Higher Index

Higher Education Index

57 Arab Knowledge Index 2015

58 higher education opportunities is a challenge Preamble: Higher Education that all countries must work to resolve, particularly where a lack of higher education Higher education1 plays an important role opportunities has resulted in a knowledge in human development, contributing to the gap with serious repercussions for levels of creation of new knowledge, transferring social and .7 However, this to students and fostering innovation the challenge facing higher education in the and creativity in society. Higher education Arab countries goes beyond the expansion institutions play a vital role in the production of enrolment opportunities in order to keep and diffusion of knowledge through teaching, pace with growing social demand; the real scientiÀc research and development. They challenge is higher education’s inability to also play a signiÀcant role in the preparation provide relevant and quality services that and creation of the upon which keep pace with the actual human capital the labour market depends for necessary requirements of economic development. skills. The roles of education and education institutions are also central to building the This is not a new Ànding, as many reports skills and knowledge of graduates, enabling have come to the same conclusion in recent them to satisfy the needs of industry and the decades. The Arab Human Development Report8 economy in meeting work and production criticised the situation of higher education requirements. As such, they facilitate economic in the Arab countries, as did a report by 9 and employment opportunities, contributing the World Bank. In its examination of Higher Education Index to economic growth and development.2 the capacity for higher education in Arab countries to secure both the knowledge The emergence and proliferation of the term and human capital essential to respond to “knowledge economy” has multiplied the the various requirements of economic and value of higher education, which has become social development, the Human Development an important resource in the knowledge Report 2009 concluded that the available data economy and an essential factor in increasing indicate a lack of specialised human capital the competitiveness of countries. According that can meet the needs of development. to the World Bank’s Annual Report 2000, higher For example, in the Arab countries the lack education is becoming increasingly important of balance in the distribution of graduates with the emerging signiÀcance of knowledge, in specialised Àelds indicates that higher increasing the capacity for development and education does not produce the qualitative competitiveness by providing young people human capital required for development with necessary skills.3 In addition, according efforts. In other words, governments have to the Arab World Competitiveness Report 2013 prepared graduates without ensuring that higher education is one of the primary they possess the necessary skills for success axes of the internal effectiveness of any in practical life. In addition, governments economy.4 have not laid the economic groundwork in the Àelds of employment and production The role of higher education institutions to attract graduates. Higher education is not restricted to economic aspects; it institutions produce many graduates who do also nurtures societal values, maximising not have access to real work opportunities, the spirit of citizenship, stimulating while labour markets lack graduates in many community involvement5 and strengthening disciplines.10 The relationship between higher the foundations of democracy and justice education institutions and labour markets is by building the capacities of graduates in very important, as it can support economic relevant Àelds. Higher education affects and social development efforts, facilitate the the and shapes the cultural creation of new knowledge, develop research behaviour of individuals and society.6 and create a new generation of leaders able to integrate into the global knowledge economy The UNESCO Position Paper on Education community while maintaining prevailing Post-2015 indicates that ensuring access to language and cultural foundations.11

59 Another World Bank report described the between education and economic and quality of further and higher education social institutions, and reconsidering higher in developing countries, including Arab education programmes in the Arab region as countries, as “meagre”.12 Hence, this stage is a whole.14 It could be argued that the image often not considered a valuable learning phase of higher education in the Arab region for life and life-long learning or a means to has changed greatly since the beginning of development. This situation may be difÀcult the twenty-Àrst century; admissions have to change in the near future in a context where increased, as has the variety of programmes traditions of educational, organisational offered, while reliance on public university and Ànancial arrangements in developing education systems has decreased. Due to countries have combined to provide public the impact of global trends, most Arab services that suffer from fragmentation and countries have adopted a policy of economic isolation. In such a context, students think that liberalisation, following the example of the a university education, when completed, is an neo-liberal model in light of the effects of that entitles them to public globalisation, expanding the process of higher sector employment without consideration education privatisation and the introduction to the continuous development of their of branches of foreign – often Western – knowledge and skills. It therefore transpires universities in the Arab region. that graduates’ skills do not comply with the requirements of the labour market, as they The latest Arab Knowledge Report , which focused consider education to be a means to access largely on higher education systems in the Arab employment without consciously considering region, stated that Arab universities suffer from their learning. This is compounded by a lack of inappropriate instructional methods, a severe foresight on behalf of institutions in linking deÀciency in scientiÀc research policies, and education and knowledge with development. outdated academic curricula that do not keep The World Bank report summed up higher pace with current knowledge requirements.15 education challenges in developing countries The introduction of a private sector in as comprising poor funding when demand higher education with an interest in Ànancial increases year after year; poor preparation of gains at the expense of graduate education instructors and teachers, with low levels of quality and efÀciency has more negative than Arab Knowledge Index 2015 motivation and income; weak curricula; and positive impacts on development efforts. monotonous teaching methods.13 Despite The expanding establishment of branches the need for developing countries to exert of Western universities, speciÀcally in the considerable effort in catching up with Gulf countries, will help to keep pace with developed countries, the picture looks bleak modern science through interdisciplinary in terms of opportunities to supplement the courses and contemporary teaching methods. efforts of higher education development. This may create inconsistencies, however, as This does not apply to a very small number of some outputs produced in these universities Arab countries that have managed to achieve are not in alignment with the culture of the good growth rates, such as some of the Gulf community or the preservation of cultural States. heritage. This may result in gaps in skills and scientiÀc knowledge among certain groups International reports also spare no effort of graduates, considering that the majority in providing advice on trying to correct of those enrolled in these universities are the trajectory of higher education in Arab international residents whose countries. The Arab Human Development Report outstrip those of citizens in some Arab Gulf 2002 emphasised the importance of higher countries. Higher education will therefore education as a driving force for development establish differences between traditional efforts and advancement. The report called national universities and advanced foreign for a serious review of higher education universities.16 systems in Arab countries and suggested moving in three directions strengthening The signiÀcance of efforts in the Arab region human capacity, strengthening the relationship to expand higher education as a necessity

60 imposed by development requirements is this initiative to develop the Arab Knowledge not in doubt. However, these efforts remain Index (AKI). This Index is crucial in light of unproductive unless they are supported the cultural and social peculiarities of the Arab by similar efforts to improve the quality of region that other knowledge measurement both the educational processes provided and indices may not take into account. Among their outputs. Consequently, Arab countries, the beneÀts of the AKI is that it contributes particularly at the beginning of the twenty- to the description of the current state of Àrst century, have sought to bolster the higher education, which helps researchers quality of higher education through the and decision-makers analyse the results and establishment of quality assurance bodies. develop policies that will target and overcome In 2007, they established the Arab Network the disadvantages detected by the Index. The for Quality Assurance in Higher Education AKI may contribute to setting aspiring yet (ANQAHE) with support from the World achievable targets, instead of being driven by Bank. However, such bodies are administrated global goals that exceed the capacities of the by governments and often lack autonomy; Arab countries. their potential appears limited when it comes to the assessment of higher education. It could be argued that quality assurance Methodology for the Selection and institutions are managed as an extension of Development of the Higher Education government agencies, resulting in the loss Index

of their autonomy and discouraging the Higher Education Index fundamental reform of the higher education Adopted Methodological Instruments system in the region.17 The Àrst step in developing a Higher These national and regional institutions have Education Index was to conduct a desk failed to produce established methodological review of international reports and databases approaches to follow up and evaluate the higher relevant to this sector, as well as reports education sector in the region. ANQAHE is concerned with knowledge in general. These working to facilitate information exchange include the World Bank reports on knowledge on quality assurance through conferences, economy, UNESCO’s databases and reports, workshops and reports.18 Accreditation and World Economic Forum (WEF) reports quality bodies in the Arab countries accredit on global competitiveness, GII reports and institutional and academic programmes,19 the UNDP Human Development and Arab but do not provide national reports and Knowledge Reports. Through these reports, accurate information on the state of higher the working team for the higher education education in these countries. Also absent sector reached a preliminary proposal for an are national and regional indices for higher index with multiple axes to ensure that the education in the Arab countries that rely on proposed index would include all dimensions reports issued by international institutions addressed by previous international indices. such as UNESCO and the World Bank or The proposal adds new dimensions that have international indices such as the Knowledge not been addressed by these indices, yet are Economy Index (KEI) issued by the World important for the Arab region, such as the Bank, the Economic Competitiveness Index knowledge, behaviour and moral capital of (ECI) issued by the Global Competitiveness graduates of higher education included in the Forum, the Global Innovation Index (GII) current index. issued by the European Institute of Business Administration (INSEAD) and others. The Àrst draft of the Index was presented at a meeting of the core team of authors for In light of the lack of mechanisms in the Arab the composite index on knowledge. After region to assess the state of higher education receiving observations and recommendations, and its ability to contribute to development, the higher education sector team implemented UNDP partnered with the Mohammed bin the amendments and presented the draft again Rashid Al Maktoum Foundation to launch to the central team for thorough examination.

61 In the next step to determine the validity and the Organisation for Economic of the Index, the working team, with the Cooperation and Development (OECD). participation of a group of experts and specialists in education, sought to produce a The French model divides the Higher draft of the Index at a workshop held in Dubai Education Index into four sections 1) on September 10, 2015. During the workshop, expenses, including some sub-indices; 2) the experts examined the relevance of the employees; 3) activities such as enrolment Index’s components and the text that deÀned rates, rates of international students each component. The workshop also sought and ratios of females to males in higher expert agreement on the optimal formula for education; and 4) the results of university the weights of each sub-axis. Based on expert education – e.g. graduation rates, the level of recommendations and suggestions, some education according to the economic level paragraphs were deleted, others were added and the percentage of graduates who gain and further paragraphs paraphrased. The employment. workshop came to an acceptable wording for the weights for each sub-component of the In October 2010, Oliver Labe of UNESCO's Index and the experts agreed on this wording. Institute of Statistics delivered a workshop After the amendments had been applied, on the calculation and interpretation of the Index was carefully examined again higher education indicators. He divided these through individual consultations with three indicators into four types input indicators specialists in writing indices from UNESCO’s such as teaching staff and related expenditures; Institute of Statistics, the UNESCO Institute access and participation indicators such as of Educational Planning and the Arab enrolment of inbound and outbound mobile League’s Educational, Cultural, and ScientiÀc students; output axes such as graduation rates, Organisation (ALECSO). numbers of graduates and attainment; and other indicators such as school , Important Indices Currently in Use at the gender parity and human development.21 Regional and International Levels UNESCO’s website indicates the importance of considering the total enrolment rate In a key UNESCO study (2011) on the when determining patterns of enrolment in Arab Knowledge Index 2015 development of an index for higher higher education. This should be combined education, Michaela Martin and Claude with the enrolment rate for female students Sauvageot introduced a practical guide for the as a separate indicator because a signiÀcant development of this Index. According to this percentage of females remain deprived of, or guide, subdivisions of an index are affected excluded from higher education.22 by what they intend to measure. For example, if university education system operations are UNESCO also recommends taking into to be assessed and analysed, the index can be account the rising contribution of the private divided according to resources (such as human sector in this type of education by considering and Ànancial resources), activities and results.20 its rate of enrolment. In terms of the A description of the social and cultural graduation indicator from higher education, environment of the university education it must be considered through the rate of system may be added. This division is among those completing undergraduate studies, the most widely accepted. In some cases, there disciplines of study, and female enrolment in is a possibility to differentiate between direct disciplines historically dominated by males, results and the impact of education when such as science and mathematics. UNESCO the index is developed. This means that the also indicates the importance of observing index result is a direct measure of university the Áow of inbound and outbound students education, and the impact index measures to study in a given country in relation to the the consequences of university education for total number of students in higher education. the individual and society. Institutions that The KEI, adopted by the World Bank, employ this division include the Ministry of is based on four indicators or sub-areas Higher Education and ScientiÀc Research in the economic and institutional system;

62 education; information and communications communication, and computer export technology infrastructure; and the creativity services as a percentage of total trade. and innovation system.23 Three university education sub-indices fall under the education In terms of the Knowledge Diffusion Index index enrolment rate, regardless of age, to (KDI), the innovation indices of 2012 and the total of the age group that 2014 measured the KDI using the same is of university age; graduation rate for all indices royalty and license fees receipts as those over 15 years old who have completed a percentage of total trade, technological their university studies; and graduation rate exports as a percentage of total exports, of females over 15 years of age who have communication, computer and information completed their university studies.24 exports as a percentage of total trade, and Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) net outÁows According to the Economic Competitiveness as a percentage of Index (ECI) issued by the Global (GDP). It is noticeable that all indices related Competitiveness Forum (GCF), higher to knowledge diffusion are associated with education and training are considered the Àfth high-level technology, which is an important axis of competitiveness and are measured innovation tool. by three dimensions 1) the quantitative dimension measured by the rate of student According to this quick review of indices that enrolment in secondary education and the focused on higher education and knowledge,

rate of student enrolment in higher education; it is clear that that there is agreement on Higher Education Index 2) the quality of education measured by the the need to avoid considering the higher quality of science and mathematics teaching, education sector through its outputs only. the quality of management, and the intensity In their attempts to assess and measure of Internet usage in educational institutions; the adequacy of this sector, experts and and 3) in-service training measured by access researchers focused on its inputs, processes, to training and research services and the outputs and environment. However, the availability of trainers.25 dominant feature of the indices is that they are clearly inÁuenced by the particular goals The GII 2014 adopted the input and output that every organisation seeks to achieve. approach, and included higher education For example, UNESCO is interested in as a sub-index of inputs within the human female enrolment, the rate of private sector capital and research index.26 The Higher participation in higher education, the rate Education Index includes rate of students of female enrolment in courses historically enrolled in higher education, graduates of known as male-dominated and the rate of the engineering and science disciplines and student Áow due to its importance in cultural internally mobile students. The GII 2012 diffusion and in strengthening peace. The added the rate of students studying abroad GII focused on technological knowledge and measured knowledge as outputs through and patents more than on the education three sub-indices the creation of knowledge, that leads to this knowledge, and viewed the its impact and dissemination.27 The creation sub-index of knowledge diffusion through of knowledge included also the number of a trade perspective exempliÀed in exports domestically registered patents, the number on communications and information, and of patents registered worldwide, registered FDI. Other indices, such as the Knowledge application models and scientiÀc and technical Economy Index and Global Competitiveness research published in peer-reviewed journals, Index are not inclusive. In these indices while the GII 2014 added cited research. In education appeared as a sub-section. The the GII 2012, the index of knowledge impact representation of education in these indices is was measured by four sub-indices the rate of therefore not in keeping with the signiÀcance worker productivity growth, the intensity of of this sector to a knowledge-based economy new businesses, computer software spending (for example, it would not be possible to judge and ISO 9001 quality certiÀcates. The GII the contribution of the education sector in 2014 added a sub-index of information, building a knowledge-based economy without

63 enrolment and completion rates), or useful in and graduation rates – disregards quality. supporting countries to compete economically Consequently, efforts to improve qualitative (how can the role of education in economic measures of higher education must continue.28 competition be known without determining The development of an Arab Knowledge what role graduates are likely to play in the Index must also contend with the challenge of labour market"). It can also be argued that the overlapping sub-indices. For example, research association between knowledge and higher and development are considered sub-indices education is not a major goal of these indices. of the general knowledge index. These sub- Herein lies the importance of developing an indices also overlap with research productivity index to measure knowledge in the higher at universities as one of the sub-indices of the education sector in the Arab region. Higher Education Index. Finally, some may believe the use of secondary data collected by Constructing an Arab Knowledge Index other organisations is a shortcoming of the on higher education faces some challenges, Index, but it may be an inevitable solution, including the large number of sub-indices particularly in the Àrst phase of constructing that some consider vital, and the difÀculty of the AKI. collecting data on these indices, particularly if newly introduced indices have not been previously used by international organisations. The Proposed Higher Education Index The differences in interpreting these indices and the Reasons for Its Selection also pose a challenge if these indicators are not described accurately. The Arab countries’ The desk study concluded that there is no tendency to consider higher education through existing index that measures knowledge the comparison and ranking of countries is itself in higher education, but there are a challenge of inherent sensitivity. The fear indices for higher education and knowledge. here is that countries are compared to each Knowledge may be implicitly included as other without considering the ultimate goal of a part of the Higher Education Index by the Index, namely the exploitation of its data monitoring the number of patents and in real terms and attempts to access policies published scientiÀc papers, and so forth. and procedures for index development. The The AKI of higher education integrates Arab Knowledge Index 2015 work team is aware that the Index itself does these two sectors. not give a comprehensive image of higher education in a country, as knowledge cannot Measuring the effectiveness of the higher be limited to quantitative data. In addition, the education system and its relationship to goal of higher education is greater than that knowledge is based on the connection which may be measured by graduation rates, between knowledge and development. or by achievement of particular knowledge, Higher education institutions prepare skills and attitudes. Higher education aims human capital to become effective in knowledge, skills or societal and economic to build an integrated professional and Àelds to a high degree. Hence, human human personality. A scientiÀc committee capital would possess a set of qualifying assigned by the National Research Council values that enables it to integrate into in Washington (2012) to submit a proposal society and contribute to its development. to measure higher education productivity The effectiveness of the higher education pointed out that identifying higher education system is measured by R&D production level appears to be a challenging task. This that aims to develop knowledge and support is because the evaluation process of the the economy and social functionalism. This performance of higher education institutions only happens in an inspiring context for the remains incomplete, as it is difÀcult to identify acquisition and production of knowledge. the inputs, processes and outputs of higher Consequently, the Higher Education Index education through a codiÀed quantitative will not be limited to education outputs, as approach. In addition, the evaluation some suggest, but will present knowledge of higher education institutions through in a more comprehensive sense in the quantitative methods alone – such as spending context of its production and enabling

64 environments. The following is a diagram of were carefully chosen to give a true indication the Index’s components. and assessment of each major axis. For example, the input-related sub-index includes ,QGH[&RPSRQHQWVDQG-XVWLÀFDWLRQVIRU sub-axes such as enabling environment, Their Selection material resources, enrolment or registration rates, human resources, and student diversity. Based on the previous framework, the These axes have important implications proposed Higher Education Index is divided besides the fact that international institutions into inputs, processes and outputs. The input take them into account when measuring sub-index includes the enabling environment, higher education inputs. For instance, the material resources, enrolment or registration enabling environment – with its speciÀc rates, human resources and student diversity. indices for political and Ànancial stability These inputs are then carried over through – and government efÀcacy are considered higher education system processes that are important indicators for enabling higher characterised by quality. The output sub-index education institutions to perform their role. is composed of graduation or completion This applies to Ànancial and human resources, rates; post-graduation employment rates; which are signiÀcant indicators in judging knowledge, cultural, social and economic educational system effectiveness and its ability efÀciency, and its relevant values among to contribute to the production and diffusion university graduates - also known as the of knowledge. Student diversity, which

knowledge capital of university students; includes the presence of foreign students in Higher Education Index and Ànally, knowledge production at higher the Arab countries or Arab students in foreign education institutions, particularly in the Àeld countries, is an important axis. These students of inventions and research. This whole system will impart new knowledge as well as life or works in a societal pattern, which has some cultural experiences that not only contribute attributes that mutually affect and are affected to the dissemination of knowledge in general by higher education. but also promote values of tolerance and acceptance of others. As for the quality of The choice of the three major axes of the the educational system processes, no real Index (inputs, processes and outputs) takes knowledge is possible without a good system into account international indices that study for teaching and assessment, programmes the effectiveness of higher education systems that are subject to review and approval, and and their signiÀcant role in stimulating institutions using sophisticated technology. knowledge for development. The sub-indices Axes related to higher education system

Figure 1: Components of the Higher Education Index

Higher Education Index

Higher Education Inputs Higher Education Outputs

Enabling Environment Graduation Expenditure Knowledge Capital Among Higher Education Students Enrolment Higher Education Processes Human Resources Employment Student Exchange Knowledge Production by Educational Institutions

Societal Patterns

65 outputs are similar to international indices The Àrst four inputs of the higher education for graduation, employment and scientiÀc system (enabling environment, spending, production, as well as new additions resulting enrolment and human resources) have also from dialogues and consultations with experts, been allocated equal weights in the input- such as undergraduate completion rates related value of the sub-index, whereas the within a speciÀed number of years, and the student exchange axis (also a part of the rate at which graduates are employed in their inputs) gained a rate of one-third. This is Àelds one year after graduation, which were because student exchange, both of outbound both added due to prevailing unemployment and inbound students, is important in forming rates in the Arab region. Knowledge capital and shaping Arab knowledge. The axis of the of higher education students in the Arab system’s processes and their quality was given region may come as an important addition to 10 per cent, because students’ experiences the indices related to knowledge and higher in a good educational system allow them education. This axis has not appeared in to gain knowledge, skills and values that any international measurements or indices, they may transfer to their society. Regarding perhaps due to the difÀculty of measuring it. the weights of higher education system However, the UNDP’s knowledge evaluation outputs, the values differed as well, with the of university students in four Arab countries, greatest value (two-thirds) given to what the presented in its 2014 report, is a motivation experts considered to be the direct effect for including this axis.29 Hence, the knowledge of this education that touches both sides of capital of higher education students, their development the axis of knowledge capital knowledge, skills and values gained by the possessed by university students and the time of graduation are among the signiÀcant axis of university knowledge and research outputs measured that distinguishes the AKI’s production. Experts considered that number coverage of higher education. of graduates, despite its importance, does not represent substantial value if not coupled with Proposed Weights of the Index Components employment and development. Thus, this axis was given 8 percent of the output sub-index In the workshop on the AKI of higher value, whereas consistent employment and education, experts examined the speciÀcities transfer of knowledge gained from education Arab Knowledge Index 2015 of this Index in terms of the weights were granted more importance. Accordingly, that should be given to its various axes or this axis was given 25 percent of the output- particulars. The research team considered related sub-index value. giving equal weights to the 10 particulars of the Index, where each section is given one of Expert Observations on the Index the 10 levels allocated to the Index, while the experts considered giving more weight to the Experts realised that the importance of outputs, being the direct knowledge outcome the higher education axis in the broader in this Index. For example, the axis of knowledge index was determined by the spending on higher education as an indicator extent to which this sector contributed of concern about this type of education is to knowledge processes and knowledge important, but the students’ knowledge, skills production, and therefore the great expansion Proposed Weights of Various Index Components Axis Higher Education Higher Education Higher Education Inputs Processes Outputs Percentage 30% 10% 60%

and values have greater relative importance, as in monitoring inputs and processes of this they show the actual output of education that sector may not be very useful. The large directly contributes to development efforts. number of axes affects the quality of the Participants agreed that weights for each axis Index as a whole because it contains data that would be as follows is not directly related to the measurement of

66 the extent to which universities and higher Participants also noted that the Index education contribute to the production of dependence on data collected from various knowledge. There are two observations in this sources (UNESCO, the World Bank, national regard the Higher Education Index not only sources, etc.), each with its own procedural seeks to focus on outputs, but also aspires deÀnitions, may signiÀcantly affect the Index’s to provide an image of this education in the credibility. Because it is likely impossible to framework of its environment and context. collect original data for all the Index’s axes The desired beneÀt of this is the capacity of at present, the AKI relied on the data of every country to assess its situation in terms international institutions. In the future, the of the different axes within the Index and Index will depend mainly on original data to identify its strengths and weaknesses; but obtained from ofÀcial statistical bodies and if the Index focuses only on the outputs, institutions and from similar knowledge the image may seem incomplete, especially reports. because most international indices also show interest in the environment and societal context. Emphasising the importance of the Conclusion higher education system’s outputs, the second observation is that the outputs indicator, The Higher Education Index includes 10 composed of four sub-axes, holds the greatest sub-components, each of which is measured weight of the Index at 60 per cent; while the by a number of sub-indicators to reach a

six axes of the inputs and processes are worth total of 83. Other global indices measure Higher Education Index 40 per cent of the Index. higher education with a limited number of indicators. Therefore, careful consideration The experts also noticed that the higher should be given when comparing the results education sector differs from the pre- of the Higher Education Index for the university education sector in terms of the Arab countries to those of global indices. nature of the former’s institutions and their It is not fair, for example, to compare the participation in knowledge production. higher education indicator within the GII The pre-university education sector has a that measures this sector through three sub- national character and is the government’s indicators –enrolment rates, graduation rates responsibility, unlike higher education, which in science and engineering, and student is of a predominately institutional character. exchange – to the AKI’s indicator of the Many of the latter sector’s institutions (even higher education sector measured by 35 sub- the public ones) enjoy varying degrees of indicators. Similarly, it would not be fair to Ànancial and administrative autonomy. These compare the results of the Higher Education institutions also vary and differ in terms of Index to the KEI, which only measures their outputs. It is noteworthy here that the higher education by average male and female Arab region includes many countries, and enrolment and graduation. However, there is one cannot make the generalisation that their a similarity between the results of the AKI’s governments bear the sole responsibility for indicator for the higher education sector providing pre-university education due to the and global indicators. The Arab countries private sector’s efforts in this regard. In the that reached the top positions in the higher , for example, there education sector’s indicator were also at the were twice as many private schools in Dubai forefront of the higher education indicator in 2010/2011 as public schools, and the for the Arab region in the GII 2015,31 and the number of students enrolled in the former Global Competitiveness Index (GCI) 2015– represented 87 percent, most of whom were 2016, which measures the sector of higher expatriate students. Consequently, it is difÀcult education and training as a sub-indicator of to count on the public education system as a competitiveness using different variables.32 unit of analysis and comparison within the Higher Education Index. Hence, most sub- The signiÀcance of the higher education indicators include both the public and private sector cannot be denied, being one of the higher education sectors.30 most important sectors for the development

67 of human capital and knowledge production for unavailable indicators. Based on the in any society. This sector’s indicator included abundance of data and the ease of obtaining many axes, but the lack of available data has them, work should carried out to develop the been noted, particularly in the axes of quality Index in the coming years by modifying the of the higher education system, graduates’ Index’s sub-indicators so that its value truly knowledge capital and knowledge production reÁects the status of the higher education at higher education institutions. Consequently, sector. concerted efforts are required to collect data Arab Knowledge Index 2015

68 Endnotes

1. The World Bank deÀnes higher (tertiary) education as “all post-secondary education, including but not limited to universities. Universities are clearly a key part of all tertiary systems, but the diverse and growing set of public and private tertiary institutions in every country - colleges, technical training institutes, community colleges, nursing schools, research laboratories, centers of excellence, distance learning centers, and many more-forms a network of institutions that support the production of the higher- order capacity necessary for development” (World Bank 2013). For the purposes of constructing the current Index, higher education will only be considered in terms of public and private higher education institutions offering BA/BS stage programmes and what follows from Level 6 for the Àrst university degree, 7 for the Master’s degree, and 8 for the Doctoral degree, according to UNESCO’s International Standard ClassiÀcation of Education (ISCED). 2. Wilkins 2011. 3. World Bank 2000. 4. World Economic Forum and the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development 2013. 5. Wilkins 2011. 6. UNDP & Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum Foundation 2014 (reference in Arabic). 7. UNESCO 2014. 8. UNDP 2003 (reference in Arabic).

9. World Bank 2008b. Higher Education Index 10. UNDP & Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum Foundation 2009 (reference in Arabic). 11. Wilkins 2011. 12. Hargreaves & Shaw 2007. 13. World Bank 2000. 14. UNDP 2002 (reference in Arabic). 15. UNDP & Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum Foundation 2014 (reference in Arabic). 16. UNDP & Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum Foundation 2014 (reference in Arabic). 17. Wilkins 2011. 18. Arab Network for Quality Assurance in Higher Education 2012 (reference in Arabic). 19. Commission for Academic Accreditation. 2011. 20. Martin & Sauvageot 2011. 21. Labe 2010. 22. UNESCO Institute for Statistics 2014. 23. World Bank 2012. 24. World Bank 2011a. 25. World Economic Forum and the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development 2013. 26. Cornell University et al. 2014. 27. INSEAD & WIPO 2012. 28. National Research Council 2012. 29. UNDP & Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum Foundation 2014 (reference in Arabic). 30. Knowledge & Human Development Authority 2011. 31. Cornell University et al. 2015. 32. World Economic Forum 2015a.

69 Arab Knowledge Index 2015

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