.7 Conclusions and Scale Considerations 232 References ...... 233

5 Basin-Mapping Methods 249 5.1 Introduction ...... 249 5.2 Structure and Isopach Contouring 249 5.3 Lithofacies Maps ...... 251 5.3.1 Multieomponent Maps ... . 251 5.3.2 Lithofacies-Assemblage Maps 252 5.3.3 Single-Component Maps . . . 254 5.4 Geophysieal Techniques 259 5.4.1 Reflection-Seismic Maps and Sections 260 5.4.1.1 Introduction ...... 260 5.4.1.2 The Nature of the Seismic Record 260 5.4.1.3 Structural Mapping ...... 264 5.4.1.4 Seismie Facies ...... 265 5.4.2 Lithofacies Mapping with Petrophysical Logs 269 5.4.3 The Dipmeter ...... 27l 5.4.4 Other Geophysical Methods 275 5.5 Clastic-Petrographic Data 276 5.6 Paleocurrent Analysis 283 5.6.1 Introduction ...... 283 5.6.2 Types of Paleocurrent Indicators 284 5.6.3 Data Collection and Processing . 285 5.6.4 The Bedform Hierarchy 287 5.6.5 Environment and Paleoslope Interpretations 288 5.6.6 The Dipmeter Again 292 5.7 Remote Sensing ...... 294 5.8 Computer Mapping Methods 296 5.9 Sampling Density and Map Reliability 300 5.10 Stratigraphie Cross Seetions 304 5.11 Paleogeographic Synthesis 309 References ...... 313

6 Sequence Stratigraphy 320 6.1 Introduction ...... 320 6.2 Stratigraphie Architecture 323 6.3 Depositional Systems and Systems Tracts 325 6.4 Sequence Boundaries ...... 331 6.5 Systems Tracts and Sequences in Siliciclastic Deposits 335 6.5.1 Nonmarine and Coastal Sequences 335 6.5.1.1 Fluvial Sequences . . 335 6.5.1.2 Lacustrine Sequences . . . . . 340 6.5.1.3 Eolian Sequences ...... 343 6.5.1.4 Incised Valleys and 345 6.5.2 Marginal-Marine and Shallow-Marine Sequences 346 6.5.2.1 Deltas ...... 347 6.5.2.2 The Coast-Shelf Interface ...... 349 6.5.3 Sequences in Deep-Marine Siliciclastie Deposits . 350 6.6 Systems Tracts and Sequences in Carbonate Deposits 355 6.6.1 Epeiric Platforms 357 6.6.2 Rimmed Shelves ...... 357 Contents XIX

6.6.3 Isolated Platforms ...... 359 6.6.4 Ramps...... 363 6.6.5 Mixed Carbonate-Clastic Systems 367 6.7 Evaporites. 367 6.8 Conclusions 372 References . 372

Part 2. Global Controls of Sedimentary Basin Development References ...... 380

7 Tectonism and Sedimentation: Principles and Models 381 7.1 Introduction ...... 381 7.2 Components of a Basin Model 382 7.2.1 Stratigraphy ...... 382 7.2.2 Basin and Crustal Geometry 382 7.2.3 Porosity - Depth Relationships 382 7.2.4 Paleobathymetry ...... 383 7.2.5 Sea-Level Change ...... 383 7.2.6 Physical Properties of the Lithosphere 383 7.3 Extensional Basins 383 7.3.1 Evolution of the Basic Model ...... 383 7.3.2 Backstripping Techniques ...... 385 7.3.3 Refinements of the Basic Extensional Model 391 7.4 Basins Produced by Supracrustal Loading 395 7.4.1 Evolution of the Basic Model ...... 395 7.4.2 Refinements of the Basie Supracrustal Loading Model 398 7.5 Dynamic Topography . 406 7.6 Intraplate Stress ...... 407 7.7 Basin Inversion ...... 409 7.8 Tectonic Control 410 7.9 Application of the Modeling Techniques to Other Types of Basin 412 7.10 Conclusions 412 References ...... 413

8 Regional and Global Stratigraphie Cycles 417 8.1 Overview of Recent Developments 417 8.2 Causes of Stratigraphic Cyclicity 419 8.2.1 Supercontinent Cycles ...... 419 8.2.2 Mechanisms with Episodicities of Tens of Millions ofYears 421 8.2.2.1 Eustatic Cycles ...... 421 8.2.2.2 Tectonostratigraphic Cycles ...... 422 8.2.2.3 Conclusions ...... 424 8.2.3 Mechanisms with Million-Year Episodicities 425 8.2.3.1 Intraplate Stress ...... 425 8.2.3.2 Sediment Supply ...... 427 8.2.4 Mechanisms with Episodicities of Less Than One Million Years 428 8.2.4.1 Milankovitch Mechanisms 428 8.2.4.2 High-Frequency Tectonism ...... 432 8.3 The Stratigraphie Record ...... 433 8.3.1 Stratigraphie Effects of Supercontinent Assembly and Dispersal 433 8.3.2 Cycles with Episodicities of Tens of Millions of Years 435 8.3.2.1 Cratonic Cycles ...... 435 8.3.2.2 Regional Tectonostratigraphic Cycles ...... 436 8.3.3 Cycles with Episodicities in the Million-Year Range 437 8.3.4 Cycles with Episodicities of Less Than One Million Years 443 xx Contents

8.3.4.1 Neogene Clastie Cycles of Continental Margins 445 8.3.4.2 Pre-Neogene Carbonate-Dominated Cycles 447 8.3.4.3 Late-Paleozoie Cydothems ...... 447 8.3.4.4 Clastie Cydes of Foreland Basins ...... 448 8.4 Cyde Correlation and the Global Eustasy Model 452 8.5 Arehiteetural Indieators of Teetonism, Sediment Supply, and Sea-Level Change: The Role of Stratigraphie Simulation 456 8.6 Condusions 459 Referenees ...... 459

9 Sedimention and Plate Tectonics 467 9.1 The Basin-Model Coneept 467 9.2 Basin Classifieation . . . 468 9.3 Basin Models ...... 472 9.3.1 Divergent-Margin Basins 472 9.3.1.1 Tectonic Review . . . . . 473 9.3.1.2 Rift Basins ...... 477 9.3.1.3 Oeean-Margin Rises and Terraces 479 9.3.1.4 Aulaeogens and Failed Rifts 485 9.3.2 Convergent-Margin Basins .... 488 9.3.2.1 Tectonic Review ...... 488 9.3.2.2 Trenehes and Subduction Complexes 493 9.3.2.3 Foreare Basins ...... 497 9.3.2.4 Intra-Are Basins ...... 504 9.3.2.5 Interare and Baekarc Basins on Oeeanic or Transitional 504 9.3.2.6 Backare Basins on ...... 507 9.3.2.7 Retroare Foreland Basins ...... 509 9.3.3 Transform Margins and Strike-Slip Basins 514 9.3.3.1 Tectonic Review ...... 514 9.3.3.2 Sedimentary Basins Associated with Plate-Boundary Transform Faults ...... 518 9.3.3.3 Sedimentary Basins Associated with Divergent-Margin Transform Faults ...... 522 9.3.3.4 Sedimentary Basins Associated with Convergent-Margin Transeurrent Faults ...... 526 9.3.3.5 Sedimentary Basins Associated with Suture-Zone Transeurrent Faults ...... 527 9.3.4 Basins Assoeiated with Suture Zones 527 9.3.4.1 Introduction . . . . 527 9.3.4.2 Basic Suture Model .. . . 527 9.3.4.3 Are-Are Collision ..... 529 9.3.4.4 Collapse of Outboard Ares 529 9.3.4.5 Collisions of Continents with Ares 530 9.3.4.6 Terminal Sutures ...... 531 9.3.4.7 Proforeland, Foredeep, or Peripheral Basins 535 9.3.4.8 Remnant Oeean Basins ...... 539 9.3.4.9 Basin Analysis of Suture Zones ...... 541 9.3.4.10 Basins and Uplifts Resulting from Intraplate Stresses 545 9.3.5 Basin Analysis of Aeeretionary Terranes 547 9.3.6 Cratonic Basins .... 558 9.3.6.1 Tectonie Review . . . . 558 9.3.6.2 Sedimentation Patterns 563 9.4 Clastic Petrofaeies . . . 563 9.4.1 Introduetion ...... 563 9.4.2 Composition and Plate-Tectonic Setting 564 9.4.3 Examples of Petrofacies Interpretation ...... 567 Contents XXI

9.5 Basin Models in the Precambrian ... 568 9.5.1 Precambrian Plate Tectonics? 568 9.5.2 The Evidence from Sedimentary Basins 572 References . 577

10 Conclusions 594 References 596

Author Index 597

Subject Index 605