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Rethinking Faecal Sludge Management in Emergency Settings Decision Support Tools and Smart Technology Applications for Emergency Sanitation

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Rethinking Faecal Sludge Management in Emergency Settings Decision support tools and smart technology applications for emergency sanitation Fiona Zakaria RETHINKING FAECAL SLUDGE MANAGEMENT IN EMERGENCY SETTINGS Decision Support Tools and Smart Technology Applications for Emergency Sanitation Fiona ZAKARIA RETHINKING FAECAL SLUDGE MANAGEMENT IN EMERGENCY SETTINGS Decision Support Tools and Smart Technology Applications for Emergency Sanitation DISSERTATION Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements of the Board for Doctorates of Delft University of Technology and of the Academic Board of the IHE Delft Institute for Water Education for the Degree of DOCTOR to be defended in public on Friday, 28 June, at 12.30 hours in Delft, the Netherlands by Fiona ZAKARIA Master of Science in Water Science, Policy and Management, University of Oxford, UK Master of Science in Sanitary and Environmental Engineering, University Putra Malaysia born in Bandung, Indonesia This dissertation has been approved by the promotor: Prof. dr. D. Brdjanovic Composition of the doctoral committee: Rector Magnificus TU Delft Chairman Rector IHE Delft Vice-Chairman Prof.dr. D. Brdjanovic IHE Delft/ TU Delft, promotor Independent members: Prof.dr.ir. J.B. van Lier TU Delft Prof.dr.ir. G.J.F.R. Alaerts IHE Delft / TU Delft Prof.dr. M. von Sperling Federal University of Mina Gerais, Brasil Prof.dr.ir. G. Zeeman Wageningen University & Research Prof.dr.ir. M.K. de Kreuk TU Delft, reserve member This research was conducted under the auspices of the SENSE Research School for Socio-Economic and Natural Sciences of the Environment CRC Press/Balkema is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2019, Fiona Zakaria Although all care is taken to ensure integrity and the quality of this publication and the information herein, no responsibility is assumed by the publishers, the author nor IHE Delft for any damage to the property or persons as a result of operation or use of this publication and/or the information contained herein. A pdf version of this work will be made available as Open Access via http://repository.tudelft.nl/ihe This version is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial 4.0 International License, http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ Published by: CRC Press/Balkema Schipholweg 107C, 2316 XC, Leiden, the Netherlands [email protected] www.crcpress.com – www.taylorandfrancis.com ISBN 978-0-367-36181-5 the water and sanitation crisis claims more lives through diseases than any war claims through weapons (UNHDR’s Water Fact 2012) Table of content Thesis summary ................................................................................................................. ix Samenvatting ..................................................................................................................... xi 1 General introduction ..................................................................................................1 2 eSOS™ - emergency Sanitation Operation System ................................................. 13 3 eSOS™ Smart Toilet development history .............................................................. 27 4 Evaluation of eSOS™ Smart Toilet ........................................................................... 55 5 Evaluation of water treatment and wastewater characterisation from eSOS Smart Toilet ............................................................................................................... 83 6 Effectiveness of UV-C light irradiation on disinfection of an eSOS™ Smart Toilet .................................................................................................................................... 95 7 User acceptance of the experimental eSOS™ Smart Toilet .................................. 121 8 Decision support system for the provision of emergency sanitation ................. 141 9 Development and validation of a financial flow simulator for the sanitation value chain .............................................................................................................. 167 10 Reflections and outlook.......................................................................................... 185 About the Author ............................................................................................................ 199 List of Publications .......................................................................................................... 201 Acknowledgement .......................................................................................................... 203 Thesis summary The development of technology in the emergency sanitation sector has not been emphasised sufficiently considering that the management of human excreta is a basic requirement for every person. The lack of technology tailored to emergency situations complicates efforts to cater for sanitation needs in challenging humanitarian crisis. Sanitation response together with the provision of clean water and hygiene promotion are considered life-saving efforts in emergencies. Nevertheless, in an emergency, there is regularly lack of means and limited planning time available to provide an effective and safe sanitation response. Reviewing the existing practices, the emergency toilet options consist of very basic provisions, primarily trench and pit latrines. Whenever it is not possible to dig a pit or trench, the option left is using container based sanitation. This type of sanitation in particular requires a collection or emptying plan, and a subsequent treatment and safe disposal plan, which is usually overlooked in the realm of an emergency where there is limited time to plan for any requirements after toilet provisions. With the above-mentioned concerns in mind, this study focused on the development of a smart emergency toilet termed the eSOS (emergency sanitation operation system) smart toilet to address the limitation in technical options. This toilet is based on the eSOS concept that takes into account the entire sanitation chain, which is the required processing of human excreta from toilet until safe disposal (downstream process). The initial design was the basis to the experimental toilet prototype, which was then tested and evaluated under real use conditions in an emergency camp in Tacloban City, in the Philippines. This field research in the Philippines evaluated different design related aspects of the toilet, such as the operation, user acceptance, and specific smart features. The aim was also to obtain new knowledge using the toilet’s sophisticated monitoring system, such as information on the toilet use and the characterisation of generated faecal sludge and urine streams under real emergency conditions. This PhD study also addresses the limited time for planning in emergencies by developing a decision support system (DSS) to help quick selection of optimal sanitation options. The aim was to enable users of the DSS to plan their emergency sanitation response within the shortest time possible. The DSS tool gathered all the technical options suitable for use in emergencies and organised them into corresponding function groups in the sanitation chain. The user is asked for input to relate the suitability of the technical options with the user’s scenario. The tool subsequently guides the user to plan each chain element to make up planning for the complete chain. The user can compare workable sanitation alternatives presented in a few chains. The selection process is an iterative process, by giving an overview of the impact of the different sanitation technical options in their planned sanitation process. The tool outcome is several evaluated sanitation chains. The evaluation uses a rating system, which is also completed by the users. The outcome gives the highest rated sanitation system as the most suitable sanitation technical option in the users’ given scenario. The sophistication of the eSOS monitoring system that can measure and track the material flow gave the opportunity to estimate costs from all activities in one functioning sanitation chain. Cost components are regularly missing in general sanitation planning. Often, the cost estimation is only provided for a single sanitation chain, instead of costs for the entire sanitation chain. A financial flow simulator called eSOS Monitor was developed to address this gap in sanitation chain cost estimation. Additionally, eSOS Monitor adopted sanitation technology selection by means of the previously developed DSS and subsequently calculates the costs for each chain. The cost summary then also calculates several financial indicators such as the breakeven time and returns that are useful for parties interested in investing in the business. The study aims to contribute toward a better emergency sanitation response by application of technology advances. The eSOS Smart Toilet offers a toilet with monitoring system that ensures ‘just-in-time’ or responsive maintenance, amongst other smart features. Such system would ensure optimum toilet usage whilst maintaining sanitary condition despite high number of toilet visits. Efforts were made to extend the results application to benefit situations beyond emergency, by expanding eSOS Monitor as a financial flow simulator. There is a large innovation gap in emergency sanitation, as well as innovation gaps in sanitation in general. Despite recently initiated efforts such as ‘Re-invent Toilet Challenge’ by Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, agenda shifts from water
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