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A GENERAL ARTICLE

“GRAZING BUSINESS SHRINKING THE POTENTIAL TIGER RESERVE” ! “ALARMING STORY OF “LIVESOTOCK-GRAZING-BUSINESS” IN FORTHCOMING MM HILLS TIGER RESERVE” Massive commercial exploitation of vast wild life expanse of MM Hills & adjoining forest reserves for livestock grazing is deteriorating the most promising territorial jurisdiction of Tigers and prey population of ungulates leading to degradation of the existing forests and outstanding wild life habitat.

A K Singh

Nearly 21 percent of Karnataka‟s forest area is affected by livestock grazing ( FSI 1995). Nearly 54% of the forest area of one of the most promising forthcoming MM Hills Tiger Reserve experiences grazing incidence causing severe degradation of the forests and deterioration of wild life habitat. The livestock population in Karnataka as per 1997 census is 45.5 million. It is at its zenith and is going on beyond carrying capacity of adjoining forest reserves contiguous to rural areas due to multiple business & purely commercial reasons. Farmer‟s dependence on the livestock for manure, agricultural cultivation & small scale business operations are on the rise. Use of cattle for agriculture operations and transport, livestock as a source of income generation, cattle farming as main occupation, livestock farming as insurance against crop failures and drought. Grazing and browsing by domestic cattle, goat, sheep is in its full swing in forests areas of MM Hills. Uncontrolled grazing in forests, often beyond their carrying capacity by livestock has adversely affected the regeneration status and quality as well as growing stock of our forests. Over grazing also affects soil properties adversely. The negative impact on soil include formation of small gullies, loss of top soil, compaction of soil and reduction of porosity. The cattle population has increased by 65 percent from 1990 to 2011, whereas during the same period, the population of buffaloes has increased by 60 percent and that of goats by 35 percent. Pressure on MM Hills Tiger Reserve has increased since the gomal lands, traditionally reserved for grazing are also being put to use other than forestry. A sizeable portion of the fodder requirement is met by free grazing in the forests and this activity is no more a source of livelihood for many poor families but has grown into deadly livestock busines s for vested commercial interests. Nearly 14 percent of the rural population are landless laborers who in the non agricultural season earn their livelihood by grazing livestock in the forests.

Latest state of forests report of the Forest Survey nearly 32 percent of the requirement indicating very of India hints at the actual forest cover of India high dependence of livestock on the forests. which is 19.27% of the geographic area, corresponding to 63.3 million ha. Only 38 million ha of forests are well stocked (crown density above 40%). This resource has to meet the demand of a population of 950 million people and around 450 million cattle. As such, country has to meet the needs of 16% of the world's population from 1% of the world forest resources. The same forest has also to cater for the 19% of the world cattle population. The forests of the country are therefore, under tremendous pressure. Forest fires are a major cause of degradation of India's forests. While statistical data on fire loss are weak, it is estimated that the proportion of forest areas prone to forest fires However as per the carrying capacity of the forests annually ranges from 33% in some states to over in Karnataka only about 1.3 million cows can be 90% in other. About 90% of the forest fires in India allowed to graze, which indicates the gravity of the are created by humans. Out of the 95 million tons of situation. Moreover to promote growth of grass, green fodder available in the state of Karnataka, 30 farmers set fire to the forests. This results in million tons are from forest alone accounting for general degradation of forests including reduction of 2

palatable grass species. Ecosystem is comprised of wealthy people. Their face is never seen and they different food chain. Solar energy trapped by belong to most of the case from across the borders photosynthesis is passed through various species to of Tamilnadu and Kerala. They engage very poor reach the top predators. Energy trapped from crops families to work in the pens. They are engaged as is supposed to reach man and that trapped from bonded laborers. An unwritten agreement is made grass and trees of forest to large cats and lions. But between Cattle Pen owner and poor innocent people man has hijacked all the food chain and has reached usually in a temple to bind and blackmail them. Poor top of all the food chain.Cattle pens have become people getting in to agreement rarely walk away from threat to wild life survival. It is a multi million dollar their terms & conditions. They are hardly paid Rs business in disguise. A clandestine modus operandi 50000 a year for a group of 4 persons viz., family to plunder upon forest wealth. It is very difficult to head, wife, aged parent and teenage kids. Children of trace the Cattle Pen owners as they never visit the Cattle Pen labor family never go to school. They get pens but they mastermind the channels of profits to educated to live in forest and go unaware of what is their door steps routinely. going on around the world. Health and hygiene of Livestock Business Enterprise: such poor people are pathetic. They depend on local Approximately more than 50 cattle pens ( Danin health traditions for their various ailments and the Doddi ) are operating around Cauvery wild life treatments. sanctuary alone. And there must be around more Cattle Pen Livelihood: than 200 pens in and around MM Hills Forest Cattle Pen owners provide ration once in 2 months Reserves. In MM Hills WL Range only 3000 cattle to pen laborers. Package includes rice, ragi, jaggary & 10000 goat/sheep roam around on daily basis like from amongst 15 Cattle Pens for example at Tokli doddi, Metteri doddi Karadi kal doddi, Bankobe doddi, Adipalar doddi, Jamboot doddi, Abkampatti, Mail doddi, Erkeyam doddi, Biligundlu doddi cattle grazing business is rampant in and around protected areas. In Kanakapura WL Range alone more than 20 Cattle Pens operate consisting of 20000 cattle heads for example at Madivala doddi. Basavanakada Doddi. In Hanur WL Range 50 cattle pens having 15000 livestock for example at Junjilnatha doddi, and Beetle leaves. Cattle Pen owners receive butter and ghee in exchange during delivery of package. Laborers may get Rs 50- 100 bucks as tips if they give good news of more new born calves. Cattle pen laborers live in thatched huts made of fuel wood and firewood withdrawn from forest reserves. Cattle Pen Business: Livestock laborers move deep inside forest and select a place usually near perennial water source areas. They clear forest and use the cut and lopped trees as fence. They construct a secure calf care area inside that fence using bamboo. They live in Hookunda, Madigudinatha, Ankolgulinatha, thatched huts which has no doors and windows. Holayanaholadoddi. Cowdalli WL Range 25 cattle Their valuables are usually buried in secret place pens with more than 10000 livestock population for somewhere in forests. They collect fire wood and example at Segurhalla doddi, Tagartala doddi, establish a choolah and the cattle pens easily made Thallatinatha, Devnattinatha doddi, uganya doddi. ready within no time. Cattle is usually moved from Cattle pens are owned by highly influential and one location to other usually during nights to escape 3

from the clutches of forest officials. Some are bribed It is not an easy task to drive away cattle pen or threatened by owners and are made to keep quite from inside the forests. As cattle pen laborers hide by influential local politicians. and run away when forest officials visit them. It is Breeding and Care of Calves: Livestock laborers difficult to catch the cattle as they are very ferocious take away a little amount of milk from each cow and and wild. It is also not possible to carry calves as they have to be carried till far roads. Even if cattle pens are driven away from inside the forests they reestablish in fringe area of forest and again start using the forest for grazing. They again move inside after waiting for few days. Business Profits : Each doddi owner has to invest as follows to own prepare food. Rest is left to calves. Calves are

There are almost 39 Cattle Pens around the Cauvery Wild Life Sanctuary in 56 villages. restricted inside pens and adult cows, sheep and goats are let free inside forest to graze throughout the day. If any cattle is killed by any wild animal cattle pen laborers usually poison the carcass to avoid further such kill. They also kindle fire in forest to get new flush of grass. Cattle pens are also used by poachers as they get any time shelter, food and information about movement of big mammals and carnivores specifically tigers and leopards. Mukruti, one cattle pen. Returns to doddi owners. Bandipur, BR Hills, Kollegal & MM Hills region of Now doddi owner usually dont invest even a single the landscape covers adjacent and immediate forest penny for the entire stock of cattle pen for area of 39,000 Km2 which has the highest potential9 subsequent years. Price of each cattle head goes up for long term tiger conservation.Though the forest & to Rs 50000 based on their build and mulching wild life landscape towards north are upcoming capacity. Most of the cattle are non mulching and nurturing breeding grounds which need protection they are used only for production of cowdung and and prey restoration to bolster tiger spill out in the selling their beef. Young livestocks are sold to offing. farmers for agricultural usage. Goats and sheep multiply 4 to 5 times of their existing stock each year. Doddi owner is going to earn all his investment 4

in first year itself. It is all profits what he earns in the sandalwood was also Rs.40000/- annually. The subsequent years to come. revenue from other sources was about Rs.15000/- If we see 1st year balance sheet of cattle pen owner the restrictions and regulations were changed from his investments usually is Rs 12 lakhs (details in time to time. Though for cattle / sheep grazing fee above table). His first year returns are Rs 10 lakhs ( if was prescribed, goats were never allowed to graze. he starts with 100 cattle and 50 goat/sheep. He sells But neither any effort was made to assess the 50 cattle and 150 goat /sheep retaining 50 stock carrying capacity of forests nor any restrictions were cows and calves 50 goat / sheep of 200 nos. 2nd year imposed on the number of cattle to be permitted for onwards his investment is less than Rs 1 lakh but grazing. Rearing cattle was one of the important returns Rs 10 lakhs ( if he starts with 100 cattle and occupations in the area. Cattle were reared for milk, 50 goat/sheep. He sells 50 cattle and 150 goat for draught and for the purpose of obtaining /sheep retaining 50 stock cows and calves 50 goat / manure. The soils which are generally shallow and sheep of 200 nos. impoverished, required farmyard manure to increase If each doddi is making 10 lakh profit each year, a productivity agricultural land. There were many pens profit of at least 500 lakh is made by just 50 such in the division all along the rivers Cauvery and palar. cattle pens in any forest area or fringe zone. Hence it During the non-Agricultural season, penning license is multi million dollar business for some business were issued and grazing fee was charged for the tycoons unleashing their vicious circles within the cattle kept in the pens. Efforts were also made to wild life and dense forest reserves surrounding the improve the grazing facilities. Measures like tiger reserves and other protected areas. Investment for later years is almost nil for any cattle pen owner. It‟s a classic example of rich getting richer and poor the poorest. Fuelwood, fodder, and water meant for wildlife is exhausted by cattle pens in the surroundings and these cattle pen destroys the wild life habitat. Working Plan Livestock Management: Grazing management was one of the important issues in many of the working plans. Grazing was never free in the forests century back. In fact it was one of the major sources of revenue. Mr. J. Sadashiva Ayyar, the then Divisional Forest Officer in his note dated: 01.10.1921 in the District forest note book observed that the forest division deepening of wells and desilting of tanks and funds in the Forest area were suggested. Cattle were allowed to move from one part of Forests to another to reach the saltlicks. All these facilities encouraged cattle rearing and consequently the Cattle population increased considerably. The details of the number of Cattle in the Kollegal Division as per the 1990 census are given in the following table. Cattle114000, Buffaloes20900, Sheeps 39100, Goats 60100, Other live stock 100 total 234200 livestock . During the inventory works it is found that Forests in the Kollegal Division are by and large in the degraded conditions. Government dated: 02.08.1971 had ordered to discontinue the collection of grazing fees for all kinds cattle except goats in the was essentially a grazing division. The revenue from reserved Forests. Due to the abolition of grazing grazing was as much as Rs.40000/-the revenue from 5

fees, access to the forest to the Cattle became The loss of grasslands has another severe impact uncontrolled. Subsequently the provision of barring on the existing forests. Traditionally Tamadi the entry of goats in the Forest as contemplated in Gowdas, Bestru and forest fringe non tribals used the G.O was lost the sight of and presently large the grasslands to graze their buffaloes and probably numbers of goats are also seen in the Forests. For the first cattle in this area did the same. But with the want of proper regulations and restrictions the increasing cattle number and decreasing grasslands degradation in the Forest increased. The persons the only place left where the cattle could be fed was accompanying the Cattle do not feel obliged to the shola. Moreover, the grasses dry out in the winter protect the Forest. The carry billhooks and access unchecked and resort to illicit lopping and felling for fodder and firewood at times they set fire to the Forest in the ordered to get the new shoots of grazes. In the process serious damage is inflicted to the flora and fauna area as grazing by goats as cased serious damage to the regeneration and young crop. Fire Incendiary for Livestock Rearing: The normal fire season in India is from the month of February to mid June. India witnessed the most severe forest fires in the recent time during the summer of 1995 in the hills of Uttar Pradesh & Himachal Pradesh. The fires were very severe and attracted the ate ntion of whole nation. An area of and is unpalatable, so this is another reason for the use of shola by the cattle and especially in this period the sholas seem to be totally relied upon. People prefer to be surrounded with cultivated plants and farms along with more and more number of animals, which resulted heavy damages to sholas and grassland. Over-grazing has been identified as a factor responsible for the degradation of the forests and the resultant increase in the number of weeds. The spread of such weeds has taken away much of the fodder resources as such obnoxious weeds cannot be grazed upon. Ascending growth of human and cattle population accelerate the forest fires which play a predominant role in the process of devastation of 677,700 ha was affected by fires. The Forest Survey large areas. The local cattle grazers often set ablaze of India, data on forest fire attribute around 50% of grazing areas in the hope of getting new shoots. The the forest areas as fire prone. This does not mean head loaders destroy vegetation to create pathway that country's 50% area is affected by fires annually. through the forests. The encroachers set fire to Very heavy, heavy and frequent forest fire damages forest in order to clear the land for agricultural are noticed only over 0.8%, 0.14% and 5.16% of the purpose. The careless tourists throwing away lighted forest areas respectively. Thus, only 6.17% of the matches and cigarette butts start fire, which not only forests are prone to severe fire damage. In the reduce the trees and herbs to ashes but also damage absolute term, out of the 63 million ha. of forests an of wildlife. area of around 3.73 million ha can be presumed to Forest fires and indiscriminate grazing are the most be affected by fires annually important factors that affect the natural regeneration Livestock dependence on Forest: in the forest and cause its degradation. These results 6

further reveal that moist deciduous forest have more gross Carbon dioxide and 30% of tropospheric incidences of fire while dry deciduous and thorny ozone (Andreae 1991). Heavy smoke during forest forests are more subjected to grazing. After going fires also damage the forest ecosystem. In a study through the records and observation made, it is forested area under smoke plumes has been found that major cause for the depletion and loss of estimated as 130.96 km2 or 2.96% of total forests bio-diversity in the MM Hills is man made fire. The area (Roy 2000). recurrent fire set by grazeirs during summer (in Changing Landscape: southern India the summer starts from January The biodiversity of MM Hills started getting onwards), has dealt a severe blow to the floristic deteriorated from 1832 onwards with the impact of composition. Forest fires either natural or man-made human population and entry of exotics. Not only the play a significant role in ecosystem dynamics. original habitat has sunk but also faces continuous Recurrent fire decreases the green cover through pressure in one way or the other with the increase in prevention of regeneration and leads to the slow population, which started with a few in 1840 to the death of the forest. It also increases erosion and tune of lakhs at present. Most of the human alters the physical and chemical properties of the population visits this habitat for their basic needs soil, converting organic ground cover to soluble ash and survival. Some of them visit this area primarily and modifying the microclimate through the removal for fuel wood collection, some of them for grazing livestock and few for collecting Minor Forest Produce. The fuel wood is mostly collected from the hill slopes. Habitat Degradation: It is also worth mentioning that there is an overlap in the habitat use by man and wildlife. Elephant, Spotted deer and Sambar prefer many of the plant species, which are collected by the villagers as fuel wood. Similarly human interference has caused poor density in respect of Emblica officinalis in the process of collection of Emblica fruits. Continuous lopping of trees results in loss of population of Emblica. Indirectly it deprives herbivores i.e. Spotted deer/Sambar of their of overhead foliage. The soluble ash is washed away in the next rain. Fires can also make trees more susceptible to insect attack. Simultaneously much woody vegetation present in the grasslands disappears. The upper most layer of soil, which is in the process of formation of humus, gets very badly affected and microbial organisms that play a very vital role in the system get destroyed. Severe burns such as those caused by wildfire can result in nearly complete destruction of organic matter and bring about changes in the physical, chemical and biological properties of the upper layers of mineral soil. Forest fires ceases their effects on climate food. Thus a very strong destructive factor which change vigorously. In the past decade researcher has vital role in degrading forest in these ghats is have realized the important contribution of biomass man, who has been continuously interfering with burning and it is recognized as a significant global natural vegetation, clearing and burning it, grazing source of emission contributing as much as 40% of his innumerable cattle removing forest produce at 7

will, killing wildlife and carrying on shifting native plant species often unpalatable species of cultivation and raising various plantations. These plants invade the area. Scientific studies conducted in activities have resulted in serious erosion, drying up Bandipur Tiger Reserve have shown how wild of rivers and recurring droughts and fragmenting ungulates decline in areas where grazing pressures forested areas. Head loaders, cattle graziers, MFP are high. The intricate relationship between various collector‟s etc. Cattle population has also increased species of flora and fauna is yet to be understood manifold in the upper hills, trampling the indigenous and many a time the actual implications of grazing flora and disturbing the eco system. Apart from this might even go unnoticed. Plant species composition poaching of endangered species has also led to skews as foraging by domestic animals increases. shrinkage of wildlife. Hundred years back the Livestock voraciously graze on young saplings anthropogenic pressure was not much on the MM directly affecting the recruitment rate and Hills and the forest green cover was much more regeneration of tree and plant species. Livestock compared to what it is now. Ultimately the original Grazers are also one of the important links in landscape of both these beautiful hills has changed. human-wildlife conflict, as they often dismantle The Ponanchi plateau has undergone vast physical barriers (elephant proof trench, solar fence) changes through the past century. The scene in the meant to prevent wild animals entering crop fields so past was strikingly different from what it is today. that they can take livestock into the forests. Very Forests map served as an important document to importantly livestock grazing aids in spread of show us the scenario of a century and a half ago and communicable diseases from domestic to wild also proved useful for a comparative study of the animals many times causing death of wild ungulates. land use patterns. There has been a noticeable decrease in the natural vegetation cover over this period. It refers to both the shoals and the grasslands because most people prefer to call the shoals as forested lands while they consider the grasslands as wastelands. With increase in population and influx of settlers especially when the various hydel projects were under construction, there was an increased need for more land, housing and cultivation purposes. Grazing by livestock has severely threatened our wildlife and their habitats in various ways. The most noticeable Heavy grazing increases soil erosion in forest areas. effect is the Livestock grazing in forests become easy prey for decline of wild wild carnivores, causing conflict and leading to herbivore retaliatory killing of large carnivores. This can populations as directly affect their numbers. Livestock not only they have to affects the forage but also water availability especially compete with during dry seasons. Livestock compete with wild livestock for their animals for scarce water in the forests. food source. As Fragmentation of Forests of MM Hills: more cattle graze Malai Mahadeshwara Hills is a temple town and nibble the situated in the eastern part of Kollegal taluk, natural vegetation Chamarajanagar district in the state of Karnataka, there is less India. The Lord Sri Mahadeshwara is the incarnation palatable biomass of Lord Shiva. It is a very famous Shaiva pilgrim for wild herbivores. As livestock eliminate palatable centre. It draws lakhs of pilgrims from the states of 8

Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. The Lord Sri includes Bandipur National Park too. Frequent Mahadeshwara's miracles are beautifully sung by sightings of guars (Indian Bison), sambars, spotted village folk in the janapada style. According to deer, jackals, sloth bears, porcupine, etc., apart from tradition there are seven hills identified in the rare sightings of tigers, leopards and wild dogs are puranas as Anumale, Jenumale,nagamale, Kanumale, possible in and around this area. The Male Pachchemale, Pavalamale, Ponnachimale and Mahadeshwara Reserve Forests, has an approximate Kongumale. All these hills form M.M. hills.Apart area of 39361.45 ha and has few small villages like from being a pilgrimage, M.M.Hills possesses natural Ponnachi, M.M.Hills, Kombadikki, Kokkebore, beauty in the form of large tracts of forest area. The Doddane, Tokere, Tholsikere, Palar, beautiful landscapes of hills and valleys are covered Gopinatham,Indiganatham, etc., as enclosures within with extensive forests. These forest types vary from the reserve forests. The place, Sri Male Mahadeshwara evergreen forests in Ponnachi Boli to Dry deciduous Hills has become a Universally famous pilgrim forests in most other parts. M.M.Hills is bound by center. Millions of Devotes, visit this temple every river Kaveri to the north-east and by river Palar to year for getting the blessings of Sri Lord the south. Thus, it forms an extremely important Mahadeshwara Swamy, the presiding deity of this catchment area for both these rivers.The forests of place. According to legends, young saint came from M.M.Hills have been famous for wonderful Srishaila to this part of the state. In his boyhood he regeneration and stock of sandalwood and bamboo. has spiritually guided by then pontiff of Suthur Mutt The forests are inhabited by a variety of animals, & Kunthur Mutt. He is said to have performed birds and reptiles. They are found in large numbers several miracles in his life, in these places. too. Elephants are the most prominent species. This Afterwards he went to the hillside. It is a dense last estimate puts the population of elephants at forest area surrounded by Seventy Seven hills to more than 2500 in the district, which includes seven circles. It was not a safe place for human Bandipur National Park too. Frequent sightings of habitation. It was about 6 centuries ago the young guars (Indian Bison), sambars, spotted deer, jackals, sloth bears, porcupine, etc., apart from rare sightings of tigers, leopards and wild dogs are possible in and around this area. The Male Mahadeshwara Reserve Forests, has an approximate area of 39361.45 ha and has few small villages like Ponnachi, M.M.Hills, Kombadikki, Kokkebore, Doddane, Tokere, Tholsikere, Palar, Gopinatham,Indiganatham, etc., as enclosures within the reserve forests. Apart from being a pilgrimage, M.M.Hills possesses natural beauty in the form of large tracts of forest area. The beautiful landscapes of hills and valleys are covered with extensive forests. These forest types vary from evergreen forests in Ponnachi Boli to Dry deciduous forests in most other parts. M.M.Hills is bound by river Kaveri to the north-east and by river Palar to the south. Thus, it forms an extremely important catchment area for both these rivers.The forests of M.M.Hills have been famous saint went to the forest area, to save the saints who for wonderful regeneration and stock of sandalwood were performing penance and taken to bondage by a and bamboo. The forests are inhabited by a variety person known as Shravana who pocessed abundant of animals, birds and reptiles. They are found in large black magic power. Apart from this there were numbers too. Elephants are the most prominent tribes living here and there in small groups who were species. This last estimate puts the population of devoid of any rays of human civilization. It is said elephants at more than 2500 in the district, which that this Lord Sri Mahadeshwara destroyed the black 9

magic power of Sravana and got released the saints Raja Gopuram was done on the western side which who were in his prision. The place where they were cost about 65 lakhs.Under British rule, pastoral lands kept in prison is also a holy place, called and uncultivated commons were uneconomic “Thavasare”& the place where Shravana lived is wastelands that needed to be acquired, owned, taxed called a “Sravana Boli”. There are several places of and brought under the plough, writes Nitya Ghotge. historical interest in this area to which the devotees After Independence, the focus on agricultural often pay their visits. The miracle activities of Sri productivity and land reform caused a further Lord Mahadeshwara Swamy have been sung by the enclosure of the commons, robbing pastoral devotees even to this day. The voluminous literature communities of fodder and sustenance. After of folk songs in Kannada language is published by liberalization , industry is encroaching on the research scholors. It is said that there are folk songs commons in Tamil language also, but necessary effort is not According to the National Sample Survey made to collect & publish them. More devotees are Organization (1), common property land resources coming from Karnataka, Tamil Nadu & other states constitute about 15% of the total geographical area also. This area was included in Madras State (now of India, of which 23% is community pasture and called Chennai) prior to 1956, ie., before the re- grazing lands and 16% have been classified as village organization of States of India. Subsequently it has forests and woodlots. At another level, India has the become part of the Karnataka State.It is said that the largest livestock population in the world, with 485 saint Lord Mahadeshwara established a Mutt here for million head of livestock, many of them raised by looking after the religio-cultural affairs of the people small and marginal farmers who depend on grazing of this area. It is also said that, he has transformed land to meet the fodder requirements of their the attitude of the hill tribes & made them his animals. As the population of both animals and disciples. humans rises, there will be a proportional increase in The people coming from these families have competition for food to feed humans, bringing become hereditary Archaks of this temple. The agriculture and livestock production into direct temple was under the control & management of Sri conflict. Salur Mutt established by Sri Lord Mahadeshwara till it was handed over to the Madras Government in the year 1953. After the formation of Karnataka the Administration of the Temples is done by the trust committee, appointed by the Karnataka Government under the Muzrai Department.About 50 years ago there was no road facilities to this place. people used to reach the place by walking. At present there are road connections from Karnataka & Tamil Nadu States. More than 100 buses are flying in this route everyday.More devotees will gather in the festival of Mahanavami (Dasara), Deepavali, Karthika, Traditionally, however, Indian agriculture and crop Shivarathri, Yugadhi & Sravana. there will be Jathras production have shared a fairly close symbiotic in the above said periods. The Government of relationship. While crop residues from agriculture Karnataka & Tamil Nadu provide special bus have formed an essential component of animal diets, facilities at the times of the Jathras.The deity is facing a significant portion of livestock feed has come from west and the door of the Sanctorum is also facing the commons. These lands whether open pasture, west, when the prakaram was constructed, the grazing lands, fallow lands or village forest lands -- entrance of the templ was given to the south & have sustained livestock populations when and north. In the south there is Gopuram & in the north where agricultural residue or crops were not entrance there is a big Bull God (Basava). According available. to Vasthu Shilpa, the main entrance must be from British Colonial Regulation of Livestock: western side. After knowing this the construction of It is generally believed that prior to colonization by the British, the common property resources under 10

the control of villagers were greater. The policy of In many states such as Karnataka, where good enclosures and fences was extended to India, and agricultural land could not be acquired from the large chunks of common land became the property wealthy and handed over to the landless, the village of the Crown. The British and the Mughals shared a commons, grazing lands and waste lands were preference for agricultural production systems and divided, parceled out and given to landless introduced taxes and collected revenue, staking communities. Many small movements of ownership over the land and resources. Lands which marginalized communities and struggles, especially were not cultivated were considered primitive. To be of dalits, were temporarily quelled as small portions „civilised‟ meant being settled, owning lands and of land unfit for agriculture were distributed amongst property which were under crops groups of people, many of whom had never Under the Crown, lands were classified into practiced agriculture before. The collective struggles revenue and forest. A Land Acquisition Act (1894) of these groups to be able to own land turned into enabled the state to acquire the best lands for the individual and personal struggles to keep small Crown. Even today, the Act remains so powerful parcels of land alive and under a crop. that it gives the state power to take land away from Very soon the division of land ended up ordinary citizens. Lands which could not be put dividing communities and creating further disparities under the plough and could not be called forest were and discontent, for now many villages had lost their classified as „waste‟. In most states these were the village commons upon which village communities grazed their animals. These were also the lands upon which the country‟s nomadic communities lived and survived. By another Act, the Criminal Tribes Act of 1871, many of these tribes were deemed criminal. By 1927, the British had two parallel legal systems in India one for private property and one for common property. In 1947, at the time of Independence, India inherited the British system of administration, common grazing lands to private ownership. Pushed a British legal system, and the British system of land out of their village grazing lands and commons, tenure. The country also very soon had to face a migratory groups began travelling to fresh villages, terrible famine and an enormous shortage of new districts and even other states looking for firewood. Naturally, agriculture to feed our growing fodder and sustenance. In the nation‟s desire to grow population and quick ways of increasing tree cover more food, fallows which traditionally served as became the focus of the country‟s Plan documents. village commons to graze animals were put under Agriculture, especially in the well-endowed areas, crop. drew considerable attention. Land reforms were Green Revolution/White Revolution: intensely discussed and talked about. Large, privately New irrigation schemes and the efforts of the Green owned agricultural holdings were passed on to those Revolution led to an enormous increase in who traditionally did not own lands so they could agriculture. It also led to a phenomenal increase in own and cultivate them. The Land Acquisition Act crop residue which became available as fodder. The of 1894 was amended in different ways to allow land animal best suited to feed on this kind of fodder was reform. Zamindari Abolition Acts were initiated in the dairy buffalo which matched the country‟s dairy Uttar Pradesh and Bihar and followed in other policy perfectly. Thus, the well-endowed areas, along states.However, while the Acts were easily with the Green Revolution, were also ready to usher introduced and laws amended, when it came to in the White Revolution. The animals that lost out practice, land reforms just did not happen, as the were draft cattle. While the population of dairy land tenure systems in different states were vastly buffaloes steadily increased, our draft animal breeds different. Land records and legal complexities further quietly disappeared. Draft animals are used in India complicated the matter .After all, not all of unified seasonally and for only a few days in a year. But they India was uniformly under the British Crown. need to be fed, watered and grazed. As grazing lands 11

shrank, there was no place for the draft animal -- Eucalyptus was a favorite species which largely after all a tractor could very easily replace the draft benefited the paper industry. In arid regions of the animal. country, in the states of Andhra and Karnataka, the But it was not only the buffalo which adapted, fear of rapid desertification propelled the forest other species adapted too. The successes from well- department and other agencies to plant Prosopis endowed areas were extended to India‟s drylands, juliflora, Acacia auriculiformis, Casia siamia species and more areas which were „common‟ became called the “mad” babool by shepherds on a private agricultural land. It was not easy to expand considerable portion of grazing lands, destroying the Green Revolution model of agriculture to India‟s local varieties and species on which animals used to drylands. Regular droughts plagued a large part of graze.. the country. The DPAP (Drought-Prone Area Conflicts between grazing lands and forests Programme) was initiated as a land and water As the landscape of the country rapidly changed conservation program. It soon morphed into the ecologically, economically and socially, other famous watershed programs. developments also took place. The Wildlife Watershed programs initially had little Protection Act of 1972 and Project Tiger placed the understanding of the commons and how those resources were to be used collectively. Bans were imposed on grazing, the cutting and lopping of firewood and fodder. The most famous watersheds in the country have often been the most guilty of excluding small ruminants and their owners. Thus, those communities that were landless and depended on the commons migrated out of these watershed areas. It was expected that fodder would be regularly lopped, cut and stall-fed to dairy animals. And in some cases this did happen: Simultaneously, in an earnest desire to replace India‟s rapidly depleting green cover, village forest lands went under social forestry programs. The desire was not so much to provide the people need for conservation of India‟s wildlife far above around with an available natural resource, rather to India‟s marginal communities. Forests where animals used to graze were closed to grazing, while national parks, protected areas and sanctuaries emerged. Grazing areas for domestic animals shrank further and poor people who were dependent on these lands were pushed further and further to the periphery. In certain areas, conflicts between livestock grazing and wildlife became so intense that the government resorted to firing on pastoralists such as happened in Bharatpur National Park. Many conflicts between the state and pastoralists over grazing lands remain unresolved even today and such conflicts are assuming dangerous proportions day by day shrinking the wild life habitat in and around most of the protected areas. keep people who depended on the commons out. Requirement of ingenuous Grazing Policy: Fast-growing species, which did not have any special With the passing of each decade, new value as fodder or firewood, were planted over vast development plans and programs have evolved, tracts. Grazing was banned in these tracts. supposedly in answer to problems emerging from 12

previous Plans. India‟s population has grown, there are hardly any groups working for their cause, agriculture has expanded and encroached, common nor schemes and policies which take into account property resources have shrunk. Surprisingly, our the features and traditions of nomadic and seasonal livestock population has surged too. Pastoralists have migration. found new pastures and new grazing areas; their The Forest Rights Act and grazing lands: animals have adapted to new feeds and crop In December 2006, the Forest Rights Act was residues. And the conflicts have grown. The passed granting legal recognition to the rights of obsession with agriculture continues as India traditional forest-dwelling communities, partially contemplates an Evergreen Revolution, and new correcting the injustices caused by previous forest programs and developments have already begun to laws (12). Under this Act, traditional rights to grazing take over as the country strides ahead as an are recognized. To be eligible for staking a claim economic power to be reckoned with in the 21st under the Act, two conditions have to be satisfied. century. New technologies in agriculture, including Firstly, the claimant has to prove that he or she genetically modified crops such as GM cotton which primarily resides in a forest or on forest lands; secondly, the claimant has to establish that s/he is dependent on the forest and forest land for a livelihood and that the above conditions have been true for 75 years. Or, the claimant has to prove that s/he belongs to a „forest-dwelling scheduled tribe‟ mentioned in the Act. Although there are provisions in the Act for claiming grazing rights, pastoral communities face various problems while staking claims since the three criteria remain difficult to prove for itinerant groups that change their migration routes and patterns regularly to adapt to changes in their immediate surroundings. Many do not have valid identity proof or papers recognized by the state. Many graze their animals in villages and spend a large part of the year in forests that are are harmful to animals which graze on them, distant from their homes. Most migratory corporate agriculture of high-value crops such as communities do not attend gram sabha meetings as grapes, sugarcane, vegetables, chilly and tobacco, they are often away. The Act grants land rights, have further resulted in keeping grazing animals and product rights and rights to protect and conserve. their graziers out. None of these crops have fodder These rights are recognized by a three-step value. Many are grown in intensely chemical procedure wherein the village gram sabha makes a agricultural systems which are unsafe both for recommendation that is screened at the block and animals as well as humans who consume the animals district levels. Although the Act has been in force and their products. since 2006, in Maharashtra only 3% of applications Since the beginning of this century, India‟s new filed had been cleared by 2009 and no case has yet economic policy has facilitated increased demands been granted for community use. In the country as a on land from a new emerging class of private whole, over 500,000 individual claims have been entrepreneurs. In the recent past, SEZs have laid filed, but barely 1,200 community claims were filed further claim to common lands. While people who (13). Most migratory pastoralists do not even know own private lands may claim compensation, what can that such an Act exists. For the few groups that are people living on commons be expected to do besides aware of its existence, most are yet to clearly map migrate ? There are no policies or legal framework to their grazing routes and see where the route provide security or support, or the means to adapt coincides with public land, private land and common and adopt new livelihoods. Unfortunately for non- land, to be able to stake proper claims. Land records pastoral nomads, the situation is much worse as at best are fuzzy. 13

Climate change & Grazing: now than they did at the time of Independence. While the commons sustain many of our poorest India also exports meat and eggs to other countries. communities, the concept of them as „non-cultivated If this trend is to continue, our livestock sector wastes‟ continues to exist among a large number of needs support and our animals need fodder. planners and development professionals who would Importing fodder from other countries to feed our like to convert them into economically productive livestock is not economically, environmentally or agriculture lands or forests or plantations. Or, if all socially desirable. We need to seriously review our else fails, into industrial units. In the minds of many livestock policies, and the commons are central to of these groups, seasonal pastoralism or collective that debate. use of the commons has not yet hit home as a useful Suggestive Measures: method of land utilization. The general To check further damage to the Forest due to understanding among our country‟s planners is that grazing the following measures are suggested: land under open grazing is uneconomic. a) 1. The provision of the Government order barring The Indian government‟s response to climate the goats in the forest should be strictly change and the fossil fuel crisis has seen many efforts to acquire and change the „unproductive‟ status of these lands. While the renewable energy sector wind and solar energy around for suitable commons to install equipment, the bio-fuels mission along with the corporate lobby which zealously promotes bio-fuels has also staked a claim on all kinds of available land. Grass is considered a valuable economic commodity as it can be digested in biomethanation plants to produce „clean‟, „renewable‟ bio-fuel. Wastelands suddenly turned into valuable land as governments offer fallow land on lease to private entrepreneurs to undertake jatropha plantation, on rent. Karnataka, in January 2007, a policy for cultivation, processing and utilization of bio-fuel plants like jatropha and implemented. The Government order never pongamia on cultivable wasteland with a special contemplated uncontrolled and unrestricted grazing. emphasis on private sector participation. 2. It only provided for abolition of lavy of grazing Greenwash of CDM: fees. Hence grazing should be regulated by the issue The Green India mission and the REDD and of the fees permits (vide form No. 5 under rule 63(1) REDD-plus programs threaten to repeat the folly of of Karnataka Forest Rules, 1969). social forestry with greater zeal. Large-scaleb) 3. Cattle other than goats should be licensed (under plantations to enhance India‟s green cover threaten free grazing permits) to graze within the Forest to replace pastures, commons and grasslands with Except in the closed areas. The grazing year should inedible, non-usable monocrops. Corporations in be from 1st September to 3th August. The conditions fact flaunt these measures in an effort to get green as stipulated in the permit should be strictly enforced concessions from the state. Thus, corporations that by the concerned staff. have grabbed land, fenced and privatized thec) 4. The closed area includes areas that are under commons and begun climate-unfriendly activities can regeneration or an area which the Deputy neutralize their „emissions‟ and gain brownie points Conservator of Forests decided to exclude from by claiming to „greenwash‟ the environment with grazing. these plantations, in the name of CDM. d) 5. As parts of chikkailur and M.M.Hills reserved India is proud of its status as one of the largest Forest fall in the Cauvery Wildlife Division and as producers of milk, meat and eggs in the world. More Doddasampige reserved Forest falls in Indians have animal protein on their dining tables Chamarajanagar Wildlife Division, there is immediate 14

need to control the Cattle population in the Forest environmental stability this part of Neelgiri areas of Kollegal Division. biosphere Reserve. 6. The presence of large numbers of Cattle in the 16. Tiger Conservation Foundation may be Forest area for a long time is undesirable from the established for the MM Hills Tiger Conservation point of the Wildlife Conservation as the Cattle Biogeographic Province in order to make it more make cause spread of diseases like foot and mouth practical and effective from the view point of Wild rinder pest, etc., among the Wildlife animals. Life Protection Act 1972. 7.The present area of the Kollegal Division is already 17. Tribal and Forest Dependent Community burdened with the excess number of Cattle then Rehabiliation program should be undertaken for what can be sustained by these Forests. Therefore people inhabiting inside the this vast Tiger the presence of any pen will only cause degradation Conservation Landscape. and damage to the forests. In view of these penning 18. Feed, fodder, grasses and various green manures should be prohibited in the Forest area. cultivation practices may be started in fringe areas 8.Stall-feeding should be encouraged to reduce the with the assistance of Eco Development and Village number of unproductive Cattle in the villages. The Forest Committees in order to encourage stall animal husbandry department may be asked to feeding of the livestock. popularize improved breeds of cattle for higher milk 19. Kaval Lands, Gomal Lands should be preserved production. Vaccination programs may also be taken as community property resources for taking up social up for all the cattle in the villages to prevent in the forestry afforestation including grass and fodder spread of diseases from domestic cattle to wild development programs with the help of local gram animals. sabhas and gram panchayats under NREGA etc. 9.The persons accompanying the cattle should not 20. Concerted efforts at state level Forest, Ecology carry any billhook or axe with them. No damage to & Environment Dept to take sincere efforts at policy the tree should be caused by pollarding or lopping of making for integrated natural resource management trees. with inclusive growth of local forest depedent 10.The cattle covered by permits should be communities at Gram Panchayat and Gram Sabhas. accompanied either by the owner or by some responsible agent of the owner who should observe Acknowledgement: the grazing rules scrupulously. 11. Replenishment of the grasses, fodder and “This article is work of compilation of number fuelwood, firewood to be made by protection and of studies, research notes, scientific journals conservation of the forest reserve by improving enlisted under references. Tiger occupancy natural regeneration. model practice of carnivore-ungulate monitoring 12. Soil & Moisture conservation techniques on at the field level under the guidance of Sh BLG integrated natural resource management on Swamy RFO MM Hills, Keshav Foreter and watershed basis to be taken up in degraded areas. Lingaraju Forest Guard is remarkable. But for 13.Entry of the livestock is to be absolutely the guidance of Sh Ajay Mishra IFS Director prohibited in protected areas of national parks and Mysore Elephant Reserve & Sh B K Singh IFS wild life sanctuary. Chief Wild Life Warden Govt of Karnataka this 14. Territorial jurisdictions of Tiger & other write would not have seen the light of this day”. carnivores to be strictly monitored along with population census of herbivore specifically ungulates References: on annual basis in entire MM Hills Forest Reserves. 15. Vast expanse of MM Hills Forest Reserves which 1 National Sample Survey Organisation, Department of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of were stronghold of Tigers a century back should be India, December 1999. Report No 452(54/31/4) declared as MM Hills Tiger Reserve with a view to 2 Satya Laxman D, Ecology Colonialism and Cattle. Central protect the tigers & other carnivores so that forest India in the Nineteenth Century.OUP, New Delhi, 2004 ecosystem may ensure bio diversity conservation and 3 Shah G, Sah D C (ed). Land Reforms in India. Performance and Challenges in Gujarat and Maharashtra. 2002. Sage, New Delhi 15

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