Caltrans Proves Effectiveness of Pavement Renewal Approach 14

TR NEWS

NUMBER 232 MAY–JUNE 2004 3 Get In, Get Out, Stay Out! Caltrans Proves Effectiveness of Pavement Renewal Approach Kirsten R. Stahl and Mario A. Gutierrez Six years ago, a national workshop convened to discuss and develop innovative 3 approaches to the timely repair of crowded freeways. The California Department of Transportation, host of the workshop, immediately set out to apply the most workable concepts. Here is a report on the successful results with asphalt concrete and portland cement concrete projects.

4 Renewal Program Awaiting Launch Ann M. Brach

5 Birth of the Accelerated Construction Technology Transfer Team Frederick D. Hejl

6 Accelerated Construction Technology Transfer Workshops: 14 Completing Projects Faster, Safer, and Better Bill Bolles

8 Mix and Structure of I-710’s Long-Lasting Pavement Carl L. Monismith

12 CA4PRS Software Generates Pavement Rehabilitation Strategies Eul-Bum Lee, John T. Harvey, and Michael M. Samadian

14 The AASHO Road Test: Living Legacy for Highway Pavements 35 Kurt D. Smith, Kathryn A. Zimmerman, and Fred N. Finn The AASHO Road Test, conducted more than four decades ago, established many standards and protocols and helped define many pavement design, construction, and evaluation practices for rigid and flexible pavements. How did the pioneering project originate, gain support, develop, proceed, and produce such long-lasting, influential results?

23 Withstanding the Test of Time Fred N. Finn

24 Smithsonian to Archive Road Test Records Linda Mason

25 TRANSIT COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM REPORT Cover: The new Transit Capacity and Quality of Service Manual assists The New Transit Capacity and Quality of Service Manual: planners in setting transit service Tour of the Expanded Guide for Transit Planners and Operators goals for a community. Shown here, Herbert S. Levinson Washington, D.C.-area commuters The second edition of the comprehensive, practical reference for planning and depart from the Shady Grove evaluating all modes and varieties of transit service has made its debut in print Metrorail station in Derwood, and on the web. A key player in the original development of the manual reviews Maryland, to buses, automobiles, some of the major concepts and their applications, as well as the new and bicycles, and taxicabs. expanded material. (Photo: Paul A. Souders/CORBIS.) TR NEWS 35 TRB SPECIAL REPORT Buckling Up: features articles on innovative and timely research and development activities in all modes of trans- Technologies to Increase Seat Belt Use portation. Brief news items of interest to the Nancy P. Humphrey transportation community are also included, Legislative and regulatory actions are necessary to enable installation of effective along with profiles of transportation professionals, meeting announcements, summaries of and acceptable seat belt use reminder technologies in passenger vehicles, new publications, and news of Transportation according to a TRB study requested by Congress through the National Research Research Board activities. Council of the National Academies.

TR News is produced by the Transportation Research Board 38 TRB SPECIAL REPORT Publications Office Shipboard Automatic Identification System Displays: Javy Awan, Editor and Publications Director David Altstadt, Assistant Editor Meeting the Needs of Mariners Juanita Green, Production Manager Jocelyn N. Sands Michelle Wandres, Graphic Designer Charged with developing U.S. standards for automatic identification systems that TR News Editorial Board communicate a ship’s position, course, and speed, the U.S. Coast Guard Neil F. Hawks, Chairman requested the advice of an expert committee assembled by the National Research Joseph A. Breen Council through the TRB Marine Board. The committee’s recommendations Walter J. Diewald Frederick D. Hejl address electronic systems engineering, human factors, the state of the art, and Timothy Hess solutions to current problems. David Jones Stephan A. Parker Barbara L. Post A. Robert Raab ALSO IN THIS ISSUE Transportation Research Board 34 Calendar Robert E. Skinner, Jr., Executive Director Suzanne B. Schneider, Associate Executive Director 42 Research Pays Off Mark R. Norman, Director, Technical Activities Antifreeze Concrete Paving: Stephen R. Godwin, Director, Admixtures Facilitate Cold-Weather Construction Studies and Information Services Michael P.LaPlante, Director, Charles J. Korhonen Administration and Finance Robert J. Reilly, Director, Cooperative Research Programs 44 Profiles Neil F. Hawks, Director, Special Programs Geotechnical engineer Richard Cheney and travel behavior researcher Elaine Reiko Murakami. TR News (ISSN 0738-6826) is issued bimonthly by the Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, 500 Fifth Street, NW,Washington, 46 News Briefs DC 20001. Internet address: www.TRB.org. Sealing potholes, Click It or Ticket success, congestion remedies, Editorial Correspondence: By mail to the and lightening buses. Publications Office, Transportation Research Board, 500 Fifth Street, NW, Washington, DC 20001, by telephone 202-334-2972, by fax 202-334-3495, or 48 TRB Highlights by e-mail [email protected]. CRP News, 48 Subscriptions: North America: 1 year $55; single issue $9.50. Overseas: 1 year $75; single issue $13.50. Inquiries or communications concerning 49 Bookshelf new subscriptions, subscription problems, or single-copy sales should be addressed to the Business Office at the address below, or telephone 202- COMING NEXT ISSUE 334-3216, fax 202-334-2519. Periodicals postage paid at Washington, D.C. Transportation, National Parks, and Public Postmaster: Send changes of address to TR News, Lands is the theme of feature articles Transportation Research Board, 500 Fifth Street, NW,Washington, DC 20001. scheduled for the July–August 2004 TR News. Topics include intelligent Notice: The opinions expressed in articles appearing transportation systems and advanced in TR News are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Transportation technologies in national parks, bicycle and Research Board. The Transportation Research Board pedestrian facilities, transportation issues and TR News do not endorse products of manufac- for urban parks, special fleet development, turers. Trade and manufacturers’ names appear in an article only because they are considered essential to the National Park Transportation Scholar its object. Program, and more. Printed in the United States of America. Newly installed variable message sign Copyright © 2004 Transportation Research Board. undergoes initial tests in Great Smoky All rights reserved. Mountains National Park, Tennessee. Workers from the California Department of Transportation rebuild I-5 with long-life pavement. Get In, Get Out, Stay Out! Caltrans Proves Effectiveness of Pavement Renewal Approach

KIRSTEN R. STAHL AND MARIO A. GUTIERREZ

Stahl is District Materials ix years ago, the California Department of The publication presented the workshop’s vision Engineer, and Gutierrez is Transportation (Caltrans), in coordination for roadway renewal: identify the most innovative Senior Transportation with the Federal Highway Administration and effective engineering practices and technologies Engineer, California and the Transportation Research Board that could provide a comfortable riding surface last- S(TRB), convened a weeklong Workshop on Pave- ing for 40 years with minimal maintenance. These Department of Transportation, Los ment Renewal for Urban Freeways. Representatives pavement characteristics would translate into Angeles. Stahl chairs the from state transportation agencies, other public and decreased interruptions for road users and National Cooperative local agencies, and nationwide contractors exam- increased efficiency in moving goods and services. Highway Research ined a major problem for highly urbanized areas— Transportation agencies face a growing number of Program Panel on the timely repair of crowded freeways. obstacles and time constraints in maintaining freeway The week of discussions, brainstorming, pre- facilities in safe and acceptable operating conditions. A Durability of Early- TR NEWS 232 MAY–JUNE 2004 Opening-to-Traffic sentations, and exchanges of ideas and information dynamic and demanding society puts cars on the free- Portland Cement Concrete about innovative technologies focused on practical ways at a rate that makes it almost impossible to keep for Pavement solutions. The workshop defined the concept that up with repairs to the normal wear-and-tear. Rehabilitation. became the title of a TRB report released in 2000, Caltrans has dedicated resources to create and Get In, Get Out, Stay Out!1 implement pavement renewal solutions in line with

1 Get In, Get Out, Stay Out! Proceedings of the Workshop on Pavement Renewal for Urban Freeways. TRB, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., 2000. Available from TRB bookstore, www.TRB.org/bookstore/, or online at http://gulliver.trb.org/ publications/sp/getin_getout_stayout.pdf. 3 4 TR NEWS 232 MAY–JUNE 2004 ponent programs,are available ontheTRBwebsiteponent programs,are atwww4.TRB.org/trb/newshrp.nsf. for high-traffic areas. methods preservation andconstructionoflow-maintenance facilities,and flow,design zonetraffic relations,work mitigation,customer methods,disruption gies,contracting andmonitoringwithsensortechnolo- fabrication,inspection situ construction,offsite andwillresult inlong-lived facilities. and communities, on highway infrastructure minimaldisruptiontousers willbecarried outrapidly,with andreconstruction activities rehabilitation, gram underSHRPIIisthatpreservation, Thevisionoftherenewal pro- andmethodsfor infrastructure renewal. technology, SHRPIIwould receive $95millionover sixyears toadvanceresearch,ing legislation. proposed reauthoriz- inthesurfacetransportation way Research Program (SHRPII), The author is Senior Program Officer, TRB Division of Studies and Information Services. TRBDivisionofStudiesand The authorisSeniorProgram Officer, T More details on the renewal program under SHRP II,as well asontheothercom- More detailsontherenewal program underSHRPII,as The SHRPIIrenewal suchasfasterin- program covers arangeofresearch topics, Out,Stay Outworkshop—influenced thedevelopmentHigh- Out,Stay ofthenew Strategic he Workshop Get onPavement Renewal for UrbanFreeways—or theGetIn, Renewal Program Awaiting Launch and calculatedthecosts. solutions engineering staff reviewed eachteam’s nizations, anddevelopedproposals. TheCaltrans the communityandfrom publicandprivateorga- the viewsandexpectationsofrepresentatives from the environment. users, least 40years, tions: reconstruction hadtomeetthefollowingspecifica- tions andhightraffic volumes.Proposals for ties. Theroadway presented poorpavementcondi- nine highlypopulatedandindustrializedcommuni- ing oneofthebusiestports intheworld,aswell the LongBeachFreeway, I-710isanarterial route serv- mile segmentofInterstate710(I-710).Alsoknownas out solutionsforreconstructing anapproximately 16- In aworkshopchallenge,teamsofparticipants worked Answering aChallenge to long-lasting,minimalmaintenancefreeways. trans hasachievedresults thatare pavingtheway Southern California,Cal- experimental projects in the imperativesofgetin,out,stayout.Through N .BRACH ANN M. ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ The teamsvisitedthefreeway segment,heard Minimize theimpactsoncommunityand Minimize roadway life-cyclecosts,and Minimize short- andlong-termusercosts, Ensure thesafetyofworkersandhighway Minimize traffic disruptions, Provide lifeofat apavementwithservice the LongBeachFreeway project. detail anddrew upspecificrecommendations for erations foraneffective publicawareness campaign: 710. Thegroup drew upalistofthemainconsid- for thepubliccampaignreconstruction ofI- months aftertheworkshoptodevelopguidelines Community RelationsandPublicAffairs several ing thisinsight,CaltransformedaTask Group on planned publicawareness campaign.Implement- movable barriers. operations andstagedconstructionphaseswith closures onweekends,featuringcounterflow varied from weeknightlaneclosures tofullfreeway Suggested methods beyond theproject limits. of thefreeways andarterial highwayswithinand ment withintheworkarea, andtheconfiguration freedom tomoveconstructionequip- contractor’s accesstotheworksite, nities, thecontractor’s volumes, theimpactonsurrounding commu- for eachsolution,takingintoaccountthetraffic hot-mix asphaltoverlay, atacostof$64.9million. tion withrecycling techniquesandapolymer-based the bridges,atacostof$191.5million,torehabilita- portland cementconcrete (PCC)pavementandof ments formaterialsandequipment. team describedconstructionprocedures andrequire- fic andconductingcommunityoutreach, andeach munity. Eachteamdevelopedplansforhandlingtraf- construction time,andminimalimpactonthecom- and long-lastingpavementstructure, abbreviated The commondenominatorswere alow-maintenance but shared theobjectivesofgetin,out,stayout. The proposals covered arangeofscopesandbudgets theProposalsSorting ride quality. torestore40 yearswithonlyminorinterventions densely populatedurbanareas canlastmore than structural repairs to heavily traveledhighwaysin Workshop participants explored the premise that majorcities. Southern California’s volumes of been thegoalindealingwithheavytraffic For more thanadecade,getin,out,stayouthad Implementing Solutions ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ The group discussedeachofthesetopicsin Another keypointwastheimportance ofawell- Each teamanalyzedwaystocontrol thetraffic The proposals variedfrom fullreplacement ofthe Measuring theresults. Community feedback,and Delivery ofthemessage, Audience, Message, TR NEWS 232 MAY–JUNE 2004 5 Accelerated High- Accelerated posted on TRB’s website (www.TRB. website posted on TRB’s FREDERICK D. HEJL Technology Transfer Team Team Transfer Technology Birth Construction of the Accelerated November 2000 workshop convened construction executives and engi- construction executives convened 2000 workshop November the country issues associated with accel- around to explore neers from This observation of the generated the concept Construction Accelerated Implementation The Federal Highway Administration and the Technology E-C059, included in Circular Reports are of the workshops Traffic control incentives and disincentives— control Traffic and expense, if the Some have questioned the effort org/publications/circulars/ec059.pdf). cosponsoring and TIG are ACTT FHWA the country state agencies across (see box, for workshops page 6). way Construction:Workshop Series Summary, Construction:Workshop way The author is Engineer of Materials and Construction, TRB. A erating the construction process.erating the construction Innovation Accelerating TRB’s Conducted by with the National Coop- and in cooperation Force Industryin the Task Highway (NCHRP), Program Research erative Highway raised such issues the program financing,innovativeas innovative contracting,traveler mobility,constructability, and structures, pavements long-life prefabrication, challenges, geotechnical health and safety,utilities,andworker participants right-of-way.Many noted that issue but required issue by complex and could not be developed solutions were a multidisciplinary approach. team—national experts with a variety of technical (ACTT) Transfer Technology with counterparts meet a state agency considering an accel- skills who would at erated construction project. The members and the host agency staff ACTT construction to accelerate ways and discuss innovative experiences share would of the project,providing with opportunities interaction among representatives for of expertise. areas different (TIG) of the Group American and Transportation Association of State Highway workshops to conduct two and NCHRP task force with the TRB Officials worked to pilot-test the concept.ACTT The Indiana Department of Transportation 2002, in March hosted the first workshop and the Pennsylvania Department of hosted the second in April 2002.Transportation Both agencies had high-profile the sessions valuable. and found under way projects time testing equipment and methods that produce and early-dry sawing techniques. rapid results, such as bonuses for early completion or charges to such as bonuses for early completion or charges during closures—have contractors for lane rentals openings on or in keeping roadway effective proved ahead of schedule. Stay Out The get-in, get-out vision is for overnight highway with few public inconveniences. The stay-out repairs to last 20, 30, and 40 or more vision is for the repairs years, so that the driving public will encounter repairs only once during a working career. on a roadway will not be long-lasting. Others expect improvements a “quality dividend,” with the savings financing new schools and hos- safer buildings, and more roadways, Particularly useful are innovations such as quick- useful are Particularly Extended construction periods, such as 55-hour start If the highway geometry permits, work can public an extraordinary require These measures Six years after the workshop, case histories of the workshop, Six years after Get Out Planning The construction team must move quickly. is necessary to make the work zone safe for workers to and drivers, to close lanes quickly to traffic, it with high- damaged pavement and replace remove in a materials that can gain strength performance the work zone back few hours, and finally to return in time for the morning commute. to traffic barriers, nonimpact pavement change concrete techniques, and very high early-strength removal These cements that allow early opening to traffic. real- segments, precast involve specialty admixtures, Get In con- begins to peak at 5 a.m. and If morning traffic after 10 until directions tinues unabated in both construction is time for p.m., finding a productive interveninga challenge. The 7 nighttime hours for the con- the longest available period often are Making the projects. struction of urban roadway specialized traffic requires most of that brief time strength handling, accelerated construction, early materials, and knowledge of best practices—which in many cases must be pioneered. upgrading of require frequently weekend closures, moving lanes for one the shoulders, restriping, of travel direction into the opposite direction placing quick-change con- measures), (counterflow peak-directional barriers, and establishing crete of lanes flow corridors, which change the directions times of the day. at different increase on the shoulders and outside lanes to will be minimal so that the change in flow capacity, or when long- renewed when the inside lanes are to par- the traffic divert measures term counterflow First the opposite direction. or into allel routes after the Northridge applied during the repairs allows the repair in 1994, this approach earthquake and interruption of long corridors without traffic down. with normal materials, which can keep costs sup- to educate transportation program awareness and users—such as politicians, management, porters drivers, and tourists—in motorists, professional making informed choices. several asphalt projects—with Southern California how PCC materials—demonstrate and concrete into practice and put this philosophy Caltrans has But first, how did Caltrans gained valuable insights. of get in, get out, stay out? the goals approach Traffic is rerouted during the long-life asphalt concrete project on I-710.

pitals. With a quality, long-term focus, the repairs often Interstate 710 can use familiar materials. The Long Beach Freeway has become the state’s But with the financial burdens that all govern- arena for implementing get in, get out, stay out ments are facing, how can the vision be achieved? projects. The 22-mile freeway is a major north- Specifications and testing must ensure that the mate- south Interstate for interregional and intraregional rials are durable and ready to go into service at the commuting and shipping. appropriate time. I-710 passes through an urban corridor linking the

Accelerated Construction Technology Transfer Workshops

Completing Projects Faster, Safer, and Better ◆ Environment and context-sensitive design; ◆ Roadway design and geometries; and BILL BOLLES ◆ Public relations. ccelerated Construction Technology Transfer (ACTT) focuses Aon achieving the highway construction objectives of “get in, get Teaming Up out,stay out”—that is,get the job done and done right.Sponsored by Seven ACTT workshops have been completed since September the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Offi- 2003. State departments of transportation (DOTs) have responded cials’ Technology Implementation Group and the Federal Highway positively—five more workshops are scheduled for 2004,with many Administration (FHWA), ACTT incorporates innovative techniques, more in planning and discussion. Through FHWA Division Offices, strategies, and technologies to minimize construction time and the ACTT management team coordinates efforts with state DOTs enhance quality and safety on large, complex, multiphase projects. to prioritize and schedule workshops. For a specific highway project or corridor, ACTT starts with a In September 2003, Texas DOT hosted an ACTT workshop for 2-day workshop, assembling a multidisciplinary team of 20 to 30 Project Pegasus, the reconstruction of the I-35E and I-30 international transportation experts to work with host agency counter- change and portions of the two major freeways, which serve down- parts and other local transportation professionals (see box,page 5). town Dallas.Team recommendations included completing the Trinity The team evaluates all aspects of the project in search of techniques, Parkway,parallel to I-35,to function as a detour during construction; methods, and measures that would help the agency achieve such allowing the contractor to build a plant on-site, to minimize travel goals as reducing construction time, improving work zone and traf- time and congestion;improving general materials specifications;set- fic safety, and enhancing quality. ting up a dedicated incident management system; and establishing a variety of traffic-flow strategies. The goal is to complete the $760 Skill Sets million project in 4 years—3 years ahead of the original estimate. A project may draw on the following skill sets: In October, an ACTT miniworkshop focused on New Jersey’s plans to improve a bridge on Route 46 in Bergen County. As a result ◆ Right-of-way, utilities, and railroad coordination; of ACTT recommendations, work to replace the bridge deck and ◆ Traffic engineering,safety, and intelligent transportation systems; floor beams will take only 3 months and cost an estimated $3 mil- ◆ Structures; lion, instead of the originally anticipated 18 months at a cost of $10 ◆ Innovative financing and contracting; million. The project is in design and will use precast elements, light- ◆ Worker health and safety; weight high-performance concrete, and fiber-reinforced polymer ◆ Geotechnical materials and accelerated testing; composites, allowing reuse of the previous substructure. Work is

TR NEWS 232 MAY–JUNE 2004 TR NEWS 232 MAY–JUNE ◆ Long-life pavements and maintenance; scheduled to begin in early 2005. 6 ◆ Construction techniques, automation, and constructability; In December, Caltrans’ ACTT workshop focused on the $75 central business districts of Long Beach and Pasadena with the central business district of Los Angeles. The facility also provides access to the Catalina Island ferries, the Port of Long Beach, the Port of Los Angeles, Long Beach Municipal Airport, Long Beach World Trade Center, truck terminals in the vicinity of Vernon, and California State University–Los Angeles near Route 10. Because of the major ports and terminals, I- 710 serves a large volume of truck traffic, but the route also connects to recreational points.

Land Use Land use varies along the I-710 corridor. Heavy Nine-inch overlay of polymer-based asphalt laid on industry predominates between Long Beach Harbor I-710 was specifically designed both to carry the and the city of Commerce. projected traffic loads and to last 30 to 40 years with Plans for the Ports of Long Beach and Los Angeles minimal maintenance. envision an expansion of the facilities. Port access studies predict 223 million metric tons of cargo by 2010. North of the ports, land use changes to commercial Extensive redevelopment already has begun in the and residential. Forecasts indicate a substantial increase areas around the ports. in the commercial and residential infrastructure.

million French Valley Parkway project on I-15 between Temecula and that construction can resume while the more complex pontoons are Murrieta.The project includes a new interchange between the junc- designed, as well as using self-consolidating concrete for pontoon tions with I-215 and SR-79. Among the recommendations were construction. Washington State DOT expects to reduce construc- design modifications to eliminate two bridge structures and braided tion time by 1 to 2 years. ramps; prefabrication of an entire bridge span; a dedicated incident In April, Tennessee DOT hosted an ACCT workshop to exam- management system;prequalification of material sources;and paving ine a $160 million project on a 2-mile stretch of I-40 between I-275 the median to serve as a detour during construction and to provide and Cherry Street in Knoxville. Recommendations to reduce con- for future high-occupancy vehicle lanes. struction time included adjusting the bridge span lengths to avoid the Another December 2003 workshop, hosted by Louisiana DOT, previous foundations and completing and opening a nearby roadway focused on rehabilitating a 40-year-old elevated section of I-20 in before the closure of I-40. Monroe.Recommendations included the completion of nearby proj- Oklahoma, Minnesota, Wyoming, Rhode Island, New Jersey, and ects beforehand to ease traffic flow; an aggressive incident manage- Nevada have scheduled ACTT workshops. Other states, such as ment system with performance-based wrecker service; a smart Wyoming, Utah, Hawaii, Wisconsin, Maryland, Idaho, Georgia, Mass- work zone with cameras,variable message signs,and advance warn- achusetts, Rhode Island, Oregon, Alabama, Arizona, and Virginia, ing signs;and lane rental by the contractor for nightly closures of the have indicated interest in the program. mainline and certain ramps. Montana DOT hosted an ACTT workshop in January 2004 to Contacts examine a $100 million project for upgrading a 50-mile portion of ◆ Dan Sanayi, Construction and System Preservation Engineer, US-93 north of Missoula, within the Flathead Indian Reservation, FHWA, phone 202-493-0551, e-mail [email protected]. home of the Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes.Recommen- ◆ Tucker Ferguson,Chief of Construction and Materials Bureau, dations aimed at reducing construction time from 5 to 3 years,with Pennsylvania DOT, phone 717-787-7894, e-mail hferguson@ prefabricated structural components installed at night; preapproval state.pa.us. of tribal sites to minimize inspection time; use of jet grouting; and ◆ Rick Smith, Director,Innovative Project Delivery,Washington TR NEWS 232 MAY–JUNE 2004 establishment of a corridor management and communication team State DOT,phone 360-705-7150, e-mail [email protected]. with representatives of the tribal governments. Washington State DOT hosted a workshop in March for a proj- Website ect on SR-520 between I-5 and I-405 in Seattle that will include the Federal Highway Administration: ACTT replacement of a 40-year-old floating bridge across Lake Washing- www.fhwa.dot.gov/construction/accelerated/index.htm ton. The project will cost between $1.5 and $3.4 billion, depending on the number of lanes selected—the largest ACTT project so far. The author is Marketing Specialist, Office of Infrastructure, Federal Recommendations included designing the simple pontoons first, so Highway Administration,Washington, D.C. 7 Facility Characteristics dent, particularly in the outer lanes (Lanes 3 and 4), The freeway facility ranges from 6 to 12 lanes. The because of truck traffic with heavy axle loads. Slab southern 4 miles feature six 12-foot lanes with 8- cracking, spalling (breaking, chipping, and fraying), foot shoulders inside and outside. The freeway depressions, and low-quality ride are common. widens to eight 12-foot lanes for the next 15 miles, Recent improvements along the southern portion with some sections of 12 lanes. The northern 3 have improved traffic operations. The original metal- miles revert to six 12-foot lanes with inside and beam median barrier has been replaced with a PCC outside shoulders 8 feet wide and a 46-foot median. concrete barrier and PCC slabs have been replaced at The route was built in 1954, with follow-up proj- spot locations in critical segments. ects to accommodate increasing traffic demands. The pavement consists of three 9-inch layers—imported Operating Conditions subbase material; granular base material, sometimes Average daily traffic (ADT) for I-710 in 2000 ranged stabilized with portland cement; and PCC slabs on the from 140,000 to 218,000. The 20-year projections riding surface. range from 153,000 to 227,000, with trucks Deterioration of the PCC pavement has been evi- comprising 8 to 15 percent of the totals. Peak direc-

Mix and Structure of I-710’s Long-Lasting Pavement

CARL L. MONISMITH ence of CAL/APT,as well as of roadbuilders in Australia,indicated that the full-depth section should incorporate a “rich bottom.” Two sets of alifornia’s I-710 project includes full-depth asphalt concrete sec- fatigue tests were run on both mixes,one with the binder content that C tions, which replace portland cement concrete (PCC), and performed best on the simple shear tests and the second with a asphalt concrete overlays on cracked and seated PCC.The asphalt mix binder content 0.5 percent greater,corresponding to the defined rich- and pavement section structural designs rely on technologies devel- bottom condition. oped in the Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP) and employ innovative construction specifications, as well as requirements stem- Structural Sections ming from the work of the Caltrans Accelerated Pavement Testing The resulting pavement section (Figure 1), designed for 200 million (CAL/APT) Program. ESALs, consists of the PBA-6a* mix for the rut-resistant surface The original pavement section consisted of PCC, cement-treated course and the AR-8000 mix with two different binder contents. base, and aggregate base and subbase. The pavement, which opened to traffic in 1952,was in poor condition,since it had not received any over- 1 in. (25 mm) OGFC lays before the reconstruction. Rehabilitation included two strategies: (asphalt rubber binder)

1. Crack and seat the PCC and apply an asphalt concrete overlay. 4.7% asphalt by weight of aggregate 3 in. (75 mm) PBA-6a* 2. If an overlay would cause the clearance under a structure to fall short of the minimum, replace the PCC pavement with full-depth asphalt concrete sections,lowering the grade to provide the required clearance. 4.7% asphalt by 6 in. (150 mm) AR-8000 weight of aggregate

Evaluating Mixes 13 in. (325 mm) The Asphalt Pavement Association of California (APACA) supplied representative asphalt binders and aggregate that had been used for paving in the Los Angeles Basin.Included were two asphalt binders— 5.2% asphalt by 3 in. (75 mm) AR-8000, RB an AR-8000 (PG64-16) conventional asphalt cement and a PBA-6a* weight of aggregate (rich bottom) (PG64-40) polymer-modified binder—and an all-crushed aggregate from the San Gabriel River Valley at Azusa. Mix designs were based on the SHRP-developed repeated-load simple shear test. Results indicated that the mix with the PBA-6a* binder would sustain more equivalent single-axle loads (ESALs) than Subgrade the mix with the AR-8000 binder. The PBA-6a* mix therefore was selected for the surface course. To determine the necessary thickness of the full-depth section,

TR NEWS 232 MAY–JUNE 2004 TR NEWS 232 MAY–JUNE both mixes were evaluated with the SHRP-developed fatigue test, FIGURE 1 Structural section, full-depth asphalt concrete replacement 8 which provided data for mechanistic-empirical analyses. The experi- of structure. tional volumes range from 10,600 to 18,800 vehicles designed both to carry the projected traffic loads and to per hour. Accident data show 17 areas with high con- last for 30 to 40 years with minimal maintenance. Traf- centrations of accidents, mostly related to congestion. fic would have to be interrupted for the placement of more than 110,000 tons of asphalt concrete. Pavement Rehabilitation The project was divided into four phases: The first experimental project, along 2.5 miles in the southern portion of the route, started construction in 1. Temporary barriers were placed on both sides early 2001 and was completed in late 2003 at a cost of of the median for protection, and the median area $21 million. The main challenge was handling the traf- and concrete barrier were constructed. fic in a 6-lane segment with an ADT of more than 2. The temporary barriers were moved to the 145,000 vehicles, approximately 15 percent of which outside edge of the traveled ways for widening the are trucks. shoulders and for improving the drainage. The project involved replacing the median barrier, 3. The PCC cracking and seating and the asphalt widening the shoulder, and placing a 9-inch overlay of overlay were accomplished segment by segment, polymer-based asphalt (PBA). The PBA was specially one side of the freeway at a time. During 55-hour

The AR-8000 mix with the larger binder content—the rich-bottom approximately 6 inches (150 millimeters) thick, with a saturated mix—was used for the lower layer because of the improved fatigue asphalt fabric as a stress-absorbing layer,had proved satisfactory for resistance. Most of the pavement sections use the AR-8000 mix traffic in the range of 10 to 20 million ESALs. because its stiffness is greater than that of the PBA-6a* mix, reduc- The question was how much additional thickness would be ing the stresses in the subgrade. required to sustain 200 million ESALs. No well-defined design pro- An open-graded friction course with an asphalt-rubber binder cedures address reflection cracking, the primary mode of distress serves as a noise-reducing layer.The course also reduces the poten- in cracked and seated pavement. Finite element simulations were tial for splashing and hydroplaning,as well as the surface aging of the performed for a series of sections containing both mixes. After PBA-6a* mix. The course will be replaced periodically. analysis, the section shown in Figure 2 was selected; the materials Caltrans’ experience influenced the design of the asphalt con- and thicknesses were consistent with the full-depth section. crete overlay on the cracked and seated pavement. A section Checks and Controls To check the rutting resistance of the PBA-6a* and the AR-8000 1 in. (25 mm) OGFC mixes, APACA supplied aggregate and the two binders for con- (asphalt rubber binder) struction of a test pavement at the Pavement Research Center, 4.7% asphalt by University of California, Berkeley. Heavy-vehicle simulator tests 3 in. (75 mm) PBA-6a* weight of aggregate were conducted on an overlay that contained the two mixes placed on a jointed, plain PCC pavement. The study confirmed the mix designs that were based on results from the repeated-load simple shear test. 4.7% asphalt by 5 in. (125 mm) AR-8000 9 in. (225 mm) weight of aggregate with fabric interlayer The successful performance of these pavements depends on careful control of the mix components, mix compaction, and layer thickness. In a departure from its standard practice, Caltrans recommended but did not specify mix designs. This allowed the con- Broken and seated PCC tractor to select the materials to meet the mix performance requirements. The contractor, however, had to submit data from shear and fatigue tests for mix approval before construction, along with the materials for verification. TR NEWS 232 MAY–JUNE 2004 Caltrans, APACA,and the University of California–Berkeley partnered in determining the designs and the construction require- Subgrade ments. The partnership provided opportunities to implement new ideas and research results on a project for which traditional approaches were insufficient.

FIGURE 2 Proposed design for overlay on cracked and seated The author is R. Horonjeff Professor of Civil Engineering (Emeritus), existing portland cement concrete structure. University of California, Berkeley. 9 10 TR NEWS 232 MAY–JUNE 2004 traffic throughout theconstruction.Planners were The designteamrelied onthe TMP inhandling fic, operatingspeeds,andcalculations ofdelays. such ascontinuous24-hourvolumes, typesoftraf- took intoaccounttraffic patterncharacteristics, cedures, andproduction ofmaterials. TheTMP identify constructionmethods,traffic handlingpro- asphalt industrymetregularly todetermineand material suppliers,andrepresentatives ofthe way engineers,traffic engineers,project managers, (TMP). Earlyinthedesignphase,ateamofroad- nate routes. weekend closures ortotakeclearlyidentifiedalter- and thegeneralpublictoreduce tripsduringthe in convincingindustry, businesses,communities, tion date,thepublicawareness campaignwasakey Starting before theprojectness campaign.construc- and constructionstrategy. successfully in8weekends,through extraeffort requirements. Thecontractorcompletedtheproject ering theroadway profile tomeetvertical clearance and replace thefullstructure ofthepavement,low- Below overpasses,thecontractorhadtoremove ment andplacean8-inchasphaltconcrete overlay. weekend closures tocrackandseatthePCCpave- weekend closure. Theoriginalestimatewasfor10 weekend closure orlose$100,000foreveryadded could earnabonusof$100,000foreveryreduced for theasphaltconcrete overlay—thecontractor tractor toreduce thenumberofweekendclosures Special provisions encouragedthecon- contract. equipment. direct accesstotheworksiteandmore spacefor contractor wasabletoincrease productivity with on theother. directions oftraffic ontooneroadway, allowingwork crossovers. Thecontractorwasabletoroute both and safecompletionoftheproject: The followingmeasures contributedtothesuccessful Keys toSuccess dental andminorworkwascompleted. was placedduringweeknightclosures, andinci- eight weekends. barrier asadivider. Completingthisphaserequired determined openingsinthemedian,withamovable moved totheothersideoffreeway, viapre- weekend closures, bothdirections oftraffic were ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ .A1-inchwearingsurface ofasphaltconcrete 4. A carefully designedtraffic managementplan An effective andwell-plannedpublicaware- Monetary incentivesanddisincentivesinthe Extended, 55-hour, weekendclosures. The Movable barrierswithmedianopeningsfor mated costof$110million. ment standards. Theproject isindesign,withanesti- freeway thatincorporatescurrent geometricandpave- 710, exceptfortheinterchange withanothermajor tics are similartothoseinthesouthernportion ofI- traverses sixcommunities.Thepavementcharacteris- The 9-mileproject from I-405toFirestone Boulevard I-405 toFirestone Boulevard in twoseparateprojects. a 17-milesectionofthenorthern portion oftheroute, is applyingthelong-lifepavementrenewal strategyto With thesuccessofexperimentalproject, Caltrans Upcoming Projects for innovationsintechnologyandmethodology. Safety Council Builders AssociationandtheNational sored bytheAmericanRoadandTransportation Roadway WorkSafety Awareness Zone Award spon- side wasunderconstruction.Theproject wonthe2003 ing safelyononesideofthefreeway whiletheother congestion. and detoursalternateroutes toavoidtraffic law enforcement andemergency assistanceneeds, ment, theprogressive closure oflanesonweekdays, able todeterminethebestclosure timesfortheseg- and constructionisplannedforlate2007. lane-miles. Theproject costestimateis$220million the wideningof15bridges—acombinedlength16 tures againare similartothoseofthefirstbutinclude Firestone designfea- Boulevard andI-10.Theproject’s The secondproject willclosethe8.1-milegapbetween Firestone Boulevard to I-10 in late2005. weekend closures. Constructionisexpectedtobegin 340,000 tonsofasphaltconcrete during30to40 operating flows.Thecontractorwillplacemore than of intelligenttransportation systemstoensure safe and complexityoftheproject requires thedeployment both directions ononesideoftheroadway. Thesize nation withamovablebarriersystem,placingtraffic in the base. had beenthatifthepavement was broken, sowas often were inexcellent condition.Theassumption trans foundthatthetreated basesoftheroadways Strategic HighwayResearch Program,of the Cal- Studies Special Pavement panels, suggestedbythe Applying anewtechniqueforremoving concrete Nonimpact PavementRemoval PCC Experiments Traffic willbehandledwithcrossovers incombi- The TMPmadeitpossibletokeepthetraffic mov- TR NEWS 232 MAY–JUNE 2004 11 FSHCC had to meet durability requirements, such FSHCC had to meet durability requirements, A contractor on I-110 in Los Angeles first proposed achieved an on I-5 in Burbank An FSHCC project Traffic on I-10 shifted from four to two lanes during a to two four on I-10 shifted from Traffic closure. 55-hour weekend Quick-change movable barrier transfer–transport barrier Quick-change movable of traffic closures. and removal machine minimizes setup The mineral content differed from that of portland that from The mineral content differed up soil- cement. FSHCC was used initially to speed repairs cement backfills on I-10 in Los Angeles during earthquake. after the Northridge high thermal low shrinkage, and as sulfate resistance, gain—that is, Also specified was a strength stability. opening before 4, or 8 hours hardening—3, thorough cements with accelerating Although portland to traffic. contrac- could meet those specifications, admixtures instead. chose specialty cements tors frequently already cost; FSHCC paving with FSHCC to reduce Many projects. had been used for panel replacement the plant to allow delivery from mixes added retarders avoid gain. To strength and placement at the site before mixed the projects some delays caused by retarders, and fly water, materials, such as aggregate, nonreactive a silo or ash, at the plant and added the cement from superbag at the site. of 400 psi in less than 2 hours. A opening strength of ready-mixed demonstration placed 500 cubic yards FSHCC with a single-lane slip-form paver at night on I-605 in Santa Fe on I-60 in Springs. Another project On I-5 in Northern California, Caltrans inserted On I-5 in Northern 100 lane- A demonstration in Pomona removed in Allowing a base in good condition to remain Construction crews work at night to minimize delays at night to minimize work Construction crews motorists. for Prefabricated portland cement concrete panels portland cement concrete Prefabricated installed on I-10. Fast-Setting Concrete strength with a compressive When panel replacements under traffic inch (psi) failed of 80 pounds per square at 400 psi, Caltrans set a priority of achieving 400-psi pavement. The first attempt, known as fast-setting (FSHCC), used cements hydraulic cement concrete rapidly when mixed with water. that gained strength eye-bolts into each broken panel piece for lifting out panel piece eye-bolts into each broken with a backhoe. On I-10 in sawed Santa Monica, crews pieces, which panel segments into bucket-sized larger both cases, the then lifted out with a backhoe. In were was in excellent condition. base of the roadway treated 300 lane-feet rate of feet in 20 minutes, a production 8-inch concrete Replacing 300 lane-feet of per hour. rates of 90 production pavement at normal concrete per hour would take 3 hours. cubic yards construction material costs and place can reduce The method received than 30 percent. time by more in 1995 and Award an Excellence in Transportation in projects is specified on all pavement rehabilitation California. Pomona placed 4,000 cubic yards from an on-site Rapid Strength Concrete batch plant, with end-dump trucks in front of a two- Caltrans revised the FSHCC specifications to allow lane-wide slip-form paver, at summer temperatures of more design options and renamed the material 100 degrees and higher. rapid strength concrete (RSC). The RSC specifica- The demonstrations culminated in the rehabil- tion still requires a compressive strength of 400 psi itation of 14 lane-miles of pavement on I-10 in when opening to traffic. Pomona. The project drilled tie-bars and placed A major revision is to determine the time for dowel bars during an extended weekend closure opening from data in the traffic control charts. The and 7-hour nightly closures, protected by quick- contractor must select and test a mix that will meet change concrete barriers. The project received the the strength and traffic control requirements. A 7- 2001 American Concrete Pavement Association hour closure requires a fast mix, with strength gain Excellence in Concrete Pavement Award for in less than 4 hours. On longer closures—such as Restoration and for Transportation Management, an extended weekend of 55 hours—the contractor the California 2001 Tranny Award for Trans- could select a 12-hour mix and change to a faster portation Management, the Caltrans 2001 Part- mix near the end of the closure period. nering Award (Bronze), the 2001 Marlin J. In response to the specifications for early open- Knutson Award for Technical Achievement, and ing to traffic, several companies have developed California’s 2002 Excellence in Transportation new accelerating and retarding admixtures, improv- Award for Innovation. ing an already successful endeavor.

CA4PRS Software Generates Pavement Rehabilitation Strategies

EUL-BUM LEE, JOHN T. HARVEY, AND MICHAEL M. SAMADIAN

new decision-making tool is helping design, construction, and installing traffic controls, and establishing the time needed before, Atraffic engineers select construction schedules that minimize between, and after the various activities. traffic delay and agency costs on highway rehabilitation and reconstruction projects. CA4PRS (Construction Analysis for Pavement The software is designed to help transportation agencies and Rehabilitation Strategies) is a software package for estimating how paving contractors make sound construction project management much pavement can be rehabilitated or reconstructed under different decisions at the planning,design,and construction stages of a highway traffic closure strategies with a project’s constraints of pavement rehabilitation project. The calculations also are useful for comparing design, lane closure tactics, schedule interfaces, and contractor logis- the cost savings from rehabilitation alternatives during the estimating tics and resources. and project control stages.

“What If” Scenarios Software Connections CA4PRS evaluates “what if” scenarios for highway rehabilitation by CA4PRS employs Miscrosoft (MS) Visual Basic 6.0 in an MS Windows comparing projections for the following variables: environment, with an MS Access 2000 database. A knowledge-based

◆ Rehabilitation strategy:portland cement concrete (PCC) reconstruction, crack and seat PCC and with asphalt concrete overlay, or full-depth asphalt concrete replacement. ◆ Construction window: nighttime closures, weekend closures, continuous closures, or combinations. ◆ Lane closure tactics: number of lanes to be closed for rehabilitation—partial or full closures of the roadway. ◆ Material constraints: mix design and curing time for concrete and cooling time for asphalt. ◆ Pavement cross-section: thickness of new concrete or asphalt concrete. ◆ Concrete pavement base types: lean concrete base or asphalt concrete base. ◆ Contractor’s logistical resource constraints: location, capacity, and number of rehabilitation equipment available—for example,batch

TR NEWS 232 MAY–JUNE 2004 TR NEWS 232 MAY–JUNE plants, delivery and hauling trucks, and paving machines. 12 ◆ Scheduling:mobilizing and demobilizing workers and equipment, CA4PRS input screen for concrete rehabilitation analysis. Precast Concrete Panels Workshop Legacy These advances have improved the state of the practice of The Workshop on Pavement Renewal for Urban urban pavement renewal, but several issues still remain: Freeways shared and stimulated new ideas, view- providing the structural capacity to meet increasing traf- points, and expectations from diverse sectors of fic volumes, ensuring the quality of the work performed freeway users. The exercise assembled multidisci- at night, and achieving all-weather construction. plinary transportation teams to find solutions to a A demonstration project is under way on I-10 in El common concern. Monte, to install PCC pavement panels that are pre- The innovative and creative concepts articulated stressed, precast, and posttensioned—that is, rein- during the workshop have produced a successful forced with high-strength steel cables. The method result for Caltrans in the experimental project on incorporates prestressed steel and posttensioning to the south portion of I-710. This achievement may allow durable, in-kind replacements. Because the fab- spark application of the principles to renewing rication occurs before assembly on the job site, night- other freeways not only in California but in other time temperatures, quality, and the time to strength states. gain cease to be issues. Even without posttensioning, the method allows Website replacement of individual panels. Stockpiled panels Caltrans District 7 (Los Angeles and Ventura can be cut to size and placed on a bed of grout for Counties): I-710 Projects emergency and routine replacements. www.dot.ca.gov/dist07/710_rehab/index.shtml

computer model,CA4PRS allows deterministic or probabilistic modes of operation; the probabilistic mode uses Monte Carlo simulations. CA4PRS can be incorporated into traffic simulation models and Highway Capacity Manual calculations, to maximize on-schedule production and to minimize costs to the agency and road users in delays during long-life pavement rehabilitation and reconstruction. This is essential for achieving the goals of accelerated construction, fewer traffic delays, and longer-life pavement. Calculations of traffic capacity with CA4PRS also facilitates problem-solving teamwork by traffic, construction, design, and maintenance engineers. The CA4PRS model was developed with funding from the Caltrans Division of Research and Innovation. The University of California Pavement Research Center in Berkeley programmed the software with pooled funding from the Federal Highway Administration and the State Pavement Technology Consortium of California, Minnesota, Planners relied on CA4PRS evaluations for I-710 Long Beach rehabilitation Texas,and Washington. project.

Field Deployment Caltrans and for road users, compared with the traditional approach The I-10 project in Pomona, which placed long-life, fast-setting of short, nighttime closures. hydraulic cement concrete during a 55-hour weekend closure, pro- The Caltrans Division of Research and Innovation and its Part- duced data that verified the software calculations. CA4PRS also was nered Pavement Research Program are completing a CA4PRS out- used to evaluate construction plans for the I-710 project in Long reach and deployment program for pavement and traffic engineers, Beach, which placed long-life asphalt pavement during eight weekend particularly in metropolitan districts. The outreach includes 1-day TR NEWS 232 MAY–JUNE 2004 closures. workshops in California and the three other consortium states. CA4PRS provided early input for the ongoing I-15 Devore recon- For more information, see the Caltrans CA4PRS website, struction project in San Bernardino,as part of the analysis to select the www.dot.ca.gov/research/raodway/ca4prs/ca4prs.htm. most economical rehabilitation strategy. After the overall comparison and justification with CA4PRS,Caltrans decided on continuous week- The authors are with the Caltrans Partnered Pavement Research Pro- day closures to accelerate construction of the I-15 project, with gram. Lee is Research Engineer, University of California, Berkeley; Harvey is around-the-clock operations for 72 to 96 hours, depending on the Associate Professor, University of California, Davis; and Samadian is Divi- length of the segment. The strategy will save millions of dollars for sion Chief, Caltrans Division of Research and Innovation, Sacramento. 13 14 TR NEWS 232 MAY–JUNE 2004 Pavement DesignCommittee. and anemeritusmemberoftheTRBFlexible member oftheNationalAcademyEngineering, Institute, isaconsultantinMonticello,Illinois, in theAASHORoadTest asliaisonfortheAsphalt Data StorageCommittee.Finn,whoparticipated and thePavementMonitoring,Evaluation, Committee, theAssetManagement Maintenance andOperationsManagement Technology, Inc.,andamemberoftheTRB Zimmerman isPresident, AppliedPavement ber oftheTRBRigidPavementDesignCommittee. Technology, Inc.,Champaign,Illinois,andamem- Smith isProgram Director, AppliedPavement THE AASHO UTD MT,KTRNA IMRA,ADFE .FINN ANDFREDN. ZIMMERMAN, KATHRYN A. SMITH, KURT D. LIVING LEGACYFORHIGHWAY PAVEMENTS T 1 of thesetests. design topicsuniquetolocalconditions. Fundingconstraintsoftenlimitedthesizeandscope Individual statesorhighwayagencies conductedmostoftheearlyroad tests,pursuing Building theConcept allocation, militaryroad transport, andmore ( bridge structures underknown loadingconditions,aswelltheeffects ofvehiclecost tures underavarietyofaxleloadingsbutalsoinvestigatedtheperformance ofhighway research initiative. a lookbackatthedevelopment,features, andcharacteristicsofthismajorpavement by theoriginaldevelopers. In addition,researchers oftenusedatafrom theRoadTest inavarietyofwaysunforeseen States, aswell asinothercountries. both rigidandflexiblepavementdesignintheUnited completion oftheRoadTest, theAASHOdesignprocedures remain thecornerstonefor many pavementdesign,construction,andevaluationpractices. Fourdecadesafterthe ducted attheRoadTest establishedmanystandards andprotocols andhelpeddefine Now the American Association of State HighwayandTransportationNow theAmericanAssociationof Officials. The approaching oftheAASHORoadTest 50-yearanniversary construction prompts The pavementconstruction,monitoring,anddataanalysis activitiescon- ROAD he American Association of State HighwayOfficials he AmericanAssociationof project notonlyevaluatedtheperformance andbehaviorofpavementstruc- continues toinfluencethepavementandtransportation community. The major research initiativeconductedfrom 1958to1960nearOttawa, Illinois, 1–7 TEST ). 1 (AASHO) RoadTest, a TR NEWS 232 MAY–JUNE 2004 15 Working on the 1 million Working in each Road applications lane. Test ). 1 Recognizing this need, the AASHO Committee Recognizing this need, RTAC envisioned a road test with both rigid and test a road envisioned RTAC ration, little information was available to draw con- information was available ration, little pavement of axle loads on the effects clusions about behavior. Road Test authorized the on Highway Transport Val- of the Mississippi (RTAC) Advisory Committee of ley Conference in State Highway Departments a road plan for 1951 to develop a comprehensive of axle loads on the effect test. The test would address the economic issues associated pavement behavior, costs and agency roadway with vehicle operating weight between vehicle costs, and the relationships design ( and road sections con- flexible pavements and a range of cross and below structed for testing under axle loads above into the the statutory limits. This vision evolved 1 summarizes some of the Table AASHO Road Test. and con- milestones in the planning, construction, duct of the AASHO Road Test. ). 1 Regular truck traffic ends November 30. Regular truck traffic ends November published. Interim design procedures used to set load limits, results design procedures,AASHO Road Test improve and validate design models. pavement HRB opens field office and hires staff. HRB opens field office and hires as Project hired Director. McKendrick Walter special studies. to test light axle loads and to perform loops added additional Two Construction of facility begins in August. traffic begins October 15. Test States receive request for financial support. financial for request States receive 3 to 6. from in each test lane increased Number of vehicles in Ottawa, of Illinois with concurrence AASHO Road Test Division approves AASHO formally of Highways. AASHO asks HRB to administer and direct AASHO Road Test,and HRB accepts. guidance on administration of Road Test. provides Committee final report Working Expanded scope approved, and bridge spans included. Committee appointed. Working Site at Ottawa, Illinois, by Transport. AASHO Committee on Highway selected and approved test. cost of road states to share for and approved Plan developed units. plus 8 standby with 4 test loops and 24 vehicles test 2-year for Cost estimate developed AASHO regional associations agree to series of regional road tests. road to series of regional associations agree AASHO regional Midwest. test planned for Regional road range of cross and wider and flexible pavements Road test scope expanded to include rigid sections and axle loads. ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ). Even as this road test was under way, how- test was under way, ). Even as this road 1 The AASHO Committee on Highway Transport The AASHO Committee most con- were State highway agencies, however, The AASHO Executive Committee first authorized Executive Committee The AASHO 1961 1956 1958 1960 1955 1952 1953 1954 1951 1950 Year Event TABLE 1 AASHO Road Test Timeline 1 AASHO Road Test TABLE Although the general understanding was that Although the general understanding to pavement deterio- axle loads contributed increased ever, the transportation community recognized the community recognized the transportation ever, the scope of pavement research. need to broaden tests conducted road regional envisioned a series of Asso- associations. The first, the Western by regional Road ciation of (WASHO) State Highway Officials focused on flex- 1952 to 1954, from conducted Test, road A second regional ible pavement performance. pavements. test was planned for rigid and cerned about accelerated pavement deterioration in the “increases costs from maintenance increased of axle loads” ( the magnitude and frequency a research project sponsored by two or more states in two or more by sponsored project a research 1950 to from One-MD was conducted Test 1948. Road south of Washington, 1951 in La Plata, Maryland, D.C. ( Project Scope Test Location The scope of the AASHO Road Test was modified In July 1952, the Working Committee proposed a several times from 1951 until construction began in site for the Road Test between Ottawa and LaSalle, August 1956. Development of the road test plans Illinois (Figure 1). The site met the predetermined was the task of a Working Committee established requirements for temperature, frost penetration, at the request of RTAC. and soil conditions and was located on a right-of- Under the direction of Edwin Finney, Michigan way that would become part of a planned freeway, State Highway Department, and with assistance Interstate 80 (1). Moreover, the proposal had the from such notable engineers as Francis Hveem, Cal- endorsement of the host state. ifornia; Emmitt Chastain, Illinois; Charles Allen, The environmental and subgrade conditions at Ohio; Tilton Shelburne, Virginia; William N. Carey, the site were representative of a good portion of the Jr., Highway Research Board2 (HRB); and Roy Jor- United States. The Committee on Highway Trans- genson, National Highway Users Foundation, the port immediately approved the site, and prelimi- Working Committee functioned as a subcommittee nary site investigations and the construction of of the AASHO Committee on Highway Transport. support facilities soon began. The committee charge was to encourage state participation in the road test; recommend a site for the Test Objectives project that met established requirements; estimate the Although the general scope of the project had project cost; and establish financial responsibility for evolved throughout the early planning, project construction and administration (1). At the request of objectives had not yet been specified. In 1957, the the AASHO Committee on Bridges and Structures, the National Advisory Committee, under the direc- project was expanded to include bridge spans. tion of Kenneth B. Woods, Purdue University, released the following specific objectives for the 2 Predecessor to the Transportation Research Board. Road Test (1): TR NEWS 232 MAY–JUNE 2004 TR NEWS 232 MAY–JUNE 16 FIGURE 1 General site location for AASHO Road Test (1). TR NEWS 232 MAY–JUNE 2004 17 Researchers record Researchers bridge data on film. ). Several advi- ). Several 1 ) (BPR), industry, and the (BPR), industry, 1 3 BPR and the state of Illinois covered most of the BPR and the state of Illinois covered Forerunner of the Federal Highway Administration. Forerunner Department of the Defense through allocated funds, of the Defense through Department contributed services, and other forms of assistance. to established sory committees and panels were construction costs through federal-aid funding. The construction costs through the test vehicle of Defense provided Department staff drivers, and several other agencies contributed 2 lists agencies that contributed and services. Table in-kind services and financial support. Administration Project of the AASHO The administration and direction of HRB, a section responsibility was the Road Test of the National Academy of Sciences-National Council’sResearch (NAS-NRC) Division of Engi- ( neering and Industrial Research 3 Project Financing Project was estimated at more Test cost of the Road The $185 million in than $27 million—approximately today’s by the states, shared dollars. Financing was of Public Roads the Bureau American Petroleum Industries,American Petroleum Manufacturers Automobile Manufacturers Association, Association, Trailer Truck and Associations,Trucking Canadian Good Roads Association, Ontario Department of Highways, and German Highway Research Board Research Oklahoma, Wisconsin State and Highway Departments including member companies The first, third, fourth, and fifth objectives related fourth, The first, third, 1. To determine the significant relationships 2. of specified effects determine the significant To 3. with such sub- make special studies dealing To 4. of the type and extent of a record provide To 5. To develop instrumentation, test procedures, in performing skid resistance experiments skid resistance in performing Equipment, personnel,technical advice and in dynamic testing of flexible pavements Shell Oil Company Participation in materials testingResident observer-consultants Cement Portland Association, Asphalt Institute, states and several Asphalt Institute, Cement Portland Association, American Assistance to performance rating panelAssistance to performance advice and servicesTechnical Minnesota and Indiana Highway Departments University, Purdue of Illinois, University Lehigh University, Technical advice and resident task force advice and resident Technical construction for Personnel Illinois Division of Highways Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, Ohio, Equipment personnel and technical advice General Motors Corporation Contributions Contributing Organizations TABLE 2 In-Kind Contributions to Construction and Operation of AASHO Road Test ( and Operation of to Construction 2 In-Kind Contributions Test AASHO Road TABLE to pavement research; the second objective related to the second objective related to pavement research; bridge research. between the number of repetitions of specified axle between the number of repetitions magnitude and arrangement and loads of different thicknesses of uniformly of different the performance plain designed and constructed asphalt concrete, portland and reinforced cement concrete, portland thicknesses of on different surfaces cement concrete soil of bases and subbases when on a basement known characteristics. vehicle loads when vehicle axle loads and gross on bridges of known applied at known frequency include design and characteristics. The bridges will concrete steel I-beam design, conventional reinforced design. concrete design, and prestressed fatigue, jects as paved shoulders, base types, pavement and heavy military vehicles, size and pressures, tire the findings of these special studies and to correlate of the basic research. with the results to keep each of the test and materials required effort in a satisfactory condition until sections or portions discontinued for test purposes. graphs, and formulas, which will reflect data charts, the capabilities of the various test sections and which highway design, in the evalu- will be helpful in future ation of the load-carrying capabilities of existing high- for areas ways, and in determining the most promising highway research. further 18 TR NEWS 232 MAY–JUNE 2004 TABLE 3KeyAASHO RoadTest Personnel for ( McKendrick 2004. diedinFebruary Administration asChiefoftheForeignHighwayDivision until1979. Projects attheFederal Hethenserved 1974. Association inSkokie,Illinois,until Cement aslongyou are offtheroad whenthetrucksare backinservice.” want, monitoring andmaintenancecrews during loop closures,“Take allthetimeyou McKendrick ofteninstructedthepavement traffic applications duringthe2-year test, Always aware ofthetarget1million 1962. until serving Highwaythe Research Board, AASHO RoadTestDirector for the ect with andfinally chiefengineer.neer, planningengi- trafficengineer, inspector, man, rod- 1936 to1956inmany capacities,including State Highway Department in Dover from HeworkedYaleDelaware for the University. Delawaregraduate oftheUniversity of and A .M Schmitt M. H. Dixon E. L. Benkelman Alvin C. Thorp L. D. Milligan R. W. Tosetti C. Arthur Peter Talovich Jr. Carey, William N. .RonaldHudson W. atr .MKnrc,Jr. McKendrick, B. Walter. HRB Technical Staff ae .Shook James F. Hain C. R. Irick Paul E. Scrivner Frank H. .W Fischer W. J. Ivan M.Viest Engineer Behindthe Wheel fe h odTs sinet McKendrick worked for thePortland After theRoadTest assignment, heacceptedthepositionofProj- In 1956, Moreland Herrin (1958)] atrBmodMKnrc,J. wasa Jr., Walter Bamford McKendrick, ASHO RoadTestDirector Project , Assistant Chief, Data Processing and Analysis DataProcessing and AssistantChief, , AssistantFlexiblePavement Research Engineer , hpSprnedn H .Cole(1958)] H. ShopSuperintendent[H. , , Chief, Data Processing and Analysis DataProcessing and Chief, , AssistantBridge Research Engineer , BridgeResearch Engineer , AssistantOperationsManager , AssistantFlexiblePavement Research Engineer , Business Administrator , aeil nier[.Q Mettes(1956); Q. MaterialsEngineer[L. , , Assistant to Project Director AssistanttoProject , RigidPavement Research Engineer , AssistantRigidPavement Research Engineer , FlexiblePavement Research Engineer , Chief Engineerfor Research , Project Director , as ChiefEngineerforResearch. Working undertheir the AASHORoadTest (seebox,above).Carey served tor inApril1956,guidedtheday-to-dayoperationof cal issuessuchasstatistics,dataanalyses,andsoils. efforts, includingpanelsontechni- support HRB’s Walter B.McKendrick,Jr., appointedProject Direc- 1 ) cedik circa1960 McKendrick, Rockwell Smith .J Ruble J. E. Feldman R. E. Wrong A. G. Teske E. W. Kingham I. R. King M. S. Finn Fred N. .E Colley E. B. Staff ConsultantsandObservers Hubbell R. H. Schwartz Donald R. Schmidt J. W. Huckins C. Henry e .Leathers Rex C. Boswell Howard H. G .Cmbl,(1956–1957)] Campbell, D. [G. mrcnTukn soitos[.A Lill(1955–1957)] A. AmericanTruckingAssociations [R. , , Association of American Railroads Associationof , , Portland Cement Association Portland Cement , , Portland Cement Association Portland Cement , rvneo nai,Canada Province ofOntario, , AsphaltInstitute , AssistantEngineerofReports , , Canadian Good Roads Association CanadianGoodRoads , he,PublicInformation Chief, , , Association of American Railroads Associationof , (below) ations. Otherstaff were hired locally. Table 3 trafficpersonnel wereoper- assignedtotheproject’s research asloan staff, andmore than400military and financialmattersinanoffice atthesite. NAS-NRC hired PeterTalovich tomanagebusiness weresupervision staff whoaddressed technicalissues. 2 showsthelayoutoftestloops. volume roadway designsfortruckloadings.Figure static loadtesting.Loop2represented lower- exposed toregular trucktraffic butwassubjectedto ment onpavementperformance andthuswasnot was constructedtoevaluatetheeffects ofenviron- truck loadings.Ofthetwosmallerloops,Loop1 stantial pavementdesignssubjectedtoheavier loops—Loops 3through 6—whichhadmore sub- would employatruckfleetof126( Road Test hadexpandedtoasix-loopfacilitythat ect duringthenextfewyears,andbyMay1955 modifications were madetothescopeof theproj- Several operate ineachlaneduringa2-yearperiod. with eighttraffic lanes;three testvehicleswould called fortheconstructionoffourmajortestloops The originalprogram plan,submittedin1953, Test LoopsandLayout Road Test Construction , Association of American Railroads Associationof , , Engineer of Special Assignments Engineer ofSpecial , Many otherengineersparticipated inthe Each traffic loopconsistedoftwostraighttan- The mainstructure consistedofthefourlarge uevsr InstrumentLaboratory Supervisor, , MaintenanceEngineer , EngineerofReports , lists someofthekeyproject personnel. 8 ). TR NEWS 232 MAY–JUNE 2004 19 ). This made it possible 1 Traffic on Loop 2. Traffic to determine the separate and interacting effects of to determine the separate and interacting effects specific pavement design variables on performance—something that earlier tests, like the had not always been able to do. Road Test, WASHO Designing for Variables the design vari- Planning discussions considered pavement ables and the associated levels for each type. The Statistical Advisory Panel recommended each a full factorial design for the pavements within section tangent—that is, at least one structural of vari- would be included for each combination ables and variable levels ( ). 2 The large loops had two traffic lanes, each sub- loops had two traffic The large tangent and the eastern turnaround The northern gent sections connected by a superelevated—that is, gent sections connected by a superelevated—that lengths at each end. Tangent banked—turnaround 6, 4,400 feet for 3 through 6,800 feet for Loops were Loop 2, and 2,000 feet for Loop 1. The turnarounds and were for the four main loops had 200-foot radii could operate at 25 traffic so that superelevated miles per hour (mph). jected to trucks with specific axle types and axle lanes also made it easy to incor- loads. The two traffic into Interstate porate the tangent sections directly 80 at the conclusion of the Road Test. (AC) test of each loop consisted of asphalt concrete sections; the southern tangent and the western turn- cement of each loop consisted of portland around 2). Each (PCC) test sections (see Figure concrete test sections tangent consisted of a series of short separated by a transition pavement segment that was not studied. Each test section was separated into two identical pavement sections by the centerline of the pavement, as specific truck axle types and axle load combinations operated in each lane. A total of 836 constructed in all loops—468 for test sections were flexible pavement and 368 for rigid pavement. FIGURE 2 Layout of test loops at AASHO Road Test ( of test loops at AASHO Road Test FIGURE 2 Layout 20 TR NEWS 232 MAY–JUNE 2004 gitudinal grades. tomaintainlon- for eachindividualtestsection, embankment materialhadtovary ments for thetestloops. Approximately wasusedintheupper3feet oftheembank- one-halfofthedirt for theRoadTest—enough tocover dirt afootball fieldmore than26feet high. monotony ofdrivingthetestloops. Truck crash onLoop8. ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ eas h aeetdph aid therelative verticalpositionofthe Because thepavement depthsvaried, Approximately were 1.25millioncubicyards ofearth moved inpreparation Broadcast bandradioswere installedinallvehicles in1959torelieve the withtwo fatalities. 141crashesoccurred, During testing, Trucks onthemaintrafficloopsaveraged 35milesperhour. Road Test Jeopardy shoulder pavingwithnosubbase. tional studiesonsubsurface pavementlayersandon types; therigidpavementexperiment featured addi- surface treatments, pavedshoulders,andbase included studiesonsubsurface pavementlayers, factorial designs.Theflexiblepavement experiment because ofspacelimitations,thesewere notfull loop forstudiesofselectedpavementvariables,but had contractionjointspacingsat15feet. spacings at40feet,andthenonreinforced sections joints. Thereinforced sectionshadcontractionjoint test sectionscontaineddowelsinthetransverse or jointednonreinforced. Alloftherigidpavement thickness, andpavementtype—jointedreinforced torial variableswere PCCslabthickness,subbase the rigidpavementtestsections,principalfac- ness, basethickness,andsubbasethickness.For pavement testsectionswere ACsurfacing thick- In addition,sectionswere constructedineach The principalfactorialvariablesfortheflexible phases ( the testfacility. tracts, andproviding of theengineeringsupervision ing plans,lettingandawarding constructioncon- and analysis,theIllinoisgroup beganprepar- group beganassemblingstaff fortheconstruction from theIllinoisDivisionofHighways( July 1955andwasjoinedinAugustbyataskforce HRB openeditsfieldoffice inOttawa,Illinois, Construction structural depthandlayercomposition( the testsectionscouldberelated directly totheir throughout alltestsections,sothatthebehaviorof the pavementstructure tobeexceptionallyuniform and fortheembankmentcomponentlayersof tive ofthoseusedinnormalhighwayconstruction, designs, anddensityrequirements toberepresenta- fications. Theintentwasforthematerials,mix ( uniformity ( tice, modifiedasnecessarytoobtaintherequired and controls wouldconformwithnationwideprac- practices, sothatgeneralconstructionprocedures ments were basedona1953review ofstatehighway requirements forthepavements( Committee proposed constructionandmaterial appendix totheRoadTest layout,theWorking and materialsvariablestoensure uniformity. Inan and madestrong efforts tocontrol allconstruction variability wouldemerge from theperformance data 1958; and the RoadTest vehicle fleet. Special detachmentofsoldiersdrove and maintained 10 Construction proceeded inthree overlapping ◆ ◆ ◆ The finalsetofspecificationswasdevelopedlater Planners hadrecognized thatmanysources of ), andconstructionadhered strictlytothespeci- Paving: latesummer1957toJuly1958. Bridge construction:October1956toApril Earthwork: August1956tofall1957; 1 ): 2 ). 9 ). Therequire- 1 ). TheHRB 1 ). TR NEWS 232 MAY–JUNE 2004 21 ). 3 Flexible pavement maintenance included fog seals, Pavement Performance Pavement of the pavement sections was closely The performance made of were In general, measurements monitored. to pave- had related research variables that previous FIGURE 3 AASHO Road Test truck traffic. FIGURE 3 AASHO Road Test Maintenance of the focused on the performance Because the Road Test were test sections as constructed, maintenance operations held to a minimum for any section still under study ( When the serviceability of any section dropped to a spec- When the serviceability of any section dropped out of the test, and ified level, the section was considered as needed. was performed maintenance or reconstruction regard- made as required, were however, Minor repairs, less of the weather or the time of day. spot seals, skin patches, deep patches, and overlays. Rigid pavement maintenance included skin patches, joint and crack sealing, deep patches, and overlays. Other maintenance activities, such as shoulder main- cleaning, mowing, and snow tenance, ditch and culvert as needed. performed were and ice removal, ). The density of vehicles also was increased 3 Under a cooperative agreement with the Depart- agreement Under a cooperative con- The original truck fleet for the Road Test to increase took measures In 1959, researchers test driving schedules applied rotating Three ended November 30, traffic truck The regular Traffic and Maintenance Traffic Operations Truck As on October 15, 1958. was inaugurated traffic Test trucks design, commercial of the experimental part combinations of specified axle and tractor-semitrailer of each assigned to a lane types and loadings were to the assigned were test loop. Tractor-semitrailers Loop 2 carried only loops (Loops 3-6); four large and 6,000-pound single-axle light trucks with 2,000- was assigned truck traffic 3); no regular loads (Figure to Loop 1. military unit, the Army ment of Defense, a special Activity, Support Corps Road Test Transportation and supervised the traffic supplied, supported, 300 sol- operations. The unit initially consisted of in than 450, and quartered diers, peaked at more facilities near the eastern end of Loop 4. trucks sisted of 70 vehicles: 14 small, single-unit at first operated This traffic and 56 tractor-trailers. sched- 18 hours and 40 minutes a day on a 6-day than 5 hours for pavement ule, leaving a little more and rou- and vehicle maintenance, special studies, schedules called for The traffic tine measurements. Loops 3 the operation of six vehicles per lane in 6, four vehicles per lane in Lane 1 of Loop through 2. One 2, and eight vehicles in Lane 2 of Loop standby unit was available for each lane. that the traffic the loading rate, after recognizing 1 million axle the desired rate would not produce trucks loads during the 2-year test. First, additional to bring the total fleet to 126 vehi- purchased were cles ( vehicles on each loop, so that by January 1960, 10 lane of the four major loops; operating in each were 6 and sometimes 7 vehicles in Lane 1 of Loop 2; and 12 and sometimes 13 vehicles in Lane 2 of Loop 2. to the daily driving schedule was increased Finally, 19 hours and 5 minutes, with Sunday as an additional driving day. loads to the pavements during all hours of the day. Each schedule ran two separate 9.5-hour shifts, with drivers logging 7.5 hours of driving time per Much of the traf- breaks. shift, after lunch and rest fic operations took place at night, to allow a daily and during daylight for maintenance break traffic measurements. performance 1,113,760 applications in each traf- 1960, producing fic lane for the 25-month period. A small transporta- to conduct special tests at the site tion unit remained the winter of 1960–1961 and into the spring. through 22 TR NEWS 232 MAY–JUNE 2004 from apanelreview ofpavementsinIllinois, Minnesota, With theseobjectivemeasures, plusmodels developed surements ofroughness anddistress on thetestsections. oped, relying onobjectivepavement conditionmea- wasdevel- means ofassessingpavementserviceability sections wouldhavebeenimpractical. Analternative road onthe800-plusRoadTest serviceability pavement ing pavement. impassable and5representing aperfectly smoothrid- scale of0to5,withrepresenting apavementthatwas of allhighwayusers( of ahighwaycanbeexpressed asthemeanevaluation pavement ismeetingtheirneeds,andtheserviceability ity canprovide subjectiveopinionsabouthowwella thetraveling public. ment istoserve on theprinciplethatprimaryfunctionofapave- the conceptof“pavementserviceability,” founded Chief ofDataProcessing andAnalysis,developed each pavementsection( oped todetermineandexpress theperformance of design variables,arationalmethodhadtobedevel- relationships betweenpavementperformance and at varioustimesduringthetest. and pavementtemperature distributions,were obtained deflections, surface strains,vertical subgradepressures, Othermeasurements,weekly surveys. suchassurface buttheotherdata were2-week intervals, collectedin joint orcrackfaulting. longitudinal profile, cracking,patching,spalling,and pavements, routine performance measures included roughness, cracking,patching,andrutdepths; forrigid formance measures includedlongitudinalprofile, ment performance. Forflexiblepavements,routine per- circa 1960. results intheRoadTest fieldoffice, rigidpavement discuss researchScrivner, engineer, measuring roadH. surfacedeflection—andFrank engineer—inventor oftheBenkelman beamfor flexiblepavement research Benkelman, Alvin C. Convening apanelofraterstoprovide opinionsof According totheprinciple,usersofapavementfacil- Because aprincipalobjectivewastodiscover The roughness andprofile testingwere conductedat 11 ). Serviceability wasratedona Serviceability ). 5 ). Carey andPaulIrick, for eachsection. rating puted toestimatethemeanpanelserviceability and Indiana,a“present index”wascom- serviceability the RoadTest models. sents further enhancementsbutremains indebtedto foundation. Thecurrent edition,released in1993,pre- drainage—but stillwiththebasicdesignmodelsas as designreliability, subgraderesilient modulus,and 1986, incorporatingmanynewconsiderations—such A significantlyrevised designguidewasreleased in cant results oftheAASHORoadTest, including munity. Theresearchers alsooverlookedothersignifi- longevity oftheseproducts withinthepavementcom- tistical samplingmeasures; construction—and theresultant pushtoward sta- basic designmethodsandprocedures unchanged( information, butstillwithinterimstatusandthe as aninterimdocumentwithoutrevision. AASHO DesignCommitteedecidedtoretain theguide February 1962fora1-yeartrial.Afterthetrial, thicknesses. Theguidewassubmittedtothestatesin equations andnomographstodeterminepavement flexible andrigidpavements,featuringperformance tions, materialproperties, andclimaticconditions. later toaccountfordifferent subgradesupport condi- each pavementtype.Extendedmodelswere developed analysis, andthenspecificmodelswere developedfor single generalmodelwasselectedforthepavement formance andpavementdesignloadvariables.A and todeveloprelationships betweenpavementper- November 1960,researchers begantoanalyzethedata After completingtheregular trucktraffic operationsin Performance Models lowing asthemainproducts oftheRoadTest ( clusion ofthedataanalysis,researchers citedthefol- achievements. Atthecon- magnitude oftheproject’s duct oftheAASHORoadTest maynothavegraspedthe contributed tothedevelopment,construction,andcon- high-tech, computerizedworld.Theresearchers who ment engineering,anditslegacylivesonintoday’s The AASHORoadTest continuestoinfluencepave- Living Legacy ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ The researchers couldnotforesee theremarkable The guidewasreissued in1972,withadditional HRB prepared aninterimguideforthedesignof Quantification ofthevariability inpavement Single andtandemaxleloadequivalencies. Load equivalencyfactors,and Flexible andrigidpavementdesignequations, Serviceability–performance concept, 1 ): 12 ). TR NEWS 232 MAY–JUNE 2004 23 Guide for the Design of Pavement Guide for indicates how research and experience research indicates how The results of the Road Test have been and have of the Road Test The results ◆ There may never be another never AASHO Road Test, may There Author Finn at work in the field AASHO Road Test office, circa 1960. remain at the core of pavement design methods. of pavement at the core remain State departments of transportation, the Federal Highway Administration,and devoted industry have to extend the findings to considerable resources specific design methods, despite the constraints of the project.Extrapolations traf- accounted for have a longer design period,radically over fic applications environments,different materials and different material properties, construc- for higher standards tion,mixed effects,and traffic more.The base broad in the United States and available of research pos- not only has made such extrapolations abroad of passing the test of reasonable- sible but capable universally. more ness when applied The 1993 American and Trans- Association of State Highway portation Officials’ Structures the from can be combined with basic information a useful design methodology. to develop Road Test but it will be a long time before the concepts that but it will be a long time before were along a 9-mile portion of and proved developed what is I-80 near Ottawa,Illinois,will be forgotten. The in the devel- stands as a landmark AASHO Road Test technology to and is a credit opment of pavement to plan,those who had the foresight support, and of such size and complexity. complete a project sis, to agencies made available data were and raw in further and and organizations interested analysis interpretation. Test of Time Test FRED N. FINN, NAE

Withstanding the Withstanding

The results and findings have stood the test of and findings have The results The project was successful largely because of was successful largely The project Predicting roadway performance from physical from performance roadway Predicting Measuring stress, strain, for and deformation Understanding the influence of speed on pave- Using statistics in designing experiments and Measuring pavement performance in terms of performance Measuring pavement configura- traffic loads and mixed Addressing Considering the contributions of structural y any standard,y any the American Association of (AASHO) Road Test Officials State Highway

◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ Why was this project so successful and why has it so successful and why was this project Why

was a remarkable engineering achievement.was a remarkable Road probably and that in effect that remain results Test design as basic tenets of pavement will continue include the following: B time because of good planning by the on-site staff planning by time because of good in determining the types and amounts of data need- analysis.ed for advisory panels also provid- Various ed guidance. Moreover, the reports issued after characterized by were completion of the project of the data and of the data analy- the transparency the participation and support of the states through AASHO, government, of the federal and of industry. Moreover, assembled Board Research the Highway senior staff.a remarkable were goals The project defined,well among “can do” spirit prevailed and a staff and technicians. the professional All of these approaches carry the trademark of the All of these approaches AASHO Road Test. withstood the test of time? has the information How rec- application,despite for been adapted the project’s ognized constraints? repre- As the Asphalt Institute’s 1960, 1956 through from I Test at the Road sentative construction participated phases of project in many and testing, I attended meetings of the National and Advisory Committee and the special advisory panels. on the Road Test’s perspectives my are Following enduring legacy: characteristics and traffic. application to analytical models; to analytical application ment response; data;in analyzing and riding comfort; tions with a single design parameter; materials to performance; 24 TR NEWS 232 MAY–JUNE 2004 T online catalogandwillbeavailable for scholarly research by request materialswillbeincludedintheSmithsonian’s D.C.The Washington, AASHO RoadTesthouse the Archives Centerin collectioninits will Smithsonian Institution’sHistory American NationalMuseumof The Ananswer isathand. safeguard accesstothedataandartifacts. ture cameras. meninfedoras posing forwhite-shirted mouse-eared motion pic- andof oftrucksandthesoldierswhodrove them, procedures, andcolortransparencies ofpavement sectionsandtest glass slides, five boxes ofphotographs, Imagesalsowere preserved: tal version. andrecently adigi- punchcards, 9-trackcomputertape, microfilm, fieldnotebooksanddatamaps, throughtechnology thedecades: in many binders. thenumbers fillmany pages Recorded inthefieldandlabs, data. and 1.1milliontestloadapplications over 2years produce alotof 836testsections, performance variablesfor two pavement types, wide they must adozen befolded backtofitintothebinder.Nearly thenumbers fillcolumnsthatmarch across pagesso small boxes, Several generationsofresearch managershave wondered how to thedataisevidentThe intentionofpreserving from thetrailof olcigdt uigteASORa et Penciled into AASHO RoadTest. collecting dataduringthe he handwrittennumbers evoke thepainstakingdiligencein Smithsonian toArchive Road Test Records LINDA MASON neers andthetransportation industry. be recognized andremembered by pavementengi- undeniable. TheAASHORoadTest willcontinueto highways for nearly50years,however,nation’s are butions tothedesignandconstructionof from theAASHORoadTest isdifficult. Thecontri- agement. pavement performance measuringequipment;and ing procedures; experimental designprinciples; 3. 2. 1. References fic OperationsandPavementMaintenance Special Report61C:TheAASHORoad Test, Report3,Traf- D.C., 1962. als andConstruction Special Report61B:TheAASHORoadTest, Report 2,Materi- Research Council,Washington, D.C.,1961. Description ofProject Special Report61A:TheAASHORoadTest, History and ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ Identifying thesinglemostimportant benefit The frameworkforpavementandassetman- The developmentandimplementationofnew The introduction ofstatisticallybasedmodel- The implementationofstatisticallybased . HighwayResearch Board, Washington, . HighwayResearch Board, National for ongoing research. Army carefully records researcher datanow tobehousedinSmithsonian not belost. tocompletetherestoration so thattheopportunity will accessible, TheSmithsonian willkeep thecollectionintactand is notavailable. the columnheadings—atime-consumingproject for whichfunding theraw datafrom thetestsmust bematchedupagainwith result, Asa maps were lostinconverting from toanother. onetechnology ofafuture exhibit. Thecollectioncouldbecomepart at theCenter. iiin andEditorof Division, TRBSpecialPrograms The authorisCommunications Manager, . Highway Access to the collection is important becausemanyAccess tothecollectionisimportant ofdata . McKendrick,W. B.HistoryofProject. In 8. 7. 6. 5. 4. 12. 11.Carey, W. N.,andP.Serviceability– E.Irick.ThePavement 10. Working Committee,AASHOCommitteeonHighway 9. Council, Washington, D.C.,1962. Summary Special Report61G:TheAASHORoadTest, Report7,Final cil, Washington, D.C.,1962. Studies Special Report61F:TheAASHORoadTest, Report6,Special Council, Washington, D.C.,1962. ment Research Special Report61E:TheAASHORoadTest, Report5,Pave- Council, Washington, D.C.,1962. Research Special Report61D:TheAASHORoadTest, Report4,Bridge D.C., 1962. Research Board, NationalResearch Council,Washington, ton, D.C.,1972. State Highway Officials, Washing-American Associationof AASHO InterimGuideforDesignof Pavement Structures Board, NationalResearch Council,Washington, D.C.,1960. Performance Concept.In Test Project Road andBridgeConstructionSpecificationsforAASHO Highway Officials, Washington, D.C., 1955. ments, andSpecificDirections Transport. National Research Council, Washington, D.C., 1962. 16-18, 1962,St.Louis,Mo The AASHORoadTest, Proceedings ofaConference HeldMay Ignition . HighwayResearch Board, NationalResearch Coun- . HighwayResearch Board, NationalResearch . HighwayResearch Board, NationalResearch . Illinois Division of Highways, Springfield, 1957. . IllinoisDivisionofHighways, Statement ofFundamentalPrinciples,Project Ele- . . HighwayResearch Board, NationalResearch HRB Bulletin250 . American Association of State . AmericanAssociationof . HighwayResearch Board, , HighwayResearch Special Report73: . TR NEWS 232 MAY–JUNE 2004 25 The new edition adds quality of service indices Guidance, Not Standards a consistent set of tech- The new TCQSM provides for evaluating the quality of ser- niques and procedures vice and the capacity of transit services, and facilities, trans- systems. The manual covers all types of public rail transit, ferries, and terminals— portation—buses, planning and operational techniques, and provides along with syntheses of ridership and demands. and demand-responsive for urban fixed-route . (TCQSM), Transit Cooperative (TCQSM), Transit Highway Capacity Manual ublication of the second edition of the Capacity and Quality of Service Transit Manual 100, (TCRP) Report Program Research Transit Capacity and Capacity Transit A transit system that uses manual on-board fare collection and restricts boardings to driver-attended doors, to driver-attended boardings collection and restricts fare like on-board A transit system that uses manual this one in Cleveland, Ohio, capacity. its maximum cannot achieve concludes more than a decade of effort. The com- than a decade of effort. concludes more document assembles a range of infor- prehensive to aid transit planners, mation and procedures 572-page book with The operators, and researchers. CD-ROM is a companion to TRB’s refer- renowned ence, the P

The author is a transportation consultant, New Haven, Connecticut, and Urban an Icon Mentor, Research Transportation City College of Center, He is a mem- New York. ber of the National Academy of Engineering, as well as the TRB Executive Committee; the Cooperative Transit Panel Program Research on Development of Capacity and Transit Quality of Service Principles, Practices, and and the TRB Procedures; Capacity and Transit Quality of Service Committee. Transit Planners and Operators Planners and Transit S.HERBERT LEVINSON Tour of the Expanded Guide for of the Expanded Tour The New The Manual of Service Quality TRANSIT COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM REPORT PROGRAM RESEARCH COOPERATIVE TRANSIT 26 TR NEWS 232 MAY–JUNE 2004 ouet6(99,drew onandexpandedtheseinterimreports. Document 6(1999), 26 (1997).The first 26 (1997).The 3(96,and 13 (1996), Two studiesemerged: rate document. theTransit thedevelopment Subcommittee supported ofasepa- tration, Withencouragementfrom theFederal TransitAdminis- HCM materials. HCM in1985and1994. procedures were refined andincludedinthetransitcapacity chapter ofthe The describedthebasicrelationships for bustransitcapacity. respectively, lines PlanningandDesignGuide- andBusUseofHighways: Art Stateofthe Highways: toaccountfor variations. should betwicetheaverage dwell time, suggested thattheminimum headway between busesatacurbsidebusstop HCM 1965 timesandtransitcapacity.The information onpassengerservice and2000. 1997, 1994, 1985, a Transit SystemsSubcommittee—produced thesubsequenteditionsin1965, Highway Committee—whichincluded the TRB Capacity andQualityofService Administration—prepared thefirst TheBureau ofPublicRoads—predecessorHighway totheFederal Board. between trainsat25milesperhour. City’s firstsubway in1904wasdesignedtoachieve headways of78to96seconds be operatedover itstracks.” Theoverlapping blocksignalsystemfor New York forms ontheLoopandnotjunctions…limitnumber oftrainsthatcan American andWestment in European ofthe20thcentury. citiesatthestart T ottastoeaosadpanr,hwvr were notaware however, ofthe Most transitoperatorsandplanners, theTransitIn a1961progress Systems Subcommittee presented report, Highway wasanearly focus ofthe Research ofcourse, Highway capacity, A 1902studyofChicago’s Loopelevated railway found that “the stationplat- The Transit Capacity ConceptEmerges ,National Cooperative Highway Cooperative Research Program 143and155, Reports ,National ity.The conceptoftransitcapacity emergedduringrailtransitdevelop-ity.The he conceptoftransitcapacity predates theconceptofhighway capac- Operational Analysis of Bus Lanes on Arterials Analysis of BusLaneson Operational Transit Manual, CapacityandQualityofService vice andcapacity. and presents oftransitquality of ser- anoverview content andintendedapplication ofthemanual available resources. should takeintoaccountlocalcharacteristicsand is theprerogative ofindividualtransitagencies,which thatshouldbeprovidedservice foraspecific situation Setting standards fortheamountorlevelof standards. vehicle capacityandpersoncapacity. spective, alongwithprocedures toestimatetransit procedures per- andguidelinesfrom apassenger’s transit. TCQSMbringstogetherqualityofservice The TCQSMconsistsofnineparts: Coverage and Canada. States andfacilitiesintheUnited modes, services, 2. The manualprovides guidancebutdoesnotset 1. Transit inNorthAmerica Introduction andConcepts Highway CapacityManual Rail Transit Capacity (HCM) in1950,and describes transit TCRPReport , TCRPReport , summarizes the TCRP Web Bus Useof text. sit industryterms. match platformandstationaccesscapacity. focus isonpassengerspaceanddesignsthat intermodal terminals,andsimilarfacilities.The ments ofbusstops,transitcenters,stations, and thepassengercomfort levelsforvariousele- describes procedures forevaluatingthecapacity straints atdocks. ger andautomobileferries,includingcapacitycon- to theliterature, addressing thecapacityofpassen- emphasis isonrapidtransitcapacity. automated guidewaytransit,andropeways. The heavy railorrapidtransit,lightrail,commuter detailed procedures forevaluatingthecapacityof lanes, andmixedtraffic flow. high-occupancy vehiclelanes,arterial street bus berths, stops,andfacilities,includingtransitways, evaluating thecapacityofbusloadingareas or literature ontransitplanningandoperations. ations. Thischapterisanimportant additiontothe travel andpresents methodsforquantitativeevalu- on passengerperceptions ofthequalitytransit passenger activitytakes place. trainsdonotblock otherswhile Philadelphia, At themultiple platform commuter railterminalin The decisionprocess hastwoparts: sit oranothermode—usuallyaprivateautomobile. passenger makesindecidingwhethertousetran- vice reflects thekindsofdecisionsthatapotential pointofview,”from thepassenger’s qualityofser- sured orperceived performance oftransitservice feature ofthemanual.Definedas“theoverallmea- guidelinesareThe qualityofservice aninnovative Quality ofService 9. 8. 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. Index Glossary Stop, Station,andTerminal Capacity Capacity Ferry Rail Transit Capacity Bus Transit Capacity Quality ofService locates keyconceptsanddetailsinthe defines acomprehensive listoftran- makes animportant addition identifies theinfluences provides procedures for presents generaland TR NEWS 232 MAY–JUNE 2004 27 , travel time travel vs. time automobile travel Problem-Solving Tool Problem-Solving Transit Capacity and Quality of Service Manual Transit The types and sizes of the transit facilities needed; The types and sizes of be may and what improvements a transit line or system works well How to serve needed the ridership demand. are transit vehicles many How Understanding the influence of transit capac- Managing passenger loads—for example, col- in fare of changes Estimating the effect Planning; bus Analyzing the operation of bus lanes and services for special events; and Providing system manage- Establishing transportation The ◆ ◆ ◆ Transit agencies and transportation planners transportation agencies and Transit ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ 2nd Edition offers procedures to determine procedures 2nd Edition offers Transit capacity is importantcapacity in large cities—most Transit trans- public the city centers by or leave people enter port. to a way of service Quality provide measures assess the importance of transit service availability city. any for and convenience necessary; and Transit System Tasks System Transit mainly asso- Although transit capacity concerns are smaller systems may city systems, ciated with large con- when routes experience capacity problems in or near a city center.verge Speed and reliability than half of a bus facil- when more reduced also are ity’s capacity is scheduled. the following tasks: should recognize ity on speed and reliability; cars are determining how many buses or train needed to accommodate the riders; and configura- vehicle types lection procedures, example, tions, or other agency decisions—for buses; to articulated standard changing from transit centers; around as well as the areas streets, ment policies. Response timeOn-time performance not served Trips Span of service transit Demand-responsive FrequencyPassenger load Reliability Hours of service Service coverage vs. Transit automobile Transit StopTransit Route Segment StopTransit System Route Segment System The quality of service measures reflect these two reflect The quality of service measures highway traditional from differ The measures Quality of service ratings—A to F for fixed-route service at Level A for For example, a fixed-route The quality of service and capacity values in the 1. and if whether transit is available, Assessing 2. and convenience of the comfort Comparing Availability Comfort and Convenience Availability Comfort Convenience and Demand-Responsive Transit Service Measures Transit Demand-Responsive Fixed-Route Transit Service Measures Transit Fixed-Route TABLE 1 Quality of Service Framework TABLE aspects of transit service, to all transit which apply In contrast, transit systems in all communities. cities. mainly a concern in larger capacity issues are vehicle- are which quality of service measures, economic the utilization and oriented, and from industry that the transit rou- measures performance the transit tend to reflect tinely collects, which 1 shows the overall Table operator’s point of view. and quality of service framework for fixed-route transit service. demand-responsive services—services and 1 to 8 for demand-responsive the to reflect developed for each service measure, are in service quality experienced by passen- differences can apply to quality of ser- gers. The service measures segment, or system, or can vice for a transit stop, route for an expanded card be combined into a transit report as well as the perspective. The availability measures, and long- suited to short- are travel time measures, and convenience mea- term planning; the comfort suited for monitoring in each framework are sures service delivery and changes. per than 6 vehicles would operate more frequency hour at headways—that is, time intervals—of less not need than 10 minutes, so that passengers would hours of service, rated are schedules. Other areas passenger load, on-time per- service coverage area, and travel time formance, headway adherence, with that in an automobile. compared manual apply to conditions in the United States and Canada. Application to other countries would require of the parameters and the default values. recalibration it is, competing modes. transit with volumes. modes andhave highpassenger designed for transfers between are Central inNew York, like Grand Intermodal terminals, 28 TR NEWS 232 MAY–JUNE 2004 TABLE 2FactorsThatInfluenceTransit Capacity Method ofHeadway Control Street Traffic Characteristics Passenger Traffic Characteristics Operating Characteristics Stop Characteristics Right-of-Way Characteristics Vehicle Characteristics ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ Layover andscheduleadjustmentpractices suburbanoperationsatterminals Intercity vs. Number andlengthofloadingpositions vehicle floorheight Platform heightvs. Stop spacing Amount oftimestopped Degree ofseparationfrom othertraffic tracks) Cross-section design(number oflanes, Number ofwheelchairsecurement positions Seating configurationandcapacity Vehicle dimensions multiple-car train) single-unitbusor Allowable number ofunitsper vehicle (i.e., Automatic orby trainoperator Volume and nature ofother traffic Passenger concentrationsanddistributionatmajorstops ing agiventimeperiod,”usually1hour. trains, vessels,etc.)thatcanpassagivenlocationdur- “the maximumnumberoftransitvehicles(buses, with reasonable certainty.” out unreasonable delay, hazard, orrestriction, and period underspecifiedoperatingconditions,with- carried pastagivenlocationduringtime ity is“themaximumnumberofpeoplethatcanbe cles andofpeople. Transit capacitydealswiththemovement ofvehi- Transit Capacity interactions withothervehicles. boarding andalightingdemandatbusystops, such astraffic lightsortrainsignals,passenger minimum headwaydependsoncontrol systems sible headwaybetweenindividualvehicles.The ◆ ◆ Vehicle capacitydependson theminimumpos- The The vehicle capacity person capacity of atransitroute orfacilityis of atransitroute orfacil- ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ Policy spacingbetween vehicles Presence ofat-gradeintersections Ridership peakingcharacteristics Regularity ofarrivals atagiven stop provide driver relief Time lossestoobtainclockheadways, Passenger accesstostops separateboarding or alighting areas Common vs. Type offare Fare collectionmethod Horizontal andvertical alignment Intersection designandcontrol andwidthofdoors location, Number, Type ofdooropeningmechanism Acceleration anddecelerationrates Maximum speed Number andheightofsteps headway along a route governs the route’s capacity.headway alongaroute governstheroute’s tions alsocanlimitcapacities.Theminimum ern theachievablelinecapacities.Junctionsnearsta- capacity. Capacitiesatmajorstopsorterminalsgov- way capacity—oratstopsandterminals—station demand maynotjustifyoperationatcapacity. able toreach maximumcapacity—orbecausepassenger tions—for example,notenoughtransitvehiclesavail- will notbeachieved,eitherbecauseofresource limita- cars pertrain; sit vehiclecapacityinunitsperhourdependsonthe ing, passenger, andstreet traffic characteristics.Tran- Table 2,includingvehicle,right-of-way, stop,operat- The majorinfluencesontransitcapacityare shownin Capacity Influences Transit capacitycanbemeasured alongtheway— In manycases,thevehiclecapacityofatransitroute ◆ ◆ Number ofvehiclesperunit—forexample, Minimum spacingbetweenindividualtrains, TR NEWS 232 MAY–JUNE 2004 29 The maximum rate of passenger flow is con- sys- Operating at capacity tends to strain transit closely to system perfor- Because capacity relates comparisons should use peak Volume-to-capacity of capacities obtained by ana- The reasonableness When trains operate at crush loads, the through- uniform distri- A transit line that has a relatively ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ Many light rail lines are not signaled with the light rail lines are Many in mind, possible headway minimum but more planned headway. the minimum for economically Boarding islands allow bus stops to be located bus islands allow Boarding so that buses can use a faster lanes travel between to merge into the right lane lane without having stop. every before strained by acceptable levels of passenger comfort, the strained by acceptable levels of passenger comfort, and sharing the right-of-way, of other traffic presence safety considerations. and passenger delays— vehicle bunching tems, creating when conditions that should be avoided. For example, are speeds of capacity, operates at 75 percent a bus berth at 100 by bus-to-bus interference; 14 percent reduced cut in half. speeds are however, of capacity, percent mance and service quality in terms of speed, comfort, a single fixed number can be mis- and service reliability, leading. 15-minute passenger flow rates. against operat- lytical methods must be cross-checked ing experience. put in people per hour can be less than when car loads put in people per hour can be less than when lighter. are among stops usually will passengers bution of boarding passen- have a higher capacity than a transit line with at a single stop. concentrated ger boardings The number of trains or buses that can be The peak ridership demand in the maximum Capacities are reduced when dwell times at reduced Capacities are Capacity increases as the number of berths or as the number of berths Capacity increases Capacities vary inversely with the minimum Capacity increases with more green time for green with more Capacity increases Available green time for movement in seconds green Available Number of bus berths, ferry docks, or rail sta- ferry docks, or bus berths, Number of Transit passenger capacity depends on vehicle passenger capacity depends Transit is at The load factor in terms of passengers per seat ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ Assessing Capacity in important The following considerations are assessing the capacity of a transit stop or route: The basic capacity equations presented in TCQSM The basic capacity equations presented indicate the following: Learning from Equations Learning from buses, or ferries—determined by the size of the unit, by buses, or ferries—determined units, and times between successive the clearance or junctions; at the busiest stations the dwell times accommodated per hour decreases as the number of accommodated per hour decreases because more passengers per train or bus increases, at stops. time is required load section of a transit line determines the desired should be accom- frequency This service frequency. modated at the busiest stops. major stops are unduly long. major stops are track platforms increases; however, doubling the however, track platforms increases; will at a stop usually number of tracks or berths in less than double the capacity. result headways headway between trains and buses. The depend on dwell times, variations in the dwell between clearance times times, and the required successive trains or buses. vehicle movement, more passengers per vehicle, vehicle movement, more vehicles per unit. and more size and seating configuration. The “crush” capac- size and seating configuration. possible number of pas- the maximum ity reflects use systems, however, sengers; most transit somewhat which are schedule design capacities, capacity. lower than the crush The passenger spaces per vehi- best an approximation. remain- cle consist of the number of seats plus the net feet per designated square divided by the ing area, crush loads vary The schedule design and passenger. design among transit agencies. For rail lines, schedule feet per person; crush square 3 to 5.4 loads range from feet per person. about 2.8 square loads are per hour (3,600 seconds per hour for rapid transit, per hour (3,600 seconds running). less than that for street tion track platforms; and tion track platforms; 30 TR NEWS 232 MAY–JUNE 2004 RW=rgto-a;M oigbok B=fxdbok CBD=centralbusinessdistrict.) FB=fixed block; MB=moving(ROW block; =right-of-way; andCanadiantransitmodes. FIGURE 1Person capacity rangesofU.S. ih al Exclusive ROW, MBSignals Light Rail: ih al Exclusive ROW, FBSignals Light Rail: u:Sae O ae NoStops HOV Shared Lane, Bus: ev al Moving BlockSignals Heavy Rail: omtrRi:OwnedROW Commuter Rail: ev al Fixed BlockSignals Heavy Rail: omtrRi:LeasedROW Commuter Rail: ih al On-Street Section Light Rail: u:MxdTafc non-CBD Mixed Traffic, Bus: u:Da u ae CBD DualBusLane, Bus: u:MxdTafc CBD Mixed Traffic, Bus: uwy Local/Express Busway: u:BsLn,CBD BusLane, Bus: uwy AllStops Busway: Streetcar volumes assumeshared usewithcarpools. represent personspertrackhour. HOVlane cars pertrain,dwelltimes,andsoon.Railvalues reflect differing assumptionsaboutthenumberof capacities formodesandfacilitytypes.Theranges States andCanada.Figure 1showstheperson vehicle andpassengercapacitiesintheUnited The TCQSMcontainsawealthofinformationon Operating Experience IUE2 yia rvlsedadcpct agso ..adCnda rni oe.(HOV =high-occupancyvehicle.) FIGURE 2Typical andCanadiantransitmodes. travel speedandcapacity rangesofU.S. Average Travel Speed (mph) 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 0002,0 0004,0 50,000 40,000 30,000 20,000 10,000 0 0002,0 0004,0 50,000 40,000 30,000 20,000 10,000 0 BUSWAY

BUS INMIXEDTRAFFIC BUS ON (ON STREET)

LIGHT RAIL HOV LANE (EXCLUSIVE ROW) PEOPLE MOVER COMMUTER LIGHT RAIL Person Capacity (peakdirection passengers/hour) Person Capacity (peakdirection passengers/hour) RAIL CBD BUSLANE typical productive capacityrangesfortransitmodes tiplied bythespeedofatransitline.Figure 2shows inNorthobserved America. 1 alsoindicatesthemaximumpassengervolumes world thataccepthigherlevelsofcrowding. Figure person capacitiesare achievedinotherparts ofthe crowding thatNorth Americanswillaccept.Higher Productive capacityisthepassengermul- The personcapacitiesreflect theupperlimitof HEAVY RAIL Highest observed in North America inNorth Highest observed Typical capacity range TR NEWS 232 MAY–JUNE 2004 31 , , State University Oregon , Consultant ), Hampton Roads Transit , SG Associates, Inc. , Herbert S. Consultant Transportation Levinson Chair ( , TRB Liaison Representative , Liaison Representative FTA , Quade & Parsons Brinckerhoff Douglas, Inc. , Commission Transportation and Rappahannock Potomac ge, grades of 3 percent or less, radii ge, grades of 3 percent , KFH Group, Inc. , Authority Transportation District Capital r, Kittelson & Associates, Inc. ,Transportation of Florida Department , of University Alberta , Kittelson & Associates, Inc. Achieving a 2-minute headway for 600-foot, 8- Achieving a 2-minute headway for 600-foot, 20,000 peo- Light rail lines can carry approximately with fewer branches structures Rail transit route Wolfgang S.Wolfgang Homburger Herbert S. Levinson Franklin L.Franklin Spielberg Tara Bartee Tara H.Alfred Harf Jack M. Reilly Stan Teply Washington Joel A.Richard Cunard Transit Capacity and Quality of Service and Quality Capacity Manual Transit 2nd Edition Team Project Alan Danahe Panel Project Michael S. Townes Paul Ryus Paul Elizabeth Ellis Mark C.Walker Katherine Hunter-Zaworski Rail Transit Rail rapid transit lines carry 25,000 to 30,000 people per achieved on a with the higher volumes track per hour, Rapid transit lines typically City. few lines in New York track per operate a maximum of 25 to 30 trains per Paris, St. Peters- lines in Moscow, hour; exceptions are and Hong Kong, which run on burg, Tokyo, São Paulo, headways of 90 to 115 seconds. of at least 600 feet, and adequate terminals. Commuter east, north, the City from rail lines entering New York and west carry per track per about 20,000 passengers running”— is influenced by “reverse Throughput hour. of travel—and a track in the heavy direction reversing by the availability of platforms at terminals. to 10-car trains requires dwell times of less than 30 to 10-car trains requires a max- seconds, stations at least 3/8 of a mile apart, imum of one mer Most light rail lines in North ple per track per hour. carrythan 10,000 people per less America, however, hour—Boston’s Line carries this amount on two Green tracks. Most systems have peak-hour flows of less than cars in Philadelphia 5,000 passengers. Except for street light rail lines generally operate fewer than and Toronto, 30 trains per track per hour. achieve lower headways and higher capacities. space at terminals helps avoid and storage Track or laying bottlenecks when turning trains around the car length without Increasing them over. problems—Hong door space can create increasing If bus stops or layovers are required, bus volumes required, are If bus stops or layovers carry generally 80 Bus lanes on downtown streets mixed traffic–curb lane right-of-way. mixed Portland, Oregon, operates a light rail transit line on a Bus Transit on America are in North The highest bus volumes Port to the 210-berth approach the Lincoln Tunnel in Manhattan. Bus Terminal Authority Midtown carrying 33,000 people 735 buses Approximately in exclusive bus lanes per hour operate nonstop and bus-only ramps. busways with passing capabilities Exclusive decrease. in Ottawa, Ontario—can carryat stations—like those per hour in than 10,000 people on 200 buses more streets—such Dual bus lanes on city one direction. in Manhattan, and the as along Madison Avenue Malls in Portland, Transit Fifth and Sixth Avenue achieve this flow rate. Oregon—also several loading if each stop has to 120 buses per hour, dispersed. These are and if passenger boardings areas to 5,000 to 7,500 passengers bus volumes correspond depending on passenger loads. per hour, on different types of facilities. The travel speeds types of facilities. on different differ- reflect and the speed ranges include stops; dwell times, route stop spacing, ences in average and other factors. congestion, traffic geometry, 32 TR NEWS 232 MAY–JUNE 2004 terminals, flatjunctions,andsingle-track operations. fixed-block cabsignals,moving blocks, turn-backsat movement, ispresented forconventional blocksignals, transit. Aseriesofequations,keyed tothedynamicsof rail, lightcommuterand automaticguideway The TCQSMsetsforth procedures forgrade-separated Rail 15-minute passengervolumes. again byapeakhourfactorthatreflects thepeak passengers foranarticulated bus—and multiplying passengers forastandard 40-footbusor90to100 maximum scheduledloadperbus—forexample,60 plying thenumberofbusesperhourbyaverage berths. Personcapacitiesare calculatedbymulti- tool forcalculatingcapacitystopswithseveral the capacityatasingleon-linestopandprovide a mining loading-area vehiclecapacity. Exhibitsshow The manualprovides thebasicequationfordeter- Bus type ofpublictransport. Briefsamplesfollow. tional procedures, andsampleproblems foreach The TCQSMcontainsdetailedanalyses,computa- Analysis Procedures with only4doorsperside. process passengersfasterthanNewYork Citycars 75-footcarshave5doorspersideand Kong’s called busstopsinthetrafficlanetoloadandunloadriders, Oregon, A Portland, time—the amountoftimeneededfor abustoclearthestop—differs between off-line odn,busesstopoutoftrafficandmust waitfor asuitablegap intrafficbefore re-entering. loading, function of tem, includingblocklengthsandseparation; rsae Australia. Brisbane, Multiple loadingareas attheSouth EastBusway in The minimumtrainoperatingheadwayisa ◆ The typeandcharacteristicsofthesignalsys- on-line on-line and odn.Theclearance loading. off-line odn.In loading. TR NEWS 232 MAY–JUNE 2004 33 When designing for a new system, 5.4 square feet When designing for a new system, 5.4 square Updating the Manual The TCQSM is a living document, which will be and updated continuously by the TRB reviewed Capacity and Quality of Ser- Committee on Transit vice. Continued liaison with transit agencies will be User com- of this continuing effort. an integral part welcome and can be made via the com- ments are mittee’s website at http://webboard.TRB.org/~tcqsm. the TCQSM, visit the online TRB Bookstore, order To or call 202-334-3213. www.TRB.org/bookstore/, Harbor point-to-point ferry service in Vancouver, Canada. per passenger during the peak hour is appropriate for per passenger during the peak hour is appropriate of ser- comfortable—level a higher—that is, more passenger space corre- vice. This recommended per sponds to a linear loading level of 1.8 passengers foot of length for heavy rail cars and 1.5 passengers light rail cars. per foot of length for narrower Ferries the capacities of passenger A new chapter reviews or loading area and automobile ferries. Ferry berth of arrival service a function time, capacities are clearance which consists of disembarking time plus service which consists of time, time, and departure embarking time plus clearance time. Passenger or ticket collection, and payment demand, fare embarking and disembarking times, facilities affect and mooring procedures, and gangway technology, clearance time. The TCQSM affect harbor traffic shows how to key these data to vessels of varying size to estimate the passenger capacity of a ferry loading area. Moving block system with variable stopping Moving block system Three-aspect system, 122 seconds; system, Three-aspect and system, 116 seconds; Cab-control The operating speed at station approaches and speed at station approaches The operating dwell times. and the station The train length The operating results for moving block signal The operating results For light rail systems that operate on exclusive for U.S. and Canadian rapid Space requirements The Siemens-Düwag car used in nine light rail Applying these procedures to a 660-foot, 8- to Applying these procedures ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ Platform traffic in Portland,Platform Oregon. controls, however, remain to be documented. remain however, controls, for heavy rail can be used, procedures rights-of-way, train lengths. The bus taking into account the shorter running, with capacity equation can apply to street needed; adjustments for the longer clearance times every in addition, it is desirable to operate trains spillback. other signal cycle to minimize possible would For a 90-second cycle, for example, the limit be 20 trains per track per hour. about 2.1 to 3.5 transit or heavy rail cars range from end of passengers per foot of car length. The higher crush load conditions. The this range approaches per lower end of this range, at 2.1 to 2.4 passengers passenger foot of length, with a standing space per feet,of 4.3 to 3.2 square yet tight, is an appropriate, for City, New York systems. range for higher-use 3 square instance, uses a schedule design loading of feet per passenger on busy lines. ranges systems (with some dimensional changes) per foot of car length. 1.5 to 2.4 passengers from The lower level of 1.5 passengers per foot of length feet with a standing space per passenger of 4.3 square com- closely with the recommended corresponds feet per passenger. loading of 5.4 square fortable distance, 102 seconds. exits or at other bottlenecks, such as junctions; and bottlenecks, such exits or at other with the following headways 10- car train produces a 45-second dwell time: 34 TR NEWS 232 MAY–JUNE 2004 12 NationalCommunity Impact 21–26 Workshop onTransit Capacity and 12 Removing Water from Within 2–4 August Joint SummerMeetingofthe 25–27 Highway Capacity andQualityof 21–24 W 20–21 Annual Workshop 43rd on 18–21 ManagementandProductivity 18–20 Design Midyear Meeting Geometric 14–17 July 2004 TRB Meetings CALENDAR *TRB iscosponsorofthemeeting. [email protected]/. Meetinglistings withoutTRBstaff contacts havedirect linksfrom theTRBcalendarwebpage. usually isavailable2to3months in advance.Forinformation,contacttheindividuallistedat202-334-2934, fax202-334-2003 cosponsors, andlinkstoconference websites,isavailableonline(www.TRB.org/calendar). Registrationandhotelinformation Additional informationonTRBconferences andworkshops,including callsforabstracts,registration andhotelinformation,lis Claire Felbinger Portland, Maine Assessment Conference* Peter Shaw Canada Vancouver, BritishColumbia, Quality ofService Sacramento, California Pavement Structures* Elaine King Park City, Utah Committees andManagement Freight, Finance, Environmental, Economics, Planning, Richard Cunard State College,Pennsylvania and Conference CommitteeMidyear Meeting Service Richard Cunard Detroit, Michigan Cooperation Vehicle-Infrastructureto Support James McDaniel Savannah, Georgia Transportation Law Claire Felbinger Woods Hole,Massachusetts Summer 2004Conference Williamsburg, Virginia and Workshop orkshop onResearch Needed Creating RuralFreight Transport 8 Pro Walk–Pro Bike* 7–10 Geotechnical MethodsRevisited 7 September Access 6thNationalMeetingon 1 29–Sept. Performance Measures toImprove 22–24 62 2ndInternationalConference on 26–29 9thNationalConference on 22–24 Structural MaterialsTechnology: 14–17 American Conference on North 12–15 Richard Pain Victoria, BritishColumbia,Canada G.P. Jayaprakash Kansas City, Missouri Kimberly Fisher Kansas City, Missouri Management Kimberly Fisher California Irvine, National Conference 2nd Transportation Systems: Stephen Maher Minneapolis, Minnesota Accelerated Pavement Testing* Kimberly Fisher Colorado Springs, Colorado Tools oftheTrade and Medium-SizedCommunities: Transportation Planningfor Small Stephen Maher Buffalo, NewYork and Bridges* Nondestructive TestHighways for Nondestructive Evaluation– Richard Pain Detroit, Michigan Around theWorld* BestPracticesfrom Elderly Mobility: Joedy Cambridge Minneapolis, Minnesota inaGlobalMarket*Opportunities 92 2ndInternationalConference on 19–22 October 82 Conference for Research on 18–20 7thMarineTransportation System 16–17 Household Travel National Survey 1–2 November Future Truck andBusSafety 26–27 14thEquipmentManagement 24–27 16thNationalRuralPublicand 24–27 6thInternationalConference on 19–24 Elaine King,KimberlyFisher Chicago, Illinois Women’s Transportation Issues Joedy Cambridge Washington, D.C. Coordination Conference Research andTechnology Tom Palmerlee Washington, D.C. Nation’s Travel UnderstandingOur Conference: Richard Pain Washington, D.C. Research Conference Opportunities Minneapolis, Minnesota Workshop Peter Shaw Roanoke, Virginia the Gold Celebrating theSilver—Going for Intercity BusTransportation: Stephen Maher Brisbane, Queensland,Australia Managing Pavements* Kyoto, Japan Management* and Safety, Bridge Maintenance, ts of , ore-mail TR NEWS 232 MAY–JUNE 2004 35 Buckling , include The committee’s findings and recommenda- legislative and regulatory actions to enable instal- legislative and regulatory and acceptable new belt use lation of effective technologies in passenger vehicles. reminder Study Charge that the National Research requested Congress conduct Council (NRC) of the National Academies and pub- a study to examine the potential benefits seat belt lic acceptability of technologies to boost systems that exceed regula- use, such as reminder of the Trans- Under the auspices tory requirements. NRC convened an expert Board, Research portation the study, committee (see box, page 37) to carry out which was funded by NHTSA. tions, published in 278, Special Report Seat Belt Use to Increase Up: Technologies use should result in an estimated 250 lives saved use should result per year. Belt use rates in the 1 sing seat belts is one of the most effec- sing seat belts is one tive strategies available to the driving public for avoiding death and injury in nearly 35 years however, a crash. Today,

Properly used, seat belts can reduce the risk of used, seat belts can reduce Properly Statistics cited in this article were valid in 2003, when the valid in 2003, were Statistics cited in this article since the federal government required that all pas- since the federal government required approxi- senger cars be equipped with seat belts, of U.S. drivers and front-seat mately one-quarter up. not buckling passengers are study was completed. 1 United States lag well behind the 90 to 95 percent north- usage rates in Canada, Australia, and several countries. ern European occupants by about 45 fatal injury for front-seat in light in cars and by about 60 percent percent to trucks driven as passenger vehicles. According Safety Administration the National Highway Traffic in belt point increase (NHTSA), each percentage U

NANCY P. HUMPHREY Technologies to Seat Belt Use Increase Technologies Buckling Up Buckling TRB SPECIAL REPORT sr278.pdf.) www.TRB.org/publications/sr/ (View thebookonline, www.TRB.org/bookstore/. online TRBBookstore, Belt Use TechnologiesIncrease Seat to Up: 278, TRB SpecialReport 36 TR NEWS 232 MAY–JUNE 2004 isavailable from the , Buckling risks tothemselvesandothers andare therefore an reportedly notwearingseatbelts.These nonuserspose Sixty percent ofdriversinseveretime. crasheswere sumption thanthosewhobuckle upallorpart ofthe higher arrest rates,andhigherrates ofalcoholcon- more traffic violations,highercrashinvolvementrates, cent ofdrivers,butthissamegroup hassignificantly new reminder systems. behavior ofthisgroup maybeopentochangethrough taking longertripsonriskier, high-speedroads. The buckle upwhentheweatherispoorortheyare fifth ofdrivers,beltuseissituational—theytendto For thesepart-time users,who constituteroughly one- have notacquired thehabitofbucklinguponalltrips. understand thesafetybenefitsofbelts,butthatthey Many driversandvehicleoccupantsreport thatthey Changing Nonusers has slowedinthepastdecade. mately 75percent. Therateofbeltusegains,however, beltuseratestoday arein beltuse.Observed approxi- duced rapidlyandhavecontributedtosharpincreases ing statestopassbeltuselaws.Thelawswere intro- to seatbelts.Theagencyalsobeganstrongly encourag- such asairbags,whichprovide supplementalprotection that required noactiononthepart ofthemotorist— time ofignition.Thisstandard remains ineffect. is activatedwhenfront seatbeltsare notfastenedatthe a 4-to8-secondwarninglightandbuzzersystemthat seconds. NHTSAthenimplementedtherequirement of locks orcontinuousbuzzerwarningsofmore than8 prohibiting NHTSAfrom requiring eitherignitioninter- tance. Congress promptly enactedlegislation ing beltcomfort, sensoraccuracy, andpublicaccep- with strong oppositionforavarietyofreasons, includ- starting ifanyfront-seat occupantwasnotbuckledup. with anignitioninterlocktoprevent theenginefrom model year(MY)1974passengervehiclesbeequipped As aninterimmeasure, NHTSAmandatedthatall delayed theintroduction ofairbagsandautomaticbelts. buckle up.Technical andpoliticalfactors,however, light andbuzzerwarningstoremind motoriststo airbags, automaticbeltsystems,and60-secondflashing percent—buckled upvoluntarily. sengers. Fewmotorists—perhaps only10to15 ever, wasnotenoughtomotivateusebydriversandpas- improve highwaysafety. Theavailabilityofbelts,how- dards stemmingfrom federallegislationin1960to new passengervehicleswasoneoftheoriginalstan- The requirement toinstalllapandshoulderbeltsinall Past Strategies Hard-core nonuserscompriseapproximately 4per- focusedonrestraint systems NHTSA subsequently The ignitioninterlockrequirement, however, met A newagencythen,NHTSAbeganpromoting tems maynotbeeffective. important audiencetoreach; however, reminder sys- NHTSA’s regulatory scoperemains limited. what maybeperceived asintrusivesystems,and rience. Industryissensitivetoconsumeracceptanceof duction continuetobeaffected bytheinterlockexpe- technologies are more sophisticatedandreliable. cantly higher;beltsare betterdesigned;andsensing for adultsinallbutonestate;beltuseratesare signifi- gies forincreasing seatbeltuse.Beltuseiscompulsory that oftheearly1970stointroduction oftechnolo- after-marketStates. optionintheUnited unless beltsare buckled—soonmaybeavailableasan shifter lock—whichprevents thechangingofgears equipment, althoughtechnologiessuchasaseatbelt ufacturers are developinginterlocksystemsasoriginal go beyondthecurrent 4-to8-secondwarning.Noman- belt reminder systemsincorporatingtechnologiesthat the unbelteddrivertobuckleup. intermittently forupto5minutesalert andremind of warningchimesandflashinglightsthatoperates selected MY2000vehicleswithBeltMinder™,asystem ily. Ford MotorCompany, forexample,equipped prevented from providing newtechnologiesvoluntar- seat beltusetechnologies,butmanufacturers are not NHTSA’s regulatory scopeinnew Federal lawrestricts Technology Revisited imum performance standards. does nothavethelegislativeauthority toestablishmin- introducing newsystemsonsome models,NHTSA and unnecessarilyrestrictive. Althoughindustryis requiring newseatbeltusetechnologiesisoutdated sidered onlyforcertain high-riskdrivers. ability. Thissuggeststhatinterlocks shouldbecon- that required interlockswouldhavealow accept- and focusgroups conductedforthisstudysuggest hard-core nonusers,butthein-depthinterviews interlocks, probably wouldbe necessarytoreach reminder tobuckleup. users, forexample,apparently wouldwelcomea be received favorablybymostconsumers.Part-time systems—have thepotentialtoincrease beltuseandto technologies—particularly theenhancedbeltreminder officials, thecommitteeconcludedthatnewseatbeltuse NHTSA, andafterbriefingsbyindustrygovernment andfocusgroupsdepth interviews conductedby After reviewing theliterature, aswelltheresults ofin- Findings Nevertheless, thepaceandtypeoftechnologyintro- Today’s environment isfarmore conducivethan Many othercompaniesplantodeployenhanced In addition,thelegislationprohibiting NHTSAfrom More aggressive systems,suchastransmission TR NEWS 232 MAY–JUNE 2004 37 Arizona State University, Gold Canyon Technology Study Technology , & Finkelstein Michael Associates, Bethesda, Maryland , Consumers Union, East Haddam, Connecticut , (retired), of North University Carolina Chapel Hill , Texas Tech University, Lubbock Tech , Texas , Safety,Inc., Traffic Coalition for Automotive Arlington, Virginia , Office, AAA National Washington, D.C. , NuStats Partners, LP,Austin, Texas , Safety, Institute for Insurance Highway Arlington, Virginia Seat belt reminder systems may systems Seat belt reminder and the introduc- If these efforts (Chair), , State University of New York at Stony Brook at Stony , York of New State University , ProBiomechanics, LLC, Bloomfield Hills, Michigan , Rutgers University, Newark, Jersey New The author, Senior Program Officer Senior Program The author, Division of Studies and in TRB’s Information Services, served as for this project. Study Director use. These include enactment of primary seat belt use laws that enable police to pull over and cite drivers who as publicly not buckled up, as well are programs. enforcement promoted hard- not be adequate for reaching near term, nonusers. In the core NHTSA and the private sector should and research encourage strongly development of seat-belt interlock systems for specific applications. For the could require example, the courts use of interlocks for motorists con- parents victed of driving impaired; could install interlocks on vehicles driven by teenagers; insurance com- rates for panies could lower premium young drivers of vehicles with interlock systems; and fleet owners could install interlocks. sys- tion of enhanced belt reminder high-risk drivers, tems fail to reach the issue of requiring however, in a interlocks should be revisited few years. Committee for the Safety Belt the Safety for Committee Seat belt use technologies should be viewed as com- Seat belt use technologies should be viewed as David A.David Champion D. Loeb Peter Donald W.Reinfurt Patricia R.Patricia DeLucia Dinh-Zarr T.Bella Michael M. Finkelstein Philip W.Haseltine M.Judith Tanur C.Viano David Allan F.Williams P.Zmud Johanna William Howell William Howell NHTSA can base any needed regulations on good sci- NHTSA can base any needed regulations front-seat ence. Although the immediate emphasis is on development of effective systems, aggressive reminder systems also should be pursued. reminder rear-seat plements to other proven strategies for increasing belt strategies for increasing plements to other proven The committee recommends that Congress amend that Congress The committee recommends To intro- systems are that the most effective ensure The recommended strategy includes a program of includes a program strategy The recommended Recommendations The committee’s sum- briefly recommendations, In the full report. detailed in are marized below, designed to are recommendations general, the the installation of effective encourage and facilitate new seat belt use technologies. systems on belt reminder the statutory restrictions flexibility NHTSA with more providing immediately, tech- belt reminder effective and authority to require voluntarily industry Moreover, nologies, if necessary. seats of every systems in the front new should provide vehicle, and these systems new light-duty passenger not visible indicators that are should have audible and easily disconnected. duced, NHTSA should monitor and evaluate deploy- duced, NHTSA should monitor and evaluate If industry does not move promptly, ment closely. acceptable NHTSA should mandate the most effective systems and should conduct another independent to evaluate progress. in 5 years review that and field testing to ensure behavioral research 38 TR NEWS 232 MAY–JUNE 2004 OEY .SANDS JOCELYN N. Meeting theNeedsofMariners System Displays Shipboard Automatic Identification REPORT SPECIAL TRB

PHOTO:DAVID NATALI,CLIPPER NAVIGATION,INC. A Wheelhouse ofhigh-speedferry. waters andaboard U.S.-flagvessels. Coast Guard (USCG)regulates AISforvesselsinU.S. States Sea (SOLAS).TheUnited Safety ofLifeat the going vesselsundertheInternationalConventionfor board. Therequirements mandateAISforocean- charts, publications,andequipmentthatmustbeon national carriagerequirements, whichspecifythe merchant vesselshasbeguntoadopttheinter- board displayofinformation.Theworldfleet ments forAIS,butlittleeffort hasaddressed theship- to definethetechnicalandcommunicationsrequire- safety datafrom shore stationstovessels. tion ofvesseltraffic managementandnavigational and shore stations.AISalsofacilitatesthecommunica- Council (NRC)oftheNationalAcademies,toassess (TRB)–Marine Board, through theNationalResearch USCG askedtheTransportation Research Board oassistindevelopingAIScarriagerequirements, To During thelasttwodecades,muchhasbeendone tion, course,andspeedtoothervessels identification,posi- mation aboutavessel’s (AIS) automaticallycommunicatesinfor- shipboard automaticidentificationsystem waterways operations(seebox,page 41). waterways marine navigationandshipoperations,inland human factors,shipdesignandmarineengineering, mentation andelectronic systemsengineering, NRC assembledacommitteeofexperts ininstru- vant domesticandinternationalAISprograms. manufacturers andstandards-making bodies;and international standards, andrequirements setby cal integration,requirements forharmonizingwith qualifications andskillsrequirements; considerations, andhumanfactorsdesign; bers ofthecommitteenotedthat AISdatamustbe of marinerworkloadanddata management. Mem- of implementation,andothersstem from theissues concerns are theresult ofAISbeing in theearlystages Some ofthe ing theshipboard displayofinformation. Sweden. and sitevisitstotheUnitedKingdom,Germany, and including aworkshopinNewOrleans,Louisiana, and conductedinformation-gatheringsessions, reviewed alarge amountofbackground information AIS standards andrequirements. Thecommittee make recommendations toaidUSCGindeveloping art forAISdisplays,analyze current problems, and The committeewasaskedtoevaluatethestateof Identifying Concerns board AISdisplaysfrom Consideration wastobegiventheeffects onship- human factorsaspectsofoperatingthesesystems. uate systemdesignsandcapabilities,review the the stateofart inAISdisplaytechnologies,eval- ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ Under theauspicesofTRBMarineBoard, The committeeidentifiedmany concernsaffect- Lessons learnedandbestpracticesfrom rele- Changes intechnology, equipmentandtechni- Differences inoperatingenvironments andin The rangeoftaskstobesupported; Technology, security, economics, operating integrated carefully into the volume of information 3. To assist authorities in vessel traffic management. provided to mariners from a variety of sources, or much of the potential benefit from AIS could be lost. To assist in collision avoidance, an AIS display These concerns are implicit in the committee’s should supply information directly to the mariner for recommendations. The committee advises USCG to maneuvering within close quarters or planning a ensure that safety and human factors are priorities in meet-and-pass encounter. A shipboard display, how- the development of AIS regulations. ever, probably would have little use in providing ship and cargo information to local authorities. Systematic Implementation Because of the complexity of implementing AIS Operating Environment aboard vessels, the committee finds that a systematic Nonetheless, AIS can communicate a range of data to plan is needed. The plan would address assumptions assist in vessel traffic management, and a shipboard about the types of onboard equipment to be inte- display may have a significant role in this task, grated with AIS. For example, requirements are depending on the nature and design of the traffic TRB Special Report 273, needed for integrating AIS information with infor- management system. The relationships between AIS Shipboard Automatic mation from other onboard electronic navigation sys- functions, information types, and data elements are Identification System Displays: tems. Additional work is needed to determine the summarized in Figure 1. Meeting the Needs of best way to integrate current and new systems. AIS information will be displayed in many differ- Mariners, is available from Recommendation 1: USCG should establish an ent operating environments: rivers and inland water- the online TRB Bookstore, implementation plan and schedule for AIS shipboard ways, high-density ports with mixed traffic, coastal www.TRB.org/bookstore/. display standards in consultation with stakeholders. waterways, urban harbors with scheduled ferry and (View the book online, www.TRB.org/publications/ Key elements of the plan should include passenger vessel operations, and major commercial sr/sr273.pdf.) ports accommodating large deep-sea vessels. In the ◆ Research in technical and human factors, United States, operators of tugs, towing vessels, pas- ◆ Determination and analysis of requirements, senger ferries, and other non-SOLAS vessels are most and likely to be required to use AIS. ◆ Development of international and domestic The operating environment will affect the config- standards. uration of the displays with which AIS must interface for proper operation. Many of these smaller domes- AIS and Shipboard Displays tic vessels, however, may not carry all of the equip- Although displays can be the means for converting ment with which an AIS needs to interface for proper AIS data into useful information for the operator, lit- operation—they may carry none at all. tle has been done to define the information needs The majority of the large commercial vessels tran- and priorities for display parameters. In the United siting U.S. waters are of foreign registry and are States, AIS is in the early stages of implementation, manned by a variety of nationalities. This compli- and the technology is experimental or prototype. cates display issues because a common operating Concerned that problems could result without the timely and prudent introduction of AIS displays, AIS Data Elements the committee advises that AIS displays should be Functions Hazardous cargo introduced to meet the needs of mariners without Beam Navigational status Draft Vessel Traffic adding a burden of inessential information. Length ETA* Management Antenna location Weather AIS complements traditional aids to navigation Route plan* but does not replace them. For example, AIS does not Course replace the need to establish vehicle position using all Heading available means appropriate to the circumstances. Antenna location Speed Draft Collision The system should display three types of vessel- Length/beam Position Avoidance specific data: static information, dynamic informa- Rate of turn* TR NEWS 232 MAY–JUNE 2004 tion, and voyage-related information. Length/beam The International Maritime Organization (IMO) Vessel name Call sign/MMSI Cargo on has defined three functions for AIS: Cargo on board Identification Type of ship/IMO# board Cargo 1. To assist in collision avoidance when operating in *Optional information the ship-to-ship mode, Static Dynamic Voyage-related 2. To provide information about a ship and its cargo Information Type to authorities on shore, and FIGURE 1 Representative AIS data elements, functions, and information. 39 environment must be established for mariners, inde- ◆ Defining the information needs of mariners; pendent of the area in which they are operating. ◆ Defining key functions for AIS displays aboard different types of vessels and in different operating envi- Carriage Requirements ronments; Carriage equipment is designated as Class A, Class A ◆ Developing appropriate requirements for each derivative, or Class B. Class A units are for oceango- major vessel class, taking into consideration the differing vessels. Class A derivative units are portable ences in operating environments; carry-on units generally used by pilots in U.S. ports ◆ Involving the key stakeholders in the entire and waterways. Class B units have less stringent process; and requirements and are intended for use by inland and ◆ Developing a new requirement for minimum coastal vessels. information display of AIS. Class A derivative units have received the most attention in the United States because they are simi- USCG should take the lead in establishing display lar to those that pilots have used as carry-aboard requirements for AIS information and should work with units. The definition, role, and display requirements appropriate international organizations to ensure com- for Class A derivative units, however, are incomplete. patibility with international requirements. Class B units also are not well defined. More analy- Recommendation 3: USCG should recognize the sis of Class A derivatives and Class B is necessary evolving nature of AIS display technology in its require- before unit requirements can be specified. ments process and allow for technological change, The initial carriage requirements do not specify growth, and improvements. shipboard display for use by the mariner, except for the minimal, basic numerical identification data. The Human Factors in Design minimum keyboard and display (MKD)—a minimal For AIS to promote safe vessel navigation, an effec- numerical system—is used widely as a shipboard tive onboard interface with the vessel’s operator is display but does not provide adequate information essential. An interface should include both the dis- for the mariner and could be detrimental to safe ves- play and the control mechanisms that allow the sel navigation. USCG therefore should establish new exchange of information between the operator and minimal display standards before MKD becomes the the rest of the system. Information may be displayed default standard for U.S. operations. through such means as a cathode ray tube, graphics, auditory warnings, and data entry and through con- Taking the Lead trol elements such as keyboards or switches. Recommendation 2: USCG should establish require- A typical iterative cycle of system development ments for shipboard display of AIS information in focusing on human factors is shown in Figure 2 : navigable waters of the United States by 1. Understanding the operational demands and the needs of the mariner. Advanced technology can increase errors and risk even when appearing beneficial. Understanding 2. Initial design incorporates the large body of • Tasks demands and knowledge about human factors interface. Human fac- information needs tors principles relevant to AIS interface design include • Existing equipment • Operating environment ensuring that system behavior is completely visible to the operator, avoiding interface management tasks during high-tempo situations, and realizing that the repre- sentation of AIS data can greatly affect interpretations. Evaluation Design Multimodal display alternatives should be considered in addition to graphics and text. • Heuristic evaluation • Human factors principles 3. Evaluation of the design. The evaluation tests a • Usability test and guidelines design’s performance and leads to adoption or redesign • Test and evaluation • Multimodal interaction to correct a problem. A trial-and-error method, usabil- alternatives ity testing, and operational evaluation are complementary approaches to identifying problems. FIGURE 2 Iterative cycle of system development. (Adapted from Woods, D. D., E. S. Patterson, J. Corban, and J. C. Watts. Bridging the Gap Between User-Centered Intentions and Actual Design Practice. Maritime technology and AIS applications are diffi-

TR NEWS 232 MAY–JUNE 2004 TR NEWS 232 MAY–JUNE Proc., 40th Annual Meeting, Vol.2, Human Factors and Ergonomics cult to predict. USCG needs to allow designers the free- 40 Society, Santa Monica, Calif., 1996, pp. 967–971.) dom to adapt to changes. Recommendation 4: In its standards, USCG should topics for research specify that design, process, and performance standards include symbology, cost– Committee for Evaluating be used in combination to promote adequate shipboard benefit trade-offs, data Shipboard Display of Automatic AIS displays. input strategies, and Identification Systems multiple tasking. System Limitations Recommendation 7: Martha R.Grabowski (Chair),LeMoyne College,Syracuse,and The committee finds several limitations to AIS: USCG should establish Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York an ongoing research pro- Carl E. Bowler, Walnut Creek, California ◆ The systems are not fail-safe. Equipment that is gram to investigate infor- Elizabeth J. Gedney, Victoria Express, Port Angeles, not operating onboard can drop out of use for surveil- mation displays and Washington lance. A decision to turn the equipment off or otherwise controls appropriate for Douglas J. Grubbs, Crescent River Port Pilots Associa- disable it also removes the vessel from the display. AIS. The research pro- tion, Metairie, Louisiana ◆ The integrity of the data that must be provided by gram should consider Don K. Kim, AMSEC, LLC, M. Rosenblatt & Son Group, the carrying vessel is not assured. Some data are manu- AIS use with other navi- Arlington, Virginia ally entered by an operator and can be changed or could gational and communi- John D. Lee, University of Iowa, Iowa City contain errors. cations technologies. Robert G. Moore, Coastwatch, Inc., Vashon, Washington ◆ Multiple shipboard sensors can produce multi- The research program Roy L. Murphy, Kirby Corporation, Channelview, Texas ple displays of single targets. The target ambiguity should include Nadine B. Sarter, Ohio State University, Columbus must be resolved through a sorting process not yet fully developed. ◆ Human factors aspects of interface design and the subsequent process of determining requirements, set- Further attention may need to be given to such ting standards, and evaluating performance; issues as the system capacity for transmitting mes- ◆ Evaluation of multimodal interfaces—for exam- sages, transponder coverage and the spacing of ple, tactile and auditory—that could support mariners’ shore-based repeater stations, the adequacy and needs for attention management. accuracy of digital charting, the availability of vessel ◆ Investigation of trade-offs between information instrumentation, and the need for standardized inter- requirements and the associated cost for shipboard dis- faces between equipment. play of AIS. Training will be needed. Stakeholders such as vessel operators, equipment manufacturers, and vessel Operational Testing traffic managers should be involved in developing Although USCG and other authorities have conducted training guidelines. operational tests of AIS technology in the United States Recommendation 5: USCG should identify critical and abroad, none of the tests has produced clear evalu- AIS limitations and infrastructure requirements and ations of performance measured against specific stan- coordinate them with display requirements. USCG dards. Few of the tests on displays have involved AIS should establish a mechanism to inform all users about equipment built to IMO standards. system limitations that cannot be corrected readily. Recommendation 8: USCG should sponsor continu- Recommendation 6: USCG should work with stake- ing operational tests, evaluation, and certification of holders to develop appropriate training and certification new display and control technology in consultation guidelines for AIS users that will lead to effective use and with stakeholders and should prepare test and evalua- an understanding of system functions and limitations. tion reports. To conduct tests and evaluations, USCG should develop standards for human performance with Ongoing Research display and control technology. Heuristic evaluation The development of AIS displays requires consideration should be used, so that several designers can assess of the human interface attributes that affect what infor- how well a design conforms to human factors princi- mation to display, how to present it to the operator, how ples. Usability tests and operational evaluations should to integrate other displays or other bridge information be incorporated as complementary approaches to TR NEWS 232 MAY–JUNE 2004 systems, and how to give the operator what is most assess how well AIS displays and controls support needed to perform critical tasks. A key research area that mariner performance. has received little attention is whether AIS data will be presented to the operator separately or integrated with The author is Research Associate, TRB Division of Stud- other equipment and information flows. ies and Information Services. Beverly M. Huey, Senior Another area for research is how the input of data Program Officer, Transportation Research Board, served into AIS during the normal conduct of vessel operations as Study Director for this project, assisted by Pete John- may interfere with mariners’ other duties. Additional son, Consultant. 41 42 TR NEWS 232 MAY–JUNE 2004 Removing aconcrete pavement section inWisconsin. New Hampshire. Laboratory, Hanover, and Engineering Cold RegionsResearch Development Center, Research and Engineers, Engineer Army Corpsof Civil Engineer, U.S. The authorisResearch RESEARCH P construction seasonintothewinter. freezing. Theadmixtures canextendtheconcrete commercial admixtures canprotect concrete from tory (CRREL),however, hasdemonstratedthat Cold RegionsResearch andEngineeringLabora- mal protection. Recentresearch bytheU.S.Army placed duringsubfreezing weatherwithoutther- United States. by asmuchfourmonthsinmanyparts ofthe could extendthecold-weatherconstructionseason in materialsandplacementcosts.Thetechnique enclosures, producing savingsof20to90percent that thesubstratebethawed,andconcrete concrete bedelivered warmtotheconstructionsite, Cold-weather constructionpracticerequires that Problem KORHONEN CHARLES J. Cold-Weather Construction Admixtures Facilitate A PAYS OFF PAYS Portland cementconcrete generallycannotbe NTIFREEZE subfreezing temperatures withoutheated Wisconsin andNewHampshire during cially availableadmixtures wasplacedin ortland cementconcrete withcommer- C ONCRETE air temperatures approach 40°F. concrete pavementsare seldomconstructedwhen essary—but are notalwayspractical.Asaresult, blankets, andotherthermalprotection becomenec- below 40°F, however, heatedenclosures, insulation ment ofconcrete. Whenthetemperature drops 40°F, insulationusuallysuffices toallowtheplace- be keptwarmwhilecuring.Attemperatures near strength gainforthecandidateformulations at23°F, durability. point depression, andnotharm thefreeze–thaw ing, ensure workability, provide adequatefreezing- admixture combinationsthatcould acceleratecur- controlled laboratoryconditions,toidentifythe dosages. Theformulationswere evaluatedunder that metstandards, allwithintherecommended tions bycombiningseveralcommercial admixtures concrete from freezing duringapplication. does notindicateifthepurposewastoprevent the The literature reports fiveormore admixtures but with more thanoneadmixture isnotuncommon. number ofadmixtures inasinglebatch,andconcrete ture toconcrete. Nolimitsapply, however, tothe ature requirement. enough freeze protection tomeetthelow-temper- admixture inrecommended amountscouldprovide cement. Previous research showedthatnosingle of waterandtoacceleratethehydrationrate available admixtures todepress thefreezing point strength, constructability, andeconomy. and applicationat23°Forlower, withadequate tures. Theproject required off-the-shelf admixtures crete forhighwaypavingatsubfreezing tempera- Administration, CRRELdevelopedanantifreeze con- In apooled-fundproject fortheFederalHighway Solution The laboratorytestsindicated anappreciable CRREL researchers produced candidateformula- Current practiceslimittheamountofeachadmix- CRREL evaluatedcombinationsofcommercially P AVING TR NEWS 232 MAY–JUNE 2004 43 : Appreciation is expressed to Amir is expressed : Appreciation Extended up to 60 days Extended up to 120 days Extended up Year-round OTE N S ’ Reducing the adverse impact of construction acci- the number of work zone Decreasing the utilization of construction Improving ◆ ◆ ◆ Use of antifreeze concrete also extends the con- concrete Use of antifreeze colder sea- construction into Extending roadway DITOR Suggestions for “Research Pays Off” topics are Pays Off” Suggestions for “Research Jayaprakash, Transporta- welcome. Contact G. P. Wash- 500 Fifth Board, NW, Street, tion Research ington, DC 20001 (telephone 202-334-2952, e-mail [email protected]). Hanna, Transportation Research Board, for his Board, Research Hanna, Transportation in developing this article. efforts FIGURE 1 Potential extension of construction season FIGURE 1 Potential concrete. with the use of antifreeze on the public; dents; and lim- equipment and labor by extending the seasonal its of construction work. For further information contact Charles J. Korhonen, Corps of Engi- U.S. Army Civil Engineer, Research and Engineering neers-ERDC, Cold Regions Research New Hampshire Road, Hanover, 72 Lyme Laboratory, 03755-1290, 603-646-4438, e-mail Charles.J.Korho- [email protected]. E ing and dismantling the shelter for an identical con- ing and dismantling the shelter for an identical several days. required section would have trol struction season by 60 to 120 days (Figure 1) and struction season by 60 to 120 days (Figure on can be placed safely concrete that the ensures adequate substrates, that it will develop frozen and temperatures, to low despite exposure strength durability. that it will exhibit adequate freeze–thaw the fol- offers volume is lower, sons, when traffic lowing benefits: Cost and time, practice, Compatibility with common and Finishability, issues. Equipment and labor Batch mixing, Transportability, Ease of placement, On the Rhinelander project, the antifreeze tech- the antifreeze On the Rhinelander project, The demonstrations of the antifreeze concrete of the antifreeze The demonstrations In one project in Rhinelander, Wisconsin, in Wisconsin, in Rhinelander, In one project with Removal of the pavement and replacement 48 The pavement section was opened to traffic ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ Antifreeze concrete made with commercial admix- made with commercial concrete Antifreeze placement and normal allows unprotected tures as low as 23°F. curing at external temperatures mate- the concrete increase admixtures Antifreeze the placement costs by elimi- rial cost but reduce and extra labor. nating the need for heat, shelter, com- the cost by nearly 20 percent nology reduced with the cost of using a heated enclosure. pared For greater. were The savings on other projects a 90 realized project example, one New Hampshire in materials and placement costs reduction percent concrete instead of regular concrete with antifreeze After surface under conventional heated enclosures. section on this project the antifreeze preparation, was placed and finished within a few hours; erect- Benefits with no adverse effects on durability. The formula- on durability. effects with no adverse in field tests. then evaluated tions were in Wiscon- took place at five locations technology was evalu- The concrete sin and New Hampshire. ated for February 2002, a section of pavement 10 feet wide February 2002, a section of pavement 10 and by 22 feet long by 10 inches deep was removed air temper- The concrete. with antifreeze replaced to approx- of work, rose was 14°F at the start ature and imately 32°F during placement of the concrete, then dipped to 10°F in the evening. completed within 3 hours. The were concrete fresh with a layer of was covered placed concrete freshly loss, and an insulation plastic to minimize moisture up the blanket was laid over the plastic to speed blanket, how- development; the insulation strength protection. was not necessary for freeze ever, and Except for the corrosion-inhibiting hours later. con- concrete the antifreeze accelerating admixtures, as tained the same materials in the same proportions including the same mea- the normal-weather concrete, admixtures. and water-reducing of air-entraining sures demon- years after construction, the antifreeze Two stration sections show no signs of distress. 44 TR NEWS 232 MAY–JUNE 2004 G mated savingsofmore than$70million. feet ofanchored wallwasplacedunder constructionatanesti- compared withstandard solutions.By1989,2million square methodology andproduced anaveragesavingsof40percent post-construction monitoringof the anchorstoprove longevity.” dard structuraldesignstoprove costeffectiveness andthenby highway agenciestobidpermanentanchordesignsagainststan- Cheney recalled. “Successwasmeasured byfirstconvincing nical groups, suchasthePost-Tensioning Institute,wasvital,” implemented thetechnologynationwide. construction specifications.Asaresult ofhiswork, FHWA cerns aboutdesign,systemlongevity, anddevelopmentof anchor technology, researching andresolving technicalcon- group inWashington, D.C.Heevaluated permanentground- the useofpilewaveequationbytransportation agencies. series ofnationalseminarssponsored byFHWA, topromote standard practiceinNewYork andrepresented theDOTina ment pilewaveequationanalysisanddynamictestingas bridges, canals,earth dams,andbuildings.Hehelpedimple- developed routine foundationinvestigationsandreports for Cheney coordinated geotechnicalworkonmajorprojects and the NewYorkState Department ofTransportation (DOT). research beganintheearly1970s,whenhewasworkingfor before semi-retiring in2002.Hisinterest ingeotechnical (FHWA) for21yearsandatParsonsBrinckerhoff for3years basic geotechnicalconcepts. thousands oftransportation engineersintheapplicationof mented newtechnologyinearth support systems,andtrained geotechnical assistanceonmajorhighwayprojects, imple- ning fourdecades,Richard Cheneyhasprovided expert Early projects verifiedthedesign andtheconstruction “Coordination withtheanchorindustryandassociated tech- After theseminars,CheneyjoinedFHWA’s geotechnical Cheney workedattheFederalHighwayAdministration slide correction. Inanengineeringcareer span- issues rangingfrom foundationdesigntoland- rock scienceswithmechanicalskillstosolve eotechnical engineeringcombinesthesoiland ...... PROFILES transportation facilities.”transportation design andconstructionof both theprofession andthe implementation toimprove that requires research and continually evolving specialty “Geotechnical engineeringisa Richard Cheney Geotechnical Engineer Geotechnical lication, until thelate1990s.Whengeotechnicalengineeringpub- manent Ground Anchors dations. Cheneycoauthored the ures, demonstratingtheneedforroutine investigationoffoun- workshop, Cheneyexaminesthecausesofgeotechnicalfail- tions more than125timestomore than3,000engineers.Inthe He haspresented thefour-day workshop onsoilsandfounda- technical trainingcoursesfortheNationalHighwayInstitute. the BostonCentralArtery andtheUtahI-15reconstruction. olution oftechnicalissuesformajorhighwayprojects, suchas provided technicalanalysis,constructioninspection,andres- later, asatechnicalconsultant. heserved I-15 project. mechanically stabilizedearth wallscouldcontinueontheUtah award forresolving criticalissues so thattheconstructionof highway projects. In1998,FHWA honored himwith aspecial of-the-art designandconstructionofgeotechnicalfeatures of Achievement Award for exceptionalcontributionstothestate- portation facilities,”heobserves. both theprofession andthedesignconstructionoftrans- cialty thatrequires research andimplementationtoimprove Strategic HighwayResearch Program.new engineering prioritiesandresearch statementsfortheproposed Cheney alsohasassistedinthedevelopmentofgeotechnical He isamemberoftheTransportation Earthworks Committee. as amemberoftheDesignandConstructionGroup Council. Structures Committeeand Foundations ofBridgesandOther Tensioning aschairofthe Institute.ForTRB,hehasserved ety ofCivilEngineers,World RoadAssociation,andthePost- the geotechnicalprofession.” expertise, andbecomearesource forboththeorganization and Cheney authored thedesignandconstructionmanual, Among highwayengineers,Cheneyisknownforhisgeo- As aseniorgeotechnicalengineeratFHWA, Cheneyalso Cheney received the FHWA Administrator’s Superior Cheney received theFHWA Administrator’s “Geotechnical engineeringisacontinuallyevolvingspe- Soci- Cheney hasparticipated inactivitiesoftheAmerican “With time,graduatesdevelopconfidence,validatetheir who isagraduateofRensselaerPolytechnicInstitute. faced withthegeotechnicalunknown,”notedCheney, wherewithal tosay, ‘Idonotknowtheanswer,’ when ment, practicalexperience,andmostimportantly, the in solvinggeotechnicalproblems. ers theeffort vital,becauseexperienceplaysalarge role time tomentoringrecent collegegraduates.Heconsid- text in2000whileworkingforParsonsBrinckerhoff. Manual Ground AnchorsandAnchored Systems “Mentors shouldprovide graduateswithencourage- In thelatterpart ofhiscareer, Cheneyhasdevoted with RonaldChassiein1982,andheupdatedthe , which served astheprimaryguide , whichserved ol andFoundationsWorkshop Soils , waspublished Per- TR NEWS 232 MAY–JUNE 2004 45 Murakami has conducted population forecasting from the from population forecasting Murakami has conducted of CTPP 2000, Murakami pro- the development Throughout She attended the University of California, com- Santa Cruz, travel surveys,Murakami has served panels for MPO on expert Commit- Issues in Transportation A member of the Women’s in in careers women more Murakami tries to interest “One of our biggest challenges is finding talented young peo- the address. The software incorporated an electronic Yellow Pages Yellow incorporated an electronic The software the address. of the business, and could type in the name so that respondents on the map. the location would appear form.” decennial census “long Cen- the 1980 used data from She for Los Angeles County in the Urban sus when she worked when she joined the the 1990 Census from Division and Research Puget orga- planning metropolitan Sound Regional Council, the Murakami has worked nization (MPO) in Seattle. At FHWA, the Census Trans- to produce Bureau closely with the U.S. Census Planning Package (CTPP) 2000 and to conduct research portation the long form with the American on the implications of replacing Murakami chairs the CTPP 2000 Working Community Survey. the American the U.S. Census Bureau, which includes Group, the Officials, Association of State Highway and Transportation Adminis- the Federal Transit Statistics, of Transportation Bureau tration, and FHWA. and data access system. Trans- moted GIS in the data production analysis zones, defined by local governments, were portation incorporated into the Census Bureau’s TIGER files, and improve- files for geocod- name and address made to employer ments were many advances, with ing workplaces. “The last 10 years have seen contributed to that GIS in every MPO, and I hope that I have change,” Murakami remarks. 1976, and planning in in environmental pleting a bachelor of arts she earned Master’s from and in gerontology in planning degrees the University of Southern California in 1982. community at TRB. the survey research and she has represented Survey Meth- and past chair of the Travel member She is a current ods Committee, and she has served High- on National Cooperative for household travel panels on standards Program way Research the Amer- surveys planning with data from and on transportation ican Community Survey. in equity and choices in mobil- tee, Murakami has a special interest the same for everyone,” she says. not needs are “Transportation ity. households, but live longer and head most single-parent “Women paid lower wages, on average, they have fewer because they are choices for their daily travel.” middle and high out to girls in by reaching transportation schools. the con- documents showcasing She has produced and the range tributions women have made to transportation today. of jobs they perform need to make sure ple to continue in our footsteps,” she says. “We future.” of the transportation part women are Federal Highway Highway Administration Federal Elaine Reiko Murakami Reiko Elaine “Research on travel “Research is infinitely behavior because interesting not machines. humans are choices that a make People computer model would ‘mistake.’” consider a ...... PROFILES

ity planners have relied on personal travel behavior sur- on personal travel behavior ity planners have relied who is traveling, to record veys since the late 1940s years, Elaine Reiko For the past 22 and why. where, travel survey meth- to improve Murakami has worked

Murakami notes that reliable, accurate information about accurate Murakami notes that reliable, Murakami also managed a Small Business Innovative Research Murakami says that telephone surveys—theMurakami says that most com- because on travel behavior is infinitely interesting “Research ner in the Office of Planning at FHWA. “People make choices that “People make choices of Planning at FHWA. ner in the Office This only means that a computer model would consider a ‘mistake.’ human decision making is very complex. can- Sometimes people when, how they make specific decisions of where, not articulate or how they travel.” by traditional choices is nearly impossible to capture route to incorpo- project methods. In 1996 she initiated a research rate Global Positioning System (GPS) technologies with a handheld computer that, when mounted on a vehicle, would of travel. The device weighed nearly the time and route record 1 kilogram (2.2 pounds) and was used in a personal vehicle Since then, several GPS-based truck survey. and a commercial Murakami surveys have been completed by other researchers. now wants to test lightweight devices that combine GPS with cellular phone data and can be carried by people instead of mounted in vehicles. to develop and implement a personal travel behavior sur- project vey via the Internet with a geographic information system (GIS) to select a spot on the component. The GIS allowed respondents map to identify a trip destination instead of having to remember mon method—can take longer than 20 minutes per person to mon method—can take longer than 20 minutes a single day of travel because respondents collect data from of the places they go, such often do not know the addresses store. as the grocery observes not machines,” Murakami, Community Plan- humans are ods to generate better quality data for trend analysis and travel fore- analysis data for trend ods to generate better quality the Angeles County, her work with Los casting decisions. Through Puget now with the Federal High- Sound Regional Council, and tech- Murakami has incorporated way Administration (FHWA), surveys. several pitfalls of self-reported nology to overcome C seal. overlaid withsmooth Maryland, Pothole-free street inRockville, 46 TR NEWS 232 MAY–JUNE 2004 weight compositematerialsandadvanced constructiontechniques.An foot buscouldbereduced upto20 percent through theuseoflight- dows, andhigherhorsepowerengines, amongotherimprovements. cle sizeandtheinstallationofclimate controls, larger double-glazed win- however, buseshave become25percent heavierduetoincreased vehi- develop weight-savingdesignconcepts. Prévost Caronthetwo-phase,$1.3-millionproject toselectand R&D armofTransport Canada,workedwithbusmanufacturer and tearonroads. TheTransportation DevelopmentCentre, the millions ofdollars,increase energy efficiency, anddecrease wear (R&D) project forlighter-weight intercity busesthatcouldsave Transport Canadahascompletedaresearch anddevelopment Reduces Bus Weights Canadian Project INTERNATIONAL NEWS In apreliminary report, theteam foundthatthecurbweightofa45- Bus designhaschangedlittleinCanadathepastthree decades; NEWS mal disruptiontotraffic duringconstruction. improves ridingqualityandskidresistance, withmini- enhances theappearanceofneighborhoods and streets receive about70poundspersquare yard. pounds persquare yard, andprimarycommercial to 0.75inches.Residentialstreets receive about60 15 years. lifeof10to placed inMarylandwithanaverageservice years. Hundreds ofmilessmoothsealhavebeen life atanaffordable cost. pavement thatcanbemanagedthroughout itsservice full depth–deepstrength structure provides long-lasting mercial streets. Thinsurfacing incombinationwitha pavements, 8inchesforprimary, and 10 inchesforcom- depth asphalt,rangingfrom 6inchesforsecondary cient streets. InRockville,manypavementsare full- plasticity forhealingcracks. the HMA’s long-termdurabilityandprovides adegree of sand. Amediumgradeofasphalt,AC-10,maintains taining 65percent crusherdustand35percent natural the original.Themixisafine,dense-gradedHMA,con- rehabilitation after30yearsofservice. roads ingoodcondition.Pavementshavenotrequired seal,” athinhot-mixasphalt(HMA)surfacing tokeep place inthelate1950s.Theapproach uses“smooth a result ofapreventive maintenancestrategyputinto potholes from itsresidential andcommercial streets as Rockville, Maryland,hasalmostcompletelyeliminated Prevents Potholes “Smooth Seal”Overlay BRIEFS This articleiscondensedfrom Residents appreciate theproduct becauseit The typicalliftthicknessforthemixrangesfrom 0.5 The program appliesathinoverlayevery10to12 Smooth sealisnotusedtooverlaystructurallydefi- The current specificationsare essentiallythesameas Potholes BeGone! construction techniquesfortheroof andfloor. Forexample,replacing mated 12to18percent. percent. Thenewdesigns would increase thecostofbusesbyanesti- of thecomponentsby50percent, ortheoverallweightofbusby9 each design. analysis ensured thestructuralintegrityandappropriate stiffness of foam core withsteel,aluminum,orfiberglass skins.Afiniteelement a varietyofhybrid-material,sandwich-paneldesignconceptsusing and driveaxles.Theteamstudieda100percent aluminumconcept and and newdesignsforthebusstructure, seats,windows,luggageracks, more than$255million. weight overa15-yearperiodwouldresult inanestimatedsavingsof analysis oflifecyclecostsshowedthata20percent decrease inbus In Phase2,theteamexaminedavariety ofreplacement materialsand The teamestimatedthatallofthe concepts wouldreduce theweight In Phase1oftheproject, theteamconsidered materialsubstitutions in mission from NationalAsphaltPavementAssociation. the May–June2004issueof portation EquityActforthe21stCentury. advertising, whichwaspartly fundedthrough theTrans- cies spentanunprecedented $25milliondollarson safety beltcitations.Thatyear, stateandnationalagen- cies nationwidereported issuingmore than500,000 for motorvehiclecrashesandlowbeltuse. targeting malesbetween18and34,apopulationatrisk tising campaignontelevision,radio,andinnewspapers, while, nationalandstateagencieslaunchedanadver- on zero-tolerance enforcement ofseatbeltlaws.Mean- points, saturationpatrols, androutine patrols focusing Memorial DayWeekend, policeofficers setupcheck- Columbia, andPuerto Rico.From mid-Maythrough agencies from the44participating states,theDistrictof way safetyofficials andthousandsoflawenforcement Safety Councilinconjunctionwithhigh- the National slogan, “ClickItorTicket,” isconductedbyNHTSAand imately 1,000deaths. 2002, considered theequivalentofpreventing approx- percent in2003—afourpercentage pointincrease from stated thatbeltusebyfront-seat occupantsreached 79 (NHTSA). Inafinalreport released inFebruary, NHTSA to theNationalHighwayTrafficSafety Administration law enforcement withapaidadvertising blitz,according annual two-weekcampaignthatcombinesheightened Columbia from May2002andto2003duringan Seat beltuseincreased in40statesandtheDistrictof “Click ItorTicket” Campaign Motorists BuckleUpDuring Safety BeltMobilizationEvaluation The NHTSAreport, During the2003campaign,lawenforcement agen- The nationalmobilizationeffort, whichcarriesthe May 2003ClickItorTicket HMAT magazine, withper- , analyzesobserva- TR NEWS 232 MAY–JUNE 2004 47 NEWS BRIEFS Weight-saving design Weight-saving concept of a passenger bus in Canada. Other Transportation Development Other Transportation material by the Summarized from part supplier ADS Groupe Compos- supplier ADS Groupe part Ltd. ites and engineering firm Martec contributed to the project. under way are projects research Centre a to examine the feasibility of producing one-piece lightweight composite bus and of using lightweight magne- roof exam- sium in seats. An earlier project ined bus suspension systems and made that would improve recommendations pavement wear. the ride while reducing For Development Centre. Transportation go Reduction Program, Bus Weight further information about the Intercity projects/road/h/menu.htm. to http://www.tc.gc.ca/tdc/ Cluster high-density housing around transit stops Cluster high-density housing around authorities more transportation Give regional Raise gasoline taxes to discourage automobile employees who Encourage firms to provide Offer high-occupancy toll lanes for drivers to toll lanes for drivers high-occupancy Offer acci- rapidly to traffic-blocking Respond more Although road areas. in growing roads Build more allow vehicles to enter an Install ramp metering to system devices that Use intelligent transportation Build new high-occupancy vehicle lanes instead with low Restrict development in peripheral areas For more information, view abstract and full report information, view For more ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ to shift a significant percentage of automobile com- to shift a significant percentage muters to transit. so that land and transportation power and resources focused. planning can be more travel. parking with stipends for shifting to car- free receive pooling or transit. of Policy Brief #128 at www.brook.edu/comm/ policybriefs/pb128.htm. avoid congestion for a fee. avoid congestion dents and incidents. projected to triple convergence, building is vulnerable road of the U.S. populations necessitates more growth areas. and lane mileage in peripheral gradually. expressway and that inform signal lights on local streets coordinate Make conditions on freeways. drivers about traffic Global Positioning available for cars System equipment and trucks. capacity. road lanes, which reduces of converting per square population density (3,500 persons or fewer pushing out farther. from mile) to stop growth , author Anthony Downs blames Traffic: Why It’s Getting Worse, What Worse, Getting Why It’s Traffic: The Brookings The Brookings Senior Fellow in Economic Studies “This work was undertaken to identify and show to bus manufac- “This work was undertaken Lightweight funded by the Canadian was partly The project In the report, In the report, For more information, view full report at http://www. information, view full report For more the inevitable congestion on triple convergence—the in any region’sflow of traffic network transportation expansions, public transit improve- to road readjusts hours. Downs explains that if work ments, or staggered highway to combat congestion, lane is added to a a third would attract commuters who had the lightened traffic or public transit or who had used alternative routes thus filling up the increased avoided the rush hour, highway capacity. con- notes that although it is impossible to eliminate several ways slow the rate of increase: are gestion, there Governments Can Do the stainless steel frame with a fastened aluminum frame saved 1,232 made of metal or glass components were pounds. New floor and roof sandwich panels glued to aluminum extrusions. This fiber-skinned saved 730 pounds in the floor and 640 pounds in the roof. approach per- acoustic characteristics, and rollover stiffness, durability, Strength, taken into account. formance were bus weight, to reduce and opportunities ways are that there turers gas emissions, greenhouse consumption and related energy reduce and comply with the axle weight limits imposed by state or provincial development offi- senior said Claude Guérette, highway regulations,” Development Centre. cer for Transportation Research of Energy Materials Initiative of the federal Program for innovative approaches and Development, which supports Bus applying advanced lightweight material in transportation. Braking the Rate of Braking the Rate Congestion Increased and congestion in almost all large Peak-hour traffic is the world around regions metropolitan growing to get worse in the next few decades, no almost certain put into place matter what public or private policies are The policy brief from a recent to to curb it, according think tank in a nonpartisan Institution, Brookings D.C. Washington, tional surveys conducted before and after the campaign. tional surveys before conducted of aware more became that respondents Results indicate not did respondents however, enforcement; stepped-up to be ticketed. One likely more they were that perceive of belt 17 percent survey found that approximately in 2003, twice the rate to users converted nonusers were campaign years. The 2004 Click It or Ticket of previous 6. took place May 24 to June nhtsa.dot.gov/people/injury/airbags/clickit_ticke03/ciot- report04/CIOT%20May%202003/index.htm. TRB HIGHLIGHTS

COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAMS NEWS

Evaluating Traffic Safety for The Texas A&M Research Foundation, College Nighttime and Daytime Work Zones Station, has been awarded a $500,000, 30-month con- The Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act tract [National Cooperative Highway Research Pro- established a procedure for documenting crashes in gram (NCHRP) 17-30, FY 2004] to determine the work zones during daytime and nighttime operations. crash rates and the nature of traffic-related crashes in Yet the various crash databases maintained by state nighttime and daytime work zones and to develop departments of transportation (DOTs) and other work-zone crash reporting recommendations to agencies, such as the Fatal Analysis Reporting System improve the collection of work-zone crash data. (FARS), fail to yield data that can provide explicit For further information contact Charles W. Niessner, conclusions that compare the danger of nighttime TRB (telephone 202-334-1431, e-mail cniessner@nas. and daytime construction operations. edu). The data are plagued by uncertainties involving (a) the level of detail contained in the data, (b) the Low-Cost Active Warning Systems relationship of crashes to specific work-zone loca- for Highway–Rail Grade Crossings tions, and (c) the variation in reporting practices. In Much research has been devoted to improving safety the 1999 book, Improving Night Work Zone Traffic at highway–rail grade crossings, and considerable Control, published by Virginia Transportation knowledge exists about driver behavior and crash Research Council, author Ben Cottrell, Jr., concluded causation. NCHRP Report 470, Traffic-Control Devices that “although there is a perception that night work for Passive Railroad–Highway Grade Crossings, rec- zones are less safe than daytime work zones, evidence ommends improvements to traffic control devices at to substantiate this perception, such as higher acci- passive crossings, which do not have signals or gates. dent rates, was not available because of lack of traf- Active warning systems that alert drivers to an fic exposure data.” Information is needed to assess approaching train are beneficial, but their cost limits the characteristics of these crashes in both daytime the number that can be installed. Some low-cost active and nighttime work zones. warning systems have been developed, but further Recent research suggests that traffic-related crash information on their functionality and performance is rates for nighttime work zones are up to three times needed to facilitate implementation. higher than those for daytime work zones. If night- Texas Transportation Institute has been awarded a time operations are as dangerous as the data and per- $200,000, 15-month contract (NCHRP Project 03-76B, ceptions suggest, more significant resources should FY 2004) to identify and assess designs for low-cost, be directed at ensuring worker and driver safety in viable active warning systems and components at high- nighttime work zones. The importance of this issue way–rail grade crossings. is magnified as state DOTs increase nighttime work For further information contact B. Ray Derr, TRB operations to decrease work-zone traffic congestion. (telephone 202-334-3231, e-mail [email protected]).

ON TRACK—The TRB Committee for Review of the Federal Railroad Administration Research, Development, and Demonstration Programs held its fifth meeting in April. The project conducts a peer review of safety- related railroad research and development, next generation high-speed rail technology demonstration, and magnetic levitation deployment programs of the Federal Railroad Administration (FRA). Letter reports of the committee’s peer-review activities are posted online at www4.nationalacademies.org/ trb/onlinepubs nsf/web/reports. Left: Jo Strang, FRA Deputy Associate Administrator for Railroad Development, listens to a presentation with committee members Gerhard Thelen, Norfolk Southern Corporation; Kenneth Lawson, independent TR NEWS 232 MAY–JUNE 2004 TR NEWS 232 MAY–JUNE consultant; and Anna Barry, Massachusetts Bay 48 Transportation Authority. TR NEWS 232 MAY–JUNE 2004 49 BOOK SHELF The books described above are not TRB The books described above are The report sum- The report publications. To order, contact the publisher listed. contact the publications. order, To operators and users, and local communities to tap of funding. The sources and emerging into current also includes analyses of 12 case studies from report proj- hub improvement an inventory of U.S. cargo detailed information on each ects. Appendices offer and a list of the inventory of projects, case study, federal and state funding sources. quality and innovation. quality and and Edited by Jones Sto- have served who pher, on on TRB committees travel analysis methods, the book includes the selected papers from International Conference Survey on Transport Quality and Innovation, held in South Africa in 2001. The conference passenger and covered in iden- interest with special transportation, freight exploring accomplishments tifying user needs and Europe. America and Western outside North Energy and Transportation: Challenges for the Chemical Sciences in the 21st Century Council. National Research D.C.: 2003; Washington, 128 pp.; $29.50 paperback; 0-309-08741-4. marizes presentations on the Workshop from and Transporta- Energy by the National in January 2002 tion, sponsored Council’s on Chemical Research Board Sciences and Life in the Division on Earth and Technology con- Studies. The sessions highlighted the potential develop- tributions of the chemical sciences in the The transportation. ment of new and improved vehicle effi- improving finds that the keys to report vehicle mass, changing ciency include reducing power and improving basic vehicle architecture, trains. The committee suggests that detailed programs be developed to pursue the goals. . This book provides an overview of the latest This book provides This report examines This report Coauthors de Neufville and Odoni—recipients Coauthors de Neufville TRB PUBLICATIONS Land Access to U.S. Financing and Improving Intermodal Cargo Hubs NCHRP Report 497 strategies for financ- the most effective are Presented hub and intermodal to cargo ing improvements facilities. The strategies focus on developing freight hub among government agencies, cargo partnerships Transport SurveyTransport Quality and Innovation Sci- Elsevier Edited by Peter Jones and Peter Stopher. Netherlands: 2003; 660 pp.; ence Ltd. Amsterdam, 0-080-44096-7. $120 hardcover; surveydevelopments in transportation methods survey the world, with an emphasis on around from Reforming Transport Taxes for Economic Organisation Co-operation and Develop- United ment. Bedfordshire, Kingdom: 2003; 197 pp.; $46; 9-282-10317-X the economic principles systems of for efficient a taxation, providing framework for interna- taxes and tional comparisons of transportation It investigates how motorists, haulers, and charges. servicescould be users of other transportation by price and tax changes likely to result affected to maxi- charges of transportation the reform from also assesses how dif- The report mize efficiency. haulers taxation affect in national ferences competing internationally. Airport Design, and Systems: Planning, Management Odoni. McGraw- and Amedeo de Neufville Richard 883 pp.; $95 hardcover; 2003; NY: York, Hill. New 0-071-38477-4. for Administration’s Award of the Federal Aviation a defin- Education—provide Excellence in Aviation of the on all phases resource itive comprehensive The textbook airports. development of modern interactions among the differ- emphasizes how the system, air transportation ent elements in the and competition, organization, including airport buildings, contribute to configuration of passenger an airport’s success. A web page provides long-term updates to the text. 50 TR NEWS 232 MAY–JUNE 2004 SHELF BOOK the problem, andamodelimplementationprocess. description oftheproblem, strategiestoaddress scenarios. Eachvolumeincludesanintroduction, a keycrash volumes, eachcoveringoneoftheplan’s The highways. the likelihoodofcrashesonnation’s of low-cost,proven countermeasures thatdecrease 5,000 to7,000through thewidespread application reduce thenumberofannualhighwayfatalitiesby The goalofthehighwaysafetyguidelinesisto NCHRP Report500,Volumes 1–6 Strategic HighwaySafetyPlan Guidance forImplementationoftheAASHTO ment, andperformance (IIB). $19. Subscribercategory: pavementdesign,manage- Performance experiments. through June2001from theLong-Term Pavement is basedoncomprehensive analysisofdataavailable tures retrofitted onexistingpavements.Thereport without edgedrains,andsubsurface drainagefea- drains, traditionaldense-gradedbaseswithand ics includepermeablebaseandassociatededge- concrete pavementsisevaluatedinthisreport. Top- systems forhot-mixasphaltandportland cement The effectiveness ofsubsurface pavementdrainage NCHRP Report499 of AsphaltandConcrete Pavements DrainageonPerformance ofSubsurface Effects mance (IVB). (IIIB); maintenance(IIIC);safetyandhumanperfor- $20. Subscribercategory: materialsandconstruction environment formotoristsandworkers. rary roadway lighting.Theguidelinesensure asafe including workzonedesignandtheuseoftempo- nighttime highwayconstructionandmaintenance, This report provides guidelinesforilluminating NCHRP Report498 Highway Work Illumination GuidelinesforNighttime tion (IA);freight transportation(VIII). $24. Subscribercategories:planningandadministra- TRB PUBLICATIONS nonaffiliates, $19. Driving Collisions ◆ 2003; 52pp.;TRBaffiliates, $14.25;nonaffiliates, 2003; 74pp.;TRBaffiliates, $15;nonaffiliates, 2003; 150pp.;TRBaffiliates, $18;nonaffiliates, NCHRP Report500 Volume 1:AGuideforAddressing Aggressive- ; 62pp.;TRBaffiliates, $14.25; series willencompass22 ( continued ) ume of nating ahighwaysafetyprogram, whereas eachvol- This report provides anoverallprocess forcoordi- NCHRP Report501 Integrated SafetyManagementProcess formance (IVB). ates, $21. Collisions nonaffiliates, $24. Intersection Collisions $21. lision iates, $14.25;nonaffiliates, $19. with Trees inHazardous Locations pended orRevokedLicenses Involving UnlicensedDriversandwithSus- ates, $27.Subscribercategories: publictransit(VI). running ways,andITSapplications. fareincluding stations,vehicles,services, collection, provides ofsystem typesandelements, anoverview conditions, andgeneralplanningprinciples.Italso issues, thesystemdevelopmentprocess, desirable rapid transit,includingplanningconsiderations,key Volume 2addresses themaincomponentsofbus TCRP Report90,Volume 2 Implementation Guidelines Bus RapidTransit, Volume 2: human performance (IVB). nonaffiliates, $29.Subscribercategory: safetyand and spreadsheets isincluded. mentation actions.Adiskettecontainingsoftware to integrateandcoordinate safety-related imple- responsible forhighwaysafetywithinajurisdiction mance. Theprocess enablesagenciesthatare lems, optimizingresources, andmeasuringperfor- plans—and includesmethodsforidentifyingprob- gathering crashdatatodevelopingintegratedaction grated managementprocess consistsofsteps—from for particular highwaycrashscenarios.Theinte- $15; nonaffiliates, $20. ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ 2003; Subscribercategory: safetyandhumanper- 2003; 251pp.;TRBaffiliates, $20.25;nonaffili- 2003; 147pp.plusdiskette;TRBaffiliates, $21.75; s; 65pp.;TRBaffiliates, $15.75;nonaffiliates, Volume 6:AGuideforAddressing Run-Off-Road Volume 5:AGuideforAddressing Unsignalized Volume 4:AGuideforAddressing Head-OnCol- Volume 3:AGuideforAddressing Collisions Volume 2:AGuideforAddressing Collisions NCHRP Report500 ; 91pp.;TRBaffiliates, $15.75;nonaffili- ; 157pp.;TRBaffiliates, $18 presents countermeasures ; 74pp.;TRBaffiliates, ; 63pp.;TRBaffil- TR NEWS 232 MAY–JUNE 2004 51 BOOK SHELF materials and ). ); safety and human IIIC ( IIC ); ( IVA ( maintenance ); IVB). IIIB ( ( 2003; 143 pp.; TRB affiliates, $14.25; nonaffiliates, TRB affiliates, 2003; 143 pp.; 2003; 46 pp.; TRB affiliates, $11.25; nonaffiliates, 2003; 46 pp.; TRB affiliates, 2003; 112 pp.; TRB affiliates, $33; nonaffiliates, 2003; 112 pp.; TRB affiliates, $19. Subscriber categories: highway operations, categories: highway $19. Subscriber control and traffic capacity, construction Bridge Deck Joint Performance NCHRP Synthesis 319 joints allow for longitudinal Bridge deck expansion in every amount of rotation movement and a small by live loads, initiated are bridge. These motions of the the physical properties thermal changes, and joints on U.S. bridges costs bridge. Damage to deck includes damage This year. millions of dollars each of the bridge to both the joint and the portion and con- beneath the joint that is exposed to debris state-of-the- taminants. This synthesis provides joint practice findings about commonly used data for each systems, summarizes performance cri- system type, and includes examples of selection includes teria and design guidelines. The report lessons learned for maximizing the service life of the joints joint systems and methods to determine if watertight. are $15. Subscriber categories: bridges, other structures, and hydraulics and hydrology performance performance Human Performance, Simulation, User Information Systems, and Older Person Safety and Mobility 1843 Record Research Transportation characteristics of cell phone– presents Research Carolina, vehicle crashes in North motor related colli- grade-crossing the sensory cause of railroad dia- of ground-mounted sions, the effectiveness grammatic advance guide signs for freeway entrance ramps, and consequences of driving or cessation for older adults. reduction safety and human perfor- $44. Subscriber category: mance (IVB). Design of Structures 2003 Record 1845 Research Transportation design concepts volume provides This eight-part steel bridges, concrete for general structures, and structures, bridges, tunnels and underground along with and hydraulic structures, culverts testing of into the dynamics and field research plastics, and bridges, structural fiber-reinforced research seismic design of bridges. Papers present series comprehensively covers 18 topic areas—including 9 new covers 18 topic areas—including TCRP Report 95 Traveler Response to Transportation System Response to Transportation Traveler 2003; Subscriber categories: planning and admin- Chapter 18: Parking Management and Supply to Chapter 18 focuses on how travelers respond $20. $15; nonaffiliates, 86 pp.; TRB affiliates, Chapter 15: Land Use and Site Design between Chapter 15 focuses on the relationships $20. $15; nonaffiliates, 133 pp.; TRB affiliates, Chapter 11: Transit Information and Promotion Chapter 11: Transit mar- Chapter 11 focuses on a subset of transit $20. $15; nonaffiliates, 71 pp.; TRB affiliates, ◆ ◆ ◆ documents various transportation system changes, documents various transportation alternative land-use and site- policy actions, and edition This third approaches. development design of Changes will be published separately of which areas—each as a chapter. Traveler Response to Transportation System to Transportation Response Traveler Changes Handbook TCRP Report 95 The Safe and Quick Clearance of Traffic Incidents Safe and Quick Clearance of Traffic NCHRP Synthesis 318 Quick clearance is the practice of rapidly and safely a roadway. temporary obstructions from removing the laws, policies, and proce- This synthesis profiles clearance for facilitating the safe and efficient dures incidents, primarily those that block travel of traffic attended to by the vehicle’slanes and that are oper- incident clearance on traffic The study reports ator. and investigation activities that quickly mitigate inci- disabled vehi- a single from dents of varying severity, cle or minor crash to a serious crash or nonhazardous spill. cargo istration (IA); highway operations, capacity, and traf- istration (IA); highway operations, capacity, public transit (VI). (IVA); fic control differences in the supply and availability of vehicle differences shifts in for example, from parking that may occur, or policy, land-use patterns, changes in regulatory attempts to “manage” the supply of parking. land use–site design and travel behavior. keting—transit information and promotion—and to mass market infor- examines traveler response infor- targeted mation, mass market promotions, information customer promotions, mation, targeted information dissem- transit services, and real-time ination. 52 TR NEWS 232 MAY–JUNE 2004 202-334-3213. the BusinessOfficeat bookstore/, orcontact store, www.TRB.org/ online TRBBook- Bookshelf, visitthe titles describedin To ordertheTRB SHELF BOOK istration (IA). ates, $46.Subscribercategory: planningandadmin- neering undergraduate curriculum. matics are addressed inthecontext of thecivilengi- needs inspatialdata,informationscience,andgeo- ics attheUniversityofWisconsin; andeducational the Department ofCivilEngineeringandMechan- mentation ofanengineer-in-residence conceptin Olympic Games;results are reported ontheimple- portation policiesisapplied totheAthens2004 A methodologicalframeworkforassessingtrans- Transportation Research Record1848 2003 Transportation ManagementandPublicPolicy ity, andtraffic control (IVA). $38. Subscribercategory: highwayoperations,capac- median openingsonroadways. interchanges, andtheoptimallocationofu-turn operations ofsingle-pointandtighturbandiamond at unsignalizedintersections,thecomparisonof ing todeterminestoragelengthsofleft-turnlanes sections toroundabouts, theuseofM/G2/1queu- Topics includethesafetyeffects ofconverting inter- Transportation Research Record1847 ofGeometrics2003 Operational Effects mance (IVB). $38. Subscribercategory: safetyandhumanperfor- measures forruralroads inBurkinaFaso. traffic safetydiagnosticsandapplicationofcounter- to promote thesafetyofvulnerableroad users,and strategy forurbanroad transport inAsia,strategies jing–Tongjiang Expressway, asafetyandefficiency including adevelopmentimpactstudyoftheBei- This volumepresents internationalresearch, Transportation Research Record1846 Transportation inDevelopingCountries tures, andhydraulicshydrology (IIC). ates, $54.Subscribercategory: bridges,otherstruc- of theBrooklyn–Queens Expressway, NewYork. seismic analysisanddisplacement-basedevaluation bundled high-densitypolyethylenepipes,anda formance ofstormwaterdetentionsystemwith I-shapedbridgegirders,curved thestructuralper- bridges, theeffects ofdistortion onthestrength of on thefundamentalflawsinappearanceof 2003; 136pp.;TRBaffiliates, $34.50;nonaffili- 2003; 65pp.;TRBaffiliates, $28.50;nonaffiliates, 2003; 61pp.;TRBaffiliates, $28.50;nonaffiliates, 2003; 225pp.;TRBaffiliates, $40.50;nonaffili- ment, andperformance (IIB). $50. Subscribercategory: pavementdesign,management layerthicknesses,amongother topics. compare as-constructedandas-designed flexiblepave- from a10-yearprogram ofdowel-barretrofit; and the application,performance, andlessonslearned pavement maintenancecostsinLosAngeles;examine volume. Papersassesstheimpactofbustraffic on flexible pavementdesignare covered inthisthree-part Pavement management,rigidpavementdesign,and Transportation Research Record1853 Pavement Design2003 Pavement ManagementandRigidFlexible traffic control (IVA). Subscriber category: highwayoperations,capacity, and olds onruralfreeways. criteria andthresh-investigation oflevel-of-service dynamics formulticlassdrivers,andaframework models, numericalanalysisoffreeway traffic flow traffic flowbreakdown instochasticcar-following way Manual2000 The 32-papervolumeincludesacomparisonof Transportation Research Record1852 Traffic andHighwayCapacity2003 FlowTheory Subscriber category: highwayandfacilitydesign(IIA). ment ofanenergy-absorbing compositeutilitypole. down systemsfortemporarybarriers;andthedevelop- heavy truckdynamicrollover; designandtestingoftie- tion, cargo type,androad designcharacteristicson Research findingsincludetheeffects ofloaddistribu- features; landscapeandenvironment; andutilities. hydrology, hydraulics,andwaterquality;roadside safety This five-part volumeaddresses geometricdesign; Transportation Research Record1851 Highway andFacilityDesign2003 Subscriber category: aviation(V). in interurbannetworksare examined. States, andintermodaltripplanningdecisions United demand managementstrategiesinEurope andthe airspace,criticalassessmentofairport Kingdom’s system inNebraska,theprivatizationofpart ofUnited The implementationofasmallaircraft transportation Transportation Research Record1850 and Access Air Transportation Challenges:Airspace,Airports, 2003; 176pp.;TRBaffiliates, $37.50;nonaffiliates, 2003; 270pp.;TRBaffiliates, $42;nonaffiliates, $56. 2003; 157pp.;TRBaffiliates, $36;nonaffiliates, $48. 2003; 82pp.;TRBaffiliates, $30;nonaffiliates, $40. and Dutchguidelines,probabilistic High- TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD 2004 EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE*

Chair: Michael S. Townes, President and CEO, Hampton Roads Transit, Virginia The Transportation Research Board is a division Vice Chair: Joseph H. Boardman, Commissioner, New York State Department of Transportation, Albany of the National Research Council,which serves Executive Director: Robert E. Skinner, Jr., Transportation Research Board the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering. The Board’s Michael W. Behrens, Executive Director, Texas Department of Transportation, Austin mission is to promote innovation and progress Sarah C. Campbell, President, TransManagement, Inc., Washington, D.C. E. Dean Carlson, Director, Carlson Associates, Topeka, Kansas (Past Chair, 2002) in transportation through research. In an John L. Craig, Director, Nebraska Department of Roads, Lincoln objective and interdisciplinary setting,the Board Douglas G. Duncan, President and CEO, FedEx Freight, Memphis, Tennessee facilitates the sharing of information on trans- Genevieve Giuliano, Director, Metrans Transportation Center, and Professor, School of Policy, portation practice and policy by researchers Planning, and Development, University of Southern California, Los Angeles (Past Chair, 2003) and practitioners;stimulates research and offers Bernard S. Groseclose, Jr., President and CEO, South Carolina State Ports Authority, Charleston Susan Hanson, Landry University Professor of Geography, Graduate School of Geography, Clark research management services that promote University, Worcester, Massachusetts technical excellence;provides expert advice on James R. Hertwig, President, Landstar Logistics, Inc., Jacksonville, Florida transportation policy and programs; and dis- Gloria J. Jeff, Chief Administrative Officer, Michigan Department of Transportation, Lansing seminates research results broadly and encour- Adib K. Kanafani, Cahill Professor of Civil Engineering, University of California, Berkeley Ronald F. Kirby, Director, Transportation Planning, Metropolitan Washington Council of ages their implementation. The Board’s varied Governments, Washington, D.C. activities annually draw on approximately 5,000 Herbert S. Levinson, Principal, Herbert S. Levinson Transportation Consultant, New Haven, engineers, scientists, and other transportation Connecticut researchers and practitioners from the public Sue McNeil, Director, Urban Transportation Center, and Professor, College of Urban Planning and and private sectors and academia, all of whom Public Affairs and Department of Civil and Material Engineering, University of Illinois, Chicago Michael D. Meyer, Professor, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of contribute their expertise in the public interest. Technology, Atlanta The program is supported by state trans- Carol A. Murray, Commissioner, New Hampshire Department of Transportation, Concord portation departments,federal agencies includ- John E. Njord, Executive Director, Utah Department of Transportation, Salt Lake City ing the component administrations of the David Plavin, President, Airports Council International, Washington, D.C. John H. Rebensdorf, Vice President, Network Planning and Operations, Union Pacific Railroad U.S. Department of Transportation, and other Company, Omaha, Nebraska organizations and individuals interested in the Philip A. Shucet, Commissioner, Virginia Department of Transportation, Richmond development of transportation. C. Michael Walton, Ernest H. Cockrell Centennial Chair in Engineering, University of Texas, Austin Linda S. Watson, Executive Director, LYNX–Central Florida Regional Transportation Authority, The National Research Council was organized Orlando by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 Marion C. Blakey, Administrator, Federal Aviation Administration, U.S. Department of to associate the broad community of science Transportation (ex officio) and technology with the Academy’s purposes Samuel G. Bonasso, Acting Administrator, Research and Special Programs Administration, U.S. of furthering knowledge and advising the Department of Transportation (ex officio) Rebecca M. Brewster, President and COO, American Transportation Research Institute, Smyrna, federal government. Functioning in accor- Georgia (ex officio) dance with general policies determined by the George Bugliarello, Chancellor, Polytechnic University, Brooklyn, New York; Foreign Secretary, Academy,the Council has become the princi- National Academy of Engineering, Washington, D.C. (ex officio) pal operating agency of both the National Thomas H. Collins (Adm., U.S. Coast Guard), Commandant, U.S. Coast Guard, Washington, D.C. Academy of Sciences and the National Acad- (ex officio) Jennifer L. Dorn, Administrator, Federal Transit Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation emy of Engineering in providing services to (ex officio) the government, the public, and the scientific Robert B. Flowers (Lt. Gen., U.S. Army), Chief of Engineers and Commander, U.S. Army Corps of and engineering communities. Engineers, Washington, D.C. (ex officio) Edward R. Hamberger, President and CEO, Association of American Railroads, Washington, D.C. (ex officio) www.TRB.org John C. Horsley, Executive Director, American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, D.C. (ex officio) Rick Kowalewski, Deputy Director, Bureau of Transportation Statistics, U.S. Department of Transportation (ex officio) William W. Millar, President, American Public Transportation Association, Washington, D.C. (ex officio) (Past Chair, 1992) Betty Monro, Acting Administrator, Federal Railroad Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation (ex officio) Mary E. Peters, Administrator, Federal Highway Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation (ex officio) Suzanne Rudzinski, Director, Transportation and Regional Programs, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (ex officio) Jeffrey W. Runge, Administrator, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation (ex officio) Annette M. Sandberg, Administrator, Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation (ex officio) William G. Schubert, Administrator, Maritime Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation (ex officio) Jeffrey N. Shane, Under Secretary for Policy, U.S. Department of Transportation (ex officio) Robert A. Venezia, Program Manager, Public Health Applications, Office of Earth Science, National Aeronautics and Space Administration (ex officio)

* Membership as of June 2004 Transportation Research Board 84th Annual Meeting Washington, D.C., U.S.A. January 9--13,2005 Transportation FROM THE Customer’s Perspective: Providing a Safe, Secure, and Integrated System

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