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Levels of Organization

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Levels of Organization UNIT Levels of I Organization Introduction to Human Anatomy and Physiology 1 Chemical Basics of Life 2 Cells 3 Cellular Metabolism 4 5 Tissues © Pan Xunbin/Shutterstock, Inc. 9781284057874_CH01_001_023.indd 1 23/12/14 3:43 PM 9781284057874_CH01_001_023.indd 2 23/12/14 3:43 PM CHAPTER © malinx/Shutterstock 1 OUTLINE ■ Overview Introduction to Classifications of Anatomy Classifications of Physiology Human Anatomy and ■ Organization Levels of the Body ■ Essentials for Life Boundaries Physiology Movement Responsiveness Digestion Metabolism OBJEctiVES Excretion Reproduction After studying this chapter, readers should be able to Growth Survival 1. Define anatomy and physiology. 2. Name the components that make up the organization levels of the body. ■ Homeostasis 3. Describe the major essentials of life. Homeostatic Control 4. Define homeostasis and describe its importance to survival. Homeostatic Imbalance 5. Describe the major body cavities. ■ Organization of the Body 6. List the systems of the body and give the organs in each system. Body Cavities and Membranes 7. Describe directions and planes of the body. Organ Systems 8. Discuss the membranes near the heart, lungs, and abdominal cavity. Anatomic Planes 9. List the nine abdominal regions. Directional Terms 10. Compare positive and negative feedback mechanisms. Abdominal Regions Body Regions ■ Summary ■ Key Terms ■ Learning Goals ■ Critical Thinking Questions ■ Review Questions ■ Essay Questions 3 9781284057874_CH01_001_023.indd 3 23/12/14 3:43 PM • Systemic anatomy: Each body system is Overview examined. For example, the heart would The study of anatomy and physiology is vital for all health be examined when studying the cardio- professionals and involves many different areas of science to vascular system, but so would all the understand how the human body works as well as how it is blood vessels of the whole body. structured. The study of anatomy and physiology provides • Surface anatomy: This is the exami- answers to many questions about the functions of the body in nation of internal structures related to both health and disease. As a result of this understanding, it is overlying skin surfaces. Surface anatomy possible to see what happens to the body when it is injured, is used, for example, to locate the correct stressed, or contracts a disease or infection. It is important that blood vessels used for phlebotomy. all allied health students become familiar with the terminol- ■ Microscopic anatomy: The study of small body ogy used in anatomy and physiology. In this chapter, the focus structures that require a microscope to be seen. is on a complete introduction to anatomy and physiology. This requires making thin slices of tissues, which The structures and functions of the human body are are then stained and affixed (mounted) to glass closely related. Anatomy is the study of the structure of body slides for microscopic examination. parts and how they are organized. This term is derived from • Cytology: A subdivision of microscopic the Greek words meaning to cut apart. Physiology is the anatomy that focuses on body cells. study of how body parts work. Every body part functions • Histology: A subdivision of microscopic to assist the human body in different ways. It is not easy to anatomy that focuses on body tissues. separate the topics of anatomy and physiology because the ■ Developmental anatomy: The study of structural structures of body parts are so closely associated with their changes in anatomy throughout the life span. functions. Each part has its own unique substructures that • Embryology: A subdivision of develop- allow it to perform its needed functions. Pathophysiology mental anatomy that focuses on develop- is the study of changes associated with or resulting from dis- mental changes occurring before birth. ease or injury. It is also concerned with biologic and phys- For medical diagnosis, scientific research, and other highly ical manifestations of disease as they relate to underlying specialized needs, pathological or radiographic anatomy may abnormalities and physiologic disturbances. Pathophysiology be used. Pathological anatomy focuses on disease and the explains the processes within the body that result in disease structural changes that result, whereas radiographic anatomy signs and symptoms but does not focus directly on the treat- focuses on internal structures via the use of x-rays or special- ment of disease. ized scanning equipment such as magnetic resonance imag- The human body has been studied for hundreds of ing (MRI) or computed tomography (CT). Molecular anatomy years. Even though its inner workings are well understood, focuses on the structure of chemical substances (biological new discoveries are still being made even today. In 2003 the molecules). Although formally considered a branch of biology, human genome (instructions that allow the body to oper- molecular anatomy is still considered part of the overall study ate) was deciphered for the first time. There are more than of anatomy as it focuses on subcellular particles of the body. 20,000 genes in the human body, so this substantial discov- Anatomical studies require a combination of many dif- ery took many years to complete. Researchers frequently ferent skills. These include anatomic terminology, obser- discover new information about physiology, particularly at vation, auscultation (using a stethoscope to listen to organ the molecular level, but basic human anatomy changes very sounds), manipulation, and palpation (feeling body organs slowly as time progresses. for normal or abnormal conditions by using the hands). Classifications of Anatomy Classifications of Physiology The many subdivisions of anatomy include gross (macro- scopic) anatomy, microscopic anatomy, and developmental Physiology is concerned with how the body functions, anatomy. These can be further broken down as follows: often focusing on cellular or molecular activities. There are also many subdivisions of physiology, which are primarily ■ The study of Gross (macroscopic) anatomy: focused on certain organ systems. Examples of physiology large body structures that can been seen without classifications are as follows: a microscope. These include the brain, heart, kid- neys, lungs, and skin. Studies performed to under- ■ Respiratory physiology: focuses on the functions of stand gross anatomy used dissected animals and the respiratory system their organs. ■ Cardiovascular physiology: focuses on the heart and • Regional anatomy: All structures in a blood vessels certain body region are examined at the ■ Neurophysiology: focuses on the nervous system same time. For example, if an arm were ■ Renal physiology: focuses on the functions of the being examined, structures would in- kidneys, including urine production clude skin, muscles, bones, nerves, blood The physiology of the human body is based on chemical vessels, and others. reactions that affect the actions of cells or the molecular level. 4 Unit I: Levels of Organization 9781284057874_CH01_001_023.indd 4 23/12/14 3:43 PM Physiology is also linked to the study of physics, which takes into account body functions such as blood pressure, electri- Essentials for Life cal currents, and muscular movement. Humans and other animals share many similar traits. All body cells are interdependent as we are multicellular organisms. Organization Levels of the Vital body functions occur over various organ systems, which contribute to overall body health. Body Every body structure is made up of smaller structures, which Boundaries are, likewise, made up of even smaller components. Chem- icals compose every material found in the human body. The body’s boundaries are maintained to keep the internal They contain microscopic atoms combined into structures environment distinct from the external environment. All body known as molecules. Many molecules may be combined cells are surrounded by selectively permeable membranes. into macromolecules. These macromolecules, in turn, form The skin encloses and protects the body as a whole from fac- organelles, which help to complete the intended functions tors such as dryness, bacteria, heat, sunlight, and chemicals. of a cell, the basic unit of both structure and function in the human body. Movement Cells are microscopic structures that may be quite differ- ent in size, shape, and function. Cells are grouped together Movement of the body is achieved via the muscular and skele- to form tissues, which in turn are grouped together to form tal systems. Inside the body, the cardiovascular, digestive, and organs. Groups of similarly functioning organs form organ urinary systems also use movement to transport blood, food systems, which then combine to form a living organism materials, and urine. Even cells move, such as when muscle (FIGURE 1-1). Body parts are organized into different levels cells move by shortening, which is known as contractility. of complexity, including the atomic level, molecular level, and cellular level. Atoms are the most simple in structure, R esponsiveness with complexity increasing in molecules, organelles, tissues, and organs. The ability to sense and respond to environmental stimuli (changes) is known as responsiveness, which is also referred to as excitability. An example is the way we quickly withdraw TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING our hands from a hot saucepan on the stove. Nerve cells are highly excitable. They communicate with rapid electri- 1. What is an organism? cal impulses, and therefore the nervous system is the most 2. Explain
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