VOL. 19 (8) DECEMBER 2002 235 AUSTRALIAN WATCHER 2002, 19, 235-246 Observations on Nesting Masked miles

A.B. ROSE, Associate, The Australian Museum, 6 College Street, Sydney, N.S.W. 2010 (Present address: 61 Boundary Street, Forster, N.S.W. 2428)

Summary Observations were made on nesting Masked Lapwings Viznellus miles over 11 years. The outcomes of 18 nesting attempts were documented; four young fledged from 57 eggs laid, a success rate of7%. Many eggs and young were presumed depredated although no predation was observed. Descriptions of the behaviour of the nesting are included.

Introduction Observations of nesting Masked Lapwings Vanellus miles were made between 1973 and 1983 inclusive in the compound of the Mt Colah Works Depot in Ku­ ring-gai Chase National Park north of Sydney, New South Wales. The compound had previously been used as a gravel dump and was lightly vegetated on a mainly gravel base; it was surrounded by a chain-link mesh fence. No water was available until I supplied a small pond in 1980. The study site was separated from a nearby golf course, which was used by the Lapwings and where water was available, by 300 m of bushland and a busy road. Nesting behaviour of Masked Lapwings has been well studied elsewhere (Marchant & Higgins 1993). I present here observations on behaviour during nesting, success rate and predation.

Results Of 57 eggs laid in 18 nesting attempts, 39 hatched, 13 were depredated, four were deserted and one was infertile. The incubation period was 27-30 days. Of the 39 young hatched, 17 were taken by predators outside the compound (no fledglings were seen at the golf course), 14were taken by predators inside the compound, one died in the nest, one was found dead against the fence and two were still extant but had not reached the flying stage when observations ceased. Four of the young birds flew. From hatching to flying took 51 days. Nesting attempts 8, 9, 12, 14 and 15 all involved the same female. I could distinguish this bird from other Lapwings because she had distinctive plumage and wattle characteristics, and I sexed her by observing copulations. The sex was confirmed when I found her carcass after nesting attempt 15. The nest-site was the same for all these attempts. Similarly, nesting attempts 10, 11, 13, 16 and 17 involved a recognisable female and an unchanged nest-site.

Observations Nesting attempt 1 7 August 1973 The nest, consisting of a depression in the ground with a few twigs and small pieces of wood, contained three eggs. AUSTRALIAN 236 ROSE BIRD WATCHER

5 September 1973 The nest was empty, the eggs having been thrown away by a man wishing to avoid being attacked.

Nesting attempt 2 12 July 1974 The nest was a depression with one piece of grass on top of a heap of pebbles; it contai_ned two eggs one of which was cracked. 15 July 1974 A third egg was out of the nest and cracked. The nest was then deserted and the eggs remained there for at least 36 days even though Australian Ravens Corvus coronoides, Australian Magpies Gymnorhina tibicen and Pied Currawongs Strepera graculina were continually in the area.

Nesting attempt 3 1 August 1975 The nest was on top of a pile of dead grass clippings and contained two eggs. One followed me, calling and menacing to within 2 m. At 1230 h one Lapwing, after pecking at the ground in one spot, settled to brood; it soon stood up, turned around twice, then settled again with tail up. The other Lapwing was about 15 m away and chased away on foot five Australian Magpies. A Magpie-lark Grallina cyanoleuca was ignored. A Magpie swooped and knocked two feathers out of the back of one of the Lapwings but was ignored. After 20 minutes the brooding Lapwing moved away from the nest and after being approached by the other one jumped onto its back briefly; both birds had tails cocked. After separating, both Lapwings kept running at any Magpies coming within 20 m of the nest. 4 August 1975 There was no sign of the Lapwings and the eggs had gone from the nest; one empty shell was 3m away, having been eaten out, probably by a bird.

Nesting attempt 4 25 July 1976 The nest was an 8 em diameter depression lined with short pieces of dead grass and contained two eggs. 26 July 1976 The nest contained three eggs. 19 August 1976 The nest was empty and there was no sign of the Lapwings.

Nesting attempt 5 6 September 1978 At 0830 h a Lapwing fashioned a shallow scrape with its breast on bare stony ground. At 0920 h the members of the pair were close together at the edge of the nest-scrape; one bird circled, breast nearly touching the nest and, with even movements of its head, picked up pieces of dead grass and placed them on the nest. The second bird gave an alarm call and both flew off. At 1330 hthe pair was at the nest; one bird sat on the nest for 30 minutes then ran off and, after pecking about, returned and pecked around the nest-scrape with lowered breast. The other bird was feeding, stamping one foot rapidly then feeding with jerking head and one foot held off the ground. Then it fed without these head and foot movements. Twice more it used head and foot movements, although not together, then squatted. The main insects in the area were ants and maybe the Lapwing was getting ants up from out of their nests. VOL.19 (8) DECEMBER 2002 Nesting Masked Lapwings 237

7 September 1978 At 0830 h both Lapwings were close to the nest which was a bare soil depression rimmed with dead grass and pebbles. Later, and 100m from the nest, one bird had its breast on the ground and tail elevated; when I approached a Lapwing dive-bombed me while clicking its bill. 8 September 1978 The nest was unchanged. 10 September 1978 I was attacked while at the nest. 11 September 1978 One Lapwing gave a twittering call as the other mounted it briefly. 12 September 1978 The Lapwings were pecking around the nest. 14 September 1978 The Lapwings had a second nest, 20 m from the scrape just described, which contained one egg. 15 September 1978 One of the Lapwings was some distance from the new nest when it was approached by the other at a trot and giving a trilling call. The first bird turned, lowered its body and twisted its tail to the left as the other stood on its back and lowered its body. The bird dismounted after only a fraction of a second and both birds moved to the nest area. At 1130 h a bird was brooding the egg; subsequent to this the nest and egg were deserted.

Nesting attempt 6 16 September 1978 What was assumed to be the same pair was building a third nest 60 m from the others; the Lapwings followed some Sulphur-crested Cockatoos Cacatua galerita away from the nest, and remained away from both nests all day. 21 September 1978 The nest was a deep depression in damp soil with pieces of dead grass on the rim. At 1400 hone Lapwing ran after a Pied Currawong before settling on the third nest; then it ran to the second nest, squatted for 5 minutes, then stood and threw scraps of grass and wood into the nest with distinct head movements. It was joined by its mate which stood on its back and they copulated. Lapwings were not subsequently seen at the second nest. 26 September 1978 The new nest contained one egg. 28 September 1978 The nest contained two eggs. I was attacked. 29 September 1978 I was attacked again. The nest contained three eggs. 16 October 1978 A Lapwing was incubating four eggs. 25 October 1978 The incubating Lapwing ran from the nest. The eggs were not chipping. 27 October 1978 The eggs were chipping. 30 October 1978 The nest was empty; both adults with four runners were 300m away. At 0900 h they headed on foot towards a nearby golf course where there was water and to reach which they had to cross a busy road; they did this but with only one runner. The Lapwings were observed by two Pied Currawongs, a domestic cat Felis catus and a Laughing Kookaburra Dacelo novaeguineae, and they were swooped by a Grey Butcherbird Cracticus torquatus. The runner did not follow properly and at one stage was brooded in the middle of the road. AUSTRALIAN 238 ROSE BIRD WATCHER

6 November 1978 The adults were back at the nest and attacked me but there was no sign of the runner.

Nesting attempt 7 10 August 1979 A nest contained two eggs. 12 August 1979 The nest was empty.

Nesting attempt 8 5 September 1979 A nest on open gravelly ground contained four eggs. It also contained short pieces of plant material and wood. 10 September 1979 After alarm calls during the previous night the nest was empty. I saw Fox Vulpes vulpes tracks near the nest.

Nesting attempt 9 20 September 1979 The same nest as in attempt 8 contained one egg. 21 September 1979 The nest contained two eggs. 29 September 1979 The nest contained three eggs. 16 October 1979 The eggs were chipping. 22 October 1979 The adults and three runners headed for the golf course on foot and were not seen again.

Nesting attempt 10 24 June 1980 A pair was in the works depot compound. 26 June 1980 I observed a nest-scrape with pieces of grass around the rim 100m from the nest of the previous year. 27 June 1980 The nest contained one egg and the pair swooped at me three times. Subsequently, if I wore a safety helmet the Lapwings did not attack. 30 June 1980 At 0800 h the nest contained three eggs and, at 1400 h, four eggs. 29 July 1980 The four eggs were chipping. 30 July 1980 At 0900 h three eggs hatched followed by the fourth at 1630 h. 31 July 1980 The nest was empty and the adults and four runners were 30m away; one runner appeared weaker than the others. The adults chased away two Pied Currawongs. 7 August 1980 A Brown Goshawk Accipiter fasciatus was overhead. I saw only two Lapwing runners. 8 August 1980 Australian Ravens and Pied Currawongs were in the vicinity. 15 September 1980 Two well-grown runners were still in the works depot compound, perhaps having remained there because I had provided a shallow pond. Pied Currawongs accompanied the runners and persistently flew down towards them, perhaps because the runners disturbed food for the Currawongs. VOL. 19 (8) DECEMBER 2002 Nesting Masked Lapwings 239

Masked Lapwing nest and eggs, Mt Colah, N.S.W., October 1979 Plate 55 Photo: M. Bailey

1 October 1980 The two young were able to fly. 7 October 1980 The adults were refurbishing the nest. 16 October 1980 The four Lapwings were still spending some time in the works depot compound.

Nesting attempt 11 17 October 1980 The same nest as used in attempt 10 contained one egg. 18 October 1980 The nest contained two eggs. 20 October 1980 The nest contained three eggs. 21 October 1980 The nest contained four eggs which were being incubated. The non-incubating Lapwing attacked a passing Little Corella Cacatua sanguinea. The two flying juveniles from the previous nesting were 80 m from the nest. 7 November 1980 An Australian Raven was on the ground 20m from the nest. 10 November 1980 The juveniles from the previous nesting attempt were 50 m from the nest; an adult was on the nest. 17 November 1980 At 0800 h the nest contained three eggs and one hatchling. At 1620 h the nest contained two eggs which were chipping and two young still wet from the egg, as well as eggshell. An adult flew to the nest then to water carrying the broken egg; it placed the egg in the water then ate most of the shell leaving part of the membrane with some bits of shell attached. The juveniles from the previous nesting attempt were not seen after this. 18 November 1980 The nest was empty. Two runners were with one of the adults w 2 w · he ther t. AUS1RALIAN 240 ROSE BIRD WATCHER

19 November 1980 Only two runners were present. One adult gave an alarm call then flew to within 10 m of the other and flattened itself on the ground, leaving only the head visible when it moved. 20 November 1980 Only one runner was present. 24 November 1980 Both adults crouched low. The runner moved about, pausing to look up. 17 December 1980 One adult was present with the runner. 14 January 1981 Two adults were present with a flying young; the adults drove away a hawk very quickly. 17 January 1981 The three Lapwings left the works depot compound.

Nesting attempt 12 30 June 1981 One Lapwing ran away silently from a nest used in nesting attempts 8 and 9 in 1979 and 100m west of the nest used successfully in 1980. The nest contained four eggs, two with white chalky streaks. The nest was raised up with pebbles, dead leaves, pieces of grass and fragments of wood around the rim. When I left the nest the adult walked to it, making feeding motions on the way. At 1230 h the bird flew away calling. It returned at 1300 h and examined its reflection in a plaque then walked away, head and body bobbing. The Lapwing looked back as if expecting to be followed; the second bird was not about. At 1630 h a second Lapwing landed and bobbed as its mate called from the nest. 1 July 1981 At 0815 h four Lapwings were in the air; two were chased away and one of the others went to the nest. At 0915 h an adult flew in and the incubating bird called and stood up, rearranged the pebbles around the nest rim, walked away past the new arrival and flew away. The remaining bird advanced to the nest, peered at the eggs and settled on them. At this time there was a cool wind and the temperature was only 8°C. 15 July 1981 The incubating Lapwing called loudly while bobbing up and down. It walked away from the nest bobbing and called again as it turned and returned to the nest. Then it stopped, turned and called again. Within 1 m of the nest it turned, called and bobbed, then settled on the nest. 29 July 1981 An adult left the nest with three runners, leaving one young dead in the nest. 5 August 1981 The three runners were 100m from the nest. 7 August 1981 The birds were not sighted after this date. Nesting attempt 13 24 August 1981 A pair of Lapwings had one egg in a nest 100m east of that used in nesting attempt 12. This was the same nest as used in nesting attempt 11. 25-26 August 1981 The nest contained two eggs. 27 August 1981 The nest contained three eggs which were being incubated all day. 28 August 1981 The nest contained four eggs. VOL.19 (8) DECEMBER2002 Nesting Masked Lapwings 241 ------~

Masked Lapwing standing over nest and eggs, Queensland Plate 56 Photo: G.A Cumming

24 September 1981 All four eggs were chipping. 27 September 1981 The nest contained three young and one egg. 28 September 1981 Both adults and four runners were feeding 50 m from the nest. The eggshells had been carried 100 m to water and broken up, with some pieces left in the deepest part of the pond. 30 September 1981 Four runners and one adult chased away an intruding adult Lapwing. 6 October 1981 Only two runners were present. 22 October 1981 Two runners were present. Two other Lapwings flew in and were chased with fast wingbeats by one adult. 18 November 1981 The adults and one of the young flew out of the works depot compound. A young bird was found dead against the fence.

Nesting attempt 14 30 November 1981 Two adults were in the vicinity of the nest used in nesting attempt 12. The nest had become a mound of gravel. AUSTRALIAN 242 ROSE BIRD WATCHER

2 December 1981 The nest contained one egg. 3 December 1981 The nest contained two eggs. 7 December 1981 The nest contained four eggs which were being incubated. 4 January 1982 One adult was on the nest; three active young were 50 m away with the other adult; 5 January 1982 At 0800 h an adult was still on the nest but it left to join the others; the egg was infertile. 22 January 1982 Three runners were present. 25 January 1982 The Lapwings moved away, perhaps because a flock of Common Mynas Acridotheres tristis had been systematically combing the area and may have removed all of the insect food supply.

Nesting attempt 15 9 June 1982 A pair of Lapwings was at the nest used for nesting attempt 14. 14 June 1982 At 1330 h a pair flew in and landed near the nest. One bird stood on the nest and picked up small pebbles and jerked them back onto the nest rim on either side of its body. The other bird stood nearby and picked up pebbles and threw them about randomly. The bird at the nest lowered its breast onto the nest with wings half open and tail cocked, with more pebble throwing. The other bird tried the nest in the same way. The Lapwings flew up with alarm calls and chased a Whistling Kite Haliastur sphenurus out of sight, then returned and settled away from the nest. 30 June 1982 The pair returned to the nest, then chased away two other Lapwings. 21 July 1982 The nest contained one egg but there was no sign of the Lapwings. 22 July 1982 The egg had been moved from one side of the nest to the other. 23 July 1982 The nest contained two eggs. An adult near the nest threatened me with wings and tail spread. 26 July 1982 The nest contained four eggs; the sitting bird ran off without calling and with body held low. I placed some mealworms near the nest but they were ignored by the returning Lapwing, although they subsequently disappeared. 27 July 1982 I placed some more mealworms in the same place and the Lapwing fed on them before settling on the nest. At 1400 h the Lapwing fed nearby in spite of being harassed by Australian Magpies. 28 July 1982 The weather was very cold. At 0900 h one adult was on the nest and did not leave until 1135 h when its mate ran to the nest and replaced it on the eggs; the first bird then flew away. At 1515 h the bird on the nest was unsettled. At 1520 h I fed the bird which was off the nest with mealworms before it returned to the nest and settled to incubate, wriggling its tail. The other pecked about, then stood 5 m from the nest before disappearing. 29 July 1982 One Lapwing attacked me while the other sat tight on the nest; the attacking bird stood watching me from the far side of the nest. At 1300 h it called and took over incubating while the departing bird preened briefly and flew off. At VOL. 19 (8) DECEMBER2002 Nesting Masked Lapwings 243 .~------

Masked Lapwing incubating, Queensland Plate 57 Photo: G.A Cumming 1520 h it approached me, staring and bobbing, and I fed it mealworms which it swallowed alive; it would not approach closer to me than 10 m. 30 July 1982 The same Lapwing approached me, apparently to be fed, which I did; it faced the nest and called with bill open and tongue working, then ate more mealworms. At 0900 h it returned to the nest and the incubating bird left when the approaching bird was 3m away, not as usual when it reached the nest. The departing bird pecked about briefly and flew off to the golf course. 31 July 1982 On my arrival at the works depot compound the presumed female ran to meet me as did a pair of Magpies; she chased away the Magpies. She quickly ate mealworms that I supplied, then scratched her head and dug into the soil with her bill. At 1430 h a different Lapwing was present but ran away when I offered it mealworms. 3 August 1982 The presumed female was present when I arrived and was scratching as if she had just left the nest. I approached the nest and the male ran off. She flew at me from behind, then followed me on foot. At noon she ate some pieces of cheese, then caught a moth in the grass, ate more cheese and returned to the nest. At 1630 h she returned, apparently to be fed again and chased away a Magpie. 4 August 1982 Again, the presumed female was waiting as I arrived, then walked to the nest and relieved her mate, stopping to preen on the way. At 1445 h he was at the nest, preening while she incubated. At 1645 h the birds' positions were unchanged and the female would not leave the nest even when offered mealworms. 5 August 1982 The presumed female was on the nest when I arrived. At noon she was relieved at the nest and ate some mealworms before walking back to the nest. Four minutes later both birds were in the air chasing another Lapwing. At 1615 AUS1RALIAN 244 ROSE BIRD WATCHER h both birds were away from the nest, then the female ran to the nest and settled on it. 23 August 1982 At 0800 h the presumed female left the nest, which contained four immobile and seemingly dead chicks. 24 August 1982 The two adults were 50 m from the nest with four runners. 30 August 1982 Only three runners were present and the adult female had a broken leg, which limited her mobility and her ability to brood the young. I fed the birds with mealworms, and the female appeared shyer than previously. 31 August 1982 Three active young were brooded by the presumed male. 3 September 1982 Two runners were present. The female flew with her broken leg dangling; after landing she flopped down onto her belly. 13 September 1982 Two runners but no adults were present. 14 September 1982 The two runners were present with the apparently unsettled male; the male flew alone to the golf course while calling. 17 September 1982 The male flew back and forth to the golf course. 22 September 1982 Another pair of Lapwings was present along with the original male and the two runners. 23 September 1982 There was no sign of the male or the runners. I flushed some Australian Ravens from the eaten-out carcass of the female. Some thickening had formed where the leg was broken.

Nesting attempt 16 27 September 1982 There was one egg in a nest which had been worked on by the same pair during the first half of July. 28 September 1982 Two eggs were present. At 1130 h the female left the nest; the male was nearby but neither bird attacked me as I inspected the nest. For the next two weeks the female sat tight on the nest and would not leave unless I came within 2m. 26 October 1982 The female left the nest when she saw me. Two eggs were chipping. 27 October 1982 Two runners and the two adults were 30m from the nest. 1 November 1982 Two runners were present. 2 November 1982 Only one runner was present. 23 November 1982 One adult and one well-grown young bird were present. This was the last sighting of the Lapwings.

Nesting attempt 17 20 June 1983 A pair of Lapwings was in the works depot compound. The birds copulated. 22 June 1983 Dead grass had been added to rim of the nest used in attempt 16. 6 Jut 1983 No La win s were resent· the nest was full of water following rain. VOL. 19 (8) DECEMBER 2002 Nesting Masked Lapwings 245

14 July 1983 The Lapwings were back and the nest contained one egg. 15 July 1983 The nest contained two eggs but the Lapwings were not seen. 18 July 1983 The nest contained three eggs and again the Lapwings were not about. 20 July 1983 Three eggs were in the nest and the pair was nearby; the Lapwings ran off silently as I approached, one lowering the front half of its body. 21 July 1983 Neither adult was present. 22 July 1983 A Lapwing moved off the nest and crouched a few metres away. 25 July 1983 A Lapwing was incubating but moved off in response to calling from the other as I approached; this bird, the presumed female, approached me in tum and lowered her head with wings outstretched but without calling. At 1000 h both Lapwings were near the nest, calling, then one ran to the nest in a half-circle while the other ran away from the nest and commenced feeding. 26 July 1983 No Lapwings were present but the eggs were warm. 27 July 1983 A Lapwing was incubating. 1 August 1983 A Lapwing ran silently from the nest. 5 August 1983 One Lapwing ran from the nest while I was some distance away; three eggs were in the nest and as I left one Lapwing swooped at me, calling. This was the first sign of aggression from this pair. 15 August 1983 Incubation was still in progress. 16 August 1983 Three runners were moving about near the nest as the adults stood by, necks craning. 17 August 1983 Three runners were feeding with both adults 60 m from the nest. 23 August 1983 The birds ate some mealworms which I threw to them. 24 August 1983 One young Lapwing only was present. 29 August 1983 No Lapwings were seen.

Nesting attempt 18 12 September 1983 I found a nest with three eggs 50 m from that used in nesting attempt 17; it was lined with dead grass and herbage. 14 September 1983 A Lapwing moved off the nest, which contained four eggs, with lowered body and spread wings. 11 October 1983 The eggs may have been hatching since one bird stayed on the nest while the other attacked me. At 1430 hone runner was out of the nest. 13 October 1983 Three runners and an adult were on the nest. 14 October 1983 At 1600 h four runners were feeding 10m from the nest. The eggshells were carried in flight about 80 m to the pond. 4 November 1983 Two runners were present. 10 November 1983 Two runners present. No further information was collected AUSTRALIAN 246 ROSE BIRD WATCHER

Discussion The Masked Lapwing is known sometimes to frequent and nest in areas of sparsely vegetated or gravelly ground, although this is usually near water (Marchant & Higgins 1993). In this study, water was some distance from the site of the observations unti11980 when an artificial water source was provided. It may be significant that after this time the hatching rate increased markedly and all four young that fledged were hatched in 1980 or later. Before 1980 the adults attempted to take their young to the nearby golf course where water was available, but the busy road may have been an insuperable barrier since no young were known to have crossed successfully. The success rate in this study of four flying young produced from 57 eggs laid or 7% is not especially low (Marchant & Higgins 1993). The use of the same nest-scrape for repeated nesting attempts, as occurred during these observations for five successive attempts by one female and five by another, is not mentioned by Marchant & Higgins (1993). This nest-site fidelity is notable given the rudimentary and easily repeated nature of the nest itself. Also not mentioned by Marchant & Higgins (1993) but documented here is the eating of eggshell by the adult birds, although it has long been known that the adults discard the eggshells in water (Marchant & Higgins 1993). Although Masked Lapwings are aggressive in defence of their nests, and even attack species that apparently present no threat, they nevertheless suffer a high rate of nest predation. In this study one clutch was apparently taken by a Fox (based on tracks observed at the nest) and Foxes could have taken other eggs or runners. Although there were no breaks low in the chain-link fence surrounding the compound, Foxes can climb well and, from finding hairs on the top, I have known one to scale a 2 m netting fence. In addition, although no predation was seen, Australian Ravens, Pied Currawongs, Brown Goshawks, and other actual or potential avian predators of eggs or young were resident in and around the compound, and are likely to have taken some toll on the eggs and young of the Lapwings. During these observations one clutch was destroyed by a man, although egg-collecting may be a more common motivation than the desire for a peaceful life as was apparently the case here (Marchant & Higgins 1993). That three deserted eggs remained untouched in the nest (nesting attempt 2), despite the presence of Australian Ravens and other potential egg predators, suggests that perhaps predators take eggs after observing a bird at a nest. This is supported by my observations of Silver Gulls Larus novaehollandiae which, while taking eggs from active nests of Little Terns Sterna albifrons, did not touch an infertile Tern egg that I placed near Gulls resting at the water's edge.

Acknowledgements I thank Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park staff for assistance in maintaining the water supply. Stephen Debus, Andrew Ley and Shirley Cook assisted with the manuscript.

Reference Marchant, S. & Higgins, P.J. (1993), Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds, vol. 2, Oxford University Press, Melbourne. Received 8 April 2002 •