Draft Scoping Report for the Proposed Phosphoric and Sulphuric Plants At

Ministry of Environment and Tourism Office of the Environmental Commissioner

Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) for the coastal areas of the Erongo and Kunene Regions

Study Report

September 2012

Namibian Coast Conservation & Management Project – NACOMA

Preface

The Namibian coastal Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) for the Kunene and Erongo regions draws on international experience and is timely in relation to the mounting production sector pressures. Being an initiative of the Namibian Government through its Ministry of Environment and Tourism (MET) the SEA seeks to inform political and technical decision makers at local, regional and national levels. The twinning of environment and development issues is pivotal in Vision 2030 and is supported by five year national development plans aiming to transform Namibia from a lower – middle income country to a high – income country.

A thriving economy cannot be built on a bankrupt environment and Namibia’s biodiversity and unique “sense of place” should not be diminished by this transition.

Namibia is developing fast on the coast and cannot afford to choose easy options for short term gain if it reduces future options in the long term. The main production sector activity in Namibia’s coastal zone needs careful, comprehensive and integrated planning, the first step in achieving this end is by conducting an SEA and developing a user friendly Decision Support Tool (DST). The SEA and DST will assist in making informed decisions on issues related to biodiversity conservation, land use planning and socio-economic development planning in the Kunene and Erongo coastal regions.

SEA is a rapidly evolving field with growing applications internationally. More and more countries are adopting SEA approaches with different degrees of enthusiasm. SEA “upstreams” development plans by shifting away from the individual project level towards a policy based lending and a sector level programming. Both SEA and Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) have improved environmental management and development planning since EIA inception in the early 1970s. There has been a call for more pro-active integrated approaches recently, notably in the Plan of Implementation of the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD).

The Namibian Government has made a very positive step by embracing this approach to the planning of the Namibian coast.

As far as possible the SEA and DST present the latest position, but inevitably things change and updating is required when new information becomes available. With environmental variability, climate change and production sector progress, adjustments will have to be made as information quickly becomes updated.

Namibia has gained some experience with small SEAs since 2000, however this is the most comprehensive and innovative SEA with the support of the user friendly DST.

The Kunene and Erongo Coast SEA will serve as input and a base to a number of MET and NACOMA activities especially the Namibian Coast Conservation and Management White Paper Policy (NACOWP).

Cover Photo: RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012, Kunene River Mouth Area, Northern Namibia.

CONTENTS

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ...... IX EXECUTIVE SUMMARY...... XI

1. INTRODUCTION ...... XI 2. METHODOLOGY ...... XI 3. SEA - GENERAL ...... XIII 4. KUNENE REGION SEA SPECIFIC FINDINGS ...... XV 5. ERONGO REGION SEA SPECIFIC FINDINGS ...... XVII 6. SEMP IMPLEMENTATION AND MONITORING STRATEGY ...... XX 6. THE SEA DECISION SUPPORT TOOL (DST) ...... XXVIII 1. INTRODUCTION ...... - 1 -

1.1 BACKGROUND ...... - 1 - 1.2 THE ESSENCE OF THE KUNENE AND ERONGO SEA ...... - 1 - 1.3 NATIONAL POLICY ON COASTAL MANAGEMENT AND BOUNDARY ...... - 4 - 1.3.1 Overview ...... - 4 - 1.3.2 Coastal Zone Boundary, Resources and Land Uses ...... - 4 - 1.3.3 Coastal Zone Constraints, Challenges and Opportunities ...... - 15 - 1.4. PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT CONTEXT ...... - 17 - 1.4.1 Considerations for the Namibian Situation ...... - 17 - 1.4.2 National Overview – NDP 4 ...... - 18 - 1.4.3 Regional Development Process and NDP 4 ...... - 20 - 1.5 KUNENE REGION ...... - 20 - 1.5.1 Overview ...... - 20 - 1.5.2 Regional Development Context ...... - 21 - 1.5.3 Conservation and Tourism ...... - 23 - 1.6 ERONGO REGION ...... - 23 - 1.6.1 Overview ...... - 23 - 1.6.2 Developmental Challenges and Opportunities ...... - 24 - 1.6.3 Regional Land Uses ...... - 24 - 1.6.4 Commercial Fishing and Fish Processing ...... - 26 - 1.6.5 Tourism ...... - 26 - 1.7 OBJECTIVE OF THE ASSIGNMENT, SPECIFIC TASKS, OUTPUTS...... - 26 - 1.8 PURPOSE OF THIS REPORT ...... - 27 - 2. LEGISLATION, POLICY AND SEA OBJECTIVES ...... - 28 -

2.1 LEGISLATIVE BASIS OF THE COASTAL SEA ...... - 28 - 2.2 UNDERSTANDING ENVIRONMENTAL PLANS AND SEA ...... - 28 - 2.2.1 Legislative Objects of Environmental Plans ...... - 28 - 2.2.2 Requirements for Environmental Plans ...... - 28 - 2.2.3 Listing of Organ of State and SEA / Environmental Plans ...... - 29 - 2.2.4 Determinations and Approval of Environmental Plans / SEA ...... - 29 - 2.2.5 Monitoring of an Environmental Plan / SEA and SEMP ...... - 30 - 2.3 NATIONAL POLICY ON COASTAL MANAGEMENT ...... - 31 - 2.3.1 Objectives of National Policy on Coastal Management ...... - 31 - 1.3.2 National Coastal Policy Implementation Framework ...... - 31 - 2.4 THE COASTAL SEA OBJECTIVE ...... - 35 - 3. COASTAL SEA UPDATING METHODOLOGY ...... - 36 -

3.1 OVERVIEW ...... - 36 - 3.2 THE NEED FOR COASTAL SEA UPDATING ...... - 38 - 3.3 UPDATING OF THE PREVIOUS SEA COLLECTED DATA ...... - 38 - 3.4 STAKEHOLDER LIAISON ...... - 39 - 3.5 UPDATED MAPPING OF COASTAL ZONE ...... - 41 - 3.6 ASSESSMENT OF LAND USE SUITABILITY ...... - 41 - 4. KUNENE SECTOR-BASED COASTAL LAND USE ...... - 43 -

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions i 4.1 OVERVIEW OF PRIORITY AREAS FOR CONSERVATION ...... - 43 - 4.2 KEY PRIORITY CONSERVATION AREAS ...... - 53 - 4.2.2 Skeleton Coast National Park (SCNP) ...... - 56 - 4.2.3 Kunene River Mouth ...... - 61 - 4.3 OTHER POLICIES, PLANS AND PROGRAMMES ...... - 66 - 4.3.1 Regional Overview ...... - 66 - 4.3.2 Adjacent Conservancies ...... - 66 - 4.3.3 Fisheries and Marine Resources ...... - 70 - 4.3.3.1 Regional Overview ...... - 70 - 4.3.4 Minerals, Petroleum and Energy PPPs ...... - 72 - 4.3.5 Ports and Other Coastal Infrastructures ...... - 77 - 4.3.6 Urban Development ...... - 78 - 4.3.7 Agriculture and Water Resources Management...... - 80 - 4.3.8 Recommendations on Other Policies, Plans and Programmes ...... - 80 - 5. ERONGO SECTOR-BASED COASTAL LAND USE ...... - 84 -

5.1 INTRODUCTION ...... - 84 - 5.2 ERONGO REGION COASTAL CONSERVATION AND BIODIVERSITY ...... - 84 - 5.2.1 Introduction ...... - 84 - 5.2.2 Erongo Region Key Conservation and Biodiversity Areas ...... - 90 - 5.3 OTHER POLICIES, PLANS AND PROGRAMMES ...... - 140 - 5.3.1 Tourism Opportunities ...... - 140 - 5.3.2 Fisheries ...... - 143 - 5.3.3 Minerals and Petroleum Resources Coastal Zone ...... - 147 - 5.3.4 Other Coastal and Marine Resources ...... - 154 - 5.3.4 Regional and Local Infrastructure Development ...... - 156 - 5.4 OTHER PPPS RECOMMENDATIONS ...... - 165 - 5.4.1 Other PPPs Overview Recommendations ...... - 165 - 5.4.2 Tourism Opportunities and Constraints ...... - 167 - 5.4.3 Fisheries ...... - 168 - 5.4.5 Regional and Local Infrastructure Opportunities and Constraints ...... - 170 - 5.4.6 Minerals and Petroleum Exploration Recommendations ...... - 178 - 5.4.8 Agriculture and Water Utilisation Recommendations ...... - 179 - 6. COASTAL ZONE OIL SPILL VULNERABILITY ...... - 181 -

6.1 BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOTS IN ERONGO AND KUNENE REGIONS ...... - 181 - 6.2 PETROLEUM EXPLORATION OPPORTUNITIES ...... - 182 - 6.2.1 General Overview ...... - 182 - 6.2.2 Offshore Petroleum Systems ...... - 184 - 6.2.3 Current Oil and Gas Global Majors Active in Namibia ...... - 187 - 6.2.4 Future Prospects ...... - 187 - 6.2.5 Recommendations for Petroleum Exploration Oil Spill Management...... - 187 - 6.3 OTHER POTENTIAL SOURCES OF AN ACCIDENTAL OIL SPILL ...... - 192 - 6.3.1 National and International Shipping Transport ...... - 192 - 6.3.2 Marine Minerals Exploration, Mining and Fisheries Vessels ...... - 194 - 6.3.3 Recommendations for Other Sources of an Accidental Oil Spills ...... - 196 - 6.4 LIKELY NEGATIVE IMPACTS BY AN OIL SPILL ...... - 196 - 6.4.1 Overview ...... - 196 - 6.4.2 Likely Impacts of Oil on Wetlands and Clean-Up Response ...... - 197 - 6.4.3 Likely Impacts of Oil on Coastal Waters and Clean-Up Response ...... - 200 - 6.4.4 Likely Impacts of Oil on Subtidal Seabed and Clean-Up Response ...... - 201 - 6.4.5 Likely Impacts of Oil on Rocky Shores and Clean-Up Response ...... - 201 - 6.4.6 Likely Impacts of Oil on Sandy Beaches and Clean-Up Response...... - 202 - 6.5 NATIONAL OIL SPILL CONTINGENCY PLAN ...... - 203 - 6.5.1 Overview ...... - 203 - 6.5.2 Risk Assessment of the Sizes and Types of Spillages ...... - 204 - 6.5.3 Types of Oils associated with Key Likely Sources of Large Spills ...... - 204 - 6.5.4 Factors Affecting the Impact of Spillages ...... - 206 - 6.5.5 Event Descriptors ...... - 206 - 6.5.6 Factors Modifying Spill Behaviour ...... - 206 - 6.6 Prediction of Spill ...... - 207 - 6.6.1 Oil Spill and Associated Processes ...... - 207 - 6.6.2 Methodology ...... - 208 -

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions ii 6.6.3 Oil Spill Modelling Approach ...... - 209 - 6.6.4 Model Data Inputs ...... - 209 - 7. THE SEMP ...... - 211 -

7.1 OVERVIEW ...... - 211 - 7.2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE SEMP ...... - 211 - 7.3 SUMMARY OF THE SEA FINDINGS ...... - 211 - 7.3.1 Overview ...... - 211 - 7.3.2 Tourism ...... - 214 - 7.4 KUNENE REGION SEA SPECIFIC FINDINGS ...... - 217 - 7.4.1 Skeleton Coast National Park ...... - 217 - 7.4.2 Conservancies ...... - 218 - 7.4.3 Kunene River Mouth ...... - 218 - 7.5 ERONGO REGION SEA SPECIFIC FINDINGS ...... - 219 - 7.5.1 Sandwich Harbour ...... - 219 - 7.5.2 Walvis Bay Wetland ...... - 219 - 7.5.3 Dune belt...... - 219 - 7.5.4 Walvis Bay ...... - 220 - 7.5.5 Swakopmund ...... - 220 - 7.5.6 Mile 4 Saltworks ...... - 221 - 7.5.7 Wlotzkasbaken ...... - 221 - 7.5.8 Henties Bay...... - 221 - 7.5.9 Brandberg Massif ...... - 221 - 7.5.10 Cape Cross Seal Reserve ...... - 221 - 7.5.11 National West Coast Tourist Recreation Area ...... - 222 - 7.6 THE SEA DECISION SUPPORT TOOL (DST) ...... - 222 - 7.6.1 General Overview ...... - 222 - 7.7 SEMP ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES ...... - 223 - 7.7.1 Overall responsibilities ...... - 223 - 7.7.2 PPPs Monitoring Objectives ...... - 223 - 7.8 SEMP IMPLEMENTATION AND MONITORING STRATEGY ...... - 224 - 7.8.1 SEMP Implementation ...... - 224 - 7.8.2 SEMP Monitoring Strategy ...... - 224 - 8. APPENDIX I - METHODS ...... - 232 -

8.1 STAKEHOLDER LIAISON, REQUIREMENT ANALYSIS AND INVENTORY OF PLANNING DOCUMENTS AND DATA ...... - 232 - 8.2 THE COASTAL GIS ...... - 235 - 8.3 MODELLING OF LAND USE SUITABILITY ...... - 241 - 9. APPENDIX II FUNCTIONALITY OF THE SEA ...... - 244 - 10. APPENDIX III- AVAILABLE MAPS (SELECTED EXAMPLES) ...... - 249 -

10.1 BACKGROUND ‘LANDSCAPE’ AND TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS ...... - 249 - 10.2 SUPPORT AND INFRASTRUCTURE MAPS ...... - 253 - 10.3 BIODIVERSITY (PRIORITY HABITATS) MAPS ...... - 258 - 10.4 MAPS OF POLICIES AND PLANS ...... - 267 - 10.5 EXPLOITABLE RESOURCES ...... - 269 - 10.6 LAND USE MAPS ...... - 271 -

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions iii LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1: General overview of the Kunene and Erongo Region...... - 3 - Figure 1.2: Location map and outline of the national coastal zones covered by the SEA. The coastal zone stretches from the lower water march in the west to eastern boundaries of the coastal protected areas...... - 6 - Figure 1.3: The aim of this SEA with regard to resolving strategic land use planning issues through the integrated analysis of nature conservation, land use suitability and PPPs...... - 18 - Figure 1.4: National strategic and priority areas to contribute to the overall goals of achieving Vision 2030 (Source: NDP 4, 2012)...... - 19 - Figure 1.5: Map of the Kunene Region and associated infrastructure (RBS / FGN, 2012)...... - 22 - Figure 1.6: Map of the Erongo Region and associated infrastructure (RBS / FGN, 2012)...... - 25 - Figure 3.1: Knowledge-Based phase methodology approach used in the updating process. .... - 37 - Figure 4.1: Altitude (SRTM data) of the Kunene Region coastal zone...... - 47 - Figure 4.2: Relief (% slope) of the Kunene Region coastal zone...... - 48 - Figure 4.3: Overview of the key conservation and biodiversity areas in the Kunene Region. .... - 49 - Figure 4.4: Skeleton Coast National Park IUCN zonation from Kunene River Mouth to Möwe Bay, (Zone 1a: Strict Nature Reserve) and (Zone 2: National Park mainly for conservation and ecotourism)...... - 54 - Figure 4.5: Skeleton Coast National Park IUCN zonation based from Möwe Bay to Ugab River, (Zone 1a: Strict Nature Reserve), (Zone 2: National Park mainly for conservation and ecotourism) and (Zone 5: Protected Landscape / Seascape)...... - 55 - Figure 4.6: Priority areas for conservation from the Kunene River Mouth to Ugab River and all parts of the Skeleton Coast National Park...... - 58 - Figure 4.7: Sensitivity / constraint map of the Kunene River Mouth (KRM) with respect to the existing and future potential policies plans and programmes (Map Produced by Risk-Based Solutions (RBS) and photos by S. Mwiya, 2012)...... - 63 - Figure 4.8: Suitable areas for eco-tourism in the Skeleton Coast Park to support the MET concessions programme and adjacent conservancies shown in green...... - 68 - Figure 4.9: Suitable areas for development of conventional tourism activities in the Skeleton Coast Park (in green)...... - 69 - Figure 4.10: Location of areas in Kunene where angling and collection of bait for angling is allowed (marked in red)...... - 71 - Figure 4.11: An overview of EPLs and ML operations in the Kunene Region based on Sep 2012 map (Source: www.mme.gov.na – Accessed Sep 2012...... - 74 - Figure 4.12: An overview of petroleum exploration operations in degree square (Blocks) covering the onshore and offshore areas of the Kunene Region based on Sep 2012 map (Source: www.namcor.com.na – Accessed Sep 2012)...... - 75 - Figure 5.1: Key coastal protected areas of Erongo Region...... - 88 - Figure 5.2: General Biodiversity trends as reflected by the analysis of the distribution of priority areas and habitats for conservation in the Erongo Region. Priority areas have been grouped into three categories according to the number of target habitats present. Wetlands of international significance and the main breeding colony for Damara terns are included in the highest priority category. No colour is given for areas lacking target habitats. The resolution of the map is 90 m...... - 89 - Figure 5.3: Overview of the key conservation and biodiversity areas in the Erongo Region...... - 90 - Figure 5.4: Key priority conservation and biodiversity hotspot areas around Sandwich Harbour shown in red (Photo RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012)...... - 93 - Figure 5.5: Walvis Bay wetland Erongo Region...... - 97 - Figure 5.6: Key priority conservation and biodiversity hotspot areas around Walvis Bay Wetland shown in red in the insert map...... - 101 - Figure 5.7: Dune belt, Lower Kuiseb and Swakop Rivers areas...... - 106 - Figure 5.8: Geomorphic Terrain Units of the Dune Belt and Kuiseb River Channel...... - 107 -

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions iv Figure 5.9: The Swakop River, the northern boundary of the study area (Source: http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/NaturalHazards - Accessed April 2012)...... - 108 - Figure 5.10: Current land uses...... - 109 - Figure 5.11: DST of important reptiles sensitive area...... - 114 - Figure 5.12: DST of important mammals sensitive area...... - 115 - Figure 5.13: DST of important avian sensitive area...... - 116 - Figure 5.14: DST of important flora sensitive area...... - 117 - Figure 5.15: Archaeological sensitivity mapping of the !Khuiseb Delta: RED indicates highly sensitive areas; PINK medium sensitivity area, and GREEN low sensitivity area. High sensitivity areas contain up to 50 archaeological sites per km2 and contain evidence that is essential to the understanding of the regional sequence; medium sensitivity areas contain up to five archaeological sites per km2 and contain valuable contextual evidence that is necessary to the understanding of local settlement hierarchies; low sensitivity areas contain less than one archaeological site per km2 and these are usually of limited research potential. ... - 118 - Figure 5.16: Key priority conservation area around the Dune Belt, lower Kuiseb and Swakop Ephemeral Rivers...... - 120 - Figure 5.17: Key priority conservation from Swakopmund to Henties Bay. Bottom picture of the Caloplaca elegantissima (orange/red) and Xanthoparmelia walteri (grey/green) the dominant lichen species found around Wlotskasbaken area which is part of the larger key biodiversity hotspot coastal lichen field stretching from Swakopmund to Henties Bay (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012)...... - 130 - Figure 5.18: Key priority conservation areas between Henties Bay and Ugab River. Bottom picture of the Caloplaca elegantissima (orange/red) the dominant lichen species found in some coastal areas Henties Bay to Ugab River which is part of the larger key biodiversity hotspot coastal lichen field (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012)...... - 137 - Figure 5.19: Locations used regularly for angling in Erongo (marked in red)...... - 146 - Figure 5.16: An overview of EPLs and ML operations in the Erongo Region based on Sep 2012 map (Source: www.mme.gov.na – Accessed Sep 2012)...... - 149 - Figure 5.21: Uranium licenses area of Erongo coastal zone (Source: MME, 2012)...... - 150 - Figure 5.22: An overview of petroleum exploration operations in degree square (Blocks) covering the onshore and offshore areas of the Kunene Region based on Sep 2012 map (Source: www.namcor.com.na – Accessed Sep 2012)...... - 153 - Figure 5.23: The modelled suitability areas for development of land-based and marine aquaculture (in green) for the region covered by the Walvis Bay Structure Plan Review Proposals...... - 168 - Figure 5.24: The modelled suitable areas for development of land-based aquaculture for the Swakopmund area (in green)...... - 169 - Figure 5.25: The modelled areas/habitats of conservation priority for the region covered by the Walvis Bay Structure Plan Review Proposals with respect to the key conservation priority areas...... - 172 - Figure 5.26: The modelled suitability areas for eco-tourism (in green) for the region covered by the Walvis Bay Structure Plan Review Proposals...... - 173 - Figure 5.27: The current infrastructures of Walvis Bay (and including areas designated for urban development according to town planning schemes...... - 173 - Figure 5.28: The modelled suitability areas for port development (in green) for the region covered by the Walvis Bay Structure Plan Review Proposals...... - 174 - Figure 5.29: The modelled suitability areas for urban development (in green) for the region covered by the Walvis Bay Structure Plan Review Proposals...... - 174 - Figure 5.30: Mile 4 Saltworks and the lower reaches of the Swakop River and areas/habitats of conservation priority...... - 177 - Figure 5.31: The modelled suitable areas for eco-tourism (in green) for the Swakopmund area. . - 177 - Figure 5.32: The modelled suitable areas for urban development for the Swakopmund area (in green)...... - 178 - Figure 5.33: Pipelines and productive aquifers in Erongo Region...... - 180 -

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions v Figure 6.1: Onshore and offshore Sedimentary Basins of Namibia (Source:www.namcor.com.na – Accessed July 2012) ...... - 183 - Figure 6.2: Current petroleum license map of Namibia (Source:www.namcor.com.na – Accessed July 2012)...... - 186 - Figure 6.3: Illustration of marine seismic survey operation (1), drilling set-up (2) and the different types of drilling rigs used in the petroleum drilling operations (2A – Jack-up Rig used in shallow waters, 2B – Semisubmersible Rig and 2C – Drillship used in deep-water)...... - 189 - Figure 6.5: Regional and international shipping routes linked to the Ports of Walvis Bay and Lüderitz (Map Source:www.wbcg.com.na and Photos RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012)...... - 193 - Figure 6.6: Characteristics of the Kunene Regional Coastal Zone with respect to oiling vulnerability, (Map Produced by Risk-Based Solution 2012)...... - 198 - Figure 6.7: Characteristics of the Erongo Regional Coastal Zone with respect to oiling vulnerability, (Map Produced by Risk-Based Solution 2012)...... - 199 - Figure 6.8: Summary of the oil spill weathering process (Source: International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation (ITOPF), 2002)...... - 208 - Figure 6.9: Weathering process included in the oil spill model ...... - 208 -

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1: The Essence of SEA compared to an EIA...... - 3 - Table 3.1: Updated List of key PPPs...... - 40 - Table 4.1: Considerations for various other potential land use options assessed in terms of their suitability between the coastal zone from the Kunene River Mouth and Ugab River with respect to conservation and biodiversity priorities...... - 59 - Table 4.2: Likely conservation and other PPPs conflicts and solutions with respect to coastal land uses for areas from the Kunene River Mouth and Ugab River...... - 60 - Table 4.3: Considerations for various other potential land use options assessed in terms of their suitability around the Kunene River Mouth with respect to conservation and biodiversity priorities...... - 64 - Table 4.4: Likely conservation and other PPPs conflicts and solutions with respect to coastal land uses for areas arround the Kunene River Mouth...... - 65 - Table 4.5: Considerations for various other potential land use options assessed in terms of their suitability with respect to conservation and biodiversity priorities...... - 82 - Table 4.6: Likely conservation and other PPPs conflicts and solutions with respect to coastal land uses for areas from the Kunene River Mouth and Ugab River...... - 83 - Table 5.1: Considerations for various other potential land use options assessed in terms of their suitability around Sandwich Harbour with respect to conservation and biodiversity priorities...... - 94 - Table 5.2: Likely conservation and other PPPs conflicts and solutions with respect to coastal land uses for areas around Sandwich Harbour...... - 95 - Table 5.3: Considerations for various other potential land use options assessed in terms of their suitability around Walvis Bay Wetland with respect to conservation and biodiversity priorities...... - 102 - Table 5.4: Likely conservation and other PPPs conflicts and solutions with respect to coastal land uses for areas around Walvis Bay Wetland...... - 103 - Table 5.5: Considerations for various other potential land use options assessed in terms of their suitability around the Dune Belt, lower Kuiseb and Swakop Ephemeral Rivers with respect to conservation and biodiversity priorities...... - 121 - Table 5.6: Likely conservation and other PPPs conflicts and solutions with respect to coastal land uses for areas around the Dune Belt, lower Kuiseb and Swakop Ephemeral Rivers with respect to conservation and biodiversity priorities...... - 122 -

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions vi Table 5.7: Considerations for various other potential land use options assessed in terms of their suitability from Swakopmund to Henties Bay with respect to conservation and biodiversity priorities...... - 131 - Table 5.8: Likely conservation and other PPPs conflicts and solutions with respect to coastal land uses for areas around Sandwich Harbour...... - 132 - Table 5.9: Considerations for various other potential land use options assessed in terms of their suitability between Henties Bay and Ugab River with respect to conservation and biodiversity priorities...... - 138 - Table 5.10: Likely conservation and other PPPs conflicts and solutions with respect to coastal land uses for area between Henties Bay and Ugab River...... - 139 - Table 5.11: Likely conservation and other PPPs conflicts and solutions with respect to coastal land uses in the Erongo Region...... - 166 - Table 6.1: Summary of potential impacts of different oil types on wetlands and the recommended clean-up response...... - 200 - Table 6.2: Summary of potential impacts of different oil types on open coastal waters and the recommended clean-up response...... - 200 - Table 6.3: Summary of potential impacts of different oil types on subtidal seabed environment and the recommended clean-up response...... - 201 - Table 6.4: Summary of potential impacts of different oil types on exposed rocky and boulder shores and the recommended clean-up response...... - 202 - Table 6.5: Summary of potential impacts of different oil types on sandy beaches and the recommended clean-up response...... - 203 - Table 6.6: Potential sources of accidental spillages during exploration operations...... - 205 - Table 6.7: Classification and relevant properties of oils with particular reference to their likely ecological impact...... - 205 - Table 7.1: SEMP recommended implementation schedule – sector-based actions...... - 225 - Table 7.2: SEMP recommended implementation schedule – area-based actions...... - 227 -

LIST OF PLATES

Plate 1.1: Examples of our coast, a place where the waters of the ocean meet the land (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012)...... - 7 - Plate 1.2: The Namib Desert – A glimpse to our oldest treasure and a potential World Heritage site that defines our coastal resources, diverse ecosystems, the multitude of human activities and uses along our coast (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012)...... - 8 - Plate 1.3: Kunene River Month – An example of our coastal resources and diverse ecosystems (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012)...... - 9 - Plate 1.4: Walvis Bay Lagoon and urban development - An example of our coastal resources and diverse ecosystems (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012)...... - 10 - Plate 1.5: Sandwich Harbour – An example of our coastal resources and diverse ecosystems (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012)...... - 11 - Plate 1.6: Seabirds, example of our coastal resources at the Kunene River Mouth (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012)...... - 12 - Plate 1.7: Cape Cross Seals – An example of our coastal resources (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012)...... - 13 - Plate 1.8: Mining – An example of the multitude of the coastal human activities which are important to our social and economic development (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012)...... - 14 - Plate 4.1: Overview of the Kunene River Mouth (FRM) a key biodiversity hotspot of the Kunene Region coastal zone (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012)...... - 44 -

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions vii Plate 4.2: The fluvial environment of the KRM (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012)...... - 45 - Plate 4.3: The pristine and uniqueness of the KRM area (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012)...... - 46 - Plate 4.4: The lower water mark area of the coastal zone of the Kunene Region (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012)...... - 50 - Plate 4.5: The Namib Desert part of the coastal zone of the Kunene Region (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012)...... - 51 - Plate 4.6: The eastern mountainous areas of the Kunene Region bordering the Namib Desert part of the coastal zone (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012)...... - 52 - Plate 5.1: Sandwich Harbour (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012)...... - 92 - Plate 5.2: Walvis Bay Wetland (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012)...... - 98 - Plate 5.3: Kuiseb Ephemeral River (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012)...... - 99 - Plate 5.4: The Kuiseb Delta (RBS/ FGN Image Series, 2012)...... - 110 - Plate 5.5: Dune Belt Area (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012)...... - 111 - Plate 5.6: Lower Swakop River channel (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012)...... - 112 - Plate 5.7: MET closed area of higher conservation within the Dune Belt (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012)...... - 113 - Plate 5.8: Northern part of Swakopmund with saltworks further in the background (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012)...... - 124 - Plate 5.9: Swakop River habitats (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012)...... - 125 - Plate 5.10: The Settlement of Wlotzkasbaken with an insert of the desalination plant (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012)...... - 127 - Plate 5.11: Key conservation and biodiversity hotspot areas of lichens around the settlement of Wlotzkasbaken showing typical black dolerite ridges covered with lichens (mainly Caloplaca elegantissima) in the area (Topographic high areas). (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012)...... - 128 - Plate 5.12: The Cape Cross Seal colony (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012)...... - 134 - Plate 5.13: The Brandberg Brandberg Massif (top) a key biodiversity hotspot and Welwitschia mirabilis field southwest of the Massif (bottom) (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012)...... - 135 - Plate 5.14: Flamingos in the Walvis Bay Lagoon, a key tourist attraction to Walvis Bay (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012)...... - 142 - Plate 5.15: Examples of fisheries in the Namibian waters (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012)...... - 144 - Plate 5.16: The Langer Heinrich Uranium Mine (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012)...... - 151 - Plate 5.17: Guano platform, Walvis Bay (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012)...... - 155 - Plate 5.18: Walvis Bay (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012)...... - 160 - Plate 5.19: Long Beach in Walvis Bay (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012)...... - 161 - Plate 5.20: Swakopmund (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012)...... - 162 - Plate 5.21: The Port of Walvis Bay (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012)...... - 164 - Figure 6.4: A detailed illustration of atypical offshore well set-up showing the detailed component of a BoP...... - 190 - Plate 6.1: An example of a Blowout Preventer (BOP) which can kill an oil well in an event pressures and well control failures that may result in an accidental oil spill (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012)...... - 191 -

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions viii Acronyms and Abbreviations

BCLME Benguela Current Large Marine Ecosystem BENEFIT Benguela Environment Fisheries Interaction and Training Programme BOP Bottom Of Pipe CBD The Convention on Biological Diversity CBNRM Community Based Natural Resource Management CMC Contingency Management Committee DST Decision Support Tool ETM+ Landsat Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus GDP Gross Domestic Product GIS Geographic Information System GLF Global Land-cover Facility ICZM Integrated Coastal Zone Management MAWF Ministry of Agriculture, Water & Forestry MAWRD Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Rural Development MET Ministry of Environment and Tourism MFMR Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources MLR Ministry of Lands and Resettlement MME Ministry of Mines and Energy MPA Marine Protected Area MRLGHRD Ministry of Regional and Local Government and Housing and Rural Development NACOMA Namibian Coast Conservation and Management Project NACOWP Namibia Coast Conservation and Management White Paper NatMIRC National Marine Information and Research Centre NBSAP Namibia’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan NWR Namibia Wildlife Resorts NDP National Development Plan NPC National Planning Commission NTB National Tourism Board NWCRA National West Coast Recreation Area PPP Policies Plans Programmes RDP Regional Development Plan RSC Regional Service Council SCP Skeleton Coast Park SEA Strategic Environmental Assessment SRTM Shuttle Radar Topography Mission SWKM Swakopmund

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions ix TAC Total Allowable Catches TFCA Trans Frontier Conservation Area TOR Terms Of Reference TPS Town Planning Scheme UNAM University of Namibia WB Walvis Bay WBM Walvis Bay Municipality WTTC World Travel & Tourism Council

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions x EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

1. Introduction

This updated Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) for the coastal zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions has been pared by Risk-Based Solutions (RBS) based on the SEA that was undertaken by DHI Water & Environment, in 1996. In September 2006, the Namibian Coast Conservation and Management Project (NACOMA - http://www.nacoma.org.na) commissioned DHI Water & Environment to develop a user friendly, decision guiding and policy relevant Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) of the Erongo and Kunene regions’ coastal zones. The information, data and findings resulting from the SEA process have, further, been transferred to a Decision Support Tool (DST), which will assist political and technical decision makers at local, regional and national levels to make decisions on biodiversity conservation, land use planning, and social and economic development planning in the Kunene and Erongo coastal zones. The SEA and DST will also form inputs to NACOMA’s other activities. All data and other information collected during the SEA process will also feed into the preparation work by NACOMA for separate regional coastal profiles for particular use by the Kunene and Erongo Regional Councils. A specific contribution to the preparation of these regional profiles is identified in the recommendations of the SEA. These recommendations will inform the finalisation of a review of existing institutional mandates, policies and laws for coastal management in Namibia. In these ways, the results of the SEA will contribute to the development of the Namibian Coast Conservation and Management White Paper (NACOWP) to ensure that coastal development planning and management is based on pertinent information and data and on analysis and consideration of the most suitable actual and potential land uses. As per the Terms of Reference, the SEA contains:

 A description of current land uses, impacts, threats and pressures along the coastal zone, with recommendations for prevention and mitigation overall and in relation to Policies, Plans and Programmes (PPPs), including spatial data for use in the DST;

 A description of environmental/biodiversity conservation and management gaps, problems and implementation difficulties of current environmental/biodiversity conservation and management safeguards, management/control practices, and conservation/biodiversity management targets. This includes detailed concrete recommendations for improvement of environmental/biodiversity conservation and management overall and in relation to PPPs and data for use in the DST;

The outcomes of the integration of (i) and (ii) above in relation to existing PPPs.

2. Methodology

SEA is usually described as an Environmental Assessment (EA) process and method that assists in strategic decision making above the individual project level. SEA therefore refers to the environmental assessment of policies, plans, and programmes (PPPs) towards the purpose of achieving ecologically sustainable development. These days, SEA is increasingly seen as a tool which can address the inter-relationships between biophysical, social and economic impacts, rather than environmental impacts alone. SEA is a very useful tool for coastal planning and management, and SEA can be particularly helpful taking environmental issues into account whilst preparing or evaluating land use plans. For NACOMA, as for any other Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) initiative, SEA can help in identifying both the environmental opportunities and the constraints to social, physical and economic development in a coastal zone – and thus supply a broad strategic framework within which ICZM can occur. In this way, SEA provides at least some of the strategic parameters or guidelines within which ICZM can best take place.

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions xi Many hundreds (if not thousands) of technical and scientific studies of the biophysical and environmental conditions and dynamics of Namibia’s lengthy, thinly populated 1,570 km coastline have been made over the years. Similarly, many attempts, these now dating back several decades, have also been made to link environmental, social and economic dimensions in planning for coastal development. The real difficulty lies in the inability by stakeholders to find common understandings of and a shared strategic perspective on the economic, social and environmental interactions necessarily involved in coastal development today, and of the adjustments, compromises and trade-offs that need to be made to assure better coastal planning and management.

A mapping system in support of a coastal SEA not only requires integrated analyses of land use, planning and environmental data, but it also requires a relatively high resolution to produce sufficiently detailed information to be useful in the decision-making process related to various land-use options. Thus, in order to map key components of the coastal landscape with sufficient detail, two remote sensing data sets have been used: a Landsat ETM+ data set from 2001 in 28.5 m resolution and a digital topographic data set (SRTM) in one meter vertical and 90 m horizontal resolution. The ETM+ data have been processed to a seamless backdrop for the SEA GIS and have been used as a basis for digitising exact river courses and locate areas with prominent vegetation. The SRTM data have been used to estimate the relief and topographic complexity of the coastal zone. The data made available by the stakeholders were used to map the spatial extent of current land uses, priority zones for development of some land uses according to PPPs and the range of exploitable resources.

Estimation of land use suitability was made by integration of the PPP data, exploitable resource ranges, current land uses, environmental data, and modelled biodiversity hot spots. Although the two regions boast a variety of internationally recognised nature conservation assets the current boundaries of protected areas may not agree entirely with the gradients in coastal biodiversity found in the regions. Accordingly, gradients in biodiversity were estimated by mapping the distribution of priority areas or habitats for conservation in the coastal zone, including lichen distribution, priority species of vegetation, birds and mammals, wetlands of global importance, distance from regions of enhanced diversity and endemism like the Escarpment, Etosha and Brandberg, rocky outcrops and cliffs, rocky shorelines, well vegetated ephemeral rivers and areas of high topographic complexity. These priority areas/habitats for conservation were chosen on the basis of landscape characteristics known as important environmental drivers in relation to the movement of prioritised species of large mammals between Etosha and the coast, in relation to the distribution of prioritised species of birds and higher plants, and in relation to increased levels of diversity and endemism in plants, invertebrate and vertebrate animals. The mapped priority areas/habitats were combined into three classes of area importance. Land use suitability was modelled for each land use type using multi-criteria evaluation (weighted linear combination). The environmental factors for each land use were combined with information (if available) on exploitable resources, areas currently developed for urban land use, areas outlined by PPPs as priority development areas and the mapped priority areas/habitats for conservation. The four latter data sets were used as technical constraints to development: i.e. no development was

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions xii regarded as suitable if the area was outside a PPP zone, or in areas of no exploitable resources, or in urban land use zones, or priority areas/habitats for conservation.

3. SEA - General

More than 90% of the two coastal regions fall within Namibia’s national protected areas system. At the same time, the boundaries of the Skeleton Coast Park, the National West Coast Tourist Recreation Area and the Namib-Naukluft Park were proclaimed before Namibia gained independence and the modern environmental legislative framework in support of the integration of nature conservation and sustainable development was established. Thus, with the exception of the Namib-Naukluft Park, no clear goals have been set up linking management of human resource use and the conservation status of key species and habitats. As a result it is unclear which biodiversity elements constitute the focus for the coastal parks, and which elements are the focuses of more wide-scale habitat conservation action due to their widespread occurrence or lower susceptibility to human activities. This lack of conservation targets degrades both the conservation of the most sensitive elements of the biodiversity in the coastal parks as well as the implementation of sustainable development within the park’s boundaries.

Like other studies on biodiversity trends in Erongo and Kunene, the SEA clearly indicates a mismatch between the boundaries of the coastal parks and the general trends in biodiversity found in the coastal regions. The trends are quite striking and underline the fact that conservation priority areas and habitats in the protected coastal parks are indeed not evenly distributed along or across the coastal strip. The NBSAP provides for the implementation of article 95 (l) of the Namibian Constitution and the Convention on Biological Diversity and it offers MET the legal mechanisms for achieving the goal to develop management plans for the coastal parks. Currently, however, management plans with zoning of the area and tourism development plans have only been prepared for the Namib Naukluft Park. In that respect the SEA provides guidance to the zonation of the parks into potential areas for sustainable development and areas of differential sensitivity and importance as a basis for identifying core areas for conservation to be held free of any development.

Due to the enormous biodiversity assets of the coastal regions of Erongo and Kunene and the sensitive ecosystems they support, the largest development potential is related to the tourism industry. Although tourism land use patterns cannot currently be separated into the various types of tourism activities undertaken on the coast, it is clear that low-impact adventure and wildlife tourism (eco-tourism) can be widely applied and developed hand-in-hand with the conservation of biodiversity hot spots. Indeed, in terms of competition with other destinations – both domestic and international and even regional – preservation of the extraordinary conditions of the coastal environment in Kunene and Erongo might give the industry a competitive edge.

However, due to the fact that tourist policy and plan making are lagging behind both at regional and local levels, a current strategy and a support programme for both conventional and eco- tourism are urgently needed to boost the sector in both Kunene and Erongo. Local governments, at times working together, are enabling the activities of a resurgent private sector. But coordination between stakeholders seems poor, and there is little shared understanding of how coastal tourism has shifted its target markets, adapted its products, and moved forward. Up to date information to back up such an understanding is lacking. In this situation, there is a danger that environmental planning and management receives only lip service, and the resources on which coastal tourism depends are degraded. The need to strengthen the basis for capitalising on the potential win-win development scenario between eco-tourism and nature conservation on the coast is closely linked to the need to strengthen the power of MET relative to other line ministries and to align tourism development on the coast with the MET Concessions Policy. The full use of the tourism potential in the coastal areas will also depend on the implementation of the Neighbours and Residents Policy, as tourism is currently growing in inland escarpment areas outside the coastal zone. Compared to eco-tourism, other land uses, including traditional ‘high-impact’ tourism, possess a significantly smaller development potential in the two coastal regions. In spite of the lower Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions xiii potential, sustainable development is possible to achieve for all land uses by adopting the following environmental standards for land use development in pristine and sensitive environments:

 Avoidance of the most sensitive areas identified on the basis of a detailed baseline, in which habitat sensitivity in focal areas for land use development is mapped or modelled prior to environmental impact studies. The SEA provides guidance on the general location of hot spots of biodiversity, and may be used as basis for designing more detailed studies of the sensitivity of the areas in relation to various development projects;

 International standard environmental impact studies coupled to careful mitigation which secures the application of effective response mechanisms, which can then allow developments to proceed in close proximity to important and sensitive habitats. In cases where significant impacts cannot be avoided, changes to the planned development must take place. In cases where impacts of minor or moderate scale are estimated, careful mitigation measures must be set up and the residual impact following implementation of mitigation must be estimated. Assessments of single project as well as cumulative impacts of a planned project together with all other existing human activities must be included;

 Comprehensive environmental monitoring and management, which secures that the level of control necessary to assure authorities and NGOs of compliance with environmental quality objectives for development in proximity to sensitive habitats, requires quantifiable compliance targets. Of equal importance are effective and rapid response mechanisms, to allow feedback of monitoring results into compliance targets and work methods.

As stated in the Vision 2030 sub-vision on urbanisation there is a growing need for Namibia’s secondary cities like Walvis Bay and Swakopmund to play a bigger part in absorbing urban development than they do today, when Windhoek is hosting the major urban growth. Accordingly, the need for better urban policy, planning and management to accommodate urban growth is likely to become a more urgent imperative in the future. Sustainable urban development will rely on urban policy, planning and management practices facilitating the development of the Walvis Bay - Swakopmund area as a sub-regional platform to spatially concentrate, accommodate and enhance the benefits of urban and economic growth in the Erongo Region.

The location of nearby areas of conservation priority like the river valleys of the Kuiseb and Swakop rivers, the wetlands like Walvis Bay Lagoon, lichen fields and localised high densities of breeding Damara terns severely constrain the suitability for spreading urban land use beyond areas currently allocated to residential, beach resort and industrial establishments. However, even facing these constraints Walvis Bay and Swakopmund can increase their importance as a key national asset by developing an improved basis for spatial planning and management, by observing high standards of strategic and impact assessment and by developing detailed tourism plans.

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions xiv carried out by the Division of Engineering and Environmental Geology of MME provides for an important environmental control of potentially adverse impacts like excessive water supply, dust emission and pollution of surface- as well as groundwater. Here, again, MET should be involved as a third party to evaluate monitoring results.

Better planning of water resource use in mining activities must also be regarded as a key to a more sustainable mineral extraction on the coast. The existing water use policy, which leaves the organisation of water supply to the individual mining company, has to be replaced by a policy which ensures that suboptimal water extraction/desalination and distribution patterns do not emerge. As the current water use in Erongo is over-utilising the water resource, desalination plants are being considered whenever future water demands are discussed. A feasible project has yet to appear, but other coastal developments in arid zones have resorted to this solution and the cost of the technology is decreasing. Namwater may licence a desalination plant feeding mines through a distribution network to mines based on the Rössing pipe.

Aquaculture (fish and seafood) has gained considerable interest in Namibia over the last few years. The current National Development Plan (NDP 2) calls for the promotion of aquaculture activities and the national policy paper Vision 2030 both foresee a thriving aquaculture industry. Since 2003, the Aquaculture Act has provided a legislative context, and the policy paper Towards the Responsible Development of Aquaculture (2001) and the Aquaculture Strategy (2004) were developed to address the development of a sustainable aquaculture sector. Recently, detailed plans have been developed for Erongo, while very little aquaculture has been proposed in the Kunene region due to the distance to market and infrastructure challenges. In addition, the Walvis Bay Council has proposed to zone two plots between Walvis Bay and Swakopmund for aquaculture development with land based facilities.

Unfortunately, the current plans have not been founded on the basis of a comprehensive environmental master plan which considers both the natural marine environment from a feasible production and environmental point of view. An environmental master plan could provide a detailed zoning on the basis of the SEA and water quality data available from BCLME and could provide a sectoral strategic environmental assessment including modelling of effects on local water quality properties. The modelled suitability for sea-based and land-based aquaculture made by this SEA indicates that suitable locations in Erongo are few and localised and associated with Walvis Bay, Swakopmund and Henties Bay. Hence, proper planning of aquaculture developments in Erongo will require careful scrutiny of potential land use conflicts between residential areas and suitable areas for aquaculture.

4. Kunene Region SEA Specific Findings

4.1 Skeleton Coast National Park

The Skeleton Coast National Park is a globally unique place, and must maintain its protected status and wilderness characteristics. At the same time, increased sustainable activities regarding tourism are possible which will benefit locals and neighbours in adjacent conservancies. The government’s policies on Protected Areas, Neighbours and Resident People and the Policy Framework for Concessions in Proclaimed Protected Areas should be implemented as soon as possible, and the park’s Master Plan should be agreed upon and enforced. New management plans for the Skeleton Coast National Park, the TFCA, and the proposed extension to Etosha should establish target habitats for conservation and species action plans as well as zonation for all land uses, including areas to be avoided by mining activities, on the basis of detailed profiles of landscape, vegetation, wildlife, livestock and human settlements. The SEA provides guidance to this process.

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions xv driving, recreational angling, private tourism, littering and the excavation of trenches. The SEA and the mapping of priority areas for conservation will contribute to the understanding of the sensitive areas. The most sensitive areas are the mouth of the Kunene River, the river beds of the ephemeral rivers with prominent stands of higher plants and the eastern-central sector between Koigab and Hoanib rivers. The easternmost parts of the river beds of the Ugab, Huab, Koigab, Uniab, Hoanib, Hoarusib and Khumib located within the Skeleton Coast National Park are characterised by habitats which support elevated densities of a wide range of taxa and species, like growth of Acacia spp. and Colophospermum mopane, rocky areas like the Agate

Mountain and high topographic complexity. The unique fauna includes several species of large herbivorous and carnivorous mammals, and bird species like the Black harrier. The eastern- central sector of the SCNP between Koigab and Hoanib rivers marks a zone of significant concentrations of habitats, especially for mammals migrating between Etosha and the coast as well as for a number of bird species recruited in the Escarpment. In addition the zone supports extensive coverage of Welwitschia, and rocky outcrops are found centrally while an area of high complexity is found in the south. The zone is used both by relatively common mammal species like Springbok as well as by rare and endangered species like Mountain zebra, Lion, Elephant and Leopard. Elephants seem mainly to use the northern-most part of the zone.

The northern part of the SCNP from the Kunene River to Möwe Bay should remain a closed area and be integrated with the planned TFCA. Möwe Bay should develop its tourism potential to accommodate and cater for day trippers from Terrace Bay and fly-ins; this would include new housing to replace the existing pre-fab constructions. The landing site (“harbour”) should be improved to allow launching of angling boats. The MET facilities should be rehabilitated with a clear objective of becoming a showcase sustainable settlement with solar and wind power, desalination, housing construction etc. Terrace Bay should be developed to capitalise on the suitability of the location for tourism, including beach resorts. The area might be developed into a high-end angling site and the point-of-departure for day trips to Möwe Bay and trips to the adjacent core wilderness area with accommodation in an all-inclusive resort. Torra Bay should remain a site for budget accommodation aimed at domestic, and SADC region eco-tourist and angler target groups. The development of a Skeleton Coast Biodiversity Centre in support of eco- tourism should be explored aiming at the improved potential for wilderness safaris in the Skeleton Coast – Etosha extension area.

Considering its vast size, the park is severely understaffed. It should be discussed in MET, MME, MFMR and other relevant ministries how existing responsibilities with respect to surveillance and inspection of the North West of Namibia can most efficiently be carried out. Costs could be shared and rangers could carry out duties for other ministries to increase frequency and efficiency. From the biodiversity and eco-tourism point of view the proposal for the construction of a port in Cape Fria or Angra Fria should not be pursued, since the necessary infrastructure developments will severely affect the present remoteness/wilderness attraction to tourists. Unless national strategic concerns or strong economic incentives dictate a revisiting of the proposal it seems neither feasible nor sustainable under the present conditions.

4.2 Conservancies

In order to develop a wider palette of tourist services in the Skeleton Coast National Park with the involvement of the conservancies it is of the utmost importance that the Master Plan adopts a multiple use framework for the management of the park, which includes the three conservancies of Palmwag, Etendeka and Hobatere. A multiple use framework needs to be developed with detailed advice on sensitive zones to be avoided by tourism, mining exploration and production and other human activities as well as advice on the best locations for the placement of supporting infrastructure like pipelines, tracks and roads.

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions xvi 4.3 Kunene River Mouth

The building of a dam at Epupa will require that a management framework be set up covering the entire lower Kunene River for successful management of the TFCA. Water availability influences the type and biological quality of the planned TFCA transboundary area. This is especially true in the Kunene River Mouth as it is located in an arid region. A thorough understanding of the overall hydrology is thus imperative for all management aspects both in the TFCA as such as well as in the upstream part. Literally, the Kunene River Mouth is the ‘end of the line’ and all interventions in the upstream part will inevitably have an impact downstream. Unpredictable changes in the overall climate conditions may also dramatically influence the Delta area. Obviously, strategies to construct a dam may have significant adverse effects on the potential for freshwater fisheries, aquaculture and angling. Management aspects of the TFCA should therefore be seen in a dual context – both from an upstream view and from a downstream view.

5. Erongo Region SEA Specific Findings

5.1 Sandwich Harbour

The SEA classified the area as of very high conservation priority. In line with the new Wetland Policy, Sandwich Harbour should be declared a Marine Protected Area to protect the large numbers of waterbirds, fish spawning and rearing in the area, the shark population and the possibility of right whale calving. A detailed management plan should be prepared allowing strict protection of the site, while enabling low-impact eco-tourism to continue to take place.

5.2 Walvis Bay Wetland

The SEA classified the area as of very high conservation priority. In line with the new Wetland Policy, enforcement of the Walvis Bay Nature Reserve Management Plan should be pursued in the short term. MET should formally designate the Nature Reserve as a protected area. MET, the Walvis Bay Municipality and the Coastal Environmental Trust of Namibia should ensure further enforcement of the national Wetland Policy in the area by adopting the Nature Reserve Management Plan.

MET, the Walvis Bay Municipality and the Coastal Environmental Trust of Namibia should as soon as possible also establish a long-term environmental monitoring programme including the biodiversity elements for terrestrial, coastal as well as offshore habitats found in the wetland. A baseline for the monitoring programme should produce diversity gradients in relation to tourism, aquaculture and agriculture and the acquired data should feed into the requirement for improved Environmental Impact Assessments. To make full use of the potential for development of eco- tourism and traditional tourism in the wetland, a tourism development plan for the Nature Reserve should be drafted by the Walvis Bay Municipality in collaboration with the Walvis Bay Tourism Association and the Marine Tour Association of Namibia. Developments of all tourist activities in the reserve and accommodation adjacent to the reserve should occur on the basis of permissions subject to Environmental Impact Assessment. A feasibility study of the development of the existing aquaculture farms for oyster and future marine and land-based aquacultures in the wetland should be made in relation to the most sensitive parts and residential areas.

The aquaculture development near Pelican Point is in waters zoned for port activities and included in the nature reserve. The planned area conflicts with the dredge spoil dump site nearest to the harbour and may conflict with the conservation targets for the nature reserve. An environmental master plan for the Aqua Park should include provisions for retrieving oysters when dredging and spoil dumping is in progress and detailed assessments of impacts on coastal and marine biodiversity elements.

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions xvii 5.3 Dune Belt Area

The dune belt should be included in the Walvis Bay Nature Reserve, and free zones for off-road driving should be maintained east of Walvis Bay and east of Long Beach. The management and environmental monitoring of the area should be part of the activities proposed for the Nature Reserve. Expansion of eco-tourism activities should be promoted through inclusion of the Dune belt in the proposed Walvis Bay tourism development plan. Once the existing mining licenses expire, new reconnaissance, prospecting or mining licences should not be granted in the dune belt. The zoning of eco-tourism and free zones for off-road driving should become object of a detailed Environmental Impact Assessment.

5.4 Walvis Bay

The process for the revision of the Walvis Bay Municipality Structure Plan will be concluded in the next months. This will involve, in part, the discussion and approval of the proposals relevant to the Esplanade and to the coastal area. This process provides a valuable opportunity for Walvis Bay Municipality and other stakeholders to resolve the land use and zoning issues that have caused controversy for a long period. The proposals for the Esplanade are broadly in line with the structure plan. The proposal for encouraging higher density developments and activities related to conventional tourism along the lagoon, should be reconsidered or justified further, as the modelled land use suitability for conventional beach tourism in the Walvis Bay area indicates low suitability along the lagoon. Protests about the proposed mixed use development on the Atlantis Sports Grounds could be set to rest by keeping the development on the eastern side of the road, and therefore not closing the Esplanade to through traffic.

The SEA indicates high biodiversity values in the northern part of the coastal area adjacent to the Swakop River and the land use suitability maps indicate a lack of suitability for land uses other than eco-tourism. This area remains undeveloped, and the only proposal for development that was subjected to an EIA in recent years – a residential area near the Swakop River in 2002 – was rejected by MET on the basis of the EIA and the Peri-Urban Policy. In view of its biodiversity and recreational and landscape values, it is recommended that the area, which is still in any event state land, be maintained solely as a Conservation Area, as per the original Walvis Bay Structure Plan and Peri-Urban Land Use Policy. The proposals for nodal residential developments near the Swakop River mouth and in the Caution Reef area should be rejected. Conservation, Eco- Tourism and Aquaculture – are uses that do not fit easily with one another – the proposed development zone at Caution Reef should also be shelved.

The fait accompli of urban and economic development on the southern part of the coast should be accepted by stakeholders. This development started nearly 20 years ago with the proclamation and development of Long Beach. It was given ample room for expansion by WBM’s rezoning in 2003 and the subsequent development of Long Beach Extension 1 and of the three new residential areas that are now either underway or planned for the near-term future. The structure plan revisions propose a mix of harbour and aquaculture, residential and public beach/recreational activities in the area. These should be accepted, as indicated by the SEA land use suitability models. More analysis will have to be done on the means that can be used, such as design guidelines, for assuring that these very different land uses do not conflict with one another, with negative impacts for residents and the natural environment. At the same time, sufficient public beach and recreational space and access to it for residents will be needed to also be assured. Given that the land-use suitability models indicate that the majority of the area sustains low suitability for aquaculture and high suitability for tourism the potential for increased recreational uses of the area should set the scene.

5.5 Swakopmund

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions xviii suitability models, provided measures are taken to mitigate any impacts from the essentially industrial processes which characterise aquaculture. The area north of the Saltworks is seemingly more suitable for land-based aquaculture development. An EIA is recommended for any future developments of scale in the area.

5.6 Mile 4 Saltworks

The Mile 4 Saltworks comprises a private nature reserve of 400 ha, saltworks, guano platforms and oyster production. No conflicts seem to exist between the waterbird concentrations, the salt extraction, oyster production and guano scraping at the saltworks. In line with the new Wetland Policy the current seemingly sustainable activities should be monitored and any new development should be subject of environmental impact assessment. The area just north of the saltworks has been identified as a potential development area for land-based aquaculture by MFMR, and the land use suitability models of the SEA indicate that the area is suitable for aquaculture development.

5.7 Wlotzkasbaken

Under the auspices of the ERC, a structure or development plan should be prepared for the Wlotzkasbaken area. This should highlight both development options (residential, recreational, aquaculture, etc.) and the zoning of future land uses.

5.8 Henties Bay

The tourism development in Henties Bay overlaps with an urbanisation of prime land along the beach, and it is therefore recommended to consider future profitable and sustainable tourism development along the coast of the town of Henties Bay. Development should continue to be directed towards the south of the current urban area. The potential for land-based aquaculture should be pursued to the south of the town.

5.9 Brandberg Massif

The SEA classified the area as of very high conservation priority. The rocky areas of the Brandberg Massif, which are connected with Namibia’s highest mountain Brandberg, at 2,606m, located in the central section of the Namib Desert some 30 km from the boundary of the National West Coast Tourist Recreation Area, is a priority area for conservation of a wide range of desert plants and animals. The area also includes the Messum Crater. Recent analyses show that Brandberg is the epicentre of a rich vein of endemic mammals, reptiles, plants and amphibians that runs from the Sperrgebiet in the south to the Otjihipa Mountains in the north. No other area in Namibia is as rich in endemics as the Brandberg massif; among the 90 endemic plants, eight are found nowhere else, whilst three of six near-endemic frogs, eight of 14 near-endemic mammals, 49 of 59 near-endemic reptiles, and 11 of 14 near-endemic birds occur on or around this inselberg. No land use development, except for eco-tourism, should take place in the Brandberg Massif. 5.10 Cape Cross Nature Reserve

Currently this wetland is registered as a nature reserve with the purpose to restrict access to the public. The seal reserve is visited by 40,000 tourists per year. In line with the new Wetland Policy, the current seemingly sustainable levels of tourism, guano-scrapping and small-scale salt- extraction activities should be monitored and any new development should be subject of environmental impact assessment.

5.11 National West Coast Tourist Recreation Area

MET should develop a new conservation management regime for the NWCTRA, which satisfies the requirements for improved integration of growing land uses and nature protection. New management plans should establish a multiple use framework for future developments with Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions xix zonation for all land uses, including information on the most sensitive areas to be avoided by mining activities, on the basis of detailed profiles of landscape, vegetation, wildlife, livestock and human settlements. The SEA provides assistance to this process. The mapping of priority areas for conservation indicates that the most sensitive areas and areas with the largest eco-tourism potential within the NWCTRA are found at Cape Cross Lagoon and Seal Reserve, the river beds and associated areas of the Swakop and Ugab rivers and the rocky area associated with the Brandberg Massif. Other land uses, including conventional tourism, should be focused on the parts of the NWCTRA with limited concentration of biodiversity. The development of conventional and eco-tourism should be guided by a tourism plan for the area.

6. SEMP Implementation and Monitoring Strategy

The SEMP provide a strategic framework for addressing the likely impacts of other PPPs by other Organs of State. The implementation framework is achieved by setting limits of environmental quality with respect to performance targets that need to be achieved by the various Organs of State with respect to individual PPPs (Tables 1 and 2). The proposed monitoring programme has been developed to allow maximum flexibility in both the timing and monitoring locations in order to allow adaptation to the conditions encountered and to allow decisions to be made in the field, based on all available data. The monitoring programme acts as a quality assurance check on all environmental procedures and environmental performances with respect to the implementation of the mitigation measures and the overall SEMP framework. The implementation of the monitoring programme with respect to the outlined PPP in Tables 1 and 2 will require resources to collect, analyse the required data sets and propose recommendations on what needs to be done.

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions xx Table 1: SEMP Recommended Implementation Schedule – Sector-Based Actions.

Sector Recommended action Time frame Expected outcome Key stakeholders Recommended indicators Focal MET Species lists and detailed Definition of management goals species/habitats Nature conservation 3 years NGOs distribution maps for each for protected areas defined for the Conservancies area coastal parks Identification of Regional councils Spatial definition (GIS sensitive areas and Line ministries Zoning established for the maps) of core areas and Nature conservation 3 years potential areas for NGOs coastal parks potential areas for sustainable Conservancies sustainable development development Municipalities Provision of a Municipalities Statistics on numbers of detailed profile of Regional councils Detailed analysis of current and tourist and revenues from Tourism 1 year current and short- MET short-term tourism activities different tourist activities at term tourism Tour operators local and regional level activities Conservancies Municipalities Strategy and Regional councils Draft development plan Development of regional tourism support programme Tourism 1 year MET available at the regional development plans for conventional and Tour operators councils eco-tourism Conservancies Guidelines for environmental EIAs undertaken Regional councils impact assessments and using state-of-the- Line ministries Draft guidelines available at All assessments of the sensitivity of 1 year art technologies and NGOs MET sites targeted by development international Municipalities projects standards

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions xxi Table 1: (Cont.).

Sector Recommended action Time frame Expected outcome Key stakeholders Recommended indicators Compliance with Guidelines for comprehensive environmental Regional councils environmental monitoring and quality objectives Line ministries All 1 year All management by all large-scale for development in NGOs projects proximity to Municipalities sensitive habitats Leverage for the enforcement of EIA MME Agreement between MME Improve liaison with MET in guidelines, MET and MET on involvement of Mineral extraction relation to prospecting for mineral 1 year monitoring and Regional councils MET in planning and extraction in protected areas rehabilitation Municipalities licensing of mining activities associated with mining activities Co-ordinated MME Development of a plan for organisation of MET Draft plan available at Water supply sustainable water supply in 2 years water supply to the Namwater Namwater Erongo individual mining Regional councils company Municipalities Sectoral strategic assessment of MFMR environmental and Development of an NatMIRC Draft zoning plan available Aquaculture 1 year financial environmental master plan Regional councils at NatMIRC implications of Municipalities aquaculture developments

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions xxii Table 2: SEMP Recommended Implementation Schedule – Area-Based Actions.

Area/Zone Recommended action Time frame Expected outcome Key stakeholders Recommended indicators Protection of MET Designation of Marine Protected Sandwich Harbour 2 years wetland and marine MFMR Draft MPA declaration Area biodiversity NGOs Designation of the Nature Reserve as Nature Reserve protected area and Management Plan adopted Enforcement of the Walvis Bay MET development of Draft monitoring and Walvis Bay wetland Nature Reserve Management 2 years WB Municipality monitoring and tourism development plans Plan tourism NGOs available with WB development plans Municipality for the wetland Sustainable Requirements for EIAs accommodation and included into WB Environmental Impact MET tourist Municipalities’ license Walvis Bay wetland Assessments of accommodation 1 year WB Municipality developments in requirements for and tourist developments and near the NGOs accommodation and tourist wetland developments Re-assess development Sustainable tourist MET Draft Walvis Bay proposals for higher density Walvis Bay 1 year developments near WB Municipality Municipality Structure Plan developments and activities the wetland revised along the lagoon NGOs Focus development along the Conflicts on the use Draft Walvis Bay WB Municipality Walvis Bay Esplanade to the eastern side of 1 year of the Esplanade Municipality Structure Plan NGOs the road solved revised

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions xxiii Table 2: (Cont.).

Area/Zone Recommended action Time frame Expected outcome Key stakeholders Recommended indicators Swakop River Withdraw plans for residential Mouth and Caution MET Draft Walvis Bay developments near the Swakop Walvis Bay 1 year Reef area WB Municipality Municipality Structure Plan river mouth and in the Caution maintained as revised Reef area NGOs Conservation Area Withdraw plans to integrate Caution Reef area MET Draft Walvis Bay Walvis Bay conservation with eco-tourism 1 year maintained as WB Municipality Municipality Structure Plan and aquaculture at Caution Reef Conservation Area NGOs revised Focus development of harbour, Coastal Line ministries aquaculture, residential and developments WB Municipality Draft Walvis Bay Walvis Bay public beach/recreational 3 years concentrated to Key project Municipality Structure Plan activities on the section between least sensitive developers revised Long Beach and the WB harbour sector NGOs MET Free zones for off-road driving Sustainable Regional council should be maintained east of Maps of free zones updated Dune belt 1 year conventional WB Municipality Walvis Bay and east of Long at disseminated from MET tourism achieved Tour operators Beach NGOs MET Integrated nature EIA published by MET/WB Management integrated into the Regional council conservation and Municipality with zoning of Dune belt management of Walvis Bay 2 years WB Municipality sustainable tourism eco-tourism and free zones Nature Reserve Tour operators achieved for off-road driving. NGOs Focus developments of urban MFMR Swakopmund Structure Sustainable and aquaculture development on Regional council Plan includes zoning for Swakopmund 3 years development of the the sector between Mile 4 and Sw. Municipality urban and aquaculture for sector achieved Mile 4 Saltworks NGOs this sector

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions xxiv Table 2: (Cont.).

Area/Zone Recommended action Time frame Expected outcome Key stakeholders Recommended indicators Requirements for EIAs MFMR Environmental Impact included into SWKM. Sustainable MET Assessments of all major Municipalities’ license Swakopmund 3 years development of the Regional council developments between Mile 4 requirements for sector achieved SWKM. Municipality and Mile 4 Saltworks aquaculture and other NGOs developments MFMR Sustainable Development of land-based Regional council Swakopmund Structure aquaculture Swakopmund aquaculture north of Mile 4 3 years SWKM. Municipality Plan includes zoning for development Saltworks Aquaculture farmers aquaculture for this sector achieved NGOs Sustainable development of Development of a structure or residential, Regional council Draft Structure Plan Wlotzkasbaken development plan for the 1 year recreational, SWKM. Municipality available at Erongo Wlotzkasbaken area aquaculture and NGOs Regional Council other land uses achieved MFMR Focus developments of urban Sustainable Regional council Draft Structure Plan Henties Bay and aquaculture development 3 years development of the Henties. B. available at Henties Bay south of the town sector achieved Municipality Municipality NGOs Multiple-use framework for Line Ministries Draft management plan with National West integrated Regional council zoning of strict protection Coast Tourist Develop management plan 1 year conservation and NGOs and land uses available at Recreation Area sustainable use of MET the area

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions xxv Table 2: (Cont.).

Area/Zone Recommended action Time frame Expected outcome Key stakeholders Recommended indicators Brandberg Massif, Mile 4 Saltworks, Cape Cross Areas designated for strict Lagoon, the mouth No land use development, except Protection of core Line Ministries protection in management of the Swakop for eco-tourism, should take 1 year areas of Regional council plan for National West River, river beds of place in the areas conservation priority Coast Tourist Recreation the Swakop River NGOs Area and the area southeast of the Ugab River Development of new Multiple-use management plan, including the framework for Line Ministries Draft management plan with Skeleton Coast Kunene River TFCA and the integrated Regional council zoning of strict protection 2 years National Park proposed extension to Etosha conservation and NGOs and land uses available at (Palmwag, Etendeka and sustainable use of Conservancies MET Hobatere conservancies) the area Kunene River Mouth, river beds Areas designated for strict No land use development, except Protection of core Line Ministries with higher plants protection in management for eco-tourism, should take 1 year areas of Regional council and the area plan for National West coast place in the areas conservation priority between Koigab NGOs Recreation Area and Hoanib rivers Provision of Applications for Development of improved accommodation and MET accommodation facilities tourism potential, incl. improved tourism support for Möwe Bay received by Kunene Möwe Bay 5 years accommodation, landing site for day trippers from Regional council Regional Council boats and MET facilities Terrace Bay and fly- Developers Rehabilitation of MET ins facilities commenced

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions xxvi Table 2: (Cont.).

Area/Zone Recommended action Time frame Expected outcome Key stakeholders Recommended indicators Provision of a wide range of tourist MET Applications for establishments, Terrace Bay Terrace Bay Development of tourism potential 5 years developments received by including beach Regional council Kunene Regional Council resorts and other Developers tourist facilities MET Increased number of Regional council tourists on wilderness Skeleton Coast Development of a Skeleton Support of eco- 5 years Tour operators safaris in the Skeleton National Park Coast Biodiversity Centre tourism in the park Conservancies Coast – Etosha extension NGOs area Develop a management Successful MET Kunene framework in relation to the Hydrological study included management of the MME River/Baynes establishment of a dam at 2 years in the EIA for the Kunene River Regional council Mountain Baynes Mountain covering the construction of the dam Mouth TFCA entire lower Kunene River NGOs

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions xxvii 6. The SEA Decision Support Tool (DST)

One of the outcomes of the SEA of the coastal areas is the synthesis of PPPs and the GIS- based dissemination of information and data within the framework of a user-friendly, policy relevant and IT-based Decision Support Tool (DST). The DST has the role of informing the decision making process on land use options in the two coastal regions, and does not provide decisions per se. As the GIS capacity of the primary end-users, the Regional Councils, is relatively low the DST has been developed as a stand-alone application; either as a cluster of PDF files with results of the suitability maps for each land use type or as a collection of GIS files, encompassing all major results and background files, which can be viewed in the widely available ArcView 3.2 as well as in the freeware ArcExplorer.

The early version of the DST is disseminated as a CD-ROM, which apart from the PDF-files and GIS files will also contain the SEA final report and a manual for using the maps in ArcView/ArcExplorer. Following this a longer-term solution for the DST needs to be developed, which ensures that the DST data and functions are available via the Web. Following the finalisation of the SEA and DST for Karas and Hardap, the DST Web service could accommodate a full set of land-use suitability scenarios and background data for the entire Namibian coastline.

The GIS for the DST will have a resolution of 90 m. This high resolution serves to provide the end users with possibilities for resolving land use conflicts/solutions at the finest possible scale with the data at hand. The choice of regions and sub-regions and themes to display is different between the PDF and the ArcExplorer application. In the PDF maps showing pre-defined themes for the different sub-regions will be available, while in ArcExplorer the end user will be able to select any theme and any portion of the mapped coastal stretch of Kunene and Erongo for visualisation. The collection of GIS maps with ArcExplorer will make it possible for the local user to add his/her own project data in vector and raster format.

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions xxviii 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

This updated SEA Report covers the coastal zones of the Kunene and Erongo (Fig. 1.1). In September 2006, the Namibian Coast Conservation and Management Project (NACOMA) commissioned DHI Water & Environment to develop a user friendly, decision guiding and policy relevant Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) of the Erongo and Kunene regions’ coastal zones. The information and data that resulted from the SEAs were presented in a user- friendly, policy relevant and IT-based Decision Support Tool (DST) that has been disseminated to political and technical decision makers at local, regional and national level with the aim to influence biodiversity conservation, land-use and development planning in the Kunene and Erongo coastal zones. However, due to the ever changing coastal development needs as well as new information that have been gathered from other completed NACOMA Projects, there was a need to update the previous coastal SEA in order to reflect the new regulatory framework and current developmental status, challenge, opportunities and risk.

It is widely recognised by stakeholders at all levels of any development process that pertinent information and data to facilitate development planning and implementation are not readily available and in a format to inform decision makers. In the Kunene and Erongo Regions, numerous development plans are in place and future ones on the cards and thus it’s essential for decision makers to be adequately informed of the conflicts, constraints or opportunities when considering policies, plans or programme development proposals. Regional and Local Authorities are also at times inadequately informed about their resource bases, potential and access thereto that underscore attempts to improve the livelihoods of people. At policy level, information is inadequate to aide in the review of existing policies, plans and programmes (PPPs) in order to make sensible amendments as the environment and its attributes change over time.

1.2 The Essence of the Kunene and Erongo SEA

Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) is key tool which provides a systematic and comprehensive process of evaluating the environmental effects of a policy, plan or programme and its alternatives (Table. 1.1). The final goal of a SEA is to better reflect environmental aspects in formulating and deciding on a policy, plan and programme and, thereby, contributing to make policies, plans and programmes more sustainable. Whereas the EIA focuses on the project level, SEA reflects decisions further upstream in the planning process, where decisions are being taken, that might influence project related decisions further downstream. SEA should not be understood as a mere ‘burden’ to the plan developer.

Within the context of the coastal zone, this updated SEA for the Kunene and Erongo Regions addresses the likely conflicts, constraints or opportunities presented by the National Policy on Coastal Management, developed by the Ministry of Environment and Tourism within the framework of the NACOMA Project with respect to other policies, plans and programmes within MET as well as other Organs of State (Other Line Ministries, Regional Councils and Local Authorities) covering the coastal zones of these two regions. The coastal policy addresses the need to enhance coastal biodiversity conservation in the coastal protected areas by the Ministry of Environment and Tourism through the support provided by the NACOMA Project. A policy is the first stage of the law making process and the final stage of the coastal policy may be the development of a Coastal Bill, leading to the Act of Parliament with regulations.

The development of this coastal policy by the Ministry of Environment and Tourism may result conflicts, constraints or opportunities that need to be evaluated carefully before the policy

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 1 - development process is fully concluded, hence the implementation of this SEA for the Erongo and Kunene Regions. The following is the summary of the key components of this SEA:

(i) Organ of State – Ministry of Environment and Tourism (MET);

(ii) Policy, Plan or Programme being address by the SEA – National Policy on Coastal Management;

(iii) Overall objectives of the National Policy on Coastal Management - Enhance coastal biodiversity conservation in the coastal protected areas of the coastal zone through the development of appropriate legal frameworks starting with the development of a Coastal Policy, Bill, Act of Parliament and Regulations governing the coastal zone.

(iv) Overall objectives of the Coastal SEA for the Kunene and Erongo Regions – To identify likely conflicts, constraints or opportunities presented by the coastal policy with respect to other coastal zone policies, plans and programmes under the Ministry of Environment and Tourism and other Line Ministries, Regional Councils and Local Authorities.

One of the constraints of the previous SEA for the Kunene and Erongo Regions was that at the time of preparing the SEAs, the coastal policy which the SEA was supposed to assess was not yet ready. The SEA is key tool that can provide an early consideration of environmental impacts and conflicts with natural resources. The findings of an SEA can avoid costly damages during policy, plan, programme implementation and, thereby, be an efficient means of ensuring sustainability of development proposals. For instance, the early environmental assessment of zoning plans for new coastal urban residential areas might prevent later damages through floods by avoiding topographically low areas. In this context, the comparison of different options of development is crucial. The SEA helps to identify or even develop those options, which impose the lowest risks or enable the best utilization of coastal zone potentials. Reflections of alterations of proposals in terms of type, location, design or technology within an assessment are also required by the legal framework.

This SEA for the coastal areas of Erongo and Kunene regions will promote a standardised and replicable approach and the production of comparable results (information and data). The SEAs will draw on (but not limited to) the literature identified and reviewed, and consult with the public and relevant stakeholders. The preparation of this updated SEA Report has been done in line with the requirements of the Environmental Management Act 7 of 2007 and other identified relevant legal frameworks that underpin development at regional levels. The overall focus of updating the SEA Reports for the Kunene and Erongo Regions is to facilitate understanding, through more enhanced visualisation of outcomes and recommendations, of the first SEA process by overlaying thematic maps showing objectives, overlaps, conflicts and opportunities. The identified overlaps, conflicts and opportunities areas or zones have been compiled into constraints and opportunities coastal maps for both the Kunene and Erongo Regions.

This updated coastal SEA for the Erongo and Kunene SEA will serve as a guiding tool for the increasing development pressure in the coastal zones of the two regions. The Kunene Region faces a number of developmental challenges mainly due to limited accessibility and supporting services while the reasonably well developed infrastructures in the Erongo Region, and now with the proclamation of the Dorob National Park (DNP) in December 2010 all presents competing challenges between coastal developmental opportunities and biodiversity conservation needs.

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 2 -

Figure 1.1: General overview of the Kunene and Erongo Region.

Table 1.1: The Essence of SEA compared to an EIA.

ASSESSMENT TYPE ACTIVITY RESPONSIBILITY OUTPUTS FOCUS  Policies  Organs of State (Line SEA Report with an Strategic Environmental  Plans Ministries, Parastatals, Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) Management Plan  Programmes Regional Councils, (SEMP) Municipalities)

 Project Specific  Proponent (Private EIA Report with an Activity person, private entity Environmental Environmental Impact such as companies Management Plan Assessment (EIA) (EMP)

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 3 - 1.3 National Policy on Coastal Management and Boundary

1.3.1 Overview

The National Policy on Coastal Management promotes the integration and harmonisation of different legislation for effective planning and implementation in coastal areas, taking into account both environmental and human development needs. The policy will guide Government on the development and enactment of coast-specific legislation to establish appropriate legal mechanisms for coastal management. It supports institutional arrangements that bring flexibility, capacity and power to respond quickly to threats and opportunities associated with coastal resources. In doing so, likely conflicts, constraints or opportunities presented by the coastal policy with respect to other coastal zone policies, plans and programmes under the Ministry of Environment and Tourism and other Line Ministries, Regional Councils and Local Authorities are likely to occur.

The policy presents an overview of management of coastal resources, vulnerabilities, challenges and contributions to the well-being of all Namibians. The document outlines the guiding principles for a legal and strategic framework, development planning, institutional arrangements, resource mobilization as well as monitoring and evaluation for the policy implementation.

The policy is a product of two years of thorough consultation with multiple stakeholders that has been driven by the Ministry of Environment and Tourism (MET) through the Namibian Coast Conservation and Management (NACOMA) Project and supported by the National Policy and Legal Working Group, various institutions including Non- Governmental Organisations (NGOs), Community Based Organisations (CBOs), residents of the five coastal towns and many other organisations.

1.3.2 Coastal Zone Boundary, Resources and Land Uses

The coastal areas of Namibia boast the longest protected area network in Africa comprised of Skeleton Coast Park, Dorob National Park, Namib-Naukluft Park and Sperrgebiet National Park (Fig. 1.2). The geographic boundaries of the coastal zone are commonly defined as the interface between the land and the sea. Unlike watersheds, there are no exact natural boundaries that delineate the coast and coastal countries around the world have adopted different boundaries ranging from fixed demarcations of 1 km inland from the high water mark to more flexible boundaries that respond to key coastal issues or activities. The landward delimitation of the coastal zone is guided by the interplay among the biophysical, social and economic considerations. The coastal zone boundary adopted for the purpose of this SEA is the high water mark to the west and the eastern boundaries of the coastal protected areas (Fig. 1.2 and Plate 1.1).

According to the National Coastal Policy Document, (2012), the coast is a place where the waters of the ocean meet the land (Plate 1.1). Our coastal zone is dominated by the Namib Desert stretching from the Kunene River in the northern border with Angola to the Orange River in south bordering South Africa (Plate 1.2). The Namib Desert is one of the oldest deserts in the world and this habitat is recognised as a potential World Heritage site by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN)1. Activities impacting on the coastal zone that may be further inland, or offshore within or in the vicinity of the regions should also be identified with clear information on current / potential impacts and threats (e.g. river developments, mining, aquifer developments etc.).

1 IUCN, 2004. The World Heritage List: future priorities for a credible and complete list of natural and mixed sites. A Strategy Paper prepared by IUCN. April 2004, pp 1-19.

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 4 - Coast comprises a wealth of resources and diverse ecosystems which host a multitude of human activities and uses (Plate 1.1 – 1.8). When properly managed, coasts are vital to the social well-being and economic development of all coastal nations. Namibia’s coastline extends some 1,570 km, from the mouth of the Orange River on the South African border, to the mouth of the Kunene River on the Angolan border. It also extends away from the shoreline, into the sea and onto the land; our coastal areas host globally significant biodiversity, unique cultural diversity, and support many economic activities.

Man’s harvesting of resources from the sea has a history of overexploitation with the same approach as the mining industry, i.e. that resource is not renewed and it is a matter of extracting it from nature as quickly and efficiently as possible. The historical examples from Namibia of mining of biological resources to local depletion or near depletion include whales, guano, abalones, pilchards and sharks. After Independence total allowable catches and management of quotas were introduced and previously depleted stocks may now be recovering, however a huge jelly fish biomass has established itself in the niche left by overfishing.

The fishing industry is a source of considerable employment in Namibia and the sector is the second largest contributor to the GDP. Considerable research and management resources are directed towards establishing a sustainable fishery2. The TACs are combined with the goal of protecting spawning and nursery areas and to this end the BCLME project has provided much new data. A few marine species are protected from fishing: Great white sharks, whales, dolphins and marine turtles. In addition, the use of polychaete (bristle) worms for bait is prohibited.

2 Marine Resources Policy 2004, Marine Resources Act 2000, Aquaculture Policy, 2001, Aquaculture Act 2002, Towards the Responsible Development of Aquaculture (2001)

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 5 -

Figure 1.2: Location map and outline of the national coastal zones covered by the SEA. The coastal zone stretches from the lower water march in the west to eastern boundaries of the coastal protected areas.

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 6 -

Plate 1.1: Examples of our coast, a place where the waters of the ocean meet the land (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012).

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 7 -

Plate 1.2: The Namib Desert – A glimpse to our oldest treasure and a potential World Heritage site that defines our coastal resources, diverse ecosystems, the multitude of human activities and uses along our coast (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012).

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 8 -

Plate 1.3: Kunene River Month – An example of our coastal resources and diverse ecosystems (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012).

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 9 -

Plate 1.4: Walvis Bay Lagoon and urban development - An example of our coastal resources and diverse ecosystems (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012).

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 10 -

Plate 1.5: Sandwich Harbour – An example of our coastal resources and diverse ecosystems (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012).

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 11 -

Plate 1.6: Seabirds, example of our coastal resources at the Kunene River Mouth (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012).

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 12 -

Plate 1.7: Cape Cross Seals – An example of our coastal resources (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012).

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 13 -

Plate 1.8: Mining – An example of the multitude of the coastal human activities which are important to our social and economic development (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012).

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 14 - 1.3.3 Coastal Zone Constraints, Challenges and Opportunities

More than 90% of the national coastal zone falls within Namibia’s national protected areas system (Fig. 1.2). At the same time, the boundaries of the Skeleton Coast Park, the National West Coast Tourist Recreation Area and the Namib-Naukluft Park were proclaimed before Namibia gained independence and the modern environmental legislative framework in support of the integration of nature conservation and sustainable development was established. Thus, with the exception of the Namib-Naukluft Park, no clear goals have been set up linking management of human resource use and the conservation status of key species and habitats. As a result it is unclear which biodiversity elements constitute the focus for the coastal parks, and which elements are the focuses of more wide-scale habitat conservation action due to their widespread occurrence or lower susceptibility to human activities. This lack of conservation targets degrades both the conservation of the most sensitive elements of the biodiversity in the coastal parks as well as the implementation of sustainable development within the park’s boundaries.

Like other studies on biodiversity trends within the coastal zone, the SEA clearly indicates a mismatch between the boundaries of the coastal parks and the general trends in biodiversity found in the coastal regions. The trends are quite striking and underline the fact that conservation priority areas and habitats in the protected coastal parks are indeed not evenly distributed along or across the coastal strip. The NBSAP provides for the implementation of article 95 (l) of the Namibian Constitution and the Convention on Biological Diversity and it offers MET the legal mechanisms for achieving the goal to develop management plans for the coastal parks. Currently, however, management plans with zoning of the area and tourism development plans have only been prepared for the Namib Naukluft Park. In that respect the SEA provides guidance to the zonation of the parks into potential areas for sustainable development and areas of differential sensitivity and importance as a basis for identifying core areas for conservation to be held free of any development.

Due to the enormous biodiversity assets of the coastal zones and the sensitive ecosystems they support, the largest development potential is related to the tourism industry. Although tourism land use patterns cannot currently be separated into the various types of tourism activities undertaken on the coast, it is clear that low-impact adventure and wildlife tourism (eco-tourism) can be widely applied and developed hand-in-hand with the conservation of biodiversity hot spots. Indeed, in terms of competition with other destinations – both domestic and international and even regional – preservation of the extraordinary conditions of the coastal environment might give the industry a competitive edge. However, due to the fact that tourist policy and plan making are lagging behind both at regional and local levels, a current strategy and a support programme for both conventional and eco-tourism are urgently needed to boost the sector within the coastal zone.

Local governments, at times working together, are enabling the activities of a resurgent private sector. But coordination between stakeholders seems poor, and there is little shared understanding of how coastal tourism has shifted its target markets, adapted its products, and moved forward. Up to date information to back up such an understanding is lacking. In this situation, there is a danger that environmental planning and management receives only lip service, and the resources on which coastal tourism depends are degraded. The need to strengthen the basis for capitalising on the potential win-win development scenario between eco-tourism and nature conservation on the coast is closely linked to the need to strengthen the power of MET relative to other line ministries and to align tourism development on the coast with the MET Concessions Policy. The full use of the tourism potential in the coastal areas will also depend on the implementation of the Neighbours and Residents Policy, as tourism is currently growing in inland escarpment areas outside the coastal zone.

Compared to eco-tourism, other land uses, including traditional ‘high-impact’ tourism, possess a significantly smaller development potential in the two coastal regions. In spite of the lower potential, sustainable development is possible to achieve for all land uses by adopting the

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 15 - following environmental standards for land use development in pristine and sensitive environments:

 Implementation of environmental impact studies in line with the provisions of the provisions of the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Regulations No. 30 of 2012, the Environmental Management Act, 2007 (Act No. 7 of 2007) and the Environmental Assessment Policy for Sustainable Development of 1995, coupled with the selection of key mitigation measures which secures the application of effective monitoring response mechanisms, which can then allow developments to proceed in close proximity to important and sensitive habitats.

In cases where significant impacts cannot be avoided, changes to the planned development must take place. In cases where impacts of minor or moderate scale are estimated, careful mitigation measures must be set up and the residual impact following implementation of mitigation must be estimated. Assessments of single project as well as cumulative impacts of a planned project together with all other existing human activities must be included. Comprehensive environmental monitoring and management, which secures that the level of control necessary to assure authorities and NGOs of compliance with environmental quality objectives for development in proximity to sensitive habitats, requires quantifiable compliance targets. Of equal importance are effective and rapid response mechanisms, to allow feedback of monitoring results into compliance targets and work methods.

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 16 - 1.4. Planning and Development Context

1.4.1 Considerations for the Namibian Situation

Mandated SEA processes, such as the European Commission’s (EC) SEA Directive of 2001, usually define desired outputs rather than specific SEA methods. This allows for flexibility and creativity in conducting an SEA. Indeed, as Jones et al put it, “The starting point for any SEA should ideally be the decision making context into which the findings of an SEA feed.”3 Some of the specificities of the Namibian decision making context therefore warrant brief discussion. Many hundreds (if not thousands) of technical and scientific studies of the biophysical and environmental conditions and dynamics of Namibia’s thinly populated 1,570 km coastline have been made over the years. Similarly, many attempts, these now dating back several decades, have also been made to link environmental, social and economic dimensions in planning for coastal development. Yet stakeholders have apparently found it very difficult to resolve key issues like the integrated conservation and management of the Dunebelt between Walvis Bay and Swakopmund, and the disposition of the Walvis Bay Nature Reserve and Sandwich Harbour.

This very real weakness of coastal management in Namibia is often ascribed to a lack of institutional capacity, or to unclear, over-centralised, confused and/or overlapping legal or institutional mandates, notably in the public sector agencies involved. All of this may well be and is probably correct. But, relative to many other national coastal planning and management contexts, Namibia is actually fairly well-endowed with the technical and managerial capabilities to deal with what are, given the country’s small scale of population and recent good economic performance, manageable issues. The country also features a group of stakeholders, which whatever the different interests involved, is at least in agreement (moreover the players are well-known to one another) on the necessity to better plan for and manage what is a crucial national asset – as the site for much of the resource extraction which underpins the Namibian economy’s performance. It appears, in fact, that what is really lacking is not technical or scientific knowledge, or the existence of Policies, Plans and Programmes. There is a plethora of PPPs. Many of these are good documents. Others exist in an unfinished or semi-finished form. Many of them are seemingly unread, let alone implemented. The real difficulty lies in the inability by stakeholders to find common understanding of and a shared strategic perspective on the economic, social and environmental interactions necessarily involved in coastal development today, and of the adjustments, compromises and trade-offs that need to be made to assure better coastal planning and management.

It is instructive to look at some history. Over twenty years ago, in July 1986, a symposium on the Central Namib was held under the auspices of the then Directorate of Nature Conservation and Recreation Resorts of the Department of Agriculture and Nature Conservation in Swakopmund. At the meeting, “…scientists, researchers and those developing the resources had the opportunity not only to deliver papers but also to contemplate economic factors, as well as the conservation-worthy aspects of its [i.e. the Central Namib’s] plants, animal and soil. Detailed attention was given to the immediate effects of uncontrolled mining activities and the imbalance caused by recreation activities, the use of off-road vehicles, and population.

At the end of the symposium, the need for a coordinated development plan was identified.”4 Much “contemplation” and management activity has continued to occur since 1986, but the abovementioned and interconnected topics – conservation, economic development (notably mining), population (i.e. urban) growth, and recreational activities (with off-road vehicles now predominantly featuring quad bikes) – are still basic issues for this SEA report. Assisting in

3 “SEA: an Overview,” by Carys Jones, Mark Baker, Jeremy Carter, Stephen Jay, Michael Short and Christopher Wood, in Jones, et al, op cit, p. 20. 4 Guidelines for the Development of the Central Namib, mimeo, no date, (presumably 1987), Section 1.2. This document was an output of the symposium and its follow up meetings.

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 17 - finding common ground on them is one of the report’s – and NACOMA’s – central purposes (Fig. 1.3).

This SEA report and accompanying DST represents an input to this intention in the form of a broad, clear strategic framework which condenses – to the ends of brevity, clarity and readability – the assessment of vital impacts into an easily comprehendible output to assist decision making. Accordingly, two methodological steps have been required upfront. Firstly, rather than take on everything connected with the coastal zones, it has been necessary to define the boundaries of the study area closely (see Figure 1). These boundaries extend from the low-water mark to the eastern boundary of the Skeleton Coast National Park (SCNP) and the National West Coast Tourist Recreation Area (NWCTRA). The north-western extreme of the Namib-Naukluft Park stretching to the south-western boundary of the Erongo Region (including Sandwich Harbour) is included in the SEA. The SEA thus covers a geographically extensive but circumscribed area. Accordingly, the SEA does not cover the marine environment adjoining the coastal regions of Erongo and Kunene.

Secondly, facilitated by this close definition, the SEA is necessarily focused on the major issues for coastal planning and management in the coastal zones as these are initially reflected in a number of crucial PPPs. It is intended that such delimiting can assist in achieving the objective of developing a “user friendly, decision guiding and policy relevant” SEA, as per the assignment’s goal in line with the NDP 4 and regional development plans for the coastal regions.

Figure 1.3: The aim of this SEA with regard to resolving strategic land use planning issues through the integrated analysis of nature conservation, land use suitability and PPPs.

1.4.2 National Overview – NDP 4

According to the National Planning Commission (NPC) (2012)5, the NDP 4 is differentiated from its three predecessors by a number of focus issues. The NDP 4 is characterised by fewer and more carefully selected and sequenced goals and associated target values. The detailed programmes on how to achieve the various NDP4 goals and targets will be led by various Offices, Ministries and Agencies (O/M/As) responsible for the relevant sectors. These detailed O/M/A plans will be scrutinised by the National Planning Commission (NPC) to ensure that they fit into the programme logic and have a reasonable chance of being actualised (NPC, 2012). Given our challenges, the NDP4 has adopted the following three overarching goals as outlined in Fig. 1.4:

5 National Planning Commission, (NPC), 2012. Namibia’s Fourth National Development Plan 2012/13 to 2016/17, Office of the President, National Planning Commission, Windhoek, 152 pp.

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 18 -

 High and sustained economic growth;

 Increased income equality;

 Employment creation.

To reach these goals, the NDP 4 has identified key areas of focus that will create the necessary momentum for higher economic growth. While other sectors will not be neglected, attention will be shifted to priority sectors to ensure the impact and results of our efforts are optimal. During the NDP4 period, the following economic sectors will enjoy priority status (Fig. 1.4):

 Logistics;

 Tourism;

 Manufacturing;

 Agriculture.

Implementation strategies are clearly spelled out and their emphasis is on a formalised structure of Monitoring & Evaluation (M&E), which encourages accountability. The National Planning Commission will carry out the M&E function. The philosophy of NDP4, therefore, is to provide direction as regard to high-level national priorities, desired outcomes, and strategic initiatives (Fig. 1.4).

Figure 1.4: National strategic and priority areas to contribute to the overall goals of achieving Vision 2030 (Source: NDP 4, 2012).

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 19 - 1.4.3 Regional Development Process and NDP 4

Regional development planning is a tool designed to identify problems at both regional and local levels. The challenges of the identified problems are established and discussed with interested groups of people for seeking of solutions. These problems are turned into policies, plans, programmes or projects at regional level. Through a specific sector Ministry, these regional policies, plans, programme or projects eventually finds their way into the NDP 4 where priorities and implementation monitoring are set. Overall however, the bottom part of the regional planning process starts with the Settlement Committee (SC), the lowest political level in Namibia, which identifies and evaluates local developmental needs and monitors the different development projects. The SC reports to the Constituency Development Committee (CDC), whose tasks do not differ from the SC’s. It just operates at the constituency level and reports to the Regional Council. However, it is the Regional Development Coordinating Committee (RDCC) which coordinates the overall development in the region6. The regional planning is approved by the Regional Council and the Governor, who submits the plan to the National Planning Commission (NPC), which in the end determines the priorities and direction of Namibia’s development.

The CDC’s are on the other hand quite well established, but cooperation between the different members, e.g. government agencies, sector ministries, Local Authorities and NGO’s in the area, is lacking, which hinders them in coming up with serious suggestions for a development plans at constituency levels. The RDCC has the same problem. Most of the general planning is, at some point, still conducted by the Line Ministries and the Local Authorities, which makes it difficult to integrate any development proposals coming from the SCs, CDCs, and Regional Council. The new decentralised structure is more used to implement national policies and is more a top-down than bottom-up planning. The possibilities for community participation in the regional planning are rather limited, given that most SCs are not established yet. Together with the fact that the RDCC in regions are not functioning and leaves the communities without any influence on the developmental process.

1.5 Kunene Region

1.5.1 Overview

The Kunene Region lies in the north-western part of Namibia (Fig. 1.5). This region comprises the western part of former Koakoland and Damaraland north of the Ugab River and the Magisterial District of Outjo. The Kunene River divides Namibia's Kunene Region from Angola to the north. With its large supply of water and its hydroelectric plant at Ruacana, this river will plays an increasingly important role in the national development of Namibia and overall energy security needs for the country. Since 1969 there have been numerous ongoing plans to build a new dam along the Kunene River. The Kunene Region is mostly arid and is dominated by mountains, plains and the Skeleton Coast Park. The availability of water has largely determined the regional settlement pattern and thus most settlements are located near natural springs inland. There is very poor access to the coast from the rest of the Kunene Region and the entire coastal region falls within the Skeleton Coast Park.

Outjo forms the communications and transport hub of the region. It is serviced by rail and tarred road from Otjiwarongo and Usakos. Outjo thus forms the centre from which consumer items and other goods are distributed throughout the region, to towns such as Opuwo, Khorixas, Kamanjab and Ruacana to the north (Fig. 1.5). These centres are connected by constructed gravel roads, which are usually best traversed in a 4 x 4 vehicle. The Ovahimba indigenous population is regarded as among the marginalised nomadic group whose livelihood

6 MRLGH (Ministry of Regional, Local Government Housing) (1998) The Policy, its Development and Implementation.

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 20 - is dependent on sheep, goats, and some cattle, together with subsistence agriculture along the bank of the Kunene River.

1.5.2 Regional Development Context

The regional development plan forms the basis for development within the region. The regional economic planner is based in Upuwo. The Region has been divided into the following six constituencies: Ruacana, Sesfontein, Khorixas, Kamanjab, Outjo, and Opuwo where the regional headquarters are located. Only the municipality of Outjo is responsible for identifying and financing its own development projects; the others are all dependent on grants and administrative assistance from the Ministry of Regional and Local Government and Housing. There is an attempt to devolve authority, responsibilities and resources to lower levels of government in order to make regional planning more effective.

The establishment of the Skeleton Coastal Park in the west has made the marine resources and ecologically important ephemeral rivers inaccessible to local communities. The Kunene Region is great mineral explorativity potential but the lack of infrastructure and services greatly hinders the development of the mineral resources of the region. Some mining takes place on a small scale, but as yet no large-scale mining operations have been developed and may be developed in the next five years. Some small-scale extraction, value adding and marketing of crystals rocks for the local tourism market takes place. Offshore however, the region seems hold great potential for oil and gas exploration associated with the Namibe Basin. In addition, there is the possibility of salt extraction as well as on- and off-shore diamond mining along the region's coastline despite the steep continental shelf and the likelihood of extracting very small diamonds. A large number of concessions and claims for small-scale mining are registered, but many remain unexplored.

The Kunene Region has a high level of knowledge and skill in animal husbandry and grazing management. The relatively high numbers of livestock are of a high quality and very hardy, and are thus in demand. Marketing of cattle is constrained however due to a limited number of auctions, high transportation costs and average telecommunications infrastructure. Careful rangeland management is needed to avoid a potential conflict between wildlife and domestic stock and over-utilisation of the resource base. The potential exists for further production of milk, meat, leather and craft manufacture.

There is limited irrigated agriculture that occurs near springs and on riverbanks, where a variety of crops are cultivated in temporary and permanent gardens. Agricultural production makes only a small and, it is believed, declining contribution to average communal area household income.

The adjacent marine fishing grounds are rich in marine resources, although they are not utilised by the people of the Kunene region. Rather, line fishing boats harvest angling fish, and fishing fleets from Walvis Bay catch stocks of commercial species such as hake, which are being fished to their maximum capacity. A feasibility study was recently completed for a proposed fishing port in Mowe Bay.

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 21 -

Figure 1.5: Map of the Kunene Region and associated infrastructure (RBS / FGN, 2012).

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 22 - 1.5.3 Conservation and Tourism

The Kunene region has many tourist attractions central to development of the tourism industry in the region. In line with the NDP 4 key economic sectors developmental priorities, tourism is a key development sector for the Kunene Region. Places such as former Kaokoland, Damaraland and Ruacana have become more accessible to tourists owith the completion of the tarred road running from Ruacana to Kamanjab. With Outjo as one of the two entrance points to the National Etosha Game Reserve, tourism is a major revenue source to this territory, which is otherwise somewhat under-endowed with natural resources.

There is already significant development of tourist facilities in several areas, although they all need to be upgraded in their services and supporting infrastructure. The Regional Council has identified 18 sites where local communities require assistance in establishing community campsites. The community conservancy cluster in the Kunene Region covers a large territory and is one of the most impressive in Namibia.

The major feature in the region is the Skeleton Coast Park, which stretches from the Ugab River in the South to the Kunene River in the north, which forms the border with Angola. It is about 40 km wide, constituting some 16, 000 km2, and is divided into two zones: the northern and southern zones. The northern zone is a wilderness area. The entire park is situated in the Namib Desert. Namibia's famed desert dwelling elephants occur in some of the river beds in the Skeleton Coast Park, while giraffe, springbok, gemsbok are also found in the park.

The Kunene Region is bordered to the west by sea and to the north by the perennial Kunene River. The mouth of the Kunene is an important Ramsar Wetland. A proposal to dam the river at Epupa Falls is likely to have significant adverse ecological impacts on downstream fish stocks.

The Leatherback, one of the marine world's oldest creatures and the world's largest sea turtle swims in the mouth of the Kunene. The Kunene River Mouth could become an important asset for the development of the tourist sector.

There exist tremendous potential for establishing a transfrontier protected area across the border of Namibia and Angola. This potential is as great as the emerging Transfrontier Conservation Area (TFCA) across the Namibian and Richtersveld borders. On the Angolan side the border is flanked by the Parque do Iona. This park is contiguous to the Reserva de Namibe that lies further north.

1.6 Erongo Region

1.6.1 Overview

The Erongo extending over 63,720 km2 and the majority of the population lives in urban settlements, principally Swakopmund and Walvis Bay (Fig. 1.6). The surge in uranium exploration and mining operations has seen significant growth in various downstream industries in the coastal towns. The region has the second highest income per capita in the country after Khomas Region, and its relative prosperity is derived from fishing, mining and tourism. Major mining activities in the region are Rössing Uranium, the Navachab gold mine, Langer Heinrich Uranium and the coastal salt operations. Both Rössing Uranium and Langer Heinrich have expansion plans. Areva Resources Namibia‟s Trekkopje Uranium and Forsys‟ Metals Valencia Project are expected to go into production in the future. Other uranium projects that are also expected to advance further are those of Bannerman, Reptile Uranium and Swakop Uranium, but these do not exhaust the list of potential uranium operations in Erongo.

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 23 - The main commodities mined are uranium and gold. Extensive salt mining occurs along the coast at Walvis Bay and smaller companies operate at Cape Cross and Ugab.

1.6.2 Developmental Challenges and Opportunities

Access to economic opportunities and resources in the region is highly variable especially to rural communities. This is usually due to the isolation and underdeveloped infrastructures within these rural communities and is a situation experienced across all regional parts of the country. The uneven pattern to development, benefits and economic opportunity significantly has results in a regional Gini co-efficient of 0.60, with 19.7% of the population being poor and 7.1% being extremely poor. The Erongo Regional Council has adopted developed strategies to address poverty reduction and economic development, with primarily focus on rural areas by initiating measures to insure sound management of the region’s natural resources. The Region’s main focal areas for development include water resources, the environment, and tourism, fishing and marine resources.

The Regional Development Plans recognises the objectives adopted in the NDPs and Vision 2030, ultimately stressing the need for an increased contribution to development by the minerals sector.

1.6.3 Regional Land Uses

Large parts of the Erongo Region falls within protected areas under conservation management; these include the Dorob National Park, Namib-Naukluft Park (NNP) in the south and central area, and the National West Coast Recreation Area (NWCRA) in the north. The Ministry of Environment and Tourism carries responsibility for management of these protected areas. Government land around proclaimed Townlands is presently under the control of MRLGHRD, but will fall under MET when it is amalgamated with the surrounding protected areas. Some inconsistencies in control of land, viz. around Arandis, Usakos and between the two towns, reflect unresolved or unclear delineations of communal land, conservancies, Traditional Authorities and Local Authorities.

Communal land makes up about one third of the region and lies to the east of the NWCRA. Most of it is under conservation management through the following conservancies: ≠Gaingu (centred around Spitzkoppe); Tsiseb (focused on Brandberg), Otjimboyo and Ohungu. East of these, the land is under freehold title (another third of the region) and is mostly used for commercial cattle ranching. The arid nature of the landscape means that very little of the area has agricultural potential. Only 10 km² of the Erongo Region is cleared for cultivation (NPC, 2007); this includes the area of small-scale farming in the Swakop River bed, as well as small areas at Omaruru and Okombahe. Small stock farming is the most important agricultural activity in the region. This is mostly practised on the communal land described above, where goats and sheep are run on conservancy land. Also, Topnaar people living along the Kuiseb River in the NNP keep goats, cattle and donkeys.

Land under Local Authority responsibility makes up 1.5% of the total area of the region. Eighty percent of the Erongo population lives in urban areas; most of these are concentrated in Walvis Bay and Swakopmund.

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 24 -

Figure 1.6: Map of the Erongo Region and associated infrastructure (RBS / FGN, 2012).

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 25 - 1.6.4 Commercial Fishing and Fish Processing

The location of key fishing grounds with respect to Port of Walvis Bay makes fishing industry a key strategic sector of the Erongo Region. The commercial fishing industry is the largest single employer in the Erongo Region, accounting for 33% of the economically active population. Most of the fishing companies have a core of permanent employees, while the large processors make use of temporary employees during the short fishing season. However, recent declines in fish stocks have led to fishing companies being granted smaller quotas and some fish processing factories closing. Angling is an important recreational and livelihood activity for residents of, and visitors to the coast. Aquaculture (oyster cultivation) is practised in specific areas in the Walvis Bay lagoon and salt pans as well as at the Swakopmund salt works. Apart from the extensive oyster production beds within the salt works at Walvis Bay and Swakopmund, aquaculture is not a large activity. Some experiments are being undertaken with abalone (perlemoen) and black mussels.

1.6.5 Tourism

Tourism is currently the third largest economic sector in Namibia and was expected to contribute 3.8% to GDP in 2007 (NEPRU, 2009). According to a survey conducted by World Travel and Tourism, the sector in Namibia is expected to grow by 6.9% annually over the next ten years – the eighth fastest growing tourist destination globally. Tourism usually employs less skilled workers than the mining industry and thus salaries are generally much lower, but it offers employment to a significant number of people, mainly women. Erongo’s coastal area from Walvis Bay to Henties Bay is a major holiday destination, with many accommodation establishments and camping sites. Swakopmund is the main centre for tourism. An area bordered by the Ugab River to the north (Southern Damaraland) to the northern border of the Namib Naukluft Park in the south, Erongo contains much of geological, scenic and historic interest, the highest peak in the country (the Brandberg Mountain), two large volcanic craters, as well as the popular seaside towns of Swakopmund and Walvis Bay and the best marine life viewing in Namibia.

1.7 Objective of the Assignment, Specific Tasks, Outputs

The objective of the assignment as stated in the Terms of Reference (ToR) was mainly to update the SEA of the Erongo and Kunene regions’ coastal zones to support and inform the decision making processes affecting biodiversity conservation and sustainable coastal development, and present its results in a user friendly, easily updatable, policy relevant format or DST.

The specific tasks involved have been divided into three phases:

 Phase 1: Assignment Inception: Conduct initial stakeholder workshops in both Kunene and Erongo coastal regions and Windhoek;

 Phase 2: Conduct a comprehensive SEA for the Kunene and Erongo regions’ coastal zones;

 Phase 3: Present the SEA results in a DST;

The outputs for each phase can be summarized as follows:

 Phase 1: Inception Report;

 Phase 2: Draft SEA and SEMP Report;

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 26 -  Phase 3: Presentation of SEA Report findings in DST.

1.8 Purpose of this Report

This report is the updated SEA Report for the second phase of the assignment. As per the ToR, it contains:

(i) A description of current land uses, impacts, threats and pressures along the coastal zone, with recommendations for prevention and mitigation overall and in relation to Policies, Plans and Programmes (PPPs), including spatial data for use in the DST;

(ii) A description of environmental/biodiversity conservation and management gaps, problems and implementation difficulties of current environmental/biodiversity conservation and management safeguards, management/control practices, and conservation/biodiversity management targets. This includes detailed concrete recommendations for improvement of environmental/biodiversity conservation and management overall and in relation to PPPs and data for use in the DST;

(iii) The outcomes of the integration of (i) and (ii) above in relation to existing PPPs.

Also included in the ToR is a specification for a description of the SEA process including objectives and outcomes of workshops/consultations and incorporation of comments/suggestions. The Inception Report contained full details of the consultative process to the end of 2012.

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 27 - 2. LEGISLATION, POLICY AND SEA OBJECTIVES

2.1 Legislative Basis of the Coastal SEA

The Environmental Management 2007, (Act No. 7 of 2007) is the legislative basis for undertaking the coastal SEA for the Kunene and Erongo Regions with the respect to the National Policy on Coastal Management by the Ministry of Environment and Tourism. The development and subsequent implementation of the National Policy on Coastal Management by the Ministry of Environment and Tourism is regulated under Part VI ‘Environmental Plans’ of the Environmental Management 2007, (Act No. 7 of 2007) which provides the development of environmental policies, plans, programmes.

2.2 Understanding Environmental Plans and SEA

2.2.1 Legislative Objects of Environmental Plans

Section 23 of Part VI of the Environmental Management 2007, (Act No. 7 of 2007) set out the objects of environmental plans as follows:

(a) Co-ordinate and harmonise the environmental policies, plans, programmes and decisions of the various organs of state that exercise functions that may affect the environment or are entrusted with powers and duties aimed at the achievement, promotion, and protection of a sustainable environment, in order to –

(i) Minimise the duplication of procedures and functions; and

(ii) Promote consistency in the exercise of functions that may affect the environment, and;

(b) Enable the Minister to monitor the achievement, promotion and protection of a sustainable environment.

In practices the preparation of an Environmental Plan with respect to policies, plans, and programmes referred in Section 23 of Part VI of the Environmental Management 2007, (Act No. 7 of 2007) can only be achieved by undertaking a Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) study. In other words, the SEA study is a key tool that can be used to be able to develop an Environmental Plan. In this instance, the development of the National Policy on Coastal Management by the Ministry of Environment and Tourism with the overall objectives of enhancing coastal protected areas and biodiversity conservation is subject to the development of an Environmental Plan.

Responsibilities for the implementation of Environmental Plans / SEA are only for Organs of State such as Line Ministries, Agencies, Regional Councils and Larger Municipalities. The Organ of State may delegate the task to an Environmental Assessment Practitioner (EAP).

2.2.2 Requirements for Environmental Plans

Within the framework of the Environmental Management 2007, (Act No. 7 of 2007), an SEA is a practical tool that is used in the development of an Environmental Plan. An Environmental Plan is restricted to Organs of State with functions of policies, plans and programmes, which have effects on the environment. According to Subsection 24 (1) of the Environmental Management 2007, (Act No. 7 of 2007), the Minister may identify and list by notice in the Gazette or by regulation organs of state which are exercising functions that may affect the environment. Every organ of state identified and listed in terms of subsection (1), will be

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 28 - required to prepare an environmental plan in the prescribed form and manner. The Act further states that every organ of state contemplated in subsection (1), must in the preparation of an environmental plan take into consideration every other environmental plan already adopted with a view to achieving consistency among such plans. However, such a or gazetted or regulatory list of Organs of State with functions that may affect the environment has not yet been developed within the framework of the Environmental Management 2007, (Act No. 7 of 2007).

2.2.3 Listing of Organ of State and SEA / Environmental Plans

The listing of Organs of State by the Minster of Environment and Tourism through Section 24 (1) of the Environmental Management 2007, (Act No. 7 of 2007), will be done through a notice in the Gazette or by regulation. The determination of the lists of Organ of States subject to Environmental Plans will be based on the likely effect of their functions on the environment. Some organs of State may have functions of policies, plans and programmes development and implementation with significant effect on the environment. According to the Environmental Management 2007, (Act No. 7 of 2007), significant effect means having, or likely to have, a consequential qualitative or quantitative impact on the environment, including changes in ecological, aesthetic, cultural, historic, economic and social factors, whether directly or indirectly, individually or collectively.

An Organ of State can also contact the Office of the Environmental Commissioners in order to find out if a specific policy, plan or programme can be implemented without an environmental plan through the implementation of an SEA. The Environmental Commissioner may, at the request of an organ of state assist with the preparation of an environmental plan. The Minister may issue guidelines to assist organs of state in the preparation of environmental plans. Such guidelines are currently not yet been developed.

Currently however, there is no Gazette or regulations governing the list of Organs of State with functions that have an effect on the Environment. Nonetheless, considering the fact that the Ministry of Environment and Tourism is the key Organ of State responsible for the implementation of the Environmental Management 2007, (Act No. 7 of 2007), and that the Minister of Environment and Tourism may list his / her Ministry among the Organs of State with functions that may have effects on the environment, it was imperative to set an examples on the implementation of the requirements for Environmental Plans with respect to the National Policy on Coastal Management. If one considers the provsions of the act with respect to Organs of State with functions that may have effects, the Ministry of Environment and Tourism directly falls within the category of the Organs of State that will be listed. This is a clear justification why the coastal SEA for the Kunene and Erongo has been implemented as tool to assess the likely effect of the National Policy on Coastal Management development and implementation thereof.

Once implemented, the National Policy on Coastal Management will lead to the development of an Act of Parliament that will regulate all development activities within the coastal zone of Namibia and in line with the coastal protected areas and biodiversity coastal environmental plan under the Ministry of Environment and Tourism. In accordance with the Section 23 of Part VI of the Environmental Management 2007, (Act No. 7 of 2007), the Environmental Plan will coordinate and harmonise the environmental policies, plans, programmes and decisions of the various organs of state that exercise functions that may affect the coastal environment or are entrusted with powers and duties aimed at the achievement, promotion, and protection of a sustainable environment within the coastal zone.

2.2.4 Determinations and Approval of Environmental Plans / SEA

In accordance with Subsection (25) of the Environmental Management 2007, (Act No. 7 of 2007), every organ of state required (listed) to submit an environmental plan must submit the

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 29 - plan to the Environmental Commissioner within the prescribed period. The Environmental Commissioner must scrutinise every environmental plan and recommend the approval of the plan to the Minister. The Environmental Commissioner may also report to the Minister as well as to every other identified organ of state on the extent to which the environmental plan concerned fails to comply with-

(i) The principles set out in Section 3 of the Act;

(ii) The objects of environmental plans specified in Section 23 of the Act; or

(iii) Any relevant environmental plan, and set out the changes needed in the environmental plan concerned.

Where the environmental plan is approved by the Minister, the relevant organ of state must in this case, the Ministry of Environment and Tourism must adopt and publish its plan, in the Gazette within 90 days of the approval and the plan becomes effective from the date of publication. However, within the framework of the National Policy on Coastal Management, the Ministerial approval process on recommendation of the Environmental Commissioner will require parliamentary approval before adoption and publishing in the Government Gazette. A copy of every environmental plan must be made available for public inspection, without charge, at the office of the Environmental Commissioner during office hours. It’s important to note that, the overall basis for evaluation, assessment and recommendation for approval of the National Policy on Coastal Management by the Environmental Commissioner will be the findings and recommendations of the coastal SEAs.

2.2.5 Monitoring of an Environmental Plan / SEA and SEMP

Once an Environmental Plan has been approved and implemented there must be compliance with environmental plans. Subsection (26) of the Act of the Environmental Management 2007, (Act No. 7 of 2007) requires that every organ of state must exercise every function it may have, or that has been assigned or delegated to it, by or under any law, and that may significantly affect the protection of the environment, substantially in accordance with the environmental plan prepared and approved in accordance with the Act, but any substantial deviation from an environmental plan must be reported to the Environmental Commissioner. The Environmental Management 2007, (Act No. 7 of 2007) further states the following regarding monitoring compliance of approved Environmental Plan:

(i) Every organ of state identified and listed in terms of Section 24(1) must report annually to the Minister on the implementation of its adopted environmental plan;

(ii) The Environmental Commissioner monitors compliance with environmental plans and may:

 Take any steps or make any inquiries the Commissioner considers necessary in order to determine if environmental implementation plans are being complied with by organs of state and if, as a result of any steps taken or inquiry made the Commissioner is satisfied that an environmental implementation plan is not substantially being complied with, a written notice to the organ of state concerned, calling on it to take such specified steps as the Commissioner considers necessary to remedy the non-compliance must be served.

Within the framework of the coastal SEA undertaken with respect to the National Policy on Coastal Management a Strategic Environmental Management Plan (SEMP) has been development in line with the requirements for monitoring compliance as outlined in Subsection (26) of the Environmental Management 2007, (Act No. 7 of 2007). The SEMP will provide a

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 30 - monitoring compliance framework with respect to the implementation of the National Policy on Coastal Management.

2.3 National Policy on Coastal Management

2.3.1 Objectives of National Policy on Coastal Management

The following are the objectives of the national coastal policy:

 The National Policy on Coastal Management for Namibia provides a foundation for improving the quality of life of coastal communities, while maintaining the biological diversity and productivity of our country’s coastal ecosystems. Namibia needs such a policy to guide management actions towards addressing coastal resource use and allocation and to promote a balance between development and conservation of our coastal and marine environment;

 The National Policy on Coastal Management for Namibia provides a framework for the institutionalisation and implementation of a fundamentally new and integrated approach to coastal management in Namibia, namely ICM;

 The Policy aims to facilitate the application and implementation of the principles contained here-in, which were developed through wide consultation of all stakeholders and informed by specialist studies, existing laws and policies and best practice in coastal governance globally. The policy pursues the National Coastal Vision and facilitates the drafting of discussion papers, strategies, action plans and other tools aiming at the wise and equitable use of our coastal resources while preventing loss of biodiversity.

1.3.2 National Coastal Policy Implementation Framework

According to the National Coastal Policy White paper 2012, there are five strategic goals and each with steps that comprise of a set of discreet actions, many of which can be readily converted into practical instruments for policy implementation. Government will use the Strategic Framework to guide the collective and participative development of action plans for policy implementation. Such action plans will be reviewed at regular intervals, reflecting the dynamic and re-iterative nature of ICM. The following are the five strategic goals of the National Coastal Policy:

(i) The coast is governed as a national asset for the benefit of current and future generations:

 Ensure the right of physical access to the coast by the public: First and foremost, the value of the coast as public open space and the need to protect its cultural and recreational values must be recognised and promoted through awareness campaigns. Opportunities for increasing and managing public access to, and along the coastal and near shore marine areas should be identified, taking into consideration limitations relating to the interests of national security, ports or concession areas and maintenance of the ecological integrity. Inequitable or illegal barriers preventing public access to the coast should be identified and removed, and attempts at privatising sections of the coast resisted. In certain areas restricted access may be designated through a participatory and equitable process;

 Ensure equitable access of the public to the opportunities and benefits offered by the coast: Improve access of inhabitants to information and training

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 31 - programmes that will enable equitable distribution of coastal benefits and opportunities. Address the exclusion of coastal inhabitants from their coast by industry, private sector activities, protected area demarcation and coastal development, all of which that are reducing access for the public to benefit from their coastline;

 Identify, protect and promote the cultural and heritage value of the coast: Identify and protect coastal cultural assets. Ensure that Namibia’s valuable cultural and historical diversity along the coast is mapped and protected from development. Raise awareness in all sectors of society of our coastal heritage assets including both the ‘tangible’ heritage such as graves, shipwrecks and special places, as well as the ‘intangible’ heritage such as traditional knowledge, habits and customs that may be threatened through unmanaged and inappropriate activities;

 Ensure that the State acts in accordance with its responsibility as the custodian of all coastal state assets on behalf of all Namibians: Clear and accessible guidelines will be established to promote, monitor and assess the wise management of state coastal assets for the benefit of all Namibians into the future and to ensure accountability at all levels of government.

(ii) Strengthening Coastal Governance as an ongoing and essential component of effective coastal areas management:

 Promote an integrated approach to governing the coast: Coastal management activities will extend as far landwards and as far seawards, as is necessary for effective coastal governance. Recognise the importance of incorporating both the land and sea areas within coastal governance, including the coastal islands, wetlands (i.e. estuaries) and catchment areas. Promote efficient vertical and horizontal integration for coastal management by ensuring cooperation between and among all relevant coastal authorities and stakeholders;  Ensure a comprehensive institutional and legal framework for coastal governance: Government will establish a clear governance framework that extends to Regional and Local Authorities, non-governmental and community- based organizations, the public, and the private sector. Strengthen governing authorities, structures and mechanisms for coastal management. Clarify the mandates, roles and responsibilities of the different entities involved in coastal management. Ensure an adequately resourced coastal authority to act efficiently and effectively for implementation of the National Policy on Coastal Management for Namibia;

 Improve multiple-use planning and zoning: Balance current and future multiple uses of coastal ecosystems and resources so that competing and complementary uses occur in appropriate geographic locations and are harmonized through zoning and planning. Ensure that all development and utilization contribute to environmental sustainability and fall within the acceptable limits of land and resource use. Integrate efforts to maintain, and restore the health and productivity of coastal ecosystems and the services they provide. Give preference to economic activities that are distinctly coastal or dependent on a coastal location. Clearly define, justify and communicate the demarcation of areas of ecological importance to the public;

 Ensure meaningful public involvement: Promote active and meaningful community involvement in decision-making through the creation and dissemination of accurate, timely and accessible information. Search for ways

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 32 - by which stakeholders can engage in the implementation of the policy. Improve communication and continuous feedback mechanisms regarding coastal issues and processes as well as decision making that affects the lives of coastal inhabitants. Support partnerships between government, the private sector and civil society in order to bestow co-responsibility and accountability for coastal management on all stakeholders and empower them to participate effectively in management of their resources;

 Ensure transparent and uncomplicated guidance for accessing opportunities and benefits: Provide simple and transparent guidance and procedures to facilitate equitable and sustainable access to rights and economic opportunities such as concessions and quotas. Investigate options for disseminating information pertaining to quotas and concessions at the regional level;

 Meet international and regional obligations, whilst retaining Namibia’s sovereignty: Government will continue to participate in, and support relevant international and regional agreements, conventions and processes and champion collaboration with other nations for improved international and regional coastal and ocean governance;

 Develop and implement a National Coastal Strategy: An effective National ICM Programme along with relevant institutional mandates and enabling legislation and capacity for implementation will be institutionalised to facilitate the fulfilment by Namibia of its obligations and aspirations as reflected in various treaties and non-binding international instruments. The Government of Namibia will ensure the development of an overarching national coastal strategy to facilitate the coordination of coastal governance activities of the National, Regional and Local government spheres, promote intersectoral cooperation as well as harmonize coastal management-related activities with some existing legislation. The ICM programme will be flexible, inclusive and subject to periodic revision (likely every three years).

(iii) Promote Sustainable Economic, Social and Cultural Opportunities:

 Improve education, awareness and capacity building for coastal governance: Government will support the identification of research and education needs for improving coastal management and address them in a systematic and holistic way. Enhance awareness and formal and informal education on the value of the ocean and coast to foster greater understanding of coastal issues. Build capacity to produce future coastal managers, scientists and an innovative workforce by supporting access to information and training on coastal management and facilitating research and capacity development for good coastal governance;

 Facilitate access to economic opportunities: Clear procedures for gaining access to resources will be developed, and transparency of decisions ensured, for instance for fishing quotas and tourism and mining concessions. Government will develop clear guidelines and procedures for acquiring quotas and concessions. Coastal poverty will be reduced through proactive coastal development initiatives that generate sustainable livelihood options. Government will take steps to increase enforcement for preventing environmental and cultural damage caused by activities in sensitive coastal areas such as inappropriate or unmanaged tourism. Steps will be taken to strengthen incentives for improving management such as allocating portions of tourism revenue to development in the region;

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 33 -  Prioritise social responsibility and youth development: Identify and develop feedback mechanisms to ensure that revenues from the private sector and opportunities from donor programmes and government contribute to poverty reduction and local economic and social empowerment. Facilitate capacity development for the youth for empowerment and livelihood creation by benefiting from coastal resources and opportunities;

 Improve environmental health and well-being of poor coastal inhabitants: Identify options for improving environmental health, living conditions and well- being of impoverished coastal communities and addressing land tenure and livelihood security issues for marginal coastal inhabitants. Improve access for poor communities to basic services such as water, medical facilities and energy in coastal areas.

(iv) Maintain Biodiversity and Protect Ecological Integrity:

 Adopt ecosystem-based management and adaptive management: Promote ecosystem-based and adaptive management approaches to manage human activities that account for the interdependence of the land, air, water, and the interconnectedness between human populations and these environments;

 Innovate for sustainable options for managing scarce and diminishing resources: Scarce resources in the coastal environment such as water and energy are used sparingly, and in ways that will not exhaust them. Investigate and prioritise the use of renewable resources over non-renewable resources to meet a growing demand for energy and potable water. Promote the development of innovative and sustainable alternatives (such as new ways of saving or obtaining scarce essential resources);

 Support the restoration and wise management of essential ecological systems: Preserve the natural character of the coastal environment through the protection, maintenance or restoration of natural and physical landscapes, features, processes and biological diversity. Ensure that Namibians are able to provide for their social, economic, and cultural well-being through the wise use, development, and protection of natural and physical resources and processes in the coastal environment both now and into the future;

 Promote healthy, productive and resilient ocean and coastal ecosystems, processes and resources: Protect, maintain, and restore the health and biological diversity of ocean, coastal ecosystems and resources. Strengthen the conservation and sustainable uses of the land and sea to improve the health of the ocean and coastal ecosystems.

(v) Improve the resilience of coastal systems to climate and environmental change

 Promote an adaptive, risk averse and precautionary approach: Recognise the impacts of climate change and environmental variability and the increasing risk of coastal hazards and manage to pre-empt disaster. Adopt a precautionary approach through appropriate planning of coastal development by avoiding exposure of people, property and economic activities to significant risk from dynamic coastal processes; protecting or restoring natural coastal defences; discouraging recourse to hard protection structures; and adapting to changing circumstances through innovation;

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 34 -  Use the best available science, local and indigenous knowledge to inform decisions affecting our coasts: Enhance the capacity to understand, respond, and adapt to a changing global environment. Support research to improve our understanding of changing environmental conditions and their causes, as well as the influence of human activities taking place in ocean and coastal ecosystems. Develop ways to understand and respond to the impacts of the changing conditions on the natural, cultural and economic context through monitoring and adaptation to evolving knowledge and a better understanding of processes. Devise methodology and an action plan to capture indigenous knowledge before it is lost.

2.4 The Coastal SEA Objective

The overall main objective of the coastal SEA for the Kunene and Erongo Regions has been to undertake a systematic and comprehensive process of evaluating the environmental effects of National Policy on Coastal Management and its alternatives. The final goal of the SEA has been to better reflect environmental aspects in formulating and deciding on National Policy on Coastal Management and, thereby, contributing to make the Coastal zone more sustainable with respect to other policies, plans and programmes. Whereas the EIA focuses on the project level, SEA reflects decisions further upstream in the planning process, where decisions are being taken, that might influence project related decisions further downstream. An example would be a Land Use Plan, which decides about the location for an agricultural development scheme, before the concrete project design will be assessed in a later EIA. The EMA uses the term ‘environmental plan’, which can be used synonymously with SEA.

SEA should not be understood as a mere ‘burden’ to the plan developer. The early consideration of environmental impacts and conflicts with natural resources can avoid costly damages during plan implementation and, thereby, be an efficient means of ensuring sustainability of development proposals. For instance, the early environmental assessment of zoning plans for new urban residential areas might prevent later damages through floods by avoiding settlements in flood prone areas. In this context, the comparison of different options of development is crucial. The SEA helps to identify or even develop those options, which impose the lowest risks or enable the best utilization of potentials. Reflections of alterations of proposals in terms of type, location, design or technology within an assessment are also required by the legal framework.

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 35 - 3. COASTAL SEA UPDATING METHODOLOGY

3.1 Overview

The participation and involvement of all the stakeholders in the updating of the SEA is important to the successfully implementation and monitoring of the recommendations from the SEAs updating process. With the phase approach, all the key stakeholders have been given ample time at the right phase to voice their concern and contribute to specific aspects of the SEAs updating process with respect to existing, intended or likely policies, plans and programmes falling within the coastal zone, thereby avoiding any future land user rights conflicts. In line with the provisions of the Environmental Management 2007, (Act No. 7 of 2007), the environmental assessment process for the updating of the coastal SEA for the Kunene and Erongo Regions covered the following five (5) study phases:

(i) Desk Study for SEA Strategic Implementation Review through Consultations;

(ii) SEA Strategic Development;

(iii) Influence and Impact Analysis –Draft SEA Report;

(iv) Further consultation and screening;

(v) Final SEA Report with Management Plan.

Fig. 3.1 summarises the phase each of the above phases with phase objectives and the achieved outcomes. The overall SEA Methodology used in the updating process was based on the review of the previously coastal SEA collected planning documents and data, stakeholder liaison, mapping of coastal landscapes and physics, development plans and resources, assessment of land use suitability, comments on available data and DST and map design. A detailed description of the reviewed and updated SEA methodology, including details of stakeholder involvement, data sources, GIS models and DST design and functionality is given in Appendix I. The NACOMA Project has a very diverse stakeholder base inclusive of Line Ministries (LMs), Regional Councils (RCs), Local Authorities (LAs), civil society, sectoral stakeholders (e.g. aquaculture, tourism, mining, etc) and support organisations (i.e. academic institutions and donor projects) and various management committees. The updating and reviewing process of the coastal SEAs has been consultative and ultilised the tools from the NACOMA Participation and Communication Plan (PCP) and the Communication and Awareness Strategy (CAS) and Action Plan in engaging the stakeholders.

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 36 -

PHASES PHASE OBJECTIVE ACHIEVED OUTCOMES

1. Desk Study  Linked SEA objectives to specific policies, plans and Identify and link programmes through stakeholders consultations for SEA Specific Policies,  Defined environmental characteristics of the study area, current Strategic Plans and and development effects on the environment, review and Implementation defined GIS data compatibility and base maps Programmes to the  Identified environmental problems, developed linkages of SEA Review through SEA objectives objectives with formulated possible alternative and monitoring Consultations strategies  Assessed development effects on the environment and identified initial possible sustainable development sites

 Developed and defined more enhanced environmental characteristics of the study area, current state of the Review and Develop 2. SEA Strategic environment and development effects on the environment the Scope of the  Developed Decision Support Tools for further data analysis Development SEA Process with (developed and digitise base map layers) and identified Field -Based Data environmental issues, threats and opportunities and Strategic  Identified potential environmental impacts of alternatives for Alternatives achieving specific policies, plans or programmes objectives  A reviewed lists of main objectives of the study with links to specific policies, plans or programmes

 Updated the list of indicators, issues, threats and opportunities 3. Influence and Assesses and with links to appropriate decision tree Impact Analysis Update the Effects of  Updated the defined environmental protection objectives and Specific Policies, developmental effects on the environment –Draft SEA Plans and  Upadted the developed measures to prevent, reduce or offset Report Programmes with effects respect to SEA  Prepared updated draft thematic maps and management / Objectives monitoring plan with indicators  Prepared updated draft SEA Reports to the reviewer and present findings to the Project Team

 Collected more information on the baselines and environmental problems through the opinions and concerns of the public and identify preferred alternatives on draft SEA report and Maps 4. Consultation Consistence Analysis  Enhanced list and options of possible sustainable development and Screening through Public and sites, environmental protection objectives, development effect Stakeholders on the environment, acceptable measures to prevent, reduce or Consultation offset effects through alternative policies, plans or programmes directions  Reviewed the list of main objectives of the study with links to specific policies, plans and programmes

5. Final SEA Update all the Documentation for Report with  Prpered the updated SEA Report with strategic management / Decision Making Management monitoring plan with list of indicators and relevant focal areas Plan that are important for research and development opportunities in promoting the understanding of the coastal environments;

Figure 3.1: Knowledge-Based phase methodology approach used in the updating process.

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 37 -

3.2 The Need for Coastal SEA Updating

Due to the ever changing coastal development needs as well as new information that have been gathered from other completed NACOMA Projects, there was a need to update the previous coastal SEA in order to reflect the new regulatory framework and current status. The following is summary of some of the key new developments that have taken place since the pervious coastal SEA was completed:

 The coastal Policy and other NACOMA Completed Projects;

 New coastal protected areas management plan and the establishment of the Dorob National Park;

 Environmental Management Act, (Act No. 7 of 2007) Implemented in Feb 2012 with the appointment of the Environmental Commissioner- The Act gives general principles for the management of the environment and natural resources;

 Gazetting of the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Regulations Government Notice 30, Government Gazette 4878 of 6 February 2012;

 Other new regulatory instruments that may affect the coastal environments;

 Other new Organs of State Policies, Plans and Programmes likely to affect the coastal environment.

3.3 Updating of the Previous SEA Collected Data

Previously SEA collected documents and data on regional, national and sectoral land use and other relevant policies, programmes and plans (PPPs) were reviewed and updated accordingly where applicable during the Project Inception Phase in June 2012 (Table 3.1). Important activities during this phase were workshops held as follows:

(i) First round of consultation workshops:

 Opuwo workshop was held on the 26th June 2012;

 Windhoek workshop was held on the 28th June 2012;

 Mariental workshop was held on the 29th June 2012,

 Lüderitz workshop was held on the 2nd July 2012;

 Swakopmund workshop was held on the 3rd July 2012, and;

 Walvis Bay meeting was held on the 4th Jluy 2012.

(ii) Second round of consultation workshops:

 Swakopmund / Walvis Bay workshop was held on the 22nd October 2012;

 Khorixas workshop was held on the 24th October 2012 (Kuiseb EIA);

 Windhoek workshop was held on the 25th October 2012;

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 38 -  Mariental workshop was held on the 26th October 2012;

 Lüderitz workshop was held on the 29th October 2012 (SEA).

Review of all thematic data and validity of some of the PPP took place between the project team and a wide range of stakeholders and end-users at the workshops. The collection of additional data and planning documents was followed up by a phase of close scrutiny of already available data samples and of the PPPs (Table 3.1). Although a large amount of data has been made available to the SEA process, some information has failed to become available for various reasons. During the workshops it was possible to receive feedback and fill in the some of the most important gaps on the coastal land use, plans and biodiversity.

3.4 Stakeholder Liaison

A key to a successful development and application of the updated SEA and DST has been the liaison with the stakeholders during the entire project. Stakeholder involvement has on methodologies related to the analysis of land use suitability, including the analysis of biodiversity trends and on discussions on individual coastal land use plans. The workshops have served as focal points for communication with the stakeholders. The overall SEA updating strategy and stakeholder involvement was discussed not only with stakeholders at large, but also in particular with the principal stakeholders, the Regional Councils of Erongo and Kunene. During the Phase 2 workshop various issues related to the PPPs were discussed with end users from the Kunene region. During the Phase 3 workshop the team had the opportunity to discuss the major SEA findings, DST design and the preferred type of deliverables (hardcopies compared to digital) with key stakeholders.

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 39 - Table 3.1: Updated List of key PPPs.

ORGAN POLICY, PLAN OR PROGRAMME OF STATE National Coastal Policy White Paper 2012 Dorob National Park Gazetting, Draft Regulations and Park Management Plan Final Draft Coastal Protected Areas Management Plans Environmental Management Act, (Act No. 7 of 2007) Implemented in Feb 2012 with the appointment of the Environmental Commissioner Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Regulations Government Notice 30, Government Gazette 4878 of 6 February 2012 Policy on Tourism and Wildlife Concessions on State Land (Draft June 2006)

Policy on Protected Areas, Neighbours and Resident People (Draft July 2006) Biosafety Act (6th draft) Policy and Legal Framework of the National CBNRM Programme Namibia’s Pollution Control and Waste Management Policy Namibia’s Environmental Assessment Policy Walvis Bay Nature Reserve (proposed) Management Plan (draft) MET North West Tourism Plan Namib-Naukluft Management and Tourism Development Plan Skeleton Coast National Park Management Plan Iona Transfrontier Park Memorandum of Understanding Policy Framework for Concessions in Proclaimed Protected Areas Cape Cross Seal Reserve Plan National West Coast Tourist Recreation Area Plan MET Strategic Plan National Biodiversity Strategic Action Plan Namibia Wetland Policy MME Draft Nuclear Policy 2012 Strategic Plan 2007/08- 2011/12 White Paper on Energy Policy 1998 Minerals Policy of Namibia 2006 MME acts (Minerals (Prospecting and Mining) Act, 1992, Diamond Act, 1999, Petroleum Products and Energy Amendment Act, 2000, Gas Act - Draft), Electricity Act (2000), Petroleum (Exploration and Production) Act of 1991 Petroleum Exploration Onshore/Offshore Open Licensing System Prospecting and Mining in Protected Areas MFMR MFMR Marine Resources Policy 2004 MFMR Mariculture Feasibility MFMR Aquaculture Policy, 2001 MFMR Towards the Responsible Development of Aquaculture (2001) Marine Resources Act 2000 Aquaculture Act 2002 MFMR Marine Protected Area Feasibility MWT MWT new Port Plan. Feasibility study of a new port facility in the vicinity of cape Fria/Angra Fria. The Government of Namibia wishes to investigate the feasibility of establishing a new harbour on the northern Atlantic cost of Namibia. The study will start during this financial year. MAWF MAWF Water Resources Management Act (2004), Water Act (1956) National Water Policy (2001) and National Agricultural Policy (1995) Regional/ Namibian Ports Authority Act, 1994 Municipal/ NAMPORT’s Environmental Management System Other White Paper on Transport Policy and Walvis Bay Corridor Plans Structure Plans for Walvis Bay, Swakopmund and Henties Bay Municipalities Town Planning Schemes for Walvis Bay, Swakopmund and Henties Bay Municipalities Walvis Bay Municipality Regulations for Dune Belt (draft) Erongo and Kunene Regional Development Plans

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 40 - 3.5 Updated Mapping of Coastal Zone

An important element of the project has been the updating of the already established SEA GIS – a GIS mapping system covering all major landscape, biodiversity, infrastructure, land use and PPP data of the coastal regions of Kunene and Erongo. The structure of the SEA GIS and metadata information is found in Appendix I. No major changes on the layout or structure changes were made to the GIS platform. Updates were only applied to the specific Meta data / thematic layers where new information / data are available. The main goal of the SEA GIS is to facilitate the DST as a tool for assisting the decision-making process at the regional level. Physical, biological and land use data have been analysed in an integrated way using multi- criteria evaluation to enable trade-offs between economic, social and environmental issues. The end user can use the modelled land use suitability data with background information and his or her own data to explore various development scenarios.

A mapping system in support of a coastal SEA not only requires integrated analyses of land use, planning and environmental data, but also depends on relatively high resolution to produce sufficiently detailed information to be useful in the decision-making process related to various land-use options. Although some GIS data, e.g. the infrastructure data held by the municipalities of Walvis Bay and Swakopmund, are available in high resolution, the majority of GIS data from the Atlas of Namibia or from the Namibian Biodiversity Database are only available in relatively low resolution, this typically exceeding 10 km. Thus, in order to map key components of the coastal landscape with sufficient detail two remote sensing data sets have been used: a Landsat ETM+ data set from 2001 in 28.5 m resolution (University of Maryland) and a digital topographic data set (SRTM) in one meter vertical and 90 m horizontal resolution (NASA). The ETM+ data have been processed to a seamless backdrop for the SEA GIS and have been used as a basis for digitising river courses and locate areas with prominent vegetation. The SRTM data have been used to estimate the relief and topographic complexity of the coastal zone. Estimated fine-scale distributions of lichen communities were made available by Dr. Christoph Schultz at the German Aerospace Centre. An orthorectified coastline and bathymetry data were made available by the BCLME project. The data made available by the stakeholders were used to map the spatial extent of current land uses, priority zones for development of some land uses according to PPPs and the range of exploitable resources.

3.6 Assessment of Land Use Suitability

 Lichen distribution;  Main habitat for Welwitschia;  Main habitat for Quiver tree;  Main habitat for Mopane;  Main breeding zone for Damara tern;  Breeding colonies of Fur seal;  Zone of medium herbivore abundance;  Zone of regular Elephant occurrence;  Lion density above 0.004/ km²;  Leopard density above 0.005/km²;  Mountain zebra density above 0.25/km2;

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 41 -  Wetlands of global importance;  Distance less than 30 km from the Escarpment;  Rock outcrops and cliffs;  Distance less than 140 km from Etosha;  Distance less than 2 km from regularly vegetated ephemeral rivers;  Distance less than 5 km from the Brandberg massif;  Zones of extensive coverage of higher plants;  Areas of high topographic complexity;  Rocky shoreline.

These priority areas/habitats for conservation were chosen on the basis of landscape characteristics known as important environmental drivers in relation to the movement of prioritised species of large mammals between Etosha and the coast, in relation to the distribution of prioritised species of birds and higher plants, and in relation to increased levels of diversity and endemism in plants, invertebrate and vertebrate animals, e.g. 7,8,9,10. The mapped priority areas/habitats were combined into three classes of area importance. A full account of the sources of biodiversity data and methods used is given in Appendix I. Land use suitability was modelled for each land use type using multi-criteria evaluation (weighted linear combination). Two aspects of the multi-criteria evaluation process implemented for the SEA DST should be highlighted, as they serve to reduce the decision risks (risk of making chance decisions) of the system (Alonso, 1968):

 Fuzzy factors;

 Standardisation of scores.

The use of fuzzy factors for all land uses meant that factors were distributed along a continuum from 0 reflecting poor conditions to 1 reflecting suitable conditions for development (a cosine function with 2 control points, see Appendix I). The environmental factors for each land use were then combined with information (if available) on exploitable resources, areas currently developed for urban land use, areas outlined by PPPs as priority development areas and the mapped priority areas/habitats for conservation. The four latter data sets were used as technical constraints to development: i.e. no development was regarded as suitable if the area was outside a PPP zone, or in areas of no exploitable resources, or in urban land use zones, or priority areas/habitats for conservation.

7 Simmons, R.E., Griffin, M., Griffin, R.E., Marais, E. & Kolberg, H. 1998. Endemism in Namibia: patterns, processes and predictions. Biodiversity and Conservation 7: 513-530. 8 Harrison, J.A., Allan, D.G., Underhill, L.G., Herremans, M., Tree, A.J., Parker, V., Brown, C.J. (eds). The Atlas of Southern African Birds. Vols. 1 and 2. BirdLife South Africa, Johannesburg. 9 Curtis, B.A. & Mannheimer, C.A., 2005. Tree Atlas of Namibia. Windhoek: National Botanical Research Institute. 688 pp. 10 LOOTS, S. 2005. A Red Data Book of Namibian plants. SABONET Report No. 38. 124 pp.

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 42 - 4. KUNENE SECTOR-BASED COASTAL LAND USE

4.1 Overview of Priority Areas for Conservation

The coastal zone of the Kunene Region is an important biodiversity hotspot with the Kunene River Mouth (KRM), a fluvially dominated freshwater area, being the central key conservation hotspot. The fluvial environment and the remoteness and pristine character of the KRM contribute to the aesthetic appeal of this unique coastal zone (Plates 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3). The Kunene Region inclusive of the coastal zone covering the KRM is scenically diverse and includes the coastal lower water mark dominated by the Namib Desert (0 -100 m above mean sea level), the mountainous region made up of the northern Namib Desert (100 – 600 m above mean sea level) and the interior highlands (1,000 - 2,000 m above mean sea level) (Figs. 4.1 and 4.2 and Plate 4.1 – 4.3). The climatic patterns range from hyper-arid along the coastal zone to semi-arid (0 mm to 350 mm rain per year). Kunene species (unique sub-species) include: Black rhino, African Elephant, Giraffe, Mountain Zebra, Burchell's Zebra, Giraffe, Gemsbok, Springbok, Greater Kudu, Impala, Duiker, Steenbok, Klipspringer, Dik-dik, Warthog, Lion, Leopard, Cheetah, Spotted Hyena, Brown Hyena.

Concentrations of prioritised biodiversity elements are located in three areas or landscape types and these are:

(i) The mouth of the Kunene River (Plates 4.1 – 1 3);

(ii) Along the river beds of all the ephemeral rivers with prominent stands of higher plants like Acacia spp. and Colophospermum mopane, and;

(iii) Throughout the eastern-central sector between Koigab and Hoanib rivers.

Areas of moderate concentration of prioritised biodiversity elements are found in the periphery of these areas/landscapes. The existence of the Kunene River mouth wetland, and some of the unique fauna which it supports, could be threatened by the proposal to build a dam further upstream. A feasibility study accompanying the proposal to build the dam at Epupa Falls cited the Baynes Mountains as an alternative site for the hydroelectric plant, which would substantially reduce the impact on the Himba's cultural heritage. During the filling of the dam, which would take between one and four years, the reduced water flow at the Kunene River mouth may have significant effects on this wetland.

The eastern-most parts of the river beds of the Ugab, Huab, Koigab, Uniab, Hoanib and Hoarusib located within the Skeleton Park are characterised by habitats which support elevated densities of a wide range of taxa and species, like growth of Acacia spp. and Colophospermum mopane, rocky outcrops and high topographic complexity. The unique fauna includes several species of large herbivorous and carnivorous mammals, and bird species like the Black harrier.

The eastern-central sector of the Skeleton Coast National Park between Koigab and Hoanib rivers marks a zone of significant concentrations of habitats, especially for mammals migrating between Etosha and the coast as well as for a number of bird species recruited in the Escarpment. In addition the zone supports extensive coverage of Welwitschia, and rock outcrops are found centrally while an area of high complexity is found in the south. The zone is used both by relatively common mammal species like Springbok as well as by rare and endangered species like Mountain zebra, Lion, Elephant and Leopard. Elephants seem to use the northern-most part of the zone. The zone extends furthest towards the coast near Möwe Bay, thus interactions between mammals and tourists visiting the zone are most likely here.

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 43 -

Plate 4.1: Overview of the Kunene River Mouth (FRM) a key biodiversity hotspot of the Kunene Region coastal zone (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012).

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 44 -

Plate 4.2: The fluvial environment of the KRM (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012).

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 45 -

Plate 4.3: The pristine and uniqueness of the KRM area (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012).

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 46 -

Figure 4.1: Altitude (SRTM data) of the Kunene Region coastal zone.

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 47 -

Figure 4.2: Relief (% slope) of the Kunene Region coastal zone.

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 48 -

Figure 4.3: Overview of the key conservation and biodiversity areas in the Kunene Region.

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 49 -

Plate 4.4: The lower water mark area of the coastal zone of the Kunene Region (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012).

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 50 -

Plate 4.5: The Namib Desert part of the coastal zone of the Kunene Region (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012).

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 51 -

Plate 4.6: The eastern mountainous areas of the Kunene Region bordering the Namib Desert part of the coastal zone (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012).

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 52 -

4.2 Key Priority Conservation Areas

MET’s Directorate of Parks and Wildlife Management is responsible for the Skeleton Coast National Park (SCNP). Most of the present SCNP was part of the German Colonial Rule’s Game Reserve 2 of 1907 and expanded to the Ugab River in 1958 as the then huge Etosha National Park. After several reductions the strip along the coast was proclaimed as the Skeleton Coast Park in 1971 a contributing factor being the fact that the area is not fit for agricultural purposes or human habitation. The present status is demarcated in the Nature Conservation Ordinance No. 4, 1975.

The SCNP extends from the Ugab River in the south to the Kunene River in the north and reaches 30-50 km inland. The area receives 30-40 mm water annually from the coastal fog and occasional rain and except for the Kunene River, water is only found in ephemeral rivers. The river beds are nevertheless the main source of the area’s biodiversity.

Going from the northern border of the park, the Kunene River, 250 kms south one finds the first permanently inhabited location at Möwe Bay where the MET ranger station is located. After a further 80 kms one arrives in the Namibian Wildlife Resorts (NWR) run settlement of Terrace Bay, which is a former mine that now features a school and a lodge providing accommodation for visitors. Another 50 kms brings one to Torra Bay and the self-catering camping site very popular with anglers during the holiday season.11 Up to Terrace Bay the park is accessible to tourists who have obtained a permit from the MET. Presently, visitors are not allowed further into the park unless through the concession holders arrangement or invitation from MET as the area is ecologically sensitive and managed by the MET as a wilderness area. This restriction does not apply to the prospecting teams, who are frequent travellers on the roads and beaches.

The only tourist activities permitted within the Park are recreational, environmental appreciation and education, where these are compatible with the Park objectives. Off-road driving trails are permitted in designated areas on routes approved for concession holders and Ministry staff. At Terrace Bay and Torra Bay off-road driving to the dune fields is permitted according to demarcated routes. Protecting the biological value and integrity of SCP includes:

 Development of categories of management zones;

 Inventory of indigenous and exotic flora and fauna;

 Control of water resources and wetlands;

 Demarcation of angling areas;

 Areas of special conservation concern;

 Management of roads, vehicle tracks and airfields;

 Layout and plans of tourist camps.

Permitting and zoning for these activities and resources will enable the MET staff to enforce the sustainable use of the park. Some of the tourism activities envisaged by the new management plan would include exclusive concessions, MET guided trails, self- guided trails and NWR run camps.12

11 The number of Namibian and RSA visitors to SCP is up 300-400% in December as seen in Entrance Statistics for 2006 from SCP Management.

12 Interestingly, recent private initiatives in the Kaokoland aimed at less intrusive tourist activities in the area include ‘4x4’ tours by camel rather than automotives. The Namibian, Friday, May 18, 2007.

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 53 -

Figure 4.4: Skeleton Coast National Park IUCN zonation from Kunene River Mouth to Möwe Bay, (Zone 1a: Strict Nature Reserve) and (Zone 2: National Park mainly for conservation and ecotourism).

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 54 -

Figure 4.5: Skeleton Coast National Park IUCN zonation based from Möwe Bay to Ugab River, (Zone 1a: Strict Nature Reserve), (Zone 2: National Park mainly for

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 55 -

conservation and ecotourism) and (Zone 5: Protected Landscape / Seascape). 4.2.2 Skeleton Coast National Park (SCNP)

4.2.2.1 Overview

SCNP is a globally unique place. It must maintain its protected status and wilderness characteristics. Presently, a management plan has been drawn up in the form of the Master Plan for the SCNP with a view to strengthen the management of activities in the park including prospecting, mining and tourism. The draft management plan for SCNP has three objectives:

 That the Park be given National Park status, and be conserved, controlled, monitored and administered as a National Park in accordance with IUCN criteria for the individual zones within the Park (Figs. 4.4 and 4.5).

 To maintain the essential ecological processes, life-support systems, and biotic diversity, and

 Sustainable utilization of its resources for tourism, education and research, for the benefit of Namibians in particular, and humanity in general.

In particular, all persons or companies falling within the category of Mineral prospectors and grant holders must comply with the provsions of the environmental regulations and the policy for exploration and mining in protected areas of which a full Environmental Assessment must be undertaken before any activities can take place. At the same time increased sustainable activities regarding tourism is possible. It should be considered how tourism business could be made into concessions to the benefit of locals and neighbours following the government’s policies on Protected Areas, Neighbours and Resident People and the Policy Framework for Concessions in Proclaimed Protected Areas.

4.2.2.2 Recommendations

4.2.2.2.1 Overall Recommendations

The developed Master Plan should be immediately agreed to and a start made in enforcing it. Exploration and mining activities in the park undertaken without advice on sensitive zones must be avoided. The SEA and the mapping of priority areas for conservation will contribute to the establishment of this advice. The most sensitive areas are the mouth of the Kunene River, the river beds of the ephemeral rivers with prominent stands of higher plants and the eastern- central sector between Koigab and Hoanib rivers. The lack of a detailed management plan has also introduced other activities in sensitive areas like off-road driving, recreational angling, private tourism, littering and the excavation of trenches.

The northern part of the SCNP from the Kunene to Möwe Bay should remain a closed area and be integrated with the Iona Transfrontier National Park. Based on the land suitable assessment that has been undertaken and the key biodiversity resources within the SCNP (Kunene River Mouth and Ugab River), key priority conservation and biodiversity hotspot areas have been delineated as shown in Fig. 4.6 with land use suitability shown in Table 4.1. According to Table 4.1 and Fig. 4.6, unsuitable land uses are constraint by the conservation priority areas No. 1 and 2 and no unsustainable policies, plan or programmes are allowed in these areas.

The delineated key conservation areas as shown in Fig. 4.6 and described in Table 4.1 are likely to have conflicts with other current and future polies, plan and programmes. Table 4.2 summarises the likely conflicts and possible solutions with respect to land use for conservation and other polies, plan and programmes.

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 56 -

4.2.2.2.2 Möwe Bay

Möwe Bay should develop its tourism potential to accommodate and cater for day trippers from Terrace Bay and fly-ins; this would include new housing to replace the existing pre-fab constructions. The landing site (“harbour”) should be developed to allow launching of angling boats. The MET facilities should be rehabilitated with a clear objective of becoming a showcase sustainable settlement with solar and wind power, desalination, housing construction etc.

4.2.2.2.3 Terrace Bay

The area should be developed into a high end angling resort with accommodation in an all- inclusive set up. Day trips to Möwe Bay should be organised from Terrace Bay. Water resources should be conserved and no more fresh water should be used for the cleaning of saltwater fish. Waste water could be led into artificial wetlands.

4.2.2.2.4 Torra Bay

The site for budget accommodation should be monitored and aimed at domestic and RSA angler target groups. A Skeleton Coast Biodiversity Centre should be developed in support of eco-tourism aimed at improving potential for wilderness safaris in the SCNP – Etosha extension area.

4.2.2.2.5 Rangers

The vast area is severely understaffed, and discussions should be held between MET, MME, MFMR and other relevant ministries on how existing responsibilities with respect to surveillance and inspection of the North West Namibia could be most efficiently carried out. Costs should be shared and rangers should be able to carry out duties for other ministries to help increase frequency and efficiency.

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 57 -

Figure 4.6: Priority areas for conservation from the Kunene River Mouth to Ugab River and all parts of the Skeleton Coast National Park.

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 58 -

Table 4.1: Considerations for various other potential land use options assessed in terms of their suitability between the coastal zone from the Kunene River Mouth and Ugab River with respect to conservation and biodiversity priorities.

ORGAN OF POLICY/ SUITABILITY / STATE PLAN / OPPORTUNITY REMARKS / CONSTRAINTS PROGRAMME Mineral No major strategic and mineral resources are known Prospecting / Not suitable in to exist in the general area and even if some Exploration conservation priority resources are discovered in the future, no prospecting Other Mining areas No. 1 and 2 at all, and / or mining are allowed in conservation priority Activities potentially high impact on areas No. 1 and 2 areas. Very high and national MME the ecosystem and other important conservation and biodiversity area a major sustainable land use constraint for other land uses. Petroleum options such as tourism The key Namibe Basin is situated in the offshore

Exploration environment not covering the coastal zone. However, any potential accidental oil spill from the offshore operations will have very high negative impacts on the biodiversity of this area Suitable in selected areas Salt operations are an important land marks that can of the already existing support tourism operations between Ugab and operations. New salts Kunene Rivers. In line with the multiple land use Salt mining works areas are very approach of the SCNP, the salt mining operation must limited. Efforts to support enhance the synergy approach aimed at developing a other land use options three pillar sustainable multiple land uses in the area must be implemented for namely: Solar salt production, conservation (by salt production, creating conservation corridors within the salt works) conservation and tourism and tourism (by creating tourist viewpoints / walk support must be explored ways around the salt works). Suitable but limited High conservation and biodiversity area to support Power generation Areas any such supporting infrastructure for commercial and transmission power development. Support infrastructure lacking Controlled ecotourism opportunities in line with the Tourism Suitable SCNP land use plan and regulations. Very high and MET national important conservation and biodiversity area a major constraint for other land uses. Conservation and Suitable Highly important for the sustainability of the area with research key priority conservation areas shown in red in Fig. 4.6

MWAF Desalination Areas of biodiversity hotspots such as lichens and Welwitschia mirabilis fields are key national important MFMR Aquaculture and Suitable but limited conservation areas. These biodiversity hotspots are a mariculture Areas major constraint to other land uses. Other Marine Resources harvesting ALL ORGANS Education and Suitable Limited available infrastructure and facilities but OF STATE training sufficient to support education and research activities Other Regional Suitable but Limited and High biodiversity hotspot area and in particular key REGIONAL AND and Local restricted to designated conservation priority areas No. 1 and 2 are a major LOCAL Infrastructures AUTHORITIES proclaimed Town Lands constraint for other land uses that may be in line with (Wlotskasbaken and the regional or local infrastructural POLICY/ PLAN / Henties Bay PROGRAMME

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 59 -

Table 4.2: Likely conservation and other PPPs conflicts and solutions with respect to coastal land uses for areas from the Kunene River Mouth and Ugab River.

ORGAN OF POLICY/ LIKELY CONFLICTS STATE PLAN / WITH POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS PROGRAMME CONSERVATION AREAS Mineral Highly likely particularly if No Mineral exploration activities shall be allowed in Prospecting / future exploration activities key priority conservation areas. The Ministry of Exploration are allowed in these areas Environment and Tourism must make sure that they Other Mining and new economic mineral have a representative at the Minerals Prospecting Activities deposits are discovered and Mining Rights Committee meetings at all times in MME order to ensure that no new mineral exploration rights area awarded in key conservation priority areas

Petroleum None Area does not have active petroleum system or Exploration suitable petroleum basin environment and the nearest Namibe Basin falls in the offshore environment and will have no influence to the coastal land use Salt mining Highly likely particularly if A full Environmental Assessment covering Scoping, possible salt production EIA and EMP must be undertaken before any areas are identified without suitable salt production area is delineated in order taking into considerations delineate key priority conservation areas. Salt key conservations priority production must always strive to incorporate multiple areas land uses covering salt production, tourism and conservation in the operations Power generation Unlikely due to lack of A full Environmental Assessment covering Scoping, and transmission supporting infrastructure EIA and EMP must be undertaken if power and urban development generation and transmission opportunities are considered in the general area Tourism Highly likely particularly if Clear guidelines / control measures must be Conservation and no control measures are developed and put in place and studies / MET research put in place to manage assessments on land carrying capacities undertaken tourism, conservation and with respect to tourism, conservation and research. research activities Desalination and Unlikely due to lack of A full Environmental Assessment covering Scoping, MWAF other supporting infrastructure EIA and EMP must be undertaken if such infrastructures and urban development opportunities are considered in the general area Aquaculture and Highly likely particularly if A full Environmental Assessment covering Scoping, MFMR mariculture possible areas are EIA and EMP must be undertaken before any Other Marine identified without taking into suitable areas are selected in order delineate key Resources harvesting considerations key priority conservation areas. conservations priority areas ALL ORGANS Education and Moderately likely Clear guidelines / control measures must be OF STATE training particularly if no control developed and put in place to manage education and measures are put in place training by other Organs of State to manage REGIONAL AND Other Regional Highly likely particularly if A full Environmental Assessment covering Scoping, LOCAL and Local possible areas are EIA and EMP must be undertaken before any AUTHORITIES Infrastructures identified without taking into suitable areas are selected in order to delineate key considerations key priority conservation areas. conservations priority areas

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 60 -

4.2.3 Kunene River Mouth

4.2.3.1 Overview

The Kunene River Mouth on the basis of its unique mixture of desert, freshwater and marine habitats and its high diversity of species is regarded by MET as an area in need of being contained within Namibia’s national network of protected areas. To respond to this need MET and the Ministry of Urbanism and Environment in Angola has initiated a process that will result in a treaty to establish and manage a Transfrontier Conservation Area (TFCA) which shall include the Iona National Park in Angola and the SCNP in Namibia. A Memorandum of Understanding between the two countries on the TFCA is in progress, yet no details with respect to the park status, exact boundaries and management framework of the TFCA have been disclosed.

The main stakeholders are Government: the Ministry of Environment and Tourism, the Angolan Government, Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources, Namwater, Ministry of Mines and Energy and the Kunene Regional Council. The private sector presently has a small stake in the area, with the exception of the Northern Namibia Development Corporation who is prospecting for diamonds at the KRM. Although the area has great tourism potential there is no tourism development currently underway or planned. The threat analysis suggests that the KRM is under severe threat from inappropriate development, both locally as well as within the catchment. Mining and prospecting were identified as the greatest threat, whereas tourism poses the least threat to the area. It is suggested that appropriate tourism is the most suitable development for this sensitive area.

There is currently no coherent management strategy in place for the KRM. The current environmental legislation is ineffective. The need for a stringent adaptive management regime is identified and management goals for the area are suggested. It is further suggested that the concepts of “Thresholds of Potential Concern” and “Limits of Acceptable Change” are useful to monitor indicators for biophysical components and development activities respectively and to maintain a “Desired State” for the area. This “Desired State” must be the result of a participatory process. To be effective stakeholders must reach consensus on the “Desired State”. An eight step participatory process is proposed to develop and implement an adaptive management and development strategy for the KRM.

In line with the implementation of the government’s policies on Protected Areas, Neighbours and Resident People and the Policy Framework for Concessions in Proclaimed Protected Areas through the enforcement of the SCNP Master Plan it will be necessary to include the TFCA process in the Master Plan.

4.2.3.2 Kunene River Mouth Recommendations

Based on the land suitable assessment that has been undertaken and the key biodiversity resources around the Kunene River Mouth, key priority conservation and biodiversity hotspot areas have been delineated as shown in Fig. 4.7 with land use suitability shown in Table 4.3. According to Table 4.3 and Fig. 4.7, unsuitable land uses are constraint by the conservation priority areas No. 1 and 2 and no unsustainable policies, plan or programmes are allowed in these areas. Overall however, the delineated key conservation zones as shown in Fig. 4.7 and described in Table 4.3 are likely to have conflicts with other current and future polies, plan and programmes. Table 4.4 summarises the likely conflicts and possible solutions with respect to land use for conservation and other polies, plan and programmes.

The building of a dam at upstream of the Kunene River Mouth will require that a management framework be set up covering the entire lower Kunene River for successful management of the TFCA. Water influences the type and biological quality of the TFCA. This is especially true in the Kunene River Mouth as it is located in an arid region. A thorough understanding of the overall hydrology is thus imperative for all management aspects both in the TFCA as such as

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 61 - well as in the upstream part. Literally the Kunene River Mouth is the ‘end of the line’ and all interventions in the up-stream part shall inevitably have an impact downstream as well as unpredictable changes in the overall climate conditions may dramatically influence the Delta area. Management aspects of the TFCA shall therefore be seen in a dual context – both from an upstream view - and from a downstream view.

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 62 -

Figure 4.7: Sensitivity / constraint map of the Kunene River Mouth (KRM) with respect to the existing and future potential policies plans and programmes (Map Produced by Risk-Based Solutions (RBS) and photos by S. Mwiya, 2012).

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 63 -

Table 4.3: Considerations for various other potential land use options assessed in terms of their suitability around the Kunene River Mouth with respect to conservation and biodiversity priorities.

ORGAN OF POLICY/ SUITABILITY / STATE PLAN / OPPORTUNITY REMARKS / CONSTRAINTS PROGRAMME Other Mineral Not suitable in Apart from minor small diamonds, no major strategic Prospecting / conservation priority and mineral resources are known to exist in the Exploration areas / sensitive zones 1 general area and even if some resources are Other Mining - 4 as shown in Fig. 4.7, discovered in the future, no prospecting and / or Activities potentially high impact on mining should be allowed in conservation priority MME the ecosystem and other areas / sensitive zones 1-4 as shown in Fig. 4.7. Very sustainable land use high and national important conservation and options such as tourism biodiversity area a major constraint for other

unsustainable land uses. Petroleum The key Namibe Basin is situated in the offshore Exploration environment not covering the coastal zone. However, any potential accidental oil spill from the offshore operations will have very high negative impacts on the biodiversity of this area

Salt mining Not Suitable Highly sensitive areas of very high biodiversity Power generation Not Suitable hotspots, a major constraint to other land uses. and transmission Controlled ecotourism opportunities in line with the Tourism Suitable SCNP land use plan and regulations. Very high and MET national important conservation and biodiversity area a major constraint for other land uses. Conservation and Suitable Highly important for the sustainability of the area with research key priority conservation areas shown in red in Fig. 4.7

MWAF Desalination Highly sensitive areas of very high biodiversity hotspots, a major constraint to other land uses. MFMR Aquaculture and Not Suitable mariculture Other Marine Resources harvesting ALL ORGANS Education and Suitable Limited available infrastructure and facilities but OF STATE training sufficient to support education and research activities Other Regional High biodiversity hotspot area and in particular key REGIONAL AND and Local Suitable but Highly limited conservation priority areas / sensitive zones 1 - 4 as LOCAL Infrastructures AUTHORITIES to Sustainable Policies, shown in Fig. 4.7 are a major constraint for other land Plans and Programmes uses that may be in line with the regional or local ONLY infrastructural POLICY/ PLAN / PROGRAMME

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 64 -

Table 4.4: Likely conservation and other PPPs conflicts and solutions with respect to coastal land uses for areas arround the Kunene River Mouth.

ORGAN OF POLICY/ LIKELY STATE PLAN / CONFLICTS WITH POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS PROGRAMME CONSERVATION AREAS Mineral Highly likely particularly if No mineral exploration and mining activities shall be Prospecting / future exploration allowed in key priority conservation areas. Existing Exploration activities are allowed in operations must operate in accordance with the Other Mining these areas and new provided zonation delineated and recommended from Activities economic mineral the EIA as shown in Fig. 4.7. The Ministry of MME deposits are discovered Environment and Tourism must make sure that they have a representative at the Minerals Prospecting and Mining Rights Committee meetings at all times in order

to ensure that no new mineral exploration and mining rights area are awarded in the key conservation priority zones Petroleum None Area does not have active petroleum system or Exploration suitable petroleum basin environment and the nearest Namibe Basin falls in the offshore environment. However, a major oil spill south of the Kunene River Mouth will affect entire area. Salt mining Highly unlikely area not A full Environmental Assessment covering Scoping, suitable for salt mining EIA and EMP must be undertaken before any suitable salt production area is delineated in order delineate key priority conservation areas. Power generation Unlikely due to lack of A full Environmental Assessment covering Scoping, and transmission supporting infrastructure EIA and EMP must be undertaken if power generation and urban development and transmission opportunities are considered in the general area Tourism Highly likely particularly if Clear guidelines / control measures must be Conservation and no control measures are developed and put in place and studies / assessments MET research put in place to manage on land carrying capacities undertaken with respect to tourism, conservation tourism, conservation and research. and research activities Desalination Unlikely due to lack of A full Environmental Assessment covering Scoping, MWAF supporting infrastructure EIA and EMP must be undertaken if such and urban development opportunities are considered in the general area Aquaculture and Highly likely particularly if A full Environmental Assessment covering Scoping, MFMR mariculture possible areas are EIA and EMP must be undertaken before any suitable Other Marine identified without taking areas are selected in order delineate key priority Resources harvesting into considerations key conservation areas. conservations priority areas ALL ORGANS Education and Likely particularly if no Clear guidelines / control measures must be OF STATE training control measures are put developed and put in place to manage education and in place to manage training by other Organs of State REGIONAL AND Other Regional Highly likely particularly if A full Environmental Assessment covering Scoping, LOCAL and Local possible areas are EIA and EMP must be undertaken before any suitable AUTHORITIES Infrastructures identified without taking areas are selected in order to delineate key priority into considerations key conservation areas. conservations priority areas

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 65 -

4.3 Other Policies, Plans and Programmes

4.3.1 Regional Overview

At the regional level, such plans appear to be urgently required. The Kunene Region Regional Development Plan contains a brief analysis of the tourism sector, and makes a number of proposals to strengthen tourism-related infrastructure, principally transportation and information centres. Some of the recommendations of the North West Tourism Plan, which was developed by NACOBTA in the 1998-2000 period, and those of its later follow up documents, the North West Tourism Options Plan, and the North West Tourism Implementation Project are supported, especially to open the Dolomite Point gate at the western boundary of the Etosha National Park thereby creating a link to the Skeleton Coast National Park and to develop opportunities in communal or conservancy areas, these to include camp sites, walking trails and lodges (the plan also recommended guided tours into the Skeleton Coast National Park). But there is nothing specific in the RDP on tourism in the region’s coastal zone.

National-level policymaking is underway, but for quite some time now. Policy and plan making at regional and local levels lag behind, the plans in use are outdated, and a current strategy and a support programme for both conventional and eco-tourism do not exist for the coastal area of the Kunene Region. Local governments, at times working together, are enabling the activities of a resurgent private sector. But coordination between stakeholders seems poor, and there is little shared understanding of how coastal tourism has shifted its target markets, adapted its products, and moved forward. Up to date information to back up such an understanding is lacking. In this situation, there is a danger that environmental planning and management receives only lip service, and the resources on which coastal tourism depends are degraded. NACOMA can also play a strong, positive role here. Current information and analysis is required on coastal tourism in the two regions. The Coastal Profiles that are to be produced for the Kunene and Erongo regions can make a start by emphasising the importance of coastal tourism and by providing an information baseline for the different types of tourism. In addition, NACOMA should actively promote the objectives of national tourism policy and encourage the development of tourism strategies for both of the regions and for the local governments within them, in which coastal tourism should receive real attention.

4.3.2 Adjacent Conservancies

4.3.2.1 Overview

It is MET’s hope that the new policies urging for sustainable and decentralised development in the SCNP, not least the attempt to involve the adjacent conservancies in this development, will help to accomplish multiple use of the park areas. Here, the key guidance are the evolving concession framework as reflected by the new Policy Framework for Concessions in Proclaimed Protected Areas (MET, 2004a) and the draft Policy on Tourism and Wildlife Concessions on State Land (MET, 2006). The new concession policy will improve the opportunity for formerly disadvantaged Namibians in the adjacent conservancies to obtain concessions within the park for business development and the economic empowerment through the tourism industry. This policy will further help realising the real ecotourism potential for the parks and help implementing the goal of integrating conservation with the basic development needs of local people in the conservancies. At the same time the sensitivity of the Skeleton Park environment and the resource requirements for wildlife tourism make it necessary that the licensing of concessions is made with careful planning. As it is written in the preamble to the new Policy on Tourism and Wildlife Concessions on State Land:

“Some of the concessions that potentially could be made available include world-famous attractions and scenery that lend themselves to the form of high value but low impact tourism that we wish to promote in Namibia, or include an unrivalled selection of high quality big game

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 66 - species and valuable indigenous plant resources. Most of the State land that is potentially suitable for concessions is nevertheless characterized by fragile environments, requiring careful attention to the management of concessions in ways that would avoid negative impacts and maintain the value of our natural assets.”

Tourism concessions could entail various types, for example the right to develop a lodge within a specified area, the right to offer tourism services such as guided tourism within a specific area, or the right to offer more specialized tourism services such as adventure tourism, aerial tourism, car rentals, etc. within a specified area. Concrete steps have already been taken to implement these policies together with the Plan for a link to Etosha, and MET will now initiate an intensive, consultative management and development planning process for the park. Naming the new park will form part of this process. Three hunting concession areas in the Kunene Region will be consolidated and declared a national park. The areas are the Palmwag, Etendeka and Hobatere concession areas with a combined wildlife population of 150 black rhinoceros, about 1,000 desert elephants and 100 lions. Existing concessions for Etendeka and Hobatere will expire next year while the concession for Palmwag expires in 2010. The park will extend to the northern bank of the Hoanib River, inclusive of the associated flood plains, as well as unsettled state land connecting the Hobatere concession area.

Further, these policies and plans for increased involvement of the adjacent conservancies in the ecotourism in the Skeleton Park have stimulated the launch of the Integrated Community- Based Ecosystem Management Project (ICEMA) under the MET-led National Community- Based Natural Resources Management (CBNRM) Programme. The ICEMA project offers the potential of extending biodiversity conservation and management beyond Namibia’s protected areas network, while providing at the same time for wildlife corridors between protected areas. The ICEMA Project and the plan for an extension to Etosha covering some 6,700 km2 will help establish the link between the Skeleton Coast and the Etosha National Park, and will allow rural communities to generate income through ecotourism, biodiversity management and rural development.

4.3.2.2 Concessions

The northern part of SCNP of close to 300,000 hectares is a private concession (Wilderness Safaris) running exclusive safari experiences for the upscale customer. The key words for the costly travels are that the SCNP is wild, desolate and uninhabited. The safaris are run on an island in the dry Khumib riverbed, about 20km inland from the coastline. According to the contractor, there have been rare sightings of black-faced impala, African Jacana and of the "Skeleton Coast Lions". Although not in the SCNP, it is interesting that the contractor also prides a successful community partnership programme with the 350,000-acre Torra Wildlife Conservancy that was barren and nearly poached out 10 years ago, and the new neighbouring community conservancy of another 180,000 acres. Some 10% of the net accommodation fees from each guest's stay at the Damaraland Camp as a catalyst are allocated directly to the community and all the staff members of this camp come from the surrounding district. Thus, the very existence of the camp has been instrumental in alleviating poverty in the region

As a central action in the process of implementing the evolving concession framework as reflected by the new Policy Framework for Concessions in Proclaimed Protected Areas (MET, 2004a) the concession policy in SCNP and the sole concession of Wilderness Safaris will end as of 2007, and licensing will be opened to multiple tenders. The SCNP is relatively underdeveloped in terms of tourism, with a narrow range of tourism services and activities on offer. Accordingly, MET sees the spreading of concessions as one of the mechanisms to expand the use of the park and diversify and modernize the tourism product, encourage innovation. Given the assets of the SCNP this development of the ecotourism and even targeted elements of more traditional tourism in coastal settlements could help enhancing Namibia’s competitiveness in the international tourism market.

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Figure 4.8: Suitable areas for eco-tourism in the Skeleton Coast Park to support the MET concessions programme and adjacent conservancies shown in green.

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Figure 4.9: Suitable areas for development of conventional tourism activities in the Skeleton Coast Park (in green).

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4.3.3 Fisheries and Marine Resources

4.3.3.1 Regional Overview

Fishing in the Skeleton Coast National Park as well as within 2 nautical miles of the park boundary is prohibited, or in fact as the MFMR regulation reads: “No person shall catch or disturb any fish or damage the seabed in such a way that it may be detrimental to the marine life ecosystem in general, within two nautical miles from the high water-line in any of the following areas” and then mentions “from the middle of the Kunene River to the southern bank of the Ugab River”.

In certain areas the prohibition is lifted and angling and collection of bait is allowed. These areas are:

 Terrace Bay between approximately 5 km north of Terrace Bay and approximately 25 km south of Terrace Bay;

 Torra Bay between approximately 20 km north of Torra Bay (Harolds Bay) and approximately 20 km south of Torra Bay (Black Rocks).

4.3.3.2 Inland fisheries

The Kunene River is presently not commercially exploited for its fish resources in the SEA coastal zone and there is no fish farming operations.

4.3.3.3 Inshore fisheries

There are no local inshore fisheries in the Kunene coastal region due to prohibition of fisheries near the SCNP, the absence of human settlement, the high energy wave environment and lack of protected landing sites. Some marine fishing grounds are close to the coast and fishing occurs with larger vessels operating out of Walvis Bay. The fisheries are tightly controlled with TACs and fished to their maximum, however fishing activities in the prohibition zone are not controlled. Several areas toward the Angolan border are assumed to be spawning and rearing grounds for some of the commercial fish species.

4.3.3.4 Angling

Angling from the coast is popular both in relation to tourism and for local citizens. For the underprivileged, angling may also add welcome food or, especially where the infrastructure allows, it provides a cash injection to the local economy if the catch is sold to the restaurant trade. The catch is subject to permitting and to limitations if it includes Steenbras, Galjoen, Kabeljou and Blacktail, which are also among the commercially most interesting species. The tourist destinations Torra Bay and Terrace Bay are renowned angling spots well known to anglers all over Southern Africa. During the season Torra Bay may have several hundred visitors staying at the camp site, with the prime attraction being angling.

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Figure 4.10: Location of areas in Kunene where angling and collection of bait for angling is allowed (marked in red).

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4.3.3.5 Other Catches

Other species that may be caught on the coast includes a range of bivalves, crabs, rock lobsters, and also here quantity and seasonal limitations apply. In particular rock lobsters are popular but this and other stocks are under pressure. The main areas are the rocky outcrops distributed along the coast but the soft bottom species are found widely distributed on the Kunene coast line. No noteworthy commercial catch takes place.

4.3.3.6 Seals

Colonies of Cape Fur Seals occur in several locations on the Kunene coast, but no commercial seal harvesting takes place. A sizeable colony is found Cape Fria, smaller in Möwe Bay, and in several other locations in the Skeleton Coast Park.

4.3.3.7 Aquaculture

Due to the remoteness and lack of infrastructure very little aquaculture has been proposed in the Kunene region: a prospect for a marine facility in Terrace Bay is available and prospects for cage based farming in the Kunene River mouth are available, but the distance to a market and infrastructure challenges suggest that the locations are not optimal under the present conditions

4.3.4 Minerals, Petroleum and Energy PPPs

4.3.4.1 Regional Overview

The Northwest area and Kunene hinterland is under general consideration for development, including iron and copper mining, harbour development in Cape Fria and hydropower at Baynes Mountain (the plan formerly for a dam at Epupa has been relocated. Mining is a huge source of foreign exchange in Namibia and has politically and legally attained a priority claim for resources, also in the protected areas and national monuments. The Skeleton Coast Park itself was originally a closed diamond mining area, and licences for prospecting in the entire park are issued. Minerals exploration and mining, petroleum (oil and gas) exploration and the energy sector (generation, transmission and distribution) are all governed by sector-specific policies linked to key Acts of Parliament administered by the Ministry of Mines and Energy as the responsible Organ of State.

4.3.4.2 Minerals Exploration and Mining

Although the Kunene Region is limited in terms of mineralised rock formations compared to the rest of Namibia, the entire SEA area from the Ugab River to the Kunene River is subdivided and licensed for prospecting, mainly diamond mining. In terms of mineral exploration and mining operations, there is no strategic plan available for Kunene and basically all areas seem to be open for exploration and mining including key biodiversity conservation areas (Fig. 4.11). Presently, several exploration licenses have been issued and some are covering key conservation areas within the coastal zone of the region (Fig. 4.11). Diamond mining and prospecting moves a considerable amount of soil and it is not always possible to establish a clear borderline between the prospecting activities and actual mining. Therefore, exploratory mining also leads to a considerable redistribution of the soils in the shoreline area and historically this impact was not rehabilitated.

The small scale mining licenses are awarded frequently, one reason being that the license fee is very small, but some are never explored. The RDP for Kunene mentions that a weakness of the small scale mining is the lack of technical expertise and investment power. This often leads to a haphazard approach where old sites are reinvestigated or where only the upper loose soil

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 72 - layers are explored and the site abandoned when hard subsoil is met. Although, small scale miners must sign an Environmental Contract this is rarely policed or monitored.

4.3.4.3 Petroleum Exploration

A number of Petroleum Licenses have been issued by the Ministry of Mines and Energy covering the both the onshore and offshore sections of the Kunene Region (Fig. 4.12). According the offshore and onshore geological setting of Namibia, the offshore section of the region forms part of the potential petroleum explorative Namibe and Walvis Basins while the onshore Huab Basin hold potential for both petroleum resources and Coal Bed Methane (CBMs). Both the offshore and onshore petroleum exploration operations have an influence on the local coastal biodiversity. In an event of an accidental oil spill particularly from the shallow offshore operations, there is high probability that the oil slick may rich the coastal areas. Although major accidental oil spills are very rare, it presents one of the most serious risks to the biodiversity and key conservation areas of the Kunene Region including the Kunene River Mouth.

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Figure 4.11: An overview of EPLs and ML operations in the Kunene Region based on Sep 2012 map (Source: www.mme.gov.na – Accessed Sep 2012.

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 74 -

Figure 4.12: An overview of petroleum exploration operations in degree square (Blocks) covering the onshore and offshore areas of the Kunene Region based on Sep 2012 map (Source: www.namcor.com.na – Accessed Sep 2012).

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4.3.4.4 Energy

The Kunene River is one of five perennial rivers in Namibia, and one of only two reaching the coast line. Due to Nampower’s dependence for energy on a single large supplier, South Africa’s Eskom, and the projected energy shortage in Namibia and in the SADC in general, proposals have been floated to dam the Kunene at Epupa and create a large (>500 km2) reservoir or construct a smaller dam at Baynes. A dam would have significant effect on the flow velocity and regularity of flow in the Kunene, thus potentially affecting the ecological conditions also in the coastal zone.

Presently, the damming of the Kunene appears to be less prioritised since Nampower is now looking at the alternatives of power generation sources with the offshore Kudu Gas Power Project in the south of Namibia. However, the Baynes Environmental Assessment Report states that the financial costs associated with mitigating the impacts on humans and environment are moderate (2.0%) of construction costs, and economically insignificant in the overall cost picture. Since the Kudu Gas Power Project does not make Namibia independent of importing energy and the price and delivery of imported electricity is not secure, Nampower maintains that: “The intention is to build a 360MW hydro power station downstream from Epupa Falls. As the Kunene is shared with Angola, the governments of both countries have to agree on the final site for the plant’s construction.”13

4.3.4.5 Minerals, Petroleum and Energy PPPs Recommendations

The RDP is concerned with the landscape and general environmental quality after diamond prospecting / mining, and proposes to this end better enforcement of EMPs and Environmental Contracts. Also, value added activities such tourism activities in abandoned diamond camps and sites may be feasible as part of adventure tourism.

The MET should be empowered to influence the Minerals Prospecting and Mining Rights Committee more strongly, in particular regarding protected areas and national monuments. For each licence given the MME and the MET should agree with the licensee on the scope of the prospecting in terms of volume of soil/sand removed. Larger amounts of soil should only be removed after exemption or renewed application and permit.

The full implementation of the Environmental Management Act, 2007 and the associated regulations that came into force in February 2012 and the likely future requirements for financial guarantees for reparation of environmental damage and the setting up of trust funds for rehabilitation after mine closure will no doubt enhance the protection of the and biodiversity resources within the key conservation areas of the coastal zones.

The national and regional oil spill contingency and response plans must be urgently reviewed and resourced with a clear responsive structure put in place in the light of the unprecedented ongoing onshore and offshore petroleum exploration activities. The Ministry of Environment and Tourism, Ministry of Works and Transport as well as the Ministry of Mines and Energy must make sure that all operators undertake oil spill / dispersion modelling as part of the EIA and development of the EMP before a well drilling operation is allowed. Furthermore, due to the lack of a clear regional and national oil spill response framework and resources (human and equipment), it must be mandatory that all operators wanting to undertake petroleum drilling operations must fully comply with all the national regulations related to the prevention and management of oil spill including the following:

(i) Development of an in-house Oil Spill Contingency Plan (OSCP) linked to the national and international response plans;

13 http://www.nampower.com.na/2005/pages/projects.asp

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(ii) Having all the necessary equipment and trained manpower in Namibia to respond an oil spill;

(iii) Have full insurance cover with respect to any likely environment damage that may results from an accidental oil spill.

4.3.5 Ports and Other Coastal Infrastructures

4.3.5.1 Regional Overview

Namibia’s ports are managed by Namibian Ports Authority (Namport), a parastatal supervised by the Ministry of Works and Transport. The objective of the Namibian Ports Authority is the successful operation and further development of the existing harbour infrastructure in Walvis Bay and Lüderitz.

A long national debate on the need for adding a third harbour in the north to the ports of Walvis Bay and Lüderitz has taken place over the years since Independence. Initially spurred by the rejection of apartheid South Africa to surrender Walvis Bay to the newborn Namibian Nation, thus leaving Namibia with only the smaller Port of Lüderitz, studies were carried out that pointed to Cape Fria and Möwe Bay as alternatives for port development. Although Walvis Bay came under the Namibian flag in 1994, no final decision pro or con has been taken on the issue of a port in the north.

One of the objectives of the Ministry of Works and Transport policy is to improve the route between Walvis Bay harbour and Namibia’s neighbouring countries to the east, especially landlocked Botswana and Zambia. The aim is to provide a fast and comfortable road communication link, i.e. the Trans-Kalahari Highway, which forms part of the Walvis Bay- Botswana-Gauteng-Maputo Development Corridor. Other corridors are also in the making: the TransCaprivi and the TransCunene14.

4.3.5.2 Port Development Opportunities

There is neither significant coastal infrastructure such as breakwaters nor any ports in the Kunene Region. The lack of a natural harbour is considered a barrier to the development of the region according to the Kunene Regional Council. Over the last +50 years a number of studies for the establishment of a northern port have been carried out for Cape Fria, Rocky Point and Möwe Bay. Although a port in this area would be closer to many fishing grounds the complete lack of infrastructure, accessible freshwater and the considerable distance for transport of goods over land has until now precluded a positive evaluation.

Recently, plans for the establishment of a port at Cape Fria or Angra Fria have been assessed and feasibility studies are ongoing. Some of the previous studies have concluded that a port would only be marginally financially viable over a 50-year horizon period (as opposed to the anticipated 20 year horizon), and that Namibia’s Constitution, Vision 2030, the NDP4 and the Kunene Regional Development Plan all emphasise environmental sustainability of development projects. These studies reflect on the considerable environmental and social changes possibly inflicted on the area: “Some of these changes will be beneficial and others may be in conflict with the aims of Vision 2030, NDP 4 and the Kunene Regional Development Plan.”15 Presently, no major upgrade of the roads or construction of new roads in the Skeleton Park is underway.

14 White Paper on Transport Policy and Walvis Bay Corridor Plans 15 Pre-feasibility study of a future port facility in Namibia in the vicinity of Cape Fria – Angra Fria (November 2006). Comprise Main Report (Volume I), an Executive Summary (Volume II) and Report Annexes (Volume III). Quote from Executive Summary, p 20.

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4.3.5.3 Port Development Recommendations

From the biodiversity and eco-tourism point of view the proposal for the construction of a port in Cape Fria or Angara Fria should not be pursued, since the necessary infrastructure developments will severely affect the present remoteness/wilderness attraction to tourists. Unless national strategic concerns or strong economic incentives dictate a revisiting of the proposal it seems neither feasible nor sustainable under the present conditions.

4.3.6 Urban Development

4.3.6.1 Regional Overview

The Kunene region features no real urban development on its 500 km long coastline, apart from a number of small recreational, tourism and conservation settlements which fall within the Skeleton Coast National Park. Urban, in this context, has been defined as both residential and tourism-related buildings.

National development policy has shown a measure of ambivalence to the urban transition that Namibia shares with other African societies. There is no national urbanisation or urban policy. All the previous National Development Plans (NDPs) contained goals to facilitate urban development, as well as development goals aimed at limiting rural-urban migration. In its section on “Migration, Urbanisation and Population Distribution,” The Vision 2030 document’s sub-vision is that:

There is free movement of the population within the country and population distribution is maturely adjusted to the location of resources for livelihood. Namibia is a highly urbanised country with about 75% of the population living in proclaimed urban centres, while the predominance of Windhoek has considerably reduced as a result of the growth of other urban centres throughout the country. 16

This sub-vision is then translated into an objective “to achieve integrated rural and urban development in which living conditions and social and economic opportunities are adequate for all.” Later in the Vision 2030 document, in the section on the Urban Environment, the sub- vision is that:

Despite high growth rates, Namibia’s urban areas will provide equitable access to safety, shelter, essential services and innovative employment opportunities within an efficiently managed, clean and aesthetically pleasing environment.17

To further this vision, the insertion of a “clear urban development plan” into national development plans is called for. In the section’s ‘Things to avoid’ it is asserted that urbanisation should not be allowed to spill over in an ad hoc manner into “sensitive coastal areas, causing the destruction of valuable ecosystems and their resources,” into reclaimed wetlands and into areas which are suitable for agriculture.18

NDP 4 took much of the Vision 2030’s eight objectives and associated Key Result Areas (KRAs) to identify its goals in the sectors.19

16 Vision 2030, National Planning Commission, 2004, p. 49. 17 Ibid, p.171. 18 Ibid, p.172. 19 The KRAs are: Equality and Social Welfare, Peace and Political Stability, Productive and Competitive Human Resources and Institutions, Competitive Economy, Quality of Life, Productive Utilization of Natural Resources and Environmental Conservation, Knowledge Based and Technology Driven Nation and Regional and International Stability and Integration.

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The plan’s overall theme is “Accelerated Economic Growth through Deepening Rural Development” which indicates a rural rather than urban focus. None of the 26 goals mentioned above makes specific reference to the urban sector.

Regional development plans (RDP) for each of Namibia’s regions contains principle of urban development. The RDPs contain a social, economic and physical/environmental overview of the situation in each region, a regional development framework which sets overall development goals for the region’s economy, society, institutions and infrastructure, and on the basis of deeper analysis the proposal of objectives, strategies and targets for sub-sectors within the larger sectors. These proposals are then translated into detailed programmes (which are themselves also only proposals) for implementation.

There has been debate and some criticism of the RDP process, its outputs and of its limited contribution, through the principal implementing vehicle of the Regional Service Councils (RSCs), to regional development via decentralisation (the Regional Councils Act of 1992 gives this responsibility to the RSCs, which is framed by Namibia’s Regional Planning and Development Policy of 1997 and Decentralisation Policy of 2000).20 According to a recent report by the NPC, the regional development process has failed in the main goal to achieve integrated regional development. Shortages of capacity, funding, and planning data and limited harmonisation between PPPs and coordination of effort between those tasked to implement them are all implicated in this failure. Only limited aspects of the RDPs in Kunene have therefore actually been carried through to implementation. The documents stand as now outdated indicative plans. In both of them, urban issues are touched upon but urban development, unlike rural development, is not treated in sub-sectoral terms.

4.3.6.2 Kunene Region Coastal Zone and Urban Development

Kunene’s small – and declining – overall population is principally rural, with urban concentrations only in the small inland towns of Outjo, Khorixas, Opuwo and Kamanjab and with no proclaimed settlements on the coast. The Kunene RDP notes that migration from rural areas continues, and proposes focusing infrastructural resources on six settlements, including the four above, as “primary growth points” and on 11 secondary points identified by their communities. Urban infrastructure services and housing plans and programmes follow this path. There is no consideration of or implications for urban development or urban environmental management in Torra Bay, Terrace Bay and Möwe Bay, the three tiny settlements in the Skeleton Coast National Park on the Kunene Coast.

20 See the comprehensive NACOMA preparation phase report by EcoAfrica Environmental Consultants, Rapid Assessment of the Development Plans, Biodiversity Conservation Projects and Socio-Economic Situation of the Namib Coastal Regions, pp. 32-37 for a good account, and the recent report for NACOMA, Draft Review of Existing Institutional Mandates, Policies and Laws Relating to Coastal Management and Proposals for Change, The Southern African Institute for Environmental Assessment (SAIEA), 2007, pp. 85-87.

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4.3.7 Agriculture and Water Resources Management

4.3.7.1 Regional Overview

The government approved the National Water Policy in 2001. The policy is based on the foundation that water resources and their use and management are part of the national economic and social development framework and therefore should be fully integrated therein. It views water as being essential in the human life process, food production and agriculture, industry and the ecosystems of the natural environment. The management of the water resources should balance the allocation effectively between these various uses and users. The National Water Policy builds on its predecessor the Water and Sanitation Policy (1993) that addressed the need for essential water supply and sanitation at affordable costs.

The use and management of water resources is to be integrated with the conservation and protection of the resource through environmentally sustainable use of the water to enhance economic wellbeing. The policy adopts a cost-effective approach to the pricing of water as a mechanism for its conservation. The prices charged will take into account the financial cost of water, its opportunity cost and the consequences of environmental degradation. It will however be flexible enough to ensure that all members of the society have access to a minimum amount of water regardless of economic status. The issue of providing water to all Namibians are also addressed in the Regional Rural Water Supply Development Plans for the planning horizon of 2015. Economic development projects and activities, including conservancies will be required to account for the use and management of water and the effect these actions will have on the water cycle, equity and the protection of the natural environment.

The coastal zone is an arid to semi-arid region and not well suited for agriculture. This also is reflected in priorities of the National Agricultural Policy (MAWRD 1995) where the inland regions with higher rainfall are targeted for agricultural development.

4.3.7.2 Assessment of the Agriculture and Water Resources Management

The arid conditions of the Kunene coastal zone do not invite to any agricultural activities and within the park boundaries of the Skeleton Coast Park farming is not allowed. In the hinterland there is limited cattle (Sanga) rearing and some irrigation near the springs in town areas, but none of these have any impact on the coastal zone. There is no game farming in the coastal zone.

Water is a scarce resource in Namibia and the availability of water is a key component when the scene is set for the development potential of an area. Only the Kunene River in the Erongo and Kunene Coastal Zone is perennial and exploitable underground water is often limited to aquifers in the ephemeral river beds.

The utilisation of the water in the Kunene River is subject to an international agreement with Angola addressing the fair allocation of water between the neighbouring states of Namibia and Angola.

4.3.8 Recommendations on Other Policies, Plans and Programmes

4.3.8.1 Overall Recommendations on Other PPPs

In the Kunene Region and indeed for the entire country, performance of the resource extraction sectors – demersal fisheries (pelagic fisheries remains weak) and mining, which underpin economic development on the coast is improving significantly after a period of slow growth. Tourism is also doing fairly well, and there is increasing interests for oil and gas

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 80 - exploration. This economic growth is necessary if the high rates of poverty and unemployment in both regions are to be reduced.

In line with the NDP 4, the mining, tourism, fishing and manufacturing sectors will thus likely to be actively encouraged by the GRN at all of its levels, and to increase, with this facilitated by upgraded economic infrastructure, particularly investments in transportation and logistics. Urban development is thus also likely to accelerate, and with it, its impacts and the consequent pressures on the integrity and performance of the coastal ecosystem, which is itself a crucial asset for assuring further economic growth and poverty reduction.

It is also recommended that NACOMA and its stakeholders encourage the completion and enactment of the draft Urban and Regional Planning Bill, which will result in the emergence of a more integrated, coordinated and effective system of land use planning, development and control in Namibia in general, and on the coast in particular. Moreover, and depending on the fortunes of mining and tourism, the small settlements on the Kunene coast may well grow in the future, for which pro-active land use planning will be required.

4.3.8.2 Adjacent Conservancies Recommendations

In order to develop a wide palette of tourist services in the SCNP with the involvement of the conservancies it is of the utmost importance that the Master Plan adopts a multiple use framework for the management of the park, which includes the three conservancies of Palmwag, Etendeka and Hobatere (Figs. 4.8 and 4.9). A multiple use framework needs to be developed with detailed advice on sensitive zones to be avoided by tourism, mining exploration and production and other human activities as well as advice on the best locations for the placement of supporting infrastructure like pipelines, tracks and roads.

Suitable areas for development of eco-tourism and conventional tourism activities in the with respect to the areas bordering the Skeleton Coast Park are shown in Figs. 4.8 and 4.9 with land use suitability shown in Table 4.5. According to Table 4.5 and Figs. 4.8 and 4.9, unsuitable land uses are constraint by the suitability and conservation priority areas and no unsustainable policies, plan or programmes are allowed in these areas. Overall however, the delineated key conservation areas of the Skeleton Coast Park including the adjacent areas covered by the conservancies as shown in Figs. 4.8 and 4.9 and described in Table 4.5 are likely to have conflicts with other current and future polies, plan and programmes. Table 4.6 summarises the likely conflicts and possible solutions with respect to the coastal land use for conservation and other polies, plan and programmes development and implementation in this area.

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Table 4.5: Considerations for various other potential land use options assessed in terms of their suitability with respect to conservation and biodiversity priorities.

ORGAN OF POLICY/ SUITABILITY / STATE PLAN / OPPORTUNITY REMARKS / CONSTRAINTS PROGRAMME Other Mineral Apart from minor uranium and industrial minerals Prospecting / occurrences known in the area, no major and Exploration economic strategic and mineral resources are have Other Mining so far been delineated in the general area and even if Activities Not suitable in the priority some resources are discovered in the future, no MME areas for eco-tourism and prospecting and / or mining should be allowed in the conventional tourism key priority areas for eco-tourism and conventional as activities shown in Figs. 4.8 and 4.9. In line with the NDP 4

priorities, very high and national important areas for eco-tourism and conventional tourism activities. Petroleum The key Namibe Basin is situated in the offshore Exploration environment not covering the coastal zone. However, any potential accidental oil spill from the offshore operations will have very high negative impacts on the biodiversity of this area

Salt mining Not Suitable Very high priority areas for eco-tourism and conventional tourism activities, a major constraint to Power generation Not Suitable other land uses and infrastructural development due and transmission to high likely visual impacts. Controlled ecotourism opportunities in line with the Tourism Suitable SCNP land use plan and regulations. In line with the MET NDP 4 priorities, very high and national important areas for eco-tourism and conventional tourism activities. Conservation and Suitable Highly important for the sustainability of the area with research key priority areas shown in green in Figs. 4.8 and 4.9

MWAF Desalination Very high priority areas for eco-tourism and Aquaculture and conventional tourism activities, a major constraint to MFMR mariculture Not Suitable other land uses and infrastructural development due Other Marine to high likely visual impacts. Resources harvesting ALL ORGANS Education and Suitable Limited available infrastructure and facilities but OF STATE training sufficient to support education and research activities Other Regional Very high priority areas for eco-tourism and REGIONAL AND and Local Suitable but Highly limited conventional tourism activities, a major constraint to LOCAL Infrastructures AUTHORITIES to Sustainable Policies, other land uses and infrastructural development due Plans and Programmes to high likely visual impacts for other land uses that ONLY may be in line with the regional or local infrastructural POLICY/ PLAN / PROGRAMME

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Table 4.6: Likely conservation and other PPPs conflicts and solutions with respect to coastal land uses for areas from the Kunene River Mouth and Ugab River.

ORGAN OF POLICY/ LIKELY CONFLICTS STATE PLAN / WITH CONSERVATION POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS PROGRAMME AREAS Mineral Highly likely particularly if No Mineral exploration activities shall be allowed in key Prospecting / future exploration activities are priority conservation areas. The Ministry of Exploration allowed in these areas and Environment and Tourism must make sure that they Other Mining new economic mineral deposits have a representative at the Minerals Prospecting and Activities are discovered Mining Rights Committee meetings at all times in order MME to ensure that no new mineral exploration rights area awarded in key conservation priority areas Petroleum Likely due the offshore section Operators must undertake oil spill / dispersion

Exploration and of the region forming part of the modelling as part of the EIA and development of the Possible potential petroleum explorative EMP before a well drilling operation is allowed. Production Namibe and Walvis Basins Operators wanting to undertake petroleum drilling while the onshore Huab Basin operations must fully comply with all the national hold potential for both regulations related to the prevention and management petroleum resources and Coal in their Oil Spill Contingency Plans (OSCP) linked to Bed Methane opportunities. the national and international response plans, with human and equipment support Salt mining Highly likely particularly if A full Environmental Assessment covering Scoping, possible salt production areas EIA and EMP must be undertaken before any suitable are identified without taking salt production area is delineated in order delineate into considerations key key priority conservation areas. Salt production must conservations priority areas always strive to incorporate multiple land uses covering salt production, tourism and conservation in the operations Power generation Unlikely due to lack of A full Environmental Assessment covering Scoping, and transmission supporting infrastructure and EIA and EMP must be undertaken if power generation urban development and transmission opportunities are considered in the general area Tourism Highly likely particularly if no Clear guidelines / control measures must be developed Conservation and control measures are put in and put in place and studies / assessments on land MET research place to manage tourism, carrying capacities undertaken with respect to tourism, conservation and research conservation and research. activities Desalination and Unlikely due to lack of A full Environmental Assessment covering Scoping, MWAF other supporting supporting infrastructure and EIA and EMP must be undertaken if such development infrastructure urban development opportunities are considered in the general area Aquaculture and Highly likely particularly if A full Environmental Assessment covering Scoping, MFMR mariculture possible areas are identified EIA and EMP must be undertaken before any suitable Other Marine without taking into areas are selected in order delineate key priority Resources harvesting considerations key conservation areas. conservations priority areas ALL ORGANS Education and Moderately likely particularly if Clear guidelines / control measures must be developed OF STATE training no control measures are put in and put in place to manage education and training by place to manage other Organs of State

REGIONAL AND Other Regional Highly likely particularly if A full Environmental Assessment covering Scoping, LOCAL and Local possible areas are identified EIA and EMP must be undertaken before any suitable AUTHORITIES Infrastructures without taking into areas are selected in order to delineate key priority considerations key conservation areas. conservations priority areas

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 83 -

5. ERONGO SECTOR-BASED COASTAL LAND USE

5.1 Introduction

A sector-based approach in the analysis of the key baseline information is taken in order to provide an overview of the broad trends characterising coastal development and the land use patterns associated with development in the coastal zones of the Erongo Region. Key PPPs are used as reference points. Drawing on these PPPs, which include national, regional and local level policy and planning documents, the development trends with regard to four sectors are portrayed for the coastal zones of each of the two regions:

(i) Conservation and Biodiversity;

(ii) Tourism;

(iii) Resource Extraction (mining, marine fisheries, aquaculture, ports/shipping, water, power);

(iv) Urban Development and Urban Environmental Management.

Policies, plans and programmes, opportunities, impacts, threats, and pressures, which by their nature are interconnected, are discussed. Initial recommendations for better policy, planning and management practices, including prevention and mitigation of negative environmental impacts, are provided for each sector.

5.2 Erongo Region Coastal Conservation and Biodiversity

5.2.1 Introduction

The biodiversity assets of Erongo coastal regions are recognised globally as exceptional, and the protection of the unique landscapes, flora and fauna of these coastal regions has a high priority on the political agenda at all levels. Details on areas and habitats of conservation priority are given in Annex II.

More than 90% of the two coastal regions fall within Namibia’s national protected areas system and the Erongo Region is no exception (Fig. 5.1). The boundaries of the Skeleton Coast National Park, the West Coast Recreation Area and the Namib-Naukluft Park were proclaimed before Namibia gained independence. The Dorob National Park is a newly proclaimed multiple land use coastal protected area and is an excellent example of modern environmental legislative framework in support of the integration of nature conservation and sustainable development. The Dorob and Namib-Naukluft Park have clear goals linking management of human resource use and the conservation status of key species and habitats within the protected areas. MET’s mission ‘to maintain and rehabilitate essential ecological processes and life-support systems’ target both conservation of specific protected areas and support to sustainable utilisation of natural resources. It is, however, unclear which biodiversity elements constitute the focus for strict protection within the coastal parks, and which elements are the focuses of more wide-scale habitat conservation action due to their widespread occurrence or lower susceptibility to human activities.

The national study on biological diversity21 represents a milestone in Namibia’s history of biodiversity knowledge and management. This study and the study on patterns and processes

21 Barnard, P. (ed.), 1998. Biological diversity in Namibia: a country study. Windhoek: Namibian National Biodiversity Task Force. 332 pp.

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 84 - controlling endemism in Namibia7, the Atlas of Namibia22 and the Tree Atlas of Namibia9 all indicate a mismatch between the boundaries of the coastal parks and the general trends in biodiversity found in the coastal regions of Kunene and Erongo. On the basis of the biodiversity data made available to the SEA the spatial configuration of the gradients in biodiversity importance could be established in relatively high resolution (100 m, Fig. 5.2).

The trends are quite striking, and underline that conservation priority areas and habitats in the protected coastal parks are indeed not evenly distributed along or across the coastal strip. It is worth stressing that these trends mirror and summarise the findings made by and the other work on the biogeography of Namibian plants and animals mentioned above. It should also be noted that priority areas have been mapped on the basis of landscape characteristics rather than species data, due to the lack of high-resolution baseline data on the diversity and distribution of most groups of flora and fauna in the desert, with important consequences on the possibility to define the conservation status of most groups of species.

The ten-year strategic plan of action for biodiversity conservation, Namibia’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP)23, provides for the implementation of article 95:l of the Namibian Constitution and the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and offers MET the legal mechanisms for achieving the goal of developing management plans for the coastal parks. Currently, however, management plans with zoning of the area and tourism development plans in place have only been prepared for the Namib Naukluft Park.24 In that respect the SEA provides guidance to the zonation of the parks into areas of different sensitivity and importance as a basis for identifying core areas for conservation and potential areas for sustainable development. With respect to the latter, all developments in protected areas are required to prepare an Environmental Impact Assessment. Unfortunately, the legal provisions for development concessions within the parks are still inadequate. This is especially the case in relation to mining activities. As discussed above; MET’s Policy for Prospecting and Mining in Protected Areas and National Monuments is expected to be updated in the forthcoming Environmental Management Act.25

A key policy of MET in relation to the future development of the management of the coastal parks is the National Policy on Protected Areas, Neighbours and Resident People.26 This policy sets out a new vision of how Namibia’s protected areas can contribute not only to conservation, but also to other national development goals such as economic development, and how the protected areas can benefit the people who are neighbours to these areas or who are resident within them. The policy’s three main goals are:

 Improved conservation of Namibia’s protected areas;

 Greater social equity in the distribution of benefits from protected areas;

 Stimulation of local and regional economies through creating business opportunities linked to protected areas.

22 Mendelsohn, J., Jarvis, A., Roberts, C. & Robertson, T. 2002. Atlas of Namibia: A portrait of the Land and it’s People. David Philip Publishers, Cape Town. 23 Ministry of Environment and Tourism, 2000. Biodiversity and development: an overview of Namibia’s ten-year strategic plan of action for sustainable development through biodiversity conservation 2001- 2010, Pp 137. 24 Ministry of Environment and Tourism, 2004. Namib-Naukluft Park. Management and Tourism Development Plan. Draft. Pp 52. 25 Ministry of Environment and Tourism, 1999a. Policy for prospecting and mining in protected areas and national monuments. Policy Document. Pp 1-10. 26 Ministry of Environment and Tourism, 2006. National Policy on Protected Areas, Neighbours and Resident People. Draft. Pp 8.

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Linked to the intention of achieving the goals for greater social equity and multiple use of the park areas is the evolving concession framework as reflected by the new Policy on Tourism and Wildlife Concessions on State Land27 which has the aim of improving opportunities for business development and addressing the economic empowerment of formerly disadvantaged Namibians through the tourism, hunting and forestry industries. This policy will enhance the opportunity for the conservancies adjacent to the parks to get concessions, a situation which may help realising the real ecotourism potential for the parks, and help to implement the goal of integrating conservation with the basic development needs of local people in the conservancies. The goals for a sustainable and more decentralised development in the parks as reflected by the NBSAP and the two new policies go hand in hand with the national and regional development goals for ecotourism.

As a response to the weak status of wetland conservation in Namibia MET has drafted Namibia’s Wetlands Policy,28 which describes new guiding principles for wetland resource use and conservation. Among the goals set by the Wetland Policy are:

 The right of every citizen to be able to obtain, within reasonable distance from their place of abode, a quantity of water sufficient to maintain life, health and reasonable productive activity;

 The protected areas network in Namibia shall be expanded to include vulnerable wetlands as well as functional units of each wetland type. Trans-frontier protected areas shall be established;

 The management of wetlands and wetland resources will recognise that ecosystems are legitimate water users;

 The principle of sustainable utilisation shall be adopted by all stakeholders to prevent wastage of wetland resources and erosion of natural resource capital;

 Any decisions concerning the use and management of Namibia’s wetland resources (including water) shall be made in accordance with the Precautionary and Polluter Pays Principles;

 The economic benefits of wetlands to communities dependent on wetland resources for their livelihoods should be taken into account in assessing wetland values and priority uses;

 Tools such as EA and SEA will be applied in accordance with Namibia’s EA policy and Environmental Management Act to help reduce negative impacts and enhance sustainability.

The development of new legislation and regulations on wetlands is expected to include designation of Namibia’s most diverse and vulnerable wetlands as protected areas, multi- sectoral regulations for maintaining water quality and the ecological integrity of wetlands, legal guidelines and mechanisms for the implementation and enforcement of wetland conservation and sustainable wetland management and integration of biodiversity conservation and ecological functioning of wetlands into all new laws and policies.

The goal to strengthen the conservation of wetlands, especially those which are vulnerable and of international significance, is highly recognised in the coastal regions of Erongo, where the following four wetlands of international significance are located, none of which are currently included in the national network of protected areas:

27 Ministry of Environment and Tourism, 2004. Policy on Tourism and Wildlife Concessions on State Land. Draft. Pp. 40. 28 Ministry of Environment and Tourism, 2004. Namibia’s Draft Wetland Policy. Pp. 3.

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(i) Sandwich Harbour;

(ii) Walvis Bay Lagoon;

(iii) Mile 4 Saltworks;

(iv) Cape Cross Lagoon, and;

Although Sandwich Harbour and Walvis Bay Lagoon have been designated as Ramsar sites, this status does not necessarily provide any protection as the Ramsar Convention does not imply the implementation of particular management or protection schemes.

The development of marine protected areas (MPAs) and fisheries exclusion zones are the responsibility of MFMR. Although a baseline study in 199829 provided recommendations for MPA designation in Namibia. The Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources has prepared draft regulations pertaining to the Namibian Islands’ Marine Protected Area (NIMPA), indicating the position of the NIMPA, including the islands, and the positions of the line fish sanctuary and Rock Lobster sanctuary as per Government Gazette no. 4210 of 16 February 2009. The Namibian Islands’ Marine Protected Area includes all islands, rocks, islets, marine resources and marine area. MFMR is managing a trawling restriction zone in waters shallower than 200 m. The BCC project is expected to deliver an updated status of marine biodiversity later this year, and this will supply the information necessary to identify additional potential MPAs. The establishment of a MPA policy will require resolving the issue of jurisdiction in relation to MPAs between MFMR and MET. MFMR manages several fisheries exclusion zones, which provide protection from recreational fishing within two miles seaward of the high-water line of the sea shore or any of the islands along the Namibian coast and prohibit angling from the shore at Sandwich harbour, Cape Cross and the Skeleton Coast outside Torra Bay and Terrace Bay.

29 Mastaller, M., 1998. Baseline study on the establishment of marine reserves in Namibia. Advisory Assistance to the Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources. Short term consultancy report. Cofad & DCPA-Consultants, Germany.

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Figure 5.1: Key coastal protected areas of Erongo Region.

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Figure 5.2: General Biodiversity trends as reflected by the analysis of the distribution of priority areas and habitats for conservation in the Erongo Region. Priority areas have been grouped into three categories according to the number of target habitats present. Wetlands of international significance and the main breeding colony for Damara terns are included in the highest priority category. No colour is given for areas lacking target habitats. The resolution of the map is 90 m.

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5.2.2 Erongo Region Key Conservation and Biodiversity Areas

5.2.2.1 Overview

Concentrations of biodiversity elements are principally found in seven areas: the four internationally significant wetlands Sandwich Harbour, Walvis Bay, Mile 4 Saltworks and Cape Cross Lagoon and Seal Reserve, the river beds and associated areas of the Swakop and Ugab rivers and the rocky area associated with the Brandberg Massif (Figs. 5.2 and 5.3). Moderate concentrations of biodiversity are found in the Kuiseb riverbed, in a large sector east of Swakopmund, adjacent to and within Damara tern colonies found in several locations in the outermost 5 km of the shoreline, south of the Omaruru River, between Cape Cross and the Brandberg Massif and between the Brandberg Massif and the Ugab River.

Figure 5.3: Overview of the key conservation and biodiversity areas in the Erongo Region.

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5.2.2.2 Sandwich Harbour

5.2.2.2.1 Status of Conservation and Biodiversity

Within the Namib Naukluft Park, the Sandwich Harbour covers almost 25 square kilometres of wetlands, comprising salt marshes, intertidal flats, and vast mudflats (Plate 5.1). Sandwich Bay, that was once a natural harbour, is located 48 km south of Walvis Bay in a geomorphologically dynamic area. It features a protective sand spit similar to the Pelican Point sand spit that has grown from deposited sand and finally closed off a lagoon. The lagoon is fed by fresh water seeping to it from an inland aquifer, and has been designated as a Ramsar site on the basis of the quality of its wetlands and importance to migratory and resident water birds.

Two main sections of this wetland are recognised: the northern freshwater wetland, much reduced in size since the early 1970s when it covered several square kilometres, and the southern mudflats, a 20 km2 area of sand and mudflats inundated daily by the tides. Traditionally, the northern wetland held the highest species diversity (with up to 51 species of wetland birds), while the southern mudflats in general holds larger numbers of birds. The site is one of the most important areas for water birds in Southern Africa with regular concentrations exceeding 50,000 birds and maximum concentrations of 238,000 birds and densities of 7000 birds per square kilometre30. The site is especially important to flamingos and Palaearctic waders and terns, and it supports eight Namibian Red Data bird species.

The marine area in front of Sandwich Harbour is rich in biodiversity, and cetaceans like Bottlenose dolphin are often seen. A colony of over 10,000 fur seals is located on the beach. There have been no permanent human inhabitants at Sandwich since 1969. Plans for the area should take into account that the most important area for birds is the southern end of Sandwich Harbour and this will remain, irrespective of the fate of the northern wetland. While it was at one time the only national marine protected area in Namibia, this formal protection is no longer in place, although recreational fishing is still banned. Despite being a Ramsar site, there is jurisdictional dispute between the MFMR and MET as well as conflicting sectoral legislation and the status of the area is questionable. Nevertheless, Sandwich Harbour constitutes the only coastal wetland in Namibia in close-to-pristine conditions that is visited by tourists. According to the MFMR Sandwich Harbour is a principle spawning area for fish resources, in particular Kabeljou, on the Namibian coast. Also, a shark population may be depending on the area and the importance of southern right whale calving in the area is currently debated.

5.2.2.2.2 Sandwich Harbour Recommendations

Based on the land suitable assessment that has been undertaken and the key biodiversity resources around Sandwich Harbour, key priority conservation and biodiversity hotspot areas have been delineated as shown in Fig. 5.4 with land use suitability shown in Table 5.1. In order to fully enhance the protection of the biodiversity resources around Sandwich Harbour, the MFMR should re-install Sandwich Harbour’s status as an MPA as soon as possible. Together with MET a plan for transferring the management of the MPA from MFMR to MET should be developed. A detailed management plan should be prepared allowing strict protection of the site, while enabling low-impact eco-tourism to take place (Table 5.1). It would be an advantage if jurisdiction on enforcement of MPA regulation could be transferred to MET rangers. According to Table 5.1 no unsustainable policies, plan or programmes should be allowed around Sandwich Harbour. Overall however, the delineated key conservation areas of Sandwich Harbour described in Table 5.1 are likely to have conflicts with other current and future polies, plan and programmes. Table 5.2 summarises the likely conflicts and possible solutions with respect to the coastal land use for conservation and other polies, plan and programmes development and implementation around Sandwich Harbour.

30 Simmons, R.E., Barnes, K.N., Jarvis, A.M. & Robertson, A. 1999. Important Bird Areas in Namibia. DEA. Ministry of Environment & Tourism. Pp 68.

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Plate 5.1: Sandwich Harbour (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012).

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Figure 5.4: Key priority conservation and biodiversity hotspot areas around Sandwich Harbour shown in red (Photo RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012).

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Table 5.1: Considerations for various other potential land use options assessed in terms of their suitability around Sandwich Harbour with respect to conservation and biodiversity priorities.

POLICY/ ORGAN OF PLAN / SUITABILITY / STATE REMARKS / CONSTRAINTS PROGRAMME OPPORTUNITY High conservation and biodiversity area is key major constraint. The diamond deposits have apparently Prospecting been exhausted. No other mineral potential is known to exist in the general area. The whole area is generally inaccessible. No prospecting and / or Not suitable at all, mining are allowed in conservation priority areas Mining potentially high impact No. 1 and 2 areas. on the ecosystem and Petroleum The key Walvis Basin is situated in the offshore other sustainable land Exploration environment partly covering the coastal zone. use options such as However, any potential accidental oil spill from the tourism offshore operations will have very high negative impacts on the biodiversity of this area MME More suitable and accessible locations exist Salt mining elsewhere in Namibia. Constraint by the conservation priority areas No. 1 and 2. Unsuitable on a The area is too remote for commercial power commercial scale. Power generation development. Solar power could be an option for a Suitable for small- and transmission lodge, but the amount of fog could render this scale renewable impossible – requires further research. applications. The area is highly inaccessible and uncontrolled access may results in a number of authorised Suitable for Controlled Tourism access area / tracks. High conservation and ecotourism biodiversity area, lack of access, infrastructure and services are among the key major constraints. MET Highly important for the sustainability of the area Conservation and with key priority conservation areas shown in red in Suitable research Fig. 5.4. Access and lack of infrastructure and services is a major constraint Unsuitable for Hyper-arid environment, limited fresh water MWAF Agriculture commercial resources, saline soils. Lack of suitable / close agriculture markets. Minimal infrastructure, far from markets, rough sea Aquaculture and mariculture Unsuitable conditions. More suitable areas available elsewhere. High conservation and biodiversity area to support Guano harvesting Unsuitable MFMR any such supporting infrastructure Other Marine Resources l Unsuitable Too remote, lack of infrastructure. harvesting Too remote, lack of infrastructure. Good facilities Education and ALL ORGANS training Unsuitable available elsewhere in the Namib-Naukluft Park e.g. Gobabeb and Tsondab Training Centre. Very high biodiversity hotspot area and in particular REGIONAL Other Regional key conservation priority areas No. 1 and 2 are a AND LOCAL and Local Unsuitable major constraint for other land uses that may be in AUTHORITIES Infrastructures line with the regional or local infrastructural POLICY/ PLAN / PROGRAMME

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Table 5.2: Likely conservation and other PPPs conflicts and solutions with respect to coastal land uses for areas around Sandwich Harbour.

Exploration and Likely due the offshore section modelling as part of the EIA and development of the Possible of the region forming part of the EMP before a well drilling operation is allowed. Production potential petroleum explorative Operators wanting to undertake petroleum drilling Walvis Basin. operations must fully comply with all the national regulations related to the prevention and management in their Oil Spill Contingency Plans (OSCP) linked to the national and international response plans, with human and equipment support Salt mining Highly likely particularly if A full Environmental Assessment covering Scoping, possible salt production areas EIA and EMP must be undertaken before any suitable are identified without taking salt production area is delineated in order delineate into considerations key key priority conservation areas. Salt production must conservations priority areas always strive to incorporate multiple land uses covering salt production, tourism and conservation in the operations Power generation Unlikely due to lack of A full Environmental Assessment covering Scoping, and transmission supporting infrastructure and EIA and EMP must be undertaken if power generation urban development and transmission opportunities are considered in the general area Tourism Highly likely particularly if no Clear guidelines / control measures must be developed Conservation and control measures are put in and put in place and studies / assessments on land MET research place to manage tourism, carrying capacities undertaken with respect to tourism, conservation and research conservation and research. activities Desalination and Unlikely due to lack of A full Environmental Assessment covering Scoping, MWAF AND Other Coastal supporting infrastructure and EIA and EMP must be undertaken if such MWT Infrastructure urban development opportunities are considered in the general area Aquaculture and Highly likely particularly if A full Environmental Assessment covering Scoping, MFMR mariculture possible areas are identified EIA and EMP must be undertaken before any suitable Other Marine without taking into areas are selected in order delineate key priority Resources harvesting considerations key conservation areas. conservations priority areas ALL ORGANS Education and Moderately likely particularly if Clear guidelines / control measures must be developed OF STATE training no control measures are put in and put in place to manage education and training by place to manage other Organs of State

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 95 -

5.2.2.3 Walvis Bay Wetland

5.2.2.3.1 Status Conservation and Biodiversity

Walvis Bay Wetland is located south and west of the town and comprises the natural areas of Walvis Bay Lagoon, and includes inter-tidal mudflats and the eastern half of Pelican Point (Fig. 5.5 and Plate 5.2). This spit provides protection to the bay from Atlantic swells. A lagoon lies at the southern end of the open water. A Saltworks at the southern end of the lagoon reduces the tidal sweep, possibly adding to increased siltation. Included in the wetland are the artificially flooded evaporation ponds of the Saltworks, as well as the occasionally flooded areas to the south of the Saltworks. The only terrestrial vegetation in the wetland is the extensive riverine vegetation in the delta and in the ephemeral river itself.

The Walvis Bay Wetland supports the greatest number of coastal birds in southern Africa and parts of it have been declared a Ramsar site. It is the main feeding ground south of West frica for a number of protected migrant and resident bird species, including the greater and lesser flamingo. The dune areas south and east of the lagoon, including the ephemeral Kuiseb Delta (Plate 5.3), hold significant ecological and cultural values. Although the construction of the Saltworks at Walvis Bay destroyed large areas of naturally flooded salt pan, it does provide large areas of permanently flooded shallow water with a range of salinities not naturally occurring in this environment. This artificial section of the wetland regularly supports more than half the birds at Walvis Bay.

The Walvis Bay Environmental Management Plan implements a multiple use framework and attempts to clarify jurisdictions of the wetland use between Walvis Bay Municipality, NAMPORT and the MLR. The draft Walvis Bay Nature Reserve Management Plan aims to promote a multiple-use principle in light of the varied interests and the multitude of stakeholders in and around the area. It includes a description of the management approach and goals, together with a framework for decision making and mechanisms for involving stakeholders as well as ensuring socioeconomic sustainability of the management measures.

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Figure 5.5: Walvis Bay wetland Erongo Region.

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Plate 5.2: Walvis Bay Wetland (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012).

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Plate 5.3: Kuiseb Ephemeral River (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012).

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5.2.2.3.2 Walvis Bay Wetland Recommendations

Based on the land suitable assessment that has been undertaken and the key biodiversity resources around Walvis Wetland, key priority conservation and biodiversity hotspot areas have been delineated as shown in Fig. 5.6 with land use suitability shown in Table 5.3. According to Table 5.3 and Fig. 5.6, unsuitable land uses are constraint by the conservation priority areas No. 1 and 2 and no unsustainable policies, plan or programmes are allowed in these areas. The delineated key conservation areas around the wetland described in Table 5.3 are likely to have conflicts with other current and future polies, plan and programmes. Table 5.4 summarises the likely conflicts and possible solutions with respect to the coastal land use for conservation and other polies, plan and programmes development and implementation around Sandwich Harbour.

In line with the new Wetland Policy enforcement of the Walvis Bay Nature Reserve Management Plan should be pursued in the short term backed up by detailed mapping of the gradients in vulnerability of biodiversity in relation to the wide range of land uses (Table 5.3). Since the wetland supports unique and fascinating ecological communities, Walvis Bay Municipality recommends it to be left free of any development other than those relating to cultural and eco-tourism and/or aquaculture/agriculture (Table 5.3). All existing developments located in this area should continue their activities. However, new applications of such kind will not be allowed.

The results of the SEA land use suitability models indicate lack of suitability for any land uses other than eco-tourism. Development for aquaculture may be feasible, but will need careful assessment of impacts on habitat quality and residential areas. Quad bikes and all other off road vehicles are not allowed in the area. Despite the recommendations of the structure plan this wetland has no legally binding conservation status. In line with the new Wetland Policy regulations on wetlands are expected to include designation of Namibia’s most diverse and vulnerable wetlands as protected areas. Further, multi-sectoral regulations for maintaining water quality and the ecological integrity of wetlands and integration of biodiversity conservation and ecological functioning of wetlands into all new laws and policies will be a result of the Wetland Policy. These regulations will be enforced once the Nature Reserve Management Plan is adopted.

MET should formally designate the Nature Reserve as a protected area. MET, the Walvis Bay Municipality and the Coastal Environmental Trust of Namibia should ensure further enforcement of the national Wetland Policy in the area by adopting the Nature Reserve Management Plan.

MET, the Walvis Bay Municipality and the Coastal Environmental Trust of Namibia should as soon as possible establish a long-term environmental monitoring programme including the biodiversity elements for terrestrial, coastal as well as offshore habitats found in the wetland. A baseline for the monitoring programme should produce diversity gradients in relation to tourism, aquaculture and agriculture and the acquired data should feed into the requirement for improved Environmental Impact Assessments. To make full use of the potential for development of eco-tourism and traditional tourism in the wetland a tourism development plan for the Nature Reserve should be drafted by the Walvis Bay Municipality in collaboration with the Walvis Bay Tourism association and the Marine Tour Association of Namibia. Developments of all tourist activities in the reserve and accommodation adjacent to the reserve should happen on the basis of permissions subject to Environmental Impact Assessment. A feasibility study of the development of the existing aquaculture farms for oyster and future marine and land-based aquacultures in the wetland should be made in relation to the most sensitive parts and residential areas.

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Figure 5.6: Key priority conservation and biodiversity hotspot areas around Walvis Bay Wetland shown in red in the insert map.

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Table 5.3: Considerations for various other potential land use options assessed in terms of their suitability around Walvis Bay Wetland with respect to conservation and biodiversity priorities.

ORGAN OF POLICY/ SUITABILITY / STATE PLAN / OPPORTUNITY REMARKS / CONSTRAINTS PROGRAMME Other Mineral Not suitable at all, Apart from salt, no major economic mineral resources Prospecting / potentially high impact are known to exist in the general area and even if some Exploration on the ecosystem and resources are discovered in the future, no prospecting Other Mining other sustainable land and / or mining are allowed in conservation priority Activities use options such as areas No. 1 and 2 areas. Very high and national MME tourism important conservation and biodiversity area a major constraint for other land uses. Suitable in selected The existing salt operation is an important land mark

areas of the already that support tourism operations around Walvis Bay. In existing operations. line with the multiple land use approach of the Dorob Salt mining Efforts to support other National Park, the salt mining operation must enhance land use options must the synergy approach aimed at developing a three pillar be implemented and sustainable multiple land uses in the area namely: Solar considerations for salt salt production, conservation (by creating conservation production, corridors within the salt works) and tourism (by creating conservation and tourist viewpoints / walk ways around the salt works). tourism support must be explored Unsuitable on a High conservation and biodiversity area to support any Power generation commercial scale. such supporting infrastructure for commercial power and transmission Suitable for small-scale development. applications. Controlled ecotourism opportunities in line with the Tourism Suitable Dorob land use plan. Very high and national important MET conservation and biodiversity area a major constraint for other land uses. Conservation and Suitable Highly important for the sustainability of the area with research key priority conservation areas shown in red in Fig. 5.6 Unsuitable for Hyper-arid environment, limited fresh water resources, MWAF Agriculture commercial agriculture saline soils. Lack of suitable / close markets. Very high and national important conservation and biodiversity area a major constraint for other land uses. Unsuitable High conservation and biodiversity area. More suitable areas available elsewhere. Very high and national Aquaculture and mariculture important conservation and biodiversity area a major constraint for other land uses. Unsuitable High conservation and biodiversity area to support any MFMR such supporting infrastructure. Very high and national Other Marine Resources important conservation and biodiversity area a major harvesting constraint for other land uses. ALL ORGANS Education and Suitable Available infrastructure and good facilities OF STATE training Other Regional Unsuitable Very high biodiversity hotspot area and in particular key REGIONAL AND and Local conservation priority areas No. 1 and 2 are a major LOCAL Infrastructures AUTHORITIES constraint for other land uses that may be in line with the regional or local infrastructural POLICY/ PLAN / PROGRAMME

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 102 -

Table 5.4: Likely conservation and other PPPs conflicts and solutions with respect to coastal land uses for areas around Walvis Bay Wetland.

Exploration and Likely due the offshore section modelling as part of the EIA and development of the Possible of the region forming part of the EMP before a well drilling operation is allowed. Production potential petroleum explorative Operators wanting to undertake petroleum drilling Walvis Basin. operations must fully comply with all the national regulations related to the prevention and management in their Oil Spill Contingency Plans (OSCP) linked to the national and international response plans, with human and equipment support Salt mining Highly likely particularly if A full Environmental Assessment covering Scoping, possible salt production areas EIA and EMP must be undertaken before any suitable are identified without taking salt production area is delineated in order delineate into considerations key key priority conservation areas. Salt production must conservations priority areas always strive to incorporate multiple land uses covering salt production, tourism and conservation in the operations Power generation Unlikely due to lack of A full Environmental Assessment covering Scoping, and transmission supporting infrastructure and EIA and EMP must be undertaken if power generation urban development and transmission opportunities are considered in the general area Tourism Highly likely particularly if no Clear guidelines / control measures must be developed Conservation and control measures are put in and put in place and studies / assessments on land MET research place to manage tourism, carrying capacities undertaken with respect to tourism, conservation and research conservation and research. activities Desalination and Unlikely due to lack of A full Environmental Assessment covering Scoping, MWAF AND Other Coastal supporting infrastructure and EIA and EMP must be undertaken if such opportunities MWT Infrastructure urban development are considered in the general area Aquaculture and Highly likely particularly if A full Environmental Assessment covering Scoping, MFMR mariculture possible areas are identified EIA and EMP must be undertaken before any suitable Other Marine without taking into areas are selected in order delineate key priority Resources harvesting considerations key conservation areas. conservations priority areas ALL ORGANS Education and Moderately likely particularly if Clear guidelines / control measures must be developed OF STATE training no control measures are put in and put in place to manage education and training by place to manage other Organs of State

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 103 -

5.2.2.4 Dune Belt, Lower Kuiseb and Swakop Ephemeral Rivers Areas

5.2.2.4.1 Status Conservation and Biodiversity

Dune Belt, lower Kuiseb and Swakop Ephemeral Rivers areas covers a combined large area and important conservation and biodiversity hotspots within the coastal zone of the Erongo Region (Figs. 5.7 - 5.9 and Plates 5.4 -5.7). The dune belt is a coherent 3-4 km wide zone of relatively high dunes extending along the 30 km stretch of coastline from Walvis Bay to Swakopmund (Fig. 5.7). The western boundary of the dune area lies approximately 500 m from the seashore (Plate 5.4). The entire dune belt now falls within the newly proclaimed Dorob National Park and may be considered a conservation priority on the coast, as it is the only dune area easily accessible to the public and possesses a large eco-tourism potential (Plate 5.5). Demarcations for a wide range of uses, including high-impact activities like quad biking (Fig. 5.7). Areas of high conservation priority lie in the northernmost part of the area adjacent to the Swakop riverbed and just west of the dune belt in two core areas used by Damara terns for breeding: one south of Long Beach and one (the biggest colony known) south of the Swakop river mouth. MET has closed the one northern free zone located in close proximity to Damara tern colony, and maintained free zones southeast of Long Beach and at Dune 7. The free zone east of Long Beach partly overlaps the area used by Damara terns breeding south of Long Beach.

The management of the dune belt, Kuiseb and Swakop River areas fall within the responsibility of MET within the framework of the Dorob National Park. The use of quad bikes has greatly increased in recent years, a Contingency Management Committee (CMC) with participation from MET, municipalities, police and tourist organisations and operators was established in November 2006 to advise the relevant institutions on improved management actions to be taken. The overall area is well protected with the dune belt, Kuiseb and Swakop River areas, with the exception of the Walvis Bay and Swakopmund town lands, formally protected within the recently proclaimed Dorob National Park.

It is estimated that at least 54 reptile, 7 amphibian, 42 mammal and 182 bird species (breeding residents) are known to or expected to occur in the general area of which a large proportion are endemics (Figs. 5.11 - 5.14). Endemics include at least 50% of the reptiles, 43% of the amphibians, 29% of the mammals and 4% (7 of the 14 Namibian endemics) of all the breeding and/or resident birds known and/or expected to occur in the general area as shown in Figs. 5.11 - 5.14.

The high percentage of endemic reptile species (50%) known and/or expected to occur in the general area underscores the importance of this area for reptiles. Reptile species of concern are the 2 thread snakes (Leptotyphlops occidentalis and L. labialis) as well as the sand burrowing/dwelling species such as Bitis peringueyi and the various Meroles species, especially Meroles micropholidotus classified as endemic and rare, as well as the high proportion (81%) of endemic gecko (e.g. Pachydactylus species) species of which very little is known about their ecological role and actual status in Namibia. The seemingly barren sandy dune and gravel plain areas are host to a variety of reptile fauna not often expected and/or acknowledged.

Amphibians are generally not viewed as extremely important in saline coastal areas which are marginal habitat for most amphibians. Although 43% of the amphibians expected to occur in the general area are endemic to Namibia they are expected to occur further inland – i.e. the Kuiseb and Swakop Rivers and rocky outcrops with temporary pools associated with these landforms, etc. – and not directly associated with the dune belt between Walvis Bay and Swakopmund. The endemic Phrynomantis annectens is probably the amphibian of greatest concern in the area although it occurs widespread throughout large parts of Namibia.

Endemic mammals expected to occur in the general area make up a relatively large percentage (29%) of the mammals known and/or expected from the area. Endemic mammal

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 104 - species of concern include the mole Eremitalpa granti and the two bats Laephotis namibensis and Cistugo seabrai as well as the Hairy-footed Gerbils (Gerbillurus sp.). Both bats are very poorly known with only a few records from the general area making them particularly important. The predator of concern is Hyaena brunnea which is classified locally as Insufficiently Known, probably Vulnerable; with an international status of Vulnerable (SARDB 2004, IUCN 2010).

On the coast of Namibia, dense local concentrations of archaeological sites are associated with some of the larger river mouths (Fig. 5.15). Open coastline environments are generally poor in archaeological sites, as are the mouths of smaller rivers. The river courses, although mainly dry, had in the past sufficient water beneath the surface to sustain small human groups. River environments also have edible plants and wild game, and these, combined with littoral and marine foods, offer a more stable subsistence base than any area in the immediate hinterland. Nowhere on the Namib coast is the combination of such resources more favourable than in the vicinity of the !Khuiseb Delta, and it is therefore no surprise that this area has the largest concentration of archaeological sites on a coastline over 2, 000 km in length. The relative density of archaeological sites in the !Khuiseb Delta compared to Namibia as a whole is shown in Fig. 5.15.

Detailed archaeological surveys of the !Khuiseb Delta have established the characteristics of past settlement in this area, yielding a range of radiocarbon and relative dates associated with a wide diversity of cultural material, evidence of food preferences, and human remains. These research results are reviewed in some detail below31. However, it is necessary to understand that it was not the object of these surveys to locate and record every archaeological site in the area. Instead, the surveys focussed on carefully chosen blocks of land with particular characteristics of physical setting, so as to produce a representative sample of the local archaeology. Altogether 235 archaeological sites were documented in the !Khuiseb Delta during the course of several field surveys covering ten sample blocks, and a total of 83k m2 (Kinahan 2000: 31). Of these sites 86 were shell accumulations, 69 were complex assemblages of cultural material, and the remaining 94 were small shell scatters and single artefact finds. The dating of the sites covers the last 2, 000 years; 155 of the site pre-dating European contact and the great majority of post-contact sites were concentrated in the Walvis Bay dunefields.

31 See 5. Resources, BIBLIOGRAPHY for specific references to published and unpublished reports

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 105 -

Figure 5.7: Dune belt, Lower Kuiseb and Swakop Rivers areas.

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 106 -

Figure 5.8: Geomorphic Terrain Units of the Dune Belt and Kuiseb River Channel.

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 107 -

Figure 5.9: The Swakop River, the northern boundary of the study area (Source: http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/NaturalHazards - Accessed April 2012).

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 108 -

Figure 5.10: Current land uses.

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 109 -

Plate 5.4: The Kuiseb Delta (RBS/ FGN Image Series, 2012).

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 110 -

Plate 5.5: Dune Belt Area (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012).

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 111 -

Plate 5.6: Lower Swakop River channel (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012).

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 112 -

Plate 5.7: MET closed area of higher conservation within the Dune Belt (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012).

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 113 -

Figure 5.11: DST of important reptiles sensitive area.

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 114 -

Figure 5.12: DST of important mammals sensitive area.

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 115 -

Figure 5.13: DST of important avian sensitive area.

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 116 -

Figure 5.14: DST of important flora sensitive area.

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 117 -

Figure 5.15: Archaeological sensitivity mapping of the !Khuiseb Delta: RED indicates highly sensitive areas; PINK medium sensitivity area, and GREEN low sensitivity area. High sensitivity areas contain up to 50 archaeological sites per km2 and contain evidence that is essential to the understanding of the regional sequence; medium sensitivity areas contain up to five archaeological sites per km2 and contain valuable contextual evidence that is necessary to the understanding of local settlement hierarchies; low sensitivity areas contain less than one archaeological site per km2 and these are usually of limited research potential.

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 118 -

5.2.2.4.2 Dune Belt, Kuiseb and Swakop Rivers Areas Recommendations

It is hereby recommended that the any new proposed policies, plans or programmes in these areas (Dune Belt, Kuiseb and Swakop Deltas and Lower Channels) may only go ahead on condition that the proposed multiple land use approach (proposed conservation and biodiversity hotspots) are all fully incorporated and integrated in the high need for conservation with appropriate buffers enforced in line with the Dorob National Park Regulations. Protection of the key biodiversity hotspots within the framework of the Dorob National Park Regulations would provide the necessary strict management practices, although it is most important that the management plan should be developed in a consultative fashion so as to accommodate all stakeholders’ views. At the same time it is very important that the management plan for the Kuiseb and Swakop deltas should place the importance of the key conservation priorities including archaeological sites at the head of the agenda, along with the most critical principles of site management. The ultimately unsatisfactory alternative to this approach is a management plan that places the commercial and related interests of the stakeholders at the head of the agenda, compromising on the sustainable use of the sites. The following are the overall recommendations:

 Proclaim the archaeologically significant part of the Kuiseb Delta as a Conservation Area under the National Heritage Act;

 Appropriate buffers must be created to separate current and future projects activities areas from key environmental sources;

 Any access to archaeological sites should be strictly monitored and subject to specific guidelines as to routes, group numbers and other factors;

 No settlements, camping or other overnight facilities should be permitted in any area designated as archaeologically sensitive;

 Avoid all development in the areas viewed as sensitive habitats – i.e. Dune Belt, lichen fields, Swakop, Kuiseb and Tumas Rivers, rocky outcrops, Caution Reef, Horses Graves and Paaltjies Salsola dune hummocks;

 Avoid off road driving in areas prone to scarring and especially the lichen fields. Nocturnal driving should also be avoided as this result in the destruction of slow moving fauna – e.g. various reptiles and other nocturnal species;

 Avoid the removal and damage of bigger trees (especially protected species – i.e. Acacia erioloba, Faidherbia albida and Tamarix usneoides [Forestry Ordinance No. 37 of 1952) – during developments – including the development of access routes – as these serve as habitat for a myriad of fauna. This is relevant to developments in the Kuiseb River area;

 The environmental management and monitoring of the dune belt area, the free off- road vehicle zone, dune belt, Swakop River and Delta and the Kuiseb River and Delta should form part of the Dorob National Park management.

Based on the land suitable assessment that has been undertaken and the key biodiversity resources around the Dune Belt, lower Kuiseb and Swakop Ephemeral Rivers, key priority conservation and biodiversity hotspot areas have been delineated as shown in Fig. 5.16 with land use suitability shown in Table 5.5. According to Table 5.5 and Fig. 5.16, unsuitable land uses are constraint by the conservation priority areas No. 1 and 2 and no unsustainable policies, plan or programmes are allowed in these areas. Table 5.6 summarises the likely conflicts and possible solutions with respect to the coastal land use for conservation and other polies, plan and programmes development and implementation around the area.

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 119 -

Figure 5.16: Key priority conservation area around the Dune Belt, lower Kuiseb and Swakop Ephemeral Rivers.

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 120 -

Table 5.5: Considerations for various other potential land use options assessed in terms of their suitability around the Dune Belt, lower Kuiseb and Swakop Ephemeral Rivers with respect to conservation and biodiversity priorities.

ORGAN OF POLICY/ SUITABILITY / STATE PLAN / OPPORTUNITY REMARKS / CONSTRAINTS PROGRAMME Other Mineral Not suitable at all, No major economic mineral resources are known to Prospecting / potentially high impact exist in the general area and even if some resources are Exploration on the ecosystem and discovered in the future, no prospecting and / or mining Other Mining other sustainable land are allowed in conservation priority areas No. 1 and 2 Activities use options such as areas. Very high and national important conservation MME tourism and biodiversity area a major constraint for other land uses. Suitable in selected The existing operations are important to the construction

areas of the already industry. In line with the multiple land use approach of existing operations. the Dorob National Park, the sand mining operation Sand mining Efforts to support other must enhance the synergy approach aimed at land use options must developing sustainable multiple land uses in the area be implemented namely: Sand mining, conservation (by creating conservation corridors within the sand mining operations). Unsuitable on a High conservation and biodiversity area to support any Power generation commercial scale. such supporting infrastructure for commercial power and transmission Suitable for small-scale development. applications. Controlled ecotourism opportunities in line with the Tourism Suitable Dorob land use plan and regulations. Very high and MET national important conservation and biodiversity area a major constraint for other land uses. Conservation and Suitable Highly important for the sustainability of the area with research key priority conservation areas shown in red in Fig. 5.16 Unsuitable for Hyper-arid environment, limited fresh water resources, MWAF Agriculture commercial agriculture saline soils. Lack of suitable / close markets. Very high and national important conservation and biodiversity area a major constraint for other land uses. Unsuitable High conservation and biodiversity area. More suitable areas available elsewhere. Very high and national Aquaculture and mariculture important conservation and biodiversity area a major constraint for other land uses. Unsuitable High conservation and biodiversity area to support any MFMR such supporting infrastructure. Very high and national Other Marine Resources important conservation and biodiversity area a major harvesting constraint for other land uses. ALL ORGANS Education and Suitable Available infrastructure and good facilities OF STATE training Other Regional Unsuitable Very high biodiversity hotspot area and in particular key REGIONAL AND and Local conservation priority areas No. 1 and 2 are a major LOCAL Infrastructures AUTHORITIES constraint for other land uses that may be in line with the regional or local infrastructural POLICY/ PLAN / PROGRAMME

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 121 -

Table 5.6: Likely conservation and other PPPs conflicts and solutions with respect to coastal land uses for areas around the Dune Belt, lower Kuiseb and Swakop Ephemeral Rivers with respect to conservation and biodiversity priorities.

ORGAN OF POLICY/ LIKELY CONFLICTS WITH STATE PLAN / CONSERVATION AREAS POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS PROGRAMM E Mineral Highly likely particularly if future No Mineral exploration activities shall be allowed in Prospecting / exploration activities are allowed in key priority conservation areas. The Ministry of Exploration these areas and new economic Environment and Tourism must have a Other Mining mineral deposits are discovered representative at the Minerals Prospecting and Activities Mining Rights Committee meetings at all times in MME order to ensure that no new mineral exploration rights area awarded in key conservation priority areas

Petroleum Operators must undertake oil spill / dispersion Exploration and Likely due the offshore section of modelling as part of the EIA and development of the Possible the region forming part of the EMP before a well drilling operation is allowed. Production potential petroleum explorative Operators wanting to undertake petroleum drilling Walvis Basin. operations must fully comply with all the national regulations related to the prevention and management in their Oil Spill Contingency Plans (OSCP) linked to the national and international response plans, with human and equipment support Salt mining Highly likely particularly if possible A full Environmental Assessment covering Scoping, salt production areas are identified EIA and EMP must be undertaken before any without taking into considerations suitable salt production area is delineated in order key conservations priority areas delineate key priority conservation areas. Salt production must always strive to incorporate multiple land uses covering salt production, tourism and conservation in the operations Power Unlikely due to lack of supporting A full Environmental Assessment covering Scoping, generation and infrastructure and urban EIA and EMP must be undertaken if power transmission development generation and transmission opportunities are considered in the general area Tourism Highly likely particularly if no Clear guidelines / control measures must be Conservation control measures are put in place developed and put in place and studies / MET and research to manage tourism, conservation assessments on land carrying capacities undertaken and research activities with respect to tourism, conservation and research. Desalination and Unlikely due to lack of supporting A full Environmental Assessment covering Scoping, MWAF AND Other Coastal infrastructure and urban EIA and EMP must be undertaken if such MWT Infrastructure development opportunities are considered in the general area Aquaculture and Highly likely particularly if possible A full Environmental Assessment covering Scoping, MFMR mariculture areas are identified without taking EIA and EMP must be undertaken before any Other Marine into considerations key suitable areas are selected in order delineate key Resources harvesting conservations priority areas priority conservation areas. ALL ORGANS Education and Moderately likely particularly if no Clear guidelines / control measures must be OF STATE training control measures are put in place developed and put in place to manage education and to manage training by other Organs of State REGIONAL AND Other Regional Highly likely particularly if possible A full Environmental Assessment covering Scoping, LOCAL and Local areas are identified without taking EIA and EMP must be undertaken before any AUTHORITIES Infrastructures into considerations key suitable areas are selected in order to delineate key conservations priority areas priority conservation areas.

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 122 -

5.2.2.5 Coastal Area Swakopmund – Henties Bay

5.2.2.5.1 Swakopmund Surrounding Areas

In accordance with Fig. 5.16, two areas of high conservation priority located in the vicinity of Swakopmund are:

 The river bed and associated areas of the Swakop River;

 Mile 4 Saltworks.

The river bed and associated areas of the Swakop River constitute an area of very diverse geological, geo-morphological, floral and faunal characteristics, including areas of high topographic complexity, rocky outcrops and permanent vegetation including the protected Welwitschia and the Quiver tree. The diversity of habitats support a high number of insect, reptile and bird species. The western-most part overlaps with the area planned for urban development by Swakopmund Municipality. The area just south of the river mouth houses the most important colony of Damara terns in the world (Plates 5.8 and 5.9). Along the Swakop River from the mouth passing the Swakopmund smallholdings development area, the entire river channels is a key conservation area and biodiversity hotspot (Fig. 5.16). Further to the east along the Swakop River, current proposals to develop some of the Swakop River channels / floodplain around the small holdings area and in particular the subdivision of the Block 9 and 16 seems to extend in the key biodiversity hotspot area.

The Mile 4 Saltworks comprises a private nature reserve of 400 ha and a Saltworks. It lies adjacent to the sea on the central Namib Desert coast and has been extensively altered to create numerous evaporation ponds. Immediately inland lie the gravel plains of the Namib Desert. The Saltworks are situated about 7 km (4 miles) north of Swakopmund. Mile 4 occasionally supports more than 150,000 waterbirds, of which breeding Cape cormorants and non-breeding Common terns dominate. No conflicts seem to exist between the waterbird concentrations and the oyster production and guano scraping at the Saltworks.

Swakopmund is the coastal playground of Namibia and is an increasingly important attractor of international tourists. Its environment is its greatest economic asset and its strongest element of international and national comparative advantage. It is imperative not only to preserve its character and sense of place, deriving from both the natural and the built environment, but actively to enhance it.32At the scale of the overall town, too, the need for sensitive planning of the coastal area was highlighted, in particular the imperative of improving access to the coast at selected points, while simultaneously protecting and creating view lines for both desert and sea.

32 A Long Term Plan for Swakopmund Volume 2: Detailed Recommendations, 2000.

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 123 -

Plate 5.8: Northern part of Swakopmund with saltworks further in the background (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012).

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 124 -

Plate 5.9: Swakop River habitats (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012).

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 125 -

5.2.2.5.2 Wlotzkasbaken and Surroundings

Wlotzkasbaken is a tiny settlement of holiday houses on 99 year lease, typically held in the same families for decades, and with very few permanent residents (Plate 5.10). Wlotskasbaken was surveyed in preparation for its declaration as a settlement under the control of the ERC, which favours further development. Long-term (and often temporary) residents apparently do not, and are not particularly keen to see their large plots subject to sub-division. There has apparently been negotiation between the parties. According to MRLGHRD, declaration of the settlement has occurred. Wlotzkasbaken is completely surrounded by lichen fields (Plate 5.11). The coastal area falls within the area from Mile 8 to Mile 20 proposed for aquaculture by MFMR, and most of this section was found to be suitable for land-based aquaculture.

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 126 -

Plate 5.10: The Settlement of Wlotzkasbaken with an insert of the desalination plant (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012).

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 127 -

Plate 5.11: Key conservation and biodiversity hotspot areas of lichens around the settlement of Wlotzkasbaken showing typical black dolerite ridges covered with lichens (mainly Caloplaca elegantissima) in the area (Topographic high areas). (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012).

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 128 -

5.2.2.5.3 Henties Bay and Surroundings

The small municipality of Henties Bay, with an overall town area of 1,500 ha. and a population of 3,608 in 2001 is some 70 km up the coastal road from Swakopmund and like Wlotskasbaken also lies within the National West Coast Tourist Recreation Area. The Henties Bay Town and Townlands is, however, excluded from the area itself, to allow for the establishment and operation of the local authority area of the municipality.

5.2.2.5.4 Swakopmund to Henties Bay Recommendations

Based on the land suitable assessment that has been undertaken and the key biodiversity resources from Swakopmund to Henties Bay, key priority conservation and biodiversity hotspot areas have been delineated as shown in Fig. 5.17 with land use suitability shown in Table 5.7. According to Table 5.7 and Fig. 5.17, unsuitable land uses are constraint by the conservation priority areas No. 1 and 2 and no unsustainable policies, plan or programmes are allowed in these areas. The area just north of Swakopmund, north of the Mile 4 Saltworks to Henties Bay now falls within the Dorob National Park. The new management plan and regulations for the Dorob National Park will have to take account of the increasing pressure from urban and tourist developments between Swakopmund and Henties Bay and from mineral extraction activities in the eastern part of the area.

Given the mounting pressures, the relatively weak conservation status, the lack of an appropriate protection for the wetland at Mile 4 Saltworks as well as a lack of detailed guidance for other mineral exploration activities in relation to sensitive areas like the major river beds, the extensive lichen communities of Wlotzkasbaken, MET is challenged with management requirements that must promote the multiple land use approach central to the proclamation of the Dorob National Park.

The overall success for effective conservation of biodiversity hotspots between Swakopmund and Henties Bay lies in the effective implementation of the Park regulations and management plan. New management plans should establish a multiple use framework for future developments with zonation for all land uses, including information on the most sensitive areas to be avoided by exploration and mining activities, on the basis of detailed profiles of landscape, vegetation, wildlife, livestock and human settlements. The SEA provides assistance to this process. The mapping of priority areas for conservation indicates that the most sensitive areas and areas are found at Mile 4 Saltworks, the river beds and associated areas of the Swakop River and key lichen field areas around Wlotskasbaken.

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 129 -

Figure 5.17: Key priority conservation from Swakopmund to Henties Bay. Bottom picture of the Caloplaca elegantissima (orange/red) and Xanthoparmelia walteri (grey/green) the dominant lichen species found around Wlotskasbaken area which is part of the larger key biodiversity hotspot coastal lichen field stretching from Swakopmund to Henties Bay (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012).

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 130 -

Table 5.7: Considerations for various other potential land use options assessed in terms of their suitability from Swakopmund to Henties Bay with respect to conservation and biodiversity priorities.

ORGAN OF POLICY/ SUITABILITY / STATE PLAN / OPPORTUNITY REMARKS / CONSTRAINTS PROGRAMME Other Mineral Not suitable at all, No major strategic and economic mineral resources Prospecting / potentially high impact on are known to exist in the general area and even if Exploration the ecosystem and other some resources are discovered in the future, no Other Mining sustainable land use prospecting and / or mining are allowed in Activities options such as tourism conservation priority areas No. 1 and 2 areas. Very MME high and national important conservation and biodiversity area a major constraint for other land uses.

Suitable in selected areas The existing salt operation is an important land mark of the already existing that support tourism operations between operations. New salts Swakopmund and Henties Bay. In line with the Salt mining works areas are very multiple land use approach of the Dorob National limited. Efforts to support Park, the salt mining operation must enhance the other land use options synergy approach aimed at developing a three pillar must be implemented for sustainable multiple land uses in the area namely: salt production, Solar salt production, conservation (by creating conservation and tourism conservation corridors within the salt works) and support must be explored tourism (by creating tourist viewpoints / walk ways around the salt works). Unsuitable on a High conservation and biodiversity area to support Power generation commercial scale. any such supporting infrastructure for commercial and transmission Suitable for small-scale power development. renewable energy applications. Controlled ecotourism opportunities in line with the Tourism Suitable Dorob land use plan and regulations. Very high and MET national important conservation and biodiversity area a major constraint for other land uses. Conservation and Suitable Highly important for the sustainability of the area with research key priority conservation areas shown in red in Fig. 5.17

MWAF Desalination Areas of biodiversity hotspots such as north of Swakopmund and Wlotskasbaken lichens fields are MFMR Aquaculture and Suitable but limited key national important conservation areas. These mariculture Areas biodiversity hotspots are a major constraint to other Other Marine Resources land uses. harvesting ALL ORGANS Education and Suitable Available infrastructure and good facilities OF STATE training Other Regional Suitable but Limited and High biodiversity hotspot area and in particular key REGIONAL AND and Local restricted to designated conservation priority areas No. 1 and 2 are a major LOCAL Infrastructures AUTHORITIES existing Town Lands constraint for other land uses that may be in line with (Swakopmund, the regional or local infrastructural POLICY/ PLAN / Wlotskasbaken and PROGRAMME Henties Bay

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 131 -

Table 5.8: Likely conservation and other PPPs conflicts and solutions with respect to coastal land uses for areas around Sandwich Harbour.

ORGAN OF POLICY/ LIKELY CONFLICTS STATE PLAN / WITH CONSERVATION POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS PROGRAMME AREAS Mineral No Mineral exploration activities shall be allowed in key Prospecting / Highly likely particularly if future priority conservation areas. The Ministry of Exploration exploration activities are Environment and Tourism must have a representative Other Mining allowed in these areas and at the Minerals Prospecting and Mining Rights Activities new economic mineral deposits Committee meetings at all times in order to ensure that MME are discovered no new mineral exploration rights area awarded in key conservation priority areas Petroleum Operators must undertake oil spill / dispersion

Exploration and Likely due the offshore section modelling as part of the EIA and development of the Possible of the region forming part of the EMP before a well drilling operation is allowed. Production potential petroleum explorative Operators wanting to undertake petroleum drilling Walvis Basin. operations must fully comply with all the national regulations related to the prevention and management in their Oil Spill Contingency Plans (OSCP) linked to the national and international response plans, with human and equipment support Salt mining Highly likely particularly if A full Environmental Assessment covering Scoping, possible salt production areas EIA and EMP must be undertaken before any suitable are identified without taking salt production area is delineated in order delineate into considerations key key priority conservation areas. Salt production must conservations priority areas always strive to incorporate multiple land uses covering salt production, tourism and conservation in the operations Power generation Unlikely due to lack of A full Environmental Assessment covering Scoping, and transmission supporting infrastructure and EIA and EMP must be undertaken if power generation urban development and transmission opportunities are considered in the general area Tourism Highly likely particularly if no Clear guidelines / control measures must be developed Conservation and control measures are put in and put in place and studies / assessments on land MET research place to manage tourism, carrying capacities undertaken with respect to tourism, conservation and research conservation and research. activities Desalination and Unlikely due to lack of A full Environmental Assessment covering Scoping, MWAF AND Other Coastal supporting infrastructure and EIA and EMP must be undertaken if such opportunities MWT Infrastructure urban development are considered in the general area Aquaculture and Highly likely particularly if A full Environmental Assessment covering Scoping, MFMR mariculture possible areas are identified EIA and EMP must be undertaken before any suitable Other Marine without taking into areas are selected in order delineate key priority Resources harvesting considerations key conservation areas. conservations priority areas ALL ORGANS Education and Moderately likely particularly if Clear guidelines / control measures must be developed OF STATE training no control measures are put in and put in place to manage education and training by place to manage other Organs of State REGIONAL AND Other Regional Highly likely particularly if A full Environmental Assessment covering Scoping, LOCAL and Local possible areas are identified EIA and EMP must be undertaken before any suitable AUTHORITIES Infrastructures without taking into areas are selected in order to delineate key priority considerations key conservation areas. conservations priority areas

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 132 -

5.2.2.6 Henties Bay to Ugab River

5.2.2.6.1 Cape Cross Lagoon and Seal Reserve

The Cape Cross Lagoon and Seal Reserve was formerly a coastal embayment just south of the rocky promontory of Cape Cross. The inner part of the embayment remains a series of saline lagoons. These receive saline sea water from seepage through the sand barrier and, during extreme high tides or storms, by water washed over the sand barrier. The lagoons vary in size and number depending on water level and are controlled by two main factors: evaporation and seawater input. Desiccation of the eastern borders of the embayment has produced sterile salt pans and flats. These salt deposits are worked commercially on a small scale. Three wooden platforms with a total area of 68,000 m2 have been erected in some of the lagoons to provide roosting and breeding places for seabirds whose guano is commercially harvested. Guano from these platforms probably serves also to enrich the micro-flora and fauna of the lagoons. A massive mainland breeding colony of fur seals, numbering 273,000 in 200533, occurs here (Plate 5.12). This is one of two populations in Namibia that are harvested commercially, mainly pups for their pelts, and some bulls for their genitalia. The lagoons and platforms have been known to support up to 14% of the global population of Cape Cormorant (30 600 pairs). Counts indicate that in addition to cormorants these lagoons regularly support up to 11 000 other birds. Currently this wetland is registered as a Nature Reserve with the purpose to restrict access to the public. The seal reserve is visited by 40 000 tourists per year.

5.2.2.6.2 Brandberg Massif

The rocky areas of the Brandberg Massif are connected with Namibia’s highest mountain Brandberg, at 2,606 m (Plate 5.13)., a conical mountain of ancient volcanic granitic plug situated in the central section of the Namib Desert some 30 km from the boundary of the National West Coast Tourist Recreation Area. The area also includes the Messum Crater. Recent analyses show that Brandberg is the epicentre of a rich vein of endemic mammals, reptiles, plants and amphibians that runs from the Sperrgebiet in the south to the Otjihipa Mountains in the north. No other area in Namibia is as rich in endemics as the Brandberg massif; among the 90 endemic plants, eight are found nowhere else, while three of six near- endemic frogs, eight of 14 near-endemic mammals, 49 of 59 near-endemic reptiles, and 11 of 14 near-endemic birds occur on or around this inselberg.

33 Heidi Skrypzeck, MFMR, pers. comm.

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Plate 5.12: The Cape Cross Seal colony (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012).

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Plate 5.13: The Brandberg Brandberg Massif (top) a key biodiversity hotspot and Welwitschia mirabilis field southwest of the Massif (bottom) (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012).

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5.2.2.6.3 Henties Bay to Ugab River Recommendations

Based on the land suitable assessment that has been undertaken and the key biodiversity resources between Henties Bay and Ugab River, key priority conservation and biodiversity hotspot areas have been delineated as shown in Fig. 5.18 with land use suitability shown in Table 5.8. According to Table 5.8 and Fig. 5.18, unsuitable land uses are constraint by the conservation priority areas No. 1 and 2 and no unsustainable policies, plan or programmes are allowed in these areas. Within the framework of the Dorob National Park regulations and management plan MET should develop a new conservation management regime which satisfies the requirements for improved integration of growing land uses, promotion of only sustainable developments and nature protection.

New management plans should establish a clear multiple use framework for future developments with zonation for all land uses, including information on the most sensitive areas to be avoided by extractive industries such as exploration and mining activities, on the basis of detailed profiles of landscape, vegetation, wildlife, livestock and human settlements. The SEA provides assistance to this process (Fig. 5.18). The mapping of priority areas for conservation indicates that the most sensitive areas and areas with largest sustainable development policies, plans or programmes such as eco-tourism potential are found at Cape Cross Lagoon, Seal Reserve, the river beds and associated areas of the Ugab river and the rocky area associated with the Brandberg Massif (Fig. 5.18). Other land uses, including conventional tourism, should be focused on the parts of the Dorob National Park with limited concentration of biodiversity. The development of conventional and eco-tourism should be guided by a tourism plan for the area.

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Figure 5.18: Key priority conservation areas between Henties Bay and Ugab River. Bottom picture of the Caloplaca elegantissima (orange/red) the dominant lichen species found in some coastal areas Henties Bay to Ugab River which is part of the larger key biodiversity hotspot coastal lichen field (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012).

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Table 5.9: Considerations for various other potential land use options assessed in terms of their suitability between Henties Bay and Ugab River with respect to conservation and biodiversity priorities.

ORGAN OF POLICY/ SUITABILITY / STATE PLAN / OPPORTUNITY REMARKS / CONSTRAINTS PROGRAMME Other Mineral Not suitable in No major strategic and mineral resources are known Prospecting / conservation priority to exist in the general area and even if some Exploration areas No. 1 and 2 at all, resources are discovered in the future, no prospecting Other Mining potentially high impact on and / or mining are allowed in conservation priority Activities the ecosystem and other areas No. 1 and 2 areas. Very high and national MME sustainable land use important conservation and biodiversity area a major options such as tourism constraint for other land uses. Suitable in selected areas The existing salt operation is an important land mark

of the already existing that support tourism operations between Henties Bay operations. New salts and Ugab River. In line with the multiple land use Salt mining works areas are very approach of the Dorob National Park, the salt mining limited. Efforts to support operation must enhance the synergy approach aimed other land use options at developing a three pillar sustainable multiple land must be implemented for uses in the area namely: Solar salt production, salt production, conservation (by creating conservation corridors conservation and tourism within the salt works) and tourism (by creating tourist support must be explored viewpoints / walk ways around the salt works). Suitable but limited High conservation and biodiversity area to support Power generation Areas any such supporting infrastructure for commercial and transmission power development. Controlled ecotourism opportunities in line with the Tourism Suitable Dorob land use plan and regulations. Very high and MET national important conservation and biodiversity area a major constraint for other land uses. Conservation and Suitable Highly important for the sustainability of the area with research key priority conservation areas shown in red in Fig. 5.18

MWAF Desalination Areas of biodiversity hotspots such as lichens and Welwitschia mirabilis fields are key national important MFMR Aquaculture and Suitable but limited conservation areas. These biodiversity hotspots are a mariculture Areas major constraint to other land uses. Other Marine Resources harvesting ALL ORGANS Education and Suitable Limited available infrastructure and facilities but OF STATE training sufficient to support education and research activities Other Regional Suitable but Limited and High biodiversity hotspot area and in particular key REGIONAL AND and Local restricted to designated conservation priority areas No. 1 and 2 are a major LOCAL Infrastructures AUTHORITIES existing Town Lands constraint for other land uses that may be in line with (Swakopmund, the regional or local infrastructural POLICY/ PLAN / Wlotskasbaken and PROGRAMME Henties Bay

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Table 5.10: Likely conservation and other PPPs conflicts and solutions with respect to coastal land uses for area between Henties Bay and Ugab River.

Exploration and Likely due the offshore section modelling as part of the EIA and development of the Possible of the region forming part of the EMP before a well drilling operation is allowed. Production potential petroleum explorative Operators wanting to undertake petroleum drilling Walvis Basin. operations must fully comply with all the national regulations related to the prevention and management in their Oil Spill Contingency Plans (OSCP) linked to the national and international response plans, with human and equipment support Salt mining Highly likely particularly if A full Environmental Assessment covering Scoping, possible salt production areas EIA and EMP must be undertaken before any suitable are identified without taking salt production area is delineated in order delineate into considerations key key priority conservation areas. Salt production must conservations priority areas always strive to incorporate multiple land uses covering salt production, tourism and conservation in the operations Power generation Unlikely due to lack of A full Environmental Assessment covering Scoping, and transmission supporting infrastructure and EIA and EMP must be undertaken if power generation urban development and transmission opportunities are considered in the general area Tourism Highly likely particularly if no Clear guidelines / control measures must be developed Conservation and control measures are put in and put in place and studies / assessments on land MET research place to manage tourism, carrying capacities undertaken with respect to tourism, conservation and research conservation and research. activities Desalination and Unlikely due to lack of A full Environmental Assessment covering Scoping, MWAF AND Other Coastal supporting infrastructure and EIA and EMP must be undertaken if such opportunities MWT Infrastructure urban development are considered in the general area Aquaculture and Highly likely particularly if A full Environmental Assessment covering Scoping, MFMR mariculture possible areas are identified EIA and EMP must be undertaken before any suitable Other Marine without taking into areas are selected in order delineate key priority Resources harvesting considerations key conservation areas. conservations priority areas ALL ORGANS Education and Moderately likely particularly if Clear guidelines / control measures must be developed OF STATE training no control measures are put in and put in place to manage education and training by place to manage other Organs of State

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5.3 Other Policies, Plans and Programmes

5.3.1 Tourism Opportunities

The situation analysis in the Erongo Region Regional Development Plan is very weak, without recognisable depiction of tourism in the region. With little justification, five priority areas, which with the exception of the Kuiseb River Delta are located in outlying communal areas to the east of the coastal zone, are identified for tourism promotion. The associated tourism investment programme is cursory. At local level, none of the three coastal towns, Henties Bay, Swakopmund and Walvis Bay, appear to have current relevant tourism policies or plans.

The lack of tourism policy and plans at regional and local levels in the Erongo and Kunene coastal zones has negatively affected coordination and communication between public, private and community sector stakeholders. This, however, does not seem to have held back the progress of the sector, whose performance since the early 2000s has been good. Coastal tourism is considered a growing product in most of the national policy documents, and Swakopmund and Walvis Bay are second and third respectively, after Windhoek, as the most visited locations by tourists in Namibia. Reliable up to date statistics and other data do not appear to exist. Informed through discussions with tour operators, hoteliers and travel agents, it appears that private sector led coastal tourism has taken off in the past five years or so, with some facilitation by the public sector.

For many years, Walvis Bay perceived itself as an industrial rather than tourist town, and deferred to Swakopmund when it came to promoting itself, or to developing new facilities, amenities, or attractions. The nauseating odours emanating from fish factories, the monotony of the Anglo-Saxon grid of the town’s layout and the charmless houses (compared with the fresh smell of the sea and the quaint German-influenced architecture in neighbouring Swakopmund) repel tourists from Walvis Bay.34

This has changed recently. On the basis of its natural attractions – the Bay itself and the Lagoon, with marine life and birdlife (Plate 5.14), the Kuiseb Delta and the Namib Desert surrounding the town, and the dune belt north of it – Walvis Bay has started to position and market itself successfully in Southern Africa and internationally as a marine (seals, dolphin, whales), birdlife and adventure tourist (wind surfing and parasailing, quad biking, dune boarding, kayaking, paragliding, etc.) destination. The Walvis Bay Tourism association, established in 1998, and a newly-formed Marine Tour Association of Namibia (MTAN) have both played a strong role in this development, supported by the Walvis Bay Municipality. Walvis Bay can build further on this new identity and enhance its tourism prospects.

Meanwhile Swakopmund’s tourism industry has continued to market its long-run strengths as a more traditional seaside destination, but an unusual one in that swimming and other beach- related pursuits take a lesser role as attractions than its village-type atmosphere and shopping, eating and drinking facilities. Henties Bay’s tourism industry successfully promotes itself as “An Angler’s Haven” and supports the activities of recreational fishermen through the provision of the required accommodation and services. The town also titles itself the “Gateway to the Central Namib,” and promotes the natural attractions of the National West Coast Recreation Area (Cape Cross, the lichen fields, the Ugab and Messum Rivers) and those in the adjacent portions of the Namib Desert to the east (the Messum Crater, Spitzkoppe, and Brandberg).

Over the past few years the private sector at the Erongo coast has moved considerably forward in modernising its offers and profiting from an updated coastal tourism product. It is of interest that some co-marketing of this product now occurs, in the form of brochures and

34 Billawer and Ekobo, op cit, p. 60.

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 140 - tourism information offices that are supported jointly by a number of local governments.35 There is still scope for more such private sector-led tourism development on the Erongo and Kunene coastal zones, and for extending these opportunities to previously disadvantaged entrepreneurs. There are also new opportunities: in particular, the facilities provided in the National West Coast Recreation Centre – the four camp sites at Mile 14, Jakkalsputz, Mile 72 and Mile 108 – and the camp site at Torra Bay and resort/rest camp at Terrace Bay in the Skeleton Coast National Park – are perhaps under-utilised and have further potential if they are modernised.

35 For example, The Official Coastal Guide, Namibia, 7th Edition, published by Colourgem Publications in conjunction with the Municipalities of Walvis Bay, Swakopmund, Henties Bay and Luderitz, 2007. The excellent Namib Information (Namib i) offices are also relevant here.

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Plate 5.14: Flamingos in the Walvis Bay Lagoon, a key tourist attraction to Walvis Bay (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012).

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5.3.2 Fisheries

5.3.2.1 Inshore Fisheries

Inshore fisheries are limited in the coastal region partly because only few harbours and protected landing sites are available and the coast is open and exposed to oceanic swell and waves. The subsistence fishery from small boats known to the coastal areas elsewhere in Southern Africa is not possible on the high energy coast. There is a small scale informal shore based line fishery around Swakopmund36. The commercial inshore fishery occurs with larger vessels operating out of Walvis Bay to key fishing areas in the Namibian waters (Plate 5.15).

36 BCLME (2006) Socio-economic baseline survey of coastal communities in the BCLME region – Namibia Final report August 2006 prepared by Dr Peter Fielding, Paula Cardoso, Martin Shapi and Dr Merle Sowman (p 35)

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Plate 5.15: Examples of fisheries in the Namibian waters (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012).

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5.3.2.2 Angling

Recreational angling from the coast is popular both in relation to tourism and for local citizens. Subsistence angling is widespread and may also add welcomed food supply or provide a cash injection to the local economy if infrastructure allows the catch to be sold to the restaurant trade. This happens in particular in the area between Swakopmund and Henties Bay, but also takes place all along the coast. Angling is generally subject to permitting and the catch is limited if it includes overexploited stocks of Steenbras, Galjoen, Kabeljou and Blacktail, which are also among the commercially most interesting species.

In contrast to the case in the SCNP the NWCTRA is open to angling and the following areas as outlined in Fig. 5.19 are specifically mentioned:

 From the Ugab River to Walvis Bay;

 From the southern limits of the quay in the harbour of Walvis Bay, along the coastline to Pelican Point;

 From Pelican Point to Sandwich Harbour (Sandwich Harbour marked with concrete beacons, in the south SV1 and in the north SV2).

There are several companies in Erongo that operate deep sea boat-angling tours for species such as Snoek, Broadnose sevengill shark, Yellowtail, Tuna and Bluntnose spiny dogfish.

5.3.2.3 Other Species

Other species caught on the coast are restricted crabs, a range of bivalves, rock lobsters and also here quantity and seasonal limitations apply. In particular rock lobsters are popular but this and other stocks are under pressure. The areas for lobsters are the rocky outcrops distributed along the coast, whereas the soft bottom species are found widely distributed on the Erongo coast line.

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Figure 5.19: Locations used regularly for angling in Erongo (marked in red).

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5.3.3 Minerals and Petroleum Resources Coastal Zone

5.3.3.1 Minerals Exploration and Mining

The exploitation of minerals and other natural resources has been the backbone of the Namibian economy for many years. The mining sector maintains its importance to the gross national product, exports and tax revenue in the plans of the Government and the mining industry is essential to the development goals of Namibia as laid out in the National Development Plan. The minerals extracted remain a pillar of Namibian economy and a comprehensive Minerals Policy of Namibia provides the vision for the sector:

 To achieve a high level of responsible development of national resources in which Namibia becomes a significant producer of mineral products while ensuring maximum sustainable contribution to the socio-economic development of the country. To further attract investment and enable the private sector to take the lead in exploration, mining, mineral beneficiation and marketing.

The Mission of the Ministry is given as:

 The Ministry of Mines and Energy (MME), as the custodian of Namibia’s rich endowment of mineral and energy resources, facilitates and regulates the responsible development and sustainable utilisation of these resources for the benefit of all Namibians.

It is a key objective of the Minerals Policy to:

 Ensure compliance with national environmental policy and other relevant policies to develop a sustainable mining industry. Consequently one of the eight themes of the Policy, Mining Industry and the Environment, deals with the protection of the environment and with minimising the impact of mining on the environment37.

MME has issued a Policy specifically addressing mining and prospecting activities in environmentally sensitive areas38. The areas of particular interest in relation to biodiversity are those that are gazetted as “Protected Areas” and exploitation of mineral resources is allowed under the Prospecting and Mining Act of 1992. Since approximately 13.6% of the land surface area of Namibia is “Protected Areas” and many of these areas have considerable mineral potential, prospecting in protected areas is and has been a common activity. The lack of concern for the environment most often shown by prospectors and mining companies in the past has led to a loss of key ecological characteristics and tourism potential of some protected areas. Fig. 5.20 shows the EPLs and ML that have been granted in the Erongo Region.

5.3.3.2 Uranium Mining

Erongo has its share of the mining potential in Namibia and there are numerous reconnaissance and prospecting licences for base metals, uranium, diamonds, gemstones and gold (Fig. 5.21). Over the recent years the increasing profitability in the uranium market has seen several new Namibian uranium projects emerge39. In addition to the physical impacts of open pit mining the consumption, transport and discharge of water are key issues from an environmental point of view. Although close, none of the proposed mines are directly in the

37 Minerals Policy of Namibia (2006) 38 Prospecting and Mining in Protected Areas 39 The spot price of uranium hit an all-time high of $136 per pound in June 2007, up from $7 in 2000, which has spurred a new rush to find deposits of the material (Mining Weekly 20 Sept. 2007).

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SEA area, but since the dimensions of uranium mining are huge impacts may reach beyond a mine’s immediate surroundings40.

One mine, the Langer Heinrich Mine (Plate 5.16), is now in operation and another, the Trekkopje Uranium Project has completed their EIA process and entered into feasibility phase. According to the developers Trekkopje is expected to become one of the world’s ten largest uranium mines when it enters into production, and will also be one of the top five low-cost, open pit uranium operations. A third development is the Valencia Uranium Project which is also in the feasibility phase. The two latter projects will operate desalination plants to cover their water consumption. The fourth uranium development is less progressed than those just mentioned, but has made headlines since the licence covers areas approaching the ecologically sensitive Sandwich Harbour.

It is not the purpose of an SEA to evaluate individual projects and for all these projects EIAs have been or will be carried out to clarify the impacts of the individual project. The main point to be made in an SEA context is that the combined effect of impacts such as water and power consumption, tailings issues and transport should be evaluated on a regional basis. Thus, water extraction has been addressed and the most recent projects have been asked to be self- reliant with respect to water and have opted for desalination plants. Following this SEA the Namibian Chamber of Mines has embarked on an SEA for the “Namibian Uranium Province” including all uranium mining and prospecting sites.

40 Rio Tinto's Rössing Uranium mine in Namibia hopes to extend the life of the mine to 2021 and aims to boost output by 12,5% to 4 500 t in 2008 (Mining Weekly 20 Sept. 2007).

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Figure 5.16: An overview of EPLs and ML operations in the Erongo Region based on Sep 2012 map (Source: www.mme.gov.na – Accessed Sep 2012).

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Figure 5.21: Uranium licenses area of Erongo coastal zone (Source: MME, 2012).

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Plate 5.16: The Langer Heinrich Uranium Mine (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012).

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5.3.3.3 Metal Prospecting and Mining in the Dune Belt

Licenses for the extraction of resources from the dune belt between Walvis Bay and Swakopmund are awarded to several companies. The area is heavily utilised by Namibia’s second and third largest towns both for recreational and tourist activities. In the future, increasing urbanisation will take place in the area from Lover’s Hill in Walvis Bay to Mile 4 north of Swakopmund and the Dune belt will serve as a recreational area for even more people. It may be considered whether the gains acquired from renewed prospecting or mining licences justifies the exclusion of other profitable and beneficial uses of the area. The diversity of the economic activities may also add robustness to the Namibian economy.

5.3.3.4 Saltworks

The saltworks in Walvis Bay and Swakopmund have long term concessions on salt extraction from seawater. Salt pans are highly productive biological environments and provide rich food supplies for waders and flamingos. The salt pans constitute a huge wetland area, albeit artificial, and for this reason alone the saltworks should be encouraged to maintain production.

5.3.2.5 Energy

The Southern African region is facing a diminishing electricity generation surplus capacity and the region, including Namibia has completely run out of surplus capacity. The Erongo Region with its expanding industrial base driven by possible new mines being open faces a major challenge due to the likely lack of electricity. The government have promoted the Kudu Gas Project which is planned to supply gas to a proposed power plant in Oranjemund of 800 MW for 22 years and is also looking into the coal power plant near Arandis as well as the hydropower generation on the Kunene River to contribute towards the solution to this problem.

5.3.3.6 Petroleum Exploration

A number of Petroleum Licenses have been issued by the Ministry of Mines and Energy covering the both the onshore and offshore sections of the Erongo Region (Fig. 5.22). According the offshore and onshore geological setting of Namibia, the offshore section of the region forms part of the potential petroleum explorative Walvis Basin while the onshore Huab Basin hold potential for both petroleum resources and Coal Bed Methane (CBMs) opportunities. Both the offshore and onshore petroleum exploration operations have an influence on the local coastal biodiversity. In an event of an accidental oil spill particularly from the shallow offshore operations, there is high probability that the oil slick may rich the coastal areas. Although major accidental oil spills are very rare, it presents one of the most serious risks to the biodiversity and key conservation areas of the Erongo Region including the Sandwich Harbour, Walvis Bay Lagoon, Swakopmund Salt works and Capecross Reserve.

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Figure 5.22: An overview of petroleum exploration operations in degree square (Blocks) covering the onshore and offshore areas of the Kunene Region based on Sep 2012 map (Source: www.namcor.com.na – Accessed Sep 2012).

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5.3.4 Other Coastal and Marine Resources

5.3.4.1 Guano

On seabird roosting areas guano may accumulate in amounts that can be feasible to exploit for the fertiliser market (Plate 5.17). Bird Island north of Walvis Bay and the platforms in the Cape Cross salt pan are examples of artificial platforms from which guano is collected at regular intervals. A proposal for the construction of a similar platform in Sandwich Harbour has been put forward from a local entrepreneur.

5.3.4.2 Seals

Colonies of Cape fur seals occur in several locations on the Erongo coast, but the Cape Cross Seal Reserve was proclaimed in 1968 particularly to protect the Cape fur seal, Arctocephalus pusillus. The reserve has a total area of 60 km² which is currently inhabited by some 293,000 seals41. Access to the reserve is controlled and in Erongo it is only at Cape Cross that licensed seal harvesting takes place. Presently, the national catch is less than the recent total allowable annual catch for 2007-2009 of 80,000 pups and 6,000 bulls. The catch is primarily processed locally at a factory in Henties Bay. The culling of the Namibian Cape fur seals is disputed internationally by NGOs42.

5.3.4.3 Aquaculture

On the Erongo coast Namibia has had an aquaculture sector based in Walvis Bay, Swakopmund and Henties Bay for some time. Fresh-water aquaculture does not take place on the coast, and the freshwater aquaculture sector is generally small-scale and catering for a local market, while the marine sector operates on a larger investment scale and produces for export. The successful oyster farms in Walvis Bay and Swakopmund have stimulated the development of aquaculture. A recent red tide severely impacted the marine based oyster farming industry.

Aquaculture has gained considerable interest in Namibia over the last few years since the current National Development Plan (NDP-4) calls for the promotion of aquaculture activities and the national policy paper Vision 2030 foresees a thriving aquaculture industry. Since 2003 the Aquaculture Act has provided a legislative context, and the policy paper Towards the Responsible Development of Aquaculture (2001) and the Aquaculture Strategy (2004) were developed to address the enhancement of a sustainable aquaculture sector. A detailed plan for development of the sector in Erongo and Karas Regions (MCA Namibia Programme - Poverty reduction through economic growth, 8 September 2006) was submitted. It proposes:

 An Aqua Park for oyster farming in Walvis Bay at Pelican Point. The area is under the jurisdiction of Namport, is located within the boundaries of the Walvis Bay Nature Reserve and it has recently been zoned for aquaculture. It is a large development and will accommodate 10-20 oyster farms in a 1200 ha area;

 The plan also proposes the construction of an Aqua Park facility at each of the coastal towns: Henties Bay Mile 4 and/or Mile 17 (Swakopmund) and Lüderitz (second lagoon). The latter is not in the SEA area. In addition, the Walvis Bay Town Council has zoned two plots between Walvis Bay and Swakopmund for aquaculture development with land based facilities. These latter developments propose to produce shrimp, finfish and abalone. No kelp production is proposed in Erongo.

41 H. Skrypzeck, MFMR pers. comm. 42 The estimates of the income generated annually range from 600,000 to 5 million N$ annually depending on the source

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Plate 5.17: Guano platform, Walvis Bay (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012).

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5.3.4 Regional and Local Infrastructure Development

5.3.4.1 Coastal Land Use Regional Context

The Erongo RDP 2001/2002 – 2005/2006 acknowledges that some 63% of the estimated 120,800 total population in 2000 are urbanised43 and settled in the towns of Walvis Bay, Swakopmund and Henties Bay on the coast, and in the inland towns of Omaruru, Karibib, Arandis, Usakos and Uis. Walvis Bay and Swakopmund are identified as “possible growth points” in terms of regional and national infrastructure development. The vision for the region links a “spatial-economic development model” and a “human-environmental development model,” and seeks to diversify the economy towards the secondary and tertiary sectors and to de-concentrate population resources away from the main centres, “with the focus of providing development and services to outlying areas as a priority.”44

The strategy for urban infrastructure services and housing follows in this vein, and suggests prioritising disadvantaged outlying areas, with little implications for the structuring and management of the coast’s ongoing urban development or for environmental management.

At local level, the Local Authorities Act 1992 establishes a local government for Namibia. It defines the powers, duties and functions of scheduled local authority councils of three types: municipalities (e.g. Walvis Bay, Swakopmund), towns (Henties Bay) or villages (Kamanjab). The Townships and Division of Land Ordinance of 1963 regulates the establishment of townships and the development and subdivision of land. The preparation and application of town planning schemes is mandated by the Town Planning Ordinance of 1954. The Town and Country Planners Act 1996 establishes the Namibian Council for Town and Regional Planners and provides for the registration of town and regional planners, of which there are some 35 in the country. The enactment of the draft Urban and Regional Planning Bill 2003, and of its associated regulations, would serve to reform the planning system and provide for a more coordinated set (or package) of land use plans from the national through the regional and local levels.45 It will also tighten and extend the power of town planning schemes.

Under the Town Planning Ordinance, all scheduled local authorities are required to prepare a Town Planning Scheme for their area of jurisdiction. Walvis Bay, Swakopmund and Henties Bay have all complied with the ordinance. These statutory instruments serve as land use control and/or facilitation plans, and typically indicate the permitted land uses or the restrictive conditions applying to particular zones of land (industrial, commercial, residential, etc.). The formulation and amendment of schemes is politically inflicted, as municipal councils have the power to make proposals with regard to zoning categories or to suggest changes to the schemes. In accordance with the ordinance, however, the evaluation and amendment of town planning schemes is carried out by the Namibian Planning Advisory Board (NAMPAB). On NAMPAB’s advice, the Minister of Regional and Local Government and Housing (MRLGH) approves town planning schemes through a notice in the Government Gazette.

Although it is not mandatory at present (it would be under the new Urban and Regional Planning Bill when enacted), the schemes are typically framed by Structure Plans. These are long-term, non-statutory guide plans for urban development that are based upon intensive analysis of economic, social, spatial and environmental conditions. The three scheduled areas

43 This is an overestimate as recent figures indicate a population closer to 110,000 making the urban population around 65,000. 44 Erongo Region Regional Development Plan 2001/2002 – 2005/2006, Erongo Regional Council, 2000, p. 32. 45 The SAIEA report for NACOMA, op cit, provides a full analysis of land use and planning legislation at local level (pp.30-35) and an assessment of the functioning of the planning system and relevant institutions (pp. 88-94).

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 156 - in Erongo all have in place what in formal terms are well-executed structure plans.46 Of the three, only Walvis Bay has an Environmental Policy in place, and a staff complement – two environmental officers and a manager – dedicated to urban environmental management. Increasingly and in pursuance of Namibia’s Environmental Assessment Policy the local three authorities are requiring that bigger development applications be accompanied by Environmental Impact Assessments.

The area is some 100 km long and incorporates the three municipalities of Walvis Bay, Swakopmund and Henties Bay, as well as the holiday home village of Wlotzkasbaken, which as a declared settlement area falls under the authority of the Erongo Regional Council. Each of the towns is located on or close to the mouth or floodplain of three of the four ephemeral rivers coming down to the Erongo coast, the Kuiseb, Swakop and Omaruru, respectively. The sub- region includes the only part of the Namibian coastline with little nature protection status, the area stretching from the Kuiseb River Delta just south of Walvis Bay to Mile 14 north of Swakopmund. This specific area is the most urbanised and developed portion of the coast. Indeed, according to the Walvis Bay Structure Plan, Walvis Bay, Swakopmund and Lüderitz are the only desert coastal towns in Africa south of the Sahara.

The sub-region is the focus of coastal development activity in Namibia and also of intense controversy over the terms of the necessary balance that still needs to be struck between conservation and the development stemming from extraction of its natural resources and urban development. The measures that should be taken to achieve such compromise also need clarification. The interests of stakeholders differ considerably. Despite years, if not decades, of study and of management initiatives, including two large-scale development projects in the post-1996 period co-funded by the Namibian and Danish governments (the Integrated Coastal Zone Management Project for the Erongo Region, and the Walvis Bay Local Agenda 21 Project), the debate between them is still raging.

In what follows, land use, biodiversity/conservation, environmental planning and management practices in the urbanised sub-region are assessed in terms of their efficacy in dealing with key urban and economic development issues, including those related to tourism – with this seen against the backdrop of the overall policy framework and management system (i.e. PPPs) as outlined in the previous chapter. The focus is on land use planning and management, which forms the ‘core’ of the system.

The spatial emphasis falls upon what can be seen as an “urban coastal area.” This is broadly defined as the area reaching some 500 m inland from the high water mark within the built-up areas of the three towns, and also within the terrain in-between. Of particular importance are areas where pressures and impacts are most apparent – and contested – as a result of actual or proposed development projects. Developments in the Walvis Bay area, where contention is most virulent, receive the most attention.

The national, regional and local legislative, policy and planning framework in operation was discussed at more length in the previous chapter and assessed at the aggregate level. As per the Town Planning Ordinance of 1954 all three towns under consideration have Town Planning Schemes (TPS) in place. In addition, the three towns also have ‘voluntary’ and council- approved Structure Plans (SP). Walvis Bay’s and Swakopmund’s plans date back to 1999 and 2000 respectively, and Henties Bay’s to 2003. The Town Planning Schemes in place have been amended as necessary, and Walvis Bay’s Structure Plan has just been reviewed, in the first half of 2007.

Urban development in Walvis Bay is also regulated by a Policy for Residential Densities, a Peri-Urban Land Use Policy, the Long Beach - Dolphin Beach Structure Plan and Long Beach

46 The Town Planning Schemes and Structure Plans will be discussed and evaluated in Section 3, with the exception of with the Henties Bay Town Planning Scheme, which the consultant team was not as yet provided with by Henties Bay Municipality.

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Design Guidelines, the Integrated Environmental Policy and Coastal Area Strategy and Action Plan and the Coastline Strategic Environmental Assessment, which was conducted by the consultants EnviroSolutions. The Integrated Environmental Policy contains a vision for the Coastal Area: “The coastal area will be managed collaboratively by stakeholders in such a fashion that it achieves its potential as a true asset for all Walvis Bay residents in conservation, production and recreation terms.” The Coastal Area Strategy and Action Plan is derived from the Walvis Bay Local Agenda 21 Project, and seeks to promote environmental management by stakeholders, with an emphasis on the monitoring of coastal conditions. In Swakopmund, a Municipal Master Development Plan supplements the structure plan.

The structure plans serve to guide the towns’ overall development for a period of some 10 to 15 years. Their purpose, status and content seem to be little known by the residents of the coastal towns. This is not to blame either the municipalities which try to run participation processes, or their residents, who often do not participate. Given their technical nature, it could be useful for the municipalities to summarise the central thrusts of the structure plans and town planning schemes in brochure form.

This lack of knowledge is unfortunate, as the Walvis Bay and Swakopmund plans, which were conducted by a similar consortium of consultants in the same period and should thus be read together, are both excellent plans. The urban design input in both plans, presumably carried out in part by the South African firm of Uytenbogaardt and Dewar, is particularly good. Both of them make a strong argument for planning for urban development on the regional scale, i.e., the urbanised sub-region from Walvis Bay to Henties Bay, as defined above, and also, more narrowly, for Walvis Bay and Swakopmund to be viewed and planned as an increasingly contiguous urban area. Close to 10 years ago, this regional argument could perhaps be dismissed, given the salience of long-run differences between the individual settlements in economic, political and jurisdictional terms. Today, with rapid urban development in the area, in a Namibia near to reaching the end of its second decade of independence, this perspective is not easily dismissible.

5.3.4.2 Urban Development and Urban Environmental Management

Concern is often expressed by stakeholders about the environmental impacts of urbanisation – the rise in the share of the urban population relative to overall population – on the Namibian coast. NACOMA’s brochure summarises well the perspective commonly taken on the issue, under the heading ‘Human Influence’:

…Namibia has an exceptionally low, and geographically very concentrated, coastal population compared to other countries… Growing economic development and human activities along the coast are leading to unprecedented migration, bringing with it uncontrolled urban development that results in overuse and land based pollution, an increase in industrial, coastal and marine pollution, degradation of water regimes for coastal wetlands, and other land and water degradation… If remaining unchecked and unplanned, this development will result in long-term loss of biodiversity, ecological functioning and, contrary to the national poverty eradication objectives, a reduction of the economic potential of the coast itself. This possibility presents a great challenge to the expanding nature-based tourism industry, which depends upon a healthy environment for its sustainable success.

The Erongo region’s situation is rather different: its approximately 300 km long coastal zone features what is the Namibian coast’s only urbanised sub-region, incorporating the municipalities of Walvis Bay (Plate 5.18 and 5.19), Swakopmund (Plate 5.20) and Henties Bay, and the declared settlement area of Wlotzkasbaken. Approximately half this area, stretching from the Kuiseb River, south of Walvis Bay, to Mile 14 north of Swakopmund, is actually the only part of the Namibian coastline without any nature protection status. The area south of the Kuiseb to the Erongo border, which includes the Sandwich Harbour wetland, is incorporated within the Namib-Naukluft National Park, and the area north of Mile 14 to the boundary with Kunene region falls within the National West Coast Tourist Recreation Area.

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For more than a century, the urbanisation of the Erongo coastal zone has been associated with economic activities that have exploited the sea and land’s natural resources: marine fisheries and fish processing (and now aquaculture), salt refining, mining, port and other transportation activities, and recreational activities and tourism, the latter increasingly nature- based. Managing the impacts of urban and economic development with due regard to protecting and conserving biodiversity of the Erongo coastal zone, as exemplified by the world- renowned wetlands of Sandwich Harbour and the Walvis Bay Lagoon, the Damara tern breeding area between Walvis Bay and Swakopmund, and the lichen fields near Wlotskasbaken and Cape Cross (another protected area) is a principal challenge for stakeholders.

National government policy and plans currently have little to say directly on the issue of urban development. Neither, for that matter, does policy and planning at the regional scale. To put this in perspective, some facts on urban development in Namibia are useful. In 2001, approximately a third of Namibia’s population of 1,826,000, or just over 600,000 people, lived in urban areas. While the country is now urbanising rapidly, at between 4 to 5 per cent per annum, it is unlikely that the 5.6 per cent urban growth rate of the 1980s is being realised, as the Government of Namibia’s overall national development policy, Vision 2030, seems to assert. This makes estimations of a 50 per cent urbanisation rate by 2010 unlikely to be realised.

At around or at slightly higher than a third of its population, Namibia is in fact very close to the African average (in 2003) for urbanisation of 36 per cent. Namibia is also at or around the average African urbanisation rate of 5 per cent. However, the capital and largest city Windhoek’s national primacy (its population as a percentage of overall urban population) of 38 to 40 per cent considerably higher than the African average of 24 per cent.47 The contribution of in-migration to urbanisation in Namibia, as compared to natural urban increase, is not clear. Recent data on migration does not seem to exist. What is incontrovertible is that Windhoek is the major destination for migrants and that in-migration is likely to continue – particularly to Windhoek.48 Namibia’s secondary cities, including Erongo’s coastal towns, are not as popular destinations for in-migrants compared to Windhoek.

47 The African averages come from a recent important report, Christine Kessides, The Urban Transition in Sub- Saharan Africa: Implications for Economic Growth and Poverty Reduction, The Cities Alliance (and Sida and The World Bank), Washington D.C., 2006. Namibia’s population is now held to be 1,900,000 people and Windhoek’s up to 300,000. 48 See Wade Pendleton and Bruce Frayne, “Migration as a Population Dynamic in Namibia,” in Ben Fuller and Isold Prommer, eds., Population-Development-Environment in Namibia: Background Readings (IR-00-31), International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, Laxenburg, Austria, 2000, pp. 273-293.

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Plate 5.18: Walvis Bay (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012).

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Plate 5.19: Long Beach in Walvis Bay (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012).

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Plate 5.20: Swakopmund (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012).

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5.3.4.3 The Port of Walvis Bay

The port of Walvis Bay situated in the Erongo Region is the main port of Namibia (Plate 5.21). It is a modern deepwater port with significant transhipment activity and a key cargo transport node in Namibia; in addition it also hosts the country’s main fishing harbour. It is operated by Namport and one of the few deep ports on the Southern African Coast. Namport has seen increased maritime transport, in particular in the container segment, and with the coming mine openings in Namibia bulk and break bulk will also increase. Presently, Namport is modernising and expanding the harbour, and plans exist to develop towards the southern part of the Bay49.

Namport has implemented an Environmental Management Plan (EMP), incl. ISO 14001 (environmental management) and ISO 9000 (quality management) certifications in Walvis Bay. An EIA for the long term dredging strategies is available.

On the longer term a Master Plan comprising a number of specific projects is under consideration, where the development of the yacht club area and the possibility of a container port area on land north of the naval base have most interference in a SEA context.: The Port Authority is currently busy updating this Masterplan to cater for developments for the next five to ten years50.

The development plan for a harbour in the north is not spearheaded by Namport at this point, since for commercial reasons it would be more feasible to open hubs in other existing ports in neighbouring countries. A quote from the Namport homepage outline the present approach: “We have therefore made a principle decision to concentrate on exploring business opportunities beyond the border of Namibia in specific terms imports and exports to and from Angola, Botswana, Zambia and the Gauteng Region of South Africa”.

However, a clear message is also received that Namport will develop the port once politically decided. The port may serve as a bulk and break bulk terminal depending on the development of the mining in the hinterland.

49 Namport: Port of Walvis Bay Development Plan (draft August 2006) 50 Quote from Namport homepage (http://www.namport.com.na)

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Plate 5.21: The Port of Walvis Bay (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012).

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5.3.4.4 Agriculture and Water Utilisation

The Regional Development Plan of the Erongo Region points to the small scale agricultural production that does take place in the coastal zone of Erongo in the river beds of the Kuiseb and Swakop. In the latter limited commercial farming of vegetables and nursery activities take place. A further development of unexploited areas and water resources is foreseen in the RDP focusing on non-traditional, high value crops rather than subsistence farming. The economic and ecological sustainability of developing commercial agriculture in these and other river beds like Khan, Omaruru, Orawab or Messum, must be carefully assessed before engaging on full scale productions.

Water is a scarce resource in Namibia and the availability of water is a key component when the scene is set for the development potential of an area. For the urban nodes in the Erongo water is piped from the aquifer resources in Rooibank. The long term prospects of the present resource extraction are not sustainable.

5.4 Other PPPs Recommendations

5.4.1 Other PPPs Overview Recommendations

The performance of the resource extraction sectors inclusive of the demersal fisheries (pelagic fisheries remains weak) and mining, particularly uranium which underpin economic development of the Erongo Region is improving significantly after a period of slow growth. Tourism, as will be seen below, is also doing fairly well, and there is much potential for oil and gas development finally getting off the ground. This economic growth is necessary if the high rates of poverty and unemployment in the Erongo Region are to be reduced. National development policy and planning – and in its path regional development planning – is strongly focused on reducing disparities across the space of the country and its regions, and is concentrated on rural development. The process of urban transition is acknowledged, but as with many other African countries, the positive benefits of urban development for economic growth and poverty reduction still go under-recognised, or are even discounted. Windhoek’s growth, in particular, seems to be regarded with something approaching alarm.

Based on the land suitable assessment that has been undertaken for the coastal zone of the Erongo Region especially around Walvis Bay, Swakopmund and Henties Bay key priority conservation and biodiversity hotspot areas have been delineated with respect to other policies, plans and programmes (PPPs). Unsuitable land uses are constraint by the conservation priority sensitivity of the receiving environment and no unsustainable policies, plan or programmes shall be allowed in key priority conservation and biodiversity hotspot areas. Table 5.11 summarises the likely conflicts and possible solutions with respect to the coastal land use for conservation and other polies, plan and programmes development and implementation in the coastal zone of the Erongo Region.

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Table 5.11: Likely conservation and other PPPs conflicts and solutions with respect to coastal land uses in the Erongo Region.

ORGAN OF POLICY/ PLAN LIKELY CONFLICTS STATE / PROGRAMME WITH CONSERVATION POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS AREAS Mineral Prospecting Highly likely particularly if No Mineral exploration activities shall be allowed in / Exploration future exploration activities are key priority conservation areas. The Ministry of allowed in these areas and Environment and Tourism must make sure that they Other Mining new economic mineral deposits have a representative at the Minerals Prospecting and Activities are discovered Mining Rights Committee meetings at all times in order MME to ensure that no new mineral exploration rights area awarded in key conservation priority areas Likely due the offshore section Operators must undertake oil spill / dispersion

of the region forming part of the modelling as part of the EIA and development of the Petroleum potential petroleum explorative EMP before a well drilling operation is allowed. Exploration and Walvis Basin while the onshore Operators wanting to undertake petroleum drilling Possible Production Huab Basin hold potential for operations must fully comply with all the national both petroleum resources and regulations related to the prevention and management Coal Bed Methane in their Oil Spill Contingency Plans (OSCP) linked to opportunities. the national and international response plans, with human and equipment support Salt mining Highly likely particularly if A full Environmental Assessment covering Scoping, possible salt production areas EIA and EMP must be undertaken before any suitable are identified without taking salt production area is delineated in order delineate into considerations key key priority conservation areas. Salt production must conservations priority areas always strive to incorporate multiple land uses covering salt production, tourism and conservation in the operations Power generation Unlikely due to lack of A full Environmental Assessment covering Scoping, and transmission supporting infrastructure and EIA and EMP must be undertaken if power generation urban development and transmission opportunities are considered in the general area Tourism Highly likely particularly if no Clear guidelines / control measures must be Conservation and control measures are put in developed and put in place and studies / assessments MET research place to manage tourism, on land carrying capacities undertaken with respect to conservation and research tourism, conservation and research. activities Desalination Unlikely due to lack of A full Environmental Assessment covering Scoping, MWAF supporting infrastructure and EIA and EMP must be undertaken if such opportunities urban development are considered in the general area Aquaculture and Highly likely particularly if A full Environmental Assessment covering Scoping, MFMR mariculture possible areas are identified EIA and EMP must be undertaken before any suitable Other Marine without taking into areas are selected in order delineate key priority Resources harvesting considerations key conservation areas. conservations priority areas ALL ORGANS Education and Moderately likely particularly if Clear guidelines / control measures must be OF STATE training no control measures are put in developed and put in place to manage education and place to manage training by other Organs of State

REGIONAL AND Other Regional and Highly likely particularly if A full Environmental Assessment covering Scoping, LOCAL Local (Walvis Bay, possible areas are identified EIA and EMP must be undertaken before any suitable AUTHORITIES Swakopmund and Henties Bay) without taking into areas are selected for various land uses and in Infrastructures considerations key particular coastal urban land uses in order to delineate Development conservations priority areas key priority conservation areas.

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5.4.2 Tourism Opportunities and Constraints

A White Paper on Tourism, which reflected the findings and recommendations of the National Tourism Development Plan 1993-1997, was approved by Cabinet in 1994. In recent years it has been augmented by the development of A National Tourism Policy for Namibia. It is understood that this policy is now close to being launched.51 Tourism is also emphasised in Vision 2030. Although it is not mentioned as yet as a specific sectoral goal in NDP3, it will certainly be regarded as a priority area for growth. Vision 2030 acknowledges that despite tourism’s “very important role in economic development…its full potential has neither been explored nor exploited.” Accordingly, the sub-vision for Wildlife and Tourism is declared as follows:

The integrity of Namibia’s natural habitats and wildlife populations are maintained, whilst significantly supporting national socio-economic development through sustainable, low-impact consumptive and non-consumptive tourism.52

This aspiration is echoed by the National Tourism Policy, which sets out its vision as follows: Namibia will develop the tourism industry in a sustainable and responsible manner to contribute significantly to the economic development of Namibia and the quality of life of all her people – primarily through job creation and economic growth. 53

The policy strongly emphasises the two related tourism concepts above, sustainability and responsibility. The principle of sustainable tourism “implies the planning of tourism activities in such a manner that visitor satisfaction is retained, the industry is profitable, the fragile environment is protected, and the natural resources are sparingly utilised for the benefit of current and future generations.”54 It must be seen within the context of the understanding that it is Namibia’s environmental resources – in simple terms, the country’s nature and wildlife – that are the key basis for its tourism industry. Accordingly, responsible tourism is to be promoted, as: …an approach aimed at ensuring that Namibia develops tourism that is economically, socially and environmentally sustainable – tourism that contributes positively to the local and national economy, the local environment and the empowerment of local people and, ultimately, to the quality of life of all Namibians. This means encouraging the sort of tourism that has the greatest chance of providing a long-term future for local communities, where ongoing market demand is most likely to sustain tourism businesses and where tourism can assist in environmental conservation.55

Environmental planning and management considerations are built into Namibia’s tourism policy. Planning and land use issues are well-covered. Land use planning is vital to regional economic development, and specifically to tourism, and land use plans will be incorporated into regional economic development plans and regional tourism strategies. Tourism facilities are to “minimise their impact on the environment in terms of both resource utilisation and visual impact,” with mechanisms such as EIAs to assure this. New tourism developments, in particular, are to be “designed in such a way that they are unobtrusive, environmentally sympathetic and, as far as possible, enhance rather than detract from the visual impression of the environment.”56

51 The consultant is in possession of the fourth draft of the policy, dated June 30th 2005. The process has been ongoing since 1999. 52 Vision 2030, op cit, p. 152. 53 A National Tourism Policy for Namibia, Fouth Draft, 2005, p. 6. 54 Ibid, p. 25. 55 Ibid, p. 2. 56 Ibid, p. 15.

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5.4.3 Fisheries

5.4.3.1 Walvis Bay Aquaculture Recommendations

The aquaculture development near Pelican Point is in waters zoned for port activities and the planned area is in the proximity of the dredge spoil dump site nearest to the harbour. An EMP for the Aqua Park should include provisions for retrieving oysters when dredging and spoil dumping is in progress. Fig. 5.23 shows the modelled suitability areas for development of land- based and marine aquaculture (in green) for the region covered by the Walvis Bay Structure Plan Review Proposals.

Figure 5.23: The modelled suitability areas for development of land-based and marine aquaculture (in green) for the region covered by the Walvis Bay Structure Plan Review Proposals.

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5.4.3.2 Swakopmund Aquaculture Recommendations

It will be necessary for SM and MFMR to decide jointly which portions of the land between Mile 4 and the Mile 4 Saltworks should be allocated to aquaculture and which to possible future urban development. In principle, both uses can be accommodated providing measures are taken to mitigate any impacts from the essentially industrial processes which characterise aquaculture. The area north of the Saltworks is seemingly more suitability for land-based aquaculture development (Fig. 5.24). An EIA is recommended for any future developments of scale in the area.

Figure 5.24: The modelled suitable areas for development of land-based aquaculture for the Swakopmund area (in green).

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5.4.4 Minerals and Petroleum Resources Exploration and Utilisation

Contrary to the situation in many other countries Namibia’s parks are not strictly protected, and only by exemption subject to the exploitation of minerals, oil and gas. The provisions of the Prospecting and Mining Act of 1992 gives MME the “right of way” since the development of mining is considered crucial to the Namibian economy. Yet, recently the MME has emphasised proper environmental operation of prospecting and mining in the licensing procedures and the policy envisages controlled prospecting and mining in these areas under conditions that satisfy the protection of the environment.

The present SEA can be seen as a part of the commitment of the Government to ensure that short to medium term projects such as mining do not jeopardize the potential for long-term sustainable development in tourism. As the Policy reads:

In order to reconcile the objectives of mineral exploitation and environmental protection, it is essential that the negative impacts of prospecting or mining activities on the environment be minimised in accordance with international best practice. Commitments, in respect of prospecting and mining activities, have to be made in line with strategies developed for the environmental protection.

Although a number of mineral concessions in protected areas were granted before the development of the new environmental guidelines, provisions to regulate the access to these areas is available and can be used to protect them against further environmental degradation.

Government will ensure that exploration and mining within Protected Areas complies with the environmental and economic regulatory frameworks.

The two ministries Ministry of Environment and Tourism (MET) and Ministry of Mines and Energy (MME) have been tasked to ensure that mineral development only commences in Protected Areas when rehabilitation is guaranteed.

It is defined policy of Namibia to develop small scale mining. Small scale miners are expected to adhere to an environmental contract, but the issuing and policing of the contracts have been slow and not efficient:

Government will ensure compliance by small-scale miners with environmentally acceptable mining practices through regular monitoring.

MME and MET will implement a system to monitor compliance with the Environmental Contract. There is an increased focus on the remediation of all the soil activities in mining both with respect to prospecting and mining at all scales.

5.4.5 Regional and Local Infrastructure Opportunities and Constraints

5.4.5.1 Regional Overview

It is in the coastal area between Walvis Bay and Swakopmund that most change is anticipated by the revisions. The area from the edge of the existing Built-Up Area through to the northern boundary of Long Beach, with the exception of three small areas reserved for public beaches and recreation, will be subject to infill developments of various types, mostly of a residential character but also port-related and for eco-tourism and aquaculture uses. The area will be wholly urbanised. North of Long Beach, in the currently state-owned land, two areas of possible new residential development are now proposed, these to be interspersed with a mixed-use conservation, eco-tourism and aquaculture zone, and no development zones. Three recreational areas are provided for in the Dune belt.

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Urban sprawl along the coast between Swakopmund and Walvis Bay should be prevented. The conceptual model of temporary accommodation for visitors between nodes of more permanent occupation, which is found northward along the coast, should be applied along this section of the coast as well. Seen in this light, the historical decision to establish a small node of permanent dwelling at Langstrand simply represents a different form of sprawl. In terms of this argument, there may be a case for establishing one more node, in the form of a compact camping site, for national and international visitors who wish to enjoy the solitude of the dune and coastal experience, to the back of the beach. It is important that the open stretch of beach which currently exists between Swakopmund and Langstrand should be retained.

5.4.5.2 Walvis Bay Urban Land Use Perspectives

The inconsistencies between various WBM policies and planning instruments and the proposed revisions for land use in the coastal area between Walvis Bay and Swakopmund are pointed out above. It is now incumbent upon Walvis Bay Municipality to resolve the inconsistencies between the original SP, the Peri-Urban Land Use Policy, the Coastline SEA and the SP revisions. The maps prepared for this report by the consultant indicate high biodiversity values in the northern part of the coastal area (Fig. 5.25). These land use suitability maps indicate a lack of suitability for land uses other than eco-tourism (Fig. 5.26). This area remains undeveloped, and the only proposal for development that was subjected to an EIA in recent years – a residential area near the Swakopmund River in 2002 – was rejected by MET on the basis of the EIA and the Peri-Urban Policy.

In view of its biodiversity and recreational and landscape values, it is our recommendation that the area, which is still in any event state land, be maintained solely as a Conservation Area, as per the original SP and Peri-Urban Land Use Policy. The proposals for nodal residential developments near the Swakop River Mouth and in the Caution Reef area should be rejected. The Conservation, Eco-Tourism and Aquaculture – these are uses that do not fit easily with one another – zone at Caution Reef should also be rejected.

It is also our recommendation that the fait accompli of urban and economic development on the southern part of the coast be accepted by stakeholders. This development started nearly 20 years ago with the proclamation and development of Long Beach. It was given ample room for expansion by WBM’s rezoning in 2003 and the subsequent development of Long Beach Extension 1 and of the three new residential areas that are now either underway or planned for the near-term future.

The currently on WSP revision proposes a mix of industrial (harbour/port, notably a Bulk Cargo Handling Facility, and aquaculture), residential and public beach/recreational activities in the area. These should be accepted. More analysis will have to be done on the means that can be used, such as design guidelines and buffer zones, for assuring that these very different land uses do not conflict with one another, with negative impacts for residents and the natural environment, in a spatial context in which there is not, as yet, industrial development (Figs. 5.25 – 5.29). All potential industrial developments should, at minimum, be subjected to comprehensive Environmental Impact Assessments. Moreover, for each application Walvis Bay Municipality and the applicant should also jointly explore the alternative possibility of re- use or redevelopment of vacant/unused or brownfield industrial space in the existing industrially-zoned areas and in the Fishing Harbour area.

At the same time, sufficient public beach and recreational space and access to it for residents will be needed to also be assured. Given that the land-use suitability models indicate low suitability for aquaculture and high suitability for tourism the potential for increased recreational uses of the area should set the scene. There is, in general terms, a lack of congruence between the revisions proposed for both the sub-regional concept and the coastal area when they are compared to the original SP, the Peri-Urban Land Use Plan, and the recommendations in the Coastline SEA. The process for the revision of the Walvis Bay Municipality Structure Plan will be concluded in the next months. This will involve, in part, the

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 171 - discussion and approval of the proposals. This process provides a valuable opportunity for Walvis Bay Municipality and other stakeholders to resolve the land use and zoning issues that have caused controversy for a long period.

Figure 5.25: The modelled areas/habitats of conservation priority for the region covered by the Walvis Bay Structure Plan Review Proposals with respect to the key conservation priority areas.

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Figure 5.26: The modelled suitability areas for eco-tourism (in green) for the region covered by the Walvis Bay Structure Plan Review Proposals.

Figure 5.27: The current infrastructures of Walvis Bay (and including areas designated for urban development according to town planning schemes.

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Figure 5.28: The modelled suitability areas for port development (in green) for the region covered by the Walvis Bay Structure Plan Review Proposals.

Figure 5.29: The modelled suitability areas for urban development (in green) for the region covered by the Walvis Bay Structure Plan Review Proposals.

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5.4.5.3 Swakopmund Urban Land Use Perspectives

Two areas of high conservation priority are located in the vicinity of Swakopmund including the river bed and associated areas of the Swakop River and the Mile 4 Saltworks (Fig. 5.30). The river bed and associated areas of the Swakop River constitute an area of very diverse geological, geo-morphological, floral and faunal characteristics, including areas of high topographic complexity, rocky outcrops and permanent vegetation including the protected Welwitschia and the Quiver tree. The diversity of habitats support a high number of insect, reptile and bird species. The western-most part overlaps with the area planned for urban development by Swakopmund Municipality. The area just south of the river mouth houses the most important colony of Damara terns in the world.

The brief for A Long Term Plan for Swakopmund, Swakopmund Municipality’s SP, was for the development of a strategic spatial plan for the town. In the approach followed, much emphasis was placed on integrating what was seen as a fragmented urban fabric, on reducing high levels of sprawl (spread-out development) in the town by making it more compact, on improving spatial equity and convenience with regard to facilities for residents, and on reinforcing and enhancing a sense of place.

Swakopmund’s coastal area was central to all of these issues. In particular, it was argued that sprawl, which had the effect of ‘privatising’ public coastal amenities, should be limited by preventing further lateral expansion northward along the coast, that growth on the coast should be focused in higher density nodes, and that improving access to and facilities on the coast – via such means as a coastal scenic drive, the development of nodes for active recreation on the coast and the conservation of the rest of the beach zone for passive recreation – was central to strengthening Swakopmund’s character and identity as a unique coastal and desert place that was attractive to both tourists and residents. As the document put it, Swakopmund is the coastal playground of Namibia and is an increasingly important attractor of international tourists. Its environment is its greatest economic asset and its strongest element of international and national comparative advantage. It is imperative not only to preserve its character and sense of place, deriving from both the natural and the built environment, but actively to enhance it.57

At the regional scale, the SP argued strongly for the integration of Walvis Bay and Swakopmund into “a functional entity, which operates to the advantage of both towns.”58 An inter-town working committee to advise the councils of the two towns was proposed. In line with the emphasis on concentrating rather than spreading urban development, it was emphasised that “The settlement pattern north of Swakopmund, with small permanent settlements serving temporary ones should be retained. Swakopmund itself should not expand northward along the coast.” Echoing the Walvis Bay SP, the area south of the town was to be carefully planned, and left undisturbed in its natural state as much as possible.

Urban development should not be allowed immediately south of the Swakop River. The wilderness vista abutting the river, as one approaches the town from the south is an important part of the quality of the space.59

57 A Long Term Plan for Swakopmund Volume 2: Detailed Recommendations, 2000. 58 Ibid p. 14. 59 Ibid p. 16.

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At the scale of the overall town, too, the need for sensitive planning of the coastal area was highlighted, in particular the imperative of improving access to the coast at selected points, while simultaneously protecting and creating view lines for both desert and sea. Urban design recommendations for the built-up area followed these imperatives, and are focused on preserving the historic town heart (or centre), including the abutting portions of the coastal area. The sea front, in fact, was held to be “a fundamental part of the uniqueness of Swakopmund and it should be accessible to, and thus ‘owned’ by all of the inhabitants of the town in perpetuity.”60 A “Beach Area” zone in the Swakopmund Town Planning Amendment Scheme No. 12 (2002) follows the SP in reserving the sea front area for public beach activities. The scheme also features a Conservation Area and a height restriction of 13m. A 4-Year and 12-Year Plans provides prioritised proposals for budgeting and for policy purposes for the two periods.

In a general sense, Swakopmund Municipality (SM) has successfully followed the SP’s guidance and implemented several of its specific proposals. The Municipality appears to be in control of development in the town’s coastal area and is well aware of its importance for the town’s identity and tourist industry – and hence the need to maintain its character and utility, and to upgrade it as necessary via the means of strategic investments. The area of coastal terrain under jurisdiction stretches about 25 km from the Swakop River to beyond the formal boundary at Mile 4, thus including the Saltworks and a Chinese Satellite Station. About four to five km of this is government land, and SM would like to organise a land swap if possible.

Shaped by the analysis and recommendations of its SP, as well as the commitment of many of its residents, Swakopmund, has been able to successfully plan and manage its urbanised coastal area. While expensive residential development has continued northwards up the coast, and with it what the SP describes as urban sprawl, this has been contained within formal municipal boundaries, and has not elicited the degree of public concern and conflict that has been seen in Walvis Bay. In view of its significance for the town and its residents, development in the Swakopmund coast should continue to be carefully planned and managed. The modelled suitable areas for eco-tourism and urban development with respect to biodiversity around Swakopmund are shown in Figs. 5.31 and 5.32 respectively.

60 Ibid pp. 27-28.

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Figure 5.30: Mile 4 Saltworks and the lower reaches of the Swakop River and areas/habitats of conservation priority.

Figure 5.31: The modelled suitable areas for eco-tourism (in green) for the Swakopmund area.

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Figure 5.32: The modelled suitable areas for urban development for the Swakopmund area (in green).

5.4.6 Minerals and Petroleum Exploration Recommendations

New reconnaissance, prospecting or mining licences should not be granted in all key coastal biodiversity hotspots once the existing licenses expire. The Ministry of Environment and Tourism must make sure that they have a representative at the Minerals Prospecting and Mining Rights Committee meetings at all times in order to ensure that no new mineral exploration rights area awarded in key conservation priority areas.

The Division of Engineering and Environmental Geology (DEEG) is establishing continuous contacts with the mining companies concerning environmental monitoring. Aspects like excessive water supply, dust emission and pollution of surface- as well as groundwater are causing adverse impacts to the geo-ecosystem. The division conducts independent monitoring programmes by sampling of soil, stream sediments, water and vegetation. It is crucial that the collaboration with MET be improved. In this respect the implementation of the renewed agreement between MME and MET on these matters should be carefully monitored.

Presently, the water supply to mines is left to the individual company. This may cause suboptimal water extraction/desalination and distribution patterns to emerge. In addition to economic and ecological sub-optimisation, the existence of several pipelines across the desert will present serious hindrances to the foraging and migration of game, and the total cost of the necessary remediation activities will be higher.

All petroleum exploration operators in the offshore waters with direct influence to the coastal zone of the Erongo Region in an event of an oil spill must undertake oil spill / dispersion modelling as part of the EIA and development of the EMP before a well drilling operation is allowed. Operators wanting to undertake petroleum drilling operations must fully comply with all the national regulations related to the prevention and management in their Oil Spill

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Contingency Plans (OSCP) linked to the national and international response plans, with human and equipment support.

5.4.7 Energy

There is no policy directed toward the establishment of energy facilities in the Erongo coastal region per se. Proposals for nuclear energy production near WB has been presented as an attempt to use some of the uranium produced in Namibia for the good of the Namibians. Nuclear power does not at present comprise a part the National Energy Policy61. Although the Government of Namibia has declared that the country will move towards the sustainable use of natural resources for energy production and consumption and although the environment of the regions may offer great potential for both wind and solar power no governmental plans or feasibility studies have yet been made to boost the production of renewable energy.

5.4.8 Agriculture and Water Utilisation Recommendations

The current water consumption in the Erongo Region is over-utilised the water resource of both the Omaruru and Kuiseb Ephemeral River Aquifers (Fig. 5.33). Desalination plants are considered whenever future water demands are discussed, in particular with mining and tourism developments. An economically feasible project has not yet emerged, but other coastal developments in arid zones have resorted to this solution and the cost of the technology is decreasing.

The recent increased interest in developing the uranium and other mineral resources in or near the coastal zone of Erongo could form the basis for a single desalination plant reaping the benefits of large scale production. In addition this will entail a more rational layout of a pipeline grid to the mining companies. It is recommended to consider licensing a private or public operator to operate a desalination plant providing water to the large mining developments on long term contracts.

61 White Paper on Energy Policy 1998

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Figure 5.33: Pipelines and productive aquifers in Erongo Region.

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6. COASTAL ZONE OIL SPILL VULNERABILITY

6.1 Biodiversity Hotspots in Erongo and Kunene Regions

The spatial perspective is used to assess current biodiversity conservation and other relevant environmental management practices in particular priority areas. These key conservation priority areas are often biodiversity hotspots, in the coastal zones of the Erongo and Kunene Regions. This chapter assess the likely vulnerability of these key coastal biodiversity hotspots to potential accidental oil spill from current and future offshore and onshore petroleum exploration operations and other marine activities including international shipping and fisheries operations. These PPPs with potential for an accidental oil spill comprise national level policies, plans or programmes and require effective management plans focused on local level land use. The following is the summary of the key coastal biodiversity hotspot areas that have been assessed with respect to:

(i) Erongo Region:

 Sandwich Harbour;

 Walvis Bay Wetland;

 Urbanised Coastal Area Walvis Bay – Swakopmund – Henties Bay;

 Dorob National Park;

 Dune belt;

 National West Coast Tourist Recreation Area, including Cape Cross, Brandberg Massif and river beds/watercourses.

(ii) Kunene Region:

 Skeleton Coast National Park, including Torra Bay, Terrace Bay, Möwe Bay, river beds/watercourses, the eastern central sector between Koigab and Hoanib rivers and Wilderness concessions;

 Adjacent conservancies;

 Kunene River Mouth (and Transfrontier Conservation Area).

Apart from the pressures of the other PPPs linked to the onshore and coastal environments, the key conservation priority areas found along the coastal zones of the Erongo and Kunene Regions are also highly vulnerable to potential accidental oil spill that could be associated with the following PPPs under the Ministry of Mines and Energy, Ministry of Works and Transports as well as the Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources:

(i) Petroleum exploration (2D and 3D seismic survey) oil spill linked to a seismic vessel collision;

(ii) Petroleum exploration (drilling operations) oil spill linked to a blowout or a vessel collisions, and;

(iii) Other activities such as national and international marine transport and fishing vessels potential collision.

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6.2 Petroleum Exploration Opportunities

6.2.1 General Overview

Until recently, the petroleum exploration and potential production opportunities of Namibia were unknown to many global energy companies. Today, the country finds itself in a position where more and more oil companies are looking to take advantage of the petroleum explorativity potentials. It’s estimated that Namibia could hold in excess of 11bn barrel of oil if the ongoing intense exploration activities proves positive. Such a discovery would place Namibia on the world map of oil-rich nations of the World. The estimated potential discoverable petroleum resources have created huge expectations in Namibia. In the last 2 years there has been a phenomenal increase in the number of licenses awarded for both onshore and offshore areas.

One of key technical driving force to the ever increasing interest for oil and gas exploration opportunities in Namibia has been the recent realization that Namibia has a similar geological architecture to other hydrocarbon rich areas in South America and South West Africa. The presence of similar petroleum systems on both the opposite margins of the South Atlantic Ocean is due to a common geological history. Before the supercontinent of Gondwana broke up during the Cretaceous Period, the Namibia basins were adjacent to what are now the oil rich Santos and Campos basins of Brazil. Modern geochemical analysis indicates the presence of hydrocarbons with similar fingerprints or geochemistry to those present in the Santos and Campos basins offshore Brazil.

Within the offshore basins of Namibia, direct and indirect indications of the presence of hydrocarbons have been reported and include the occurrence of gas chimneys, anomalies of amplitude and gas escape features on seismic images, satellite seepages in offshore Namibia, and the existence of carbonates and reef mounds possibly associated to hydrocarbons seepages. As hydrocarbons are generated in sedimentary basins, it is these basins that have to be the focus of exploration efforts (Fig. 6.1). The following is the summary of the key basins found on the onshore and offshore environment of Namibia:

(i) Offshore:

 Namibe;

 Walvis;

 Lüderitz, and;

 Orange.

(ii) Onshore:

 Etosha;

 Huab;

 Waterberg;

 Nama, and;

 Warmbad.

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Figure 6.1: Onshore and offshore Sedimentary Basins of Namibia (Source:www.namcor.com.na – Accessed July 2012)

The total area of the basins is more than 1 million km2. The offshore basins cover an area of more than 560,000 km2 and being younger than the onshore basins are thought to have more potential for hydrocarbon exploration and production.

The Namibian offshore geology consists of four main tectono-stratigraphic units separated by three major unconformities. These comprise the pre rift Permo-Cretaceous Karoo Sequence which is separated by the 'base rift unconformity' from a thick late Jurussic to early Cretaceous synrift succession. The Hauterivian-Barremian boundary marks the 'base drift unconformity' and the transition from non-marine to marine sedimentation and is overlain by the 'early drift'

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 183 - claystone dominated succession of late Barremian to Cenomanian age. The main part of the basin fill, volumetrically, overlies this and is composed of the 'late drift' section of Turonian to Recent sediments.

Overall, the offshore environmental of Namibia comprise four (4) major and these are: the Orange, In Namibia, late Precambrian Damara Sequence and Gariep Complex metamorphic rocks form the basement to the offshore succession. The development of the sedimentary succession on the Namibian continental shelf comprises pre-rift, syn-rift, transitional and thermal sag stages. There are two synrift intervals above a pre-rift succession that is presumed to consist of Karoo Sequence rocks. On this basis the base of the synrift section should have an age of about 130 million years, the age of continental break up. These synrift successions occur largely west of a hinge line located about 80 km offshore and thicken westwards into a central half graben before thinning against the western edge of this half graben.

6.2.2 Offshore Petroleum Systems

With intense ongoing exploration efforts coupled with many years of research and data acquisition, oil and gas exploration has reached an exciting stage in Namibia. An increase in 2D and 3D seismic data acquisition has improved the image and mapping of the hydrocarbon prospects, as well as the estimation of potential oil and gas resources in the various basins.

This means that there is greater chance of accurate drilling and consequently a greater chance for the discovery of hydrocarbons. Although, more exploration still needs to be undertaken, existing geological mapping and geophysical data indicates the presence of geological structures which may contain several billion barrels of oil resources in both the offshore and onshore basins of Namibia. The Kudu Gas Field is the only proven commercial hydrocarbon discovery in Namibia to date. It is located in the Orange Basin in 170 meters of water and 130 km off the coast.

The proven recoverable reserves have been estimated at 1.4 trillion cubic feet while probable reserves are estimated at 3.8 trillion cubic feet. The field is expected to be developed in the near future with the gas to be used to feed an 800MW base load power station. Namibia’s oil potential has attracted a large number of international investors and major oil and gas players. Currently, more than 20 exploration licenses and one production license have been issued to local and international oil companies. Example of global companies holding licenses include experienced exploration companies such as BP, Petrobras, HRT Africa, Repsol, Chariot Oil and Gas, Eco (Atlantic) Oil and Gas and Maurel and Prom (Fig. 6.2).

The evolution of the South Atlantic sedimentary basins through continental drift provided the general conditions for the establishment of potential active petroleum systems in Namibia (Fig. 6.1). The formation of source rocks, reservoirs and traps are directly related and connected to the phases of the evolution of the passive continental margins, pre-rift, syn-rift, transitional and thermal sag (drift) sequences in both sides of the southern Atlantic. The use of the petroleum system concept in the South Atlantic marginal basins provides an effective means of classifying and characterising the diversity of the oil and gas systems, as well as, a means to aid in the selection of appropriate exploration analogs.

The South Atlantic marginal basins also provide some of the best examples of how petroleum systems evolved through time with respect to both their levels of certainty and their areal and stratigraphic limits. In the Orange and Santos basins, in Namibia and Brazil, respectively, you see similar in terms of petroleum system. For example, lacustrine and marine source rocks, similar oil type, almost identical reservoir deposition environments, traps associated with basement highs and vertical migration pathways dominate in each of the basins, with normal faults networks providing the effective carrier. However, if one compares the Southern American Systems to the West African Coast settings, there are clear differences when Aptian salt layers are present in the Santos basin and absent in the Namibian basins. Also,

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 184 - differences are observed when thermal evolution is considered. Although no Aptian salt section is present in Namibian basins, and thermal maturity appears to be much higher in the Namibian coast, both basins share almost identical elements and processes of the petroleum system concept (Fig. 6.1).

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 185 -

Figure 6.2: Current petroleum license map of Namibia (Source:www.namcor.com.na – Accessed July 2012).

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6.2.3 Current Oil and Gas Global Majors Active in Namibia

Having completed the process of acquiring, interpreting and processing various seismic data, several of these companies are have implemented or planning extensive drilling activities in 2012 – 2013. Chariot Oil and Gas just completed the drilling of the well in Block 1811 in May 2012 and the company was also involved in the drilling of another well in Block 2714A together with BP and Petrobras completed in September 2012. HRT Africa is planning to drill up to four (4) wells starting in January 2013 and covering the Orange, Lüderitz and Walvis Basins. Chariot Oil and Gas is planning additional tow (2) to three (3) wells while Repsol is scheduled to drill its first well in the Namibe Basin in 2013. Overall, the Ministry of Mines and Energy expects 6-8 wells to be drilled in the next 18 months and all in the offshore waters of Namibia.

6.2.4 Future Prospects

Namibia and Africa in general is experiencing an economic resurgence, investor perceptions of the country and the continent as whole are ever improving and the outlook for continued growth, particularly in the long term, is also positive. Attractive investment opportunities exist in the oil and gas exploration in Namibia. This emerging Namibian oil and gas sector offers many opportunities for international investors and the phenomenon can be attributed to a number of factors such as Namibia’s political stability, an easy and flexible licensing system, an attractive and well developed legal and fiscal framework, and the aggressive promotion of Namibia’s hydrocarbon potential at various oil and gas related international forums. The prospect of finding oil in Namibia will no doubt further boost the importance of the primary sector to the national economy. On the basis of recent geological data, Namibia has become one of the most promising hydrocarbon regions in the world. Today, Namibia is home to oil majors including BP, Petrobras, HRT Africa, Repsol, Chariot Oil and Gas, Eco (Atlantic) Oil and Gas and Maurel and Prom and many more are trying to find their way into the region (Fig. 6.2).

6.2.5 Recommendations for Petroleum Exploration Oil Spill Management

The limited small site-specific requirement for petroleum drilling operations presents a good opportunity to implement the drilling of the proposed explorative wells in the offshore waters of Namibia. There are different types of rigs that used in the drilling operations depending of the water depths and other operational requirement (Figs. 6.3 and 6.4). Drilling of petroleum well requires a very limited and site-specific location such as with well-coordinated logistics with sufficient resources and equipment can result in very limited impact on the marine and coastal environments. However, in an event of accidental oil spill such as blowout, the likely impact on the marine and coastal environments is likely to very high.

In mitigating this likely impact, operators must undertake oil spill / dispersion modelling as part of the EIA and development of the EMP before a well drilling operation is allowed. Operators must make sure that the choice of a drilling rig has all the necessary required international certified equipment to undertake the drilling operation (Figs. 6.3 and 6.4 and Plate 6.1). The functionalities of the Blowout Preventer (BoP) (Plate 6.1) must be certified, and continuously monitored throughout the drilling operations. Blowout Preventers (BOPs) are a configuration of valves and piping used to ensure pressure control of a well (Plate 6.2). A typical BOP stack might consist of one to six ram-type preventers and one or two annular-type preventers (Fig. 6.4). A typical configuration has the ram preventers on the bottom and the annular preventers at the top. The configuration of the stack preventers is optimized to provide maximum pressure control and safety in the event of a well control incident. It is common to have an annular preventer or two on top of the stack since annulars can be closed over a wide range of tubular sizes and the openhole, but annular preventers are typically not rated for pressures as high as ram preventers. The BOP stack also includes various spools, adapters and piping connections to permit the circulation of wellbore fluids under pressure in the event of a well control incident.

Furthermore, operators wanting to undertake petroleum drilling operations must fully comply with all the national regulations related to the prevention and management in their Oil Spill

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Contingency Plans (OSCP) linked to the national and international response plans, with human and equipment support. In accordance with the provisions of Petroleum (Exploration and Production) Act 1991 (Act 2 of 1991) and associated amendments, Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Regulations No. 30 of 2012 gazetted under the Environmental Management Act, (EMA), 2007, (Act No. 7 of 2007) in line with the provisions of the Cabinet approved Environmental Assessment Policy for Sustainable Development and Environmental Conservation of 1995 published by the Ministry of Environment and Tourism, as well as all other relevant Namibian laws, regional and international environmental and petroleum exploration standards and practices, operators must develop an Environmental Management Plan (EMP) with respect to their proposed petroleum exploration covering both 2D and 3D seismic and drilling operations focusing on the key operational issues and associated logistical arrangement, inclusive of the operations base.

The Environmental Management Plan (EMP) shall provide a detailed plan of action required in the implementation of the mitigation measures for minimising and maximising the identified negative and positive impacts respectively. The EMP shall also provide the management actions covering roles and responsibilities for implementation by the operator through the contractor who will undertake the seismic or drilling operations and all associated activities. The EMP shall give commitments including financial and human resources provisions for effective management of the likely environmental liabilities during and after the proposed petroleum exploration programme. Monthly monitoring, assessments and evaluation of the environmental performances shall be undertaken throughout the seismic or drilling operations. The monitoring process will ensure adequate provision of the necessary resources towards good environmental management at various stages of the project development including the implementation of the Oil Spill Contingency Plan and Emergency Response Plan (ERP) as well as all other relevant operational plans that are aimed at combating potential accidental oil spills that may affect the coastal zone of Namibia.

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Figure 6.3: Illustration of marine seismic survey operation (1), drilling set-up (2) and the different types of drilling rigs used in the petroleum drilling operations (2A – Jack-up Rig used in shallow waters, 2B – Semisubmersible Rig and 2C – Drillship used in deep-water).

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Figure 6.4: A detailed illustration of atypical offshore well set-up showing the detailed component of a BoP.

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 190 -

Plate 6.1: An example of a Blowout Preventer (BOP) which can kill an oil well in an event pressures and well control failures that may result in an accidental oil spill (RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012).

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6.3 Other Potential Sources of an Accidental Oil Spill

6.3.1 National and International Shipping Transport

With the strong support of shipping connections between the Americas, Europe, the Far East and the Middle East and Southern Africa, through the Ports of Walvis Bay and Lüderitz (Fig. 6.5). Through its strategic location on the west coast of Africa, Namibia continues to attract increased traffic, through time and cost savings offered to potential and existing importers and exporters along the Walvis Bay Corridors, allowing them to receive their cargo faster.

This increase evidently is great for the socioeconomic development of Namibia as increased revenue leads to a favourable socioeconomic future for Namibia while at the same time present an increasing challenge to marine and coastal environmental management and protections of key biodiversity hotspots. Strategically located half way down the coast of Namibia, with direct access to principal shipping routes, Walvis Bay is a natural gateway for international trade (Fig. 6.5).

Walvis Bay is Namibia's largest commercial port, receiving approximately 3,000 vessel calls each year and handling about 5 million tonnes of cargo. It is a sheltered deepwater harbour benefiting from a temperate climate. Fortunately, no delays are caused by bad weather. In order to deal with even higher levels of throughput, Namport have steadily improved its cargo- handling facilities, and remains committed to infrastructure development, in line with Namport's Mission to provide efficient and effective port and related services.

The continual increase in shipping traffic destined for the Ports of Walvis Bay and Lüderitz as well as regional ports also increases the likelihood potential accidental oil spill within the Namibian marine environment that may affect the coastal zones. Normal vessel operation as well as deliberate discharges of wastes into the marine environment all has a detrimental effect to the key coastal biodiversity areas of both the Kunene and Erongo Region.

Through, the Department of Maritime Affairs in the Ministry of Works and Transport, additional vessel monitoring operations must be undertaken in collaboration with other Ministries with vessels and aircraft monitoring resources such as the Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources.

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Figure 6.5: Regional and international shipping routes linked to the Ports of Walvis Bay and Lüderitz (Map Source:www.wbcg.com.na and Photos RBS/FGN Geotagged Image Series by S. Mwiya, 2012).

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6.3.2 Marine Minerals Exploration, Mining and Fisheries Vessels

6.3.2.1 Introduction

The Namibian economy is to large degree dependent on mining and fishing industries. Despite this significant roles the two industries play, it is increasingly important to monitor the activities of these sectors with a view toward sustainable development in support of key marine and coastal biodiversity hotspots. Marine minerals exploration and mining involves the processes searching and economically recovering mineral wealth from sea water and from deposits on and under the sea floor. While mineral resources to the value of trillions of dollars do exist in and under the oceans in many parts of the World including Namibia, their exploitation is not simple. Many environmental unknowns and challenges must be developed and many technical advances must be made before the majority of these deposits can be mined in competition with existing land resources.

6.3.2.2 Marine Diamond Exploration and Mining Vessels

Marine diamond exploration and mining takes place primarily along the 1,400 km stretch of coastline of southern Namibia and north-western South Africa. Namibia has the richest known marine diamond deposits in the world, estimated at over 100 million carats. The marine diamonds were transported to the coastline over a roughly 100 million year time period. All of the diamond deposits in Namibia originate from kimberlites in South Africa. These diamonds were washed down the Orange River, and deposited at the river mouth as well as along the coastlines of Namibia and South Africa.

Pioneered by Sam Collins, marine diamond mining began in the 1960s off the coast of southern Namibia. The first marine diamond mining technique was an archaic dredging system. Despite the simplicity of this original technique, Mr. Collins was able to recover around 788,000 carats of diamonds. In the years since, a handful of players, led by Debmarine Namibia, a 50 / 50 Joint Venture between the Namibian Government and the De Beers Group. Debmarine Namibia, which operates in Namibia’s Atlantic coastal waters, is part of a 50/50 joint venture between Namibia and De Beers, and is the world’s leader in diamond mining at sea.

In addition to the one evaluation sampling vessel, Debmarine Namibia operates a fleet of five Mining Vessels (MV) capable of retrieving diamond-bearing materials from the seabed and processing them to a diamond rich concentrate (Plate 6.2). They include:

 MV Debmar Atlantic;

 MV Debmar Pacific;

 MV!Gariep;

 MV Peace in Africa;

 MV Grand Banks.

The two primary marine mining methods used in marine diamond mining are the horizontal system, and the vertical system. In the horizontal system a seabed crawler brings diamond- bearing gravels to the vessel through flexible slurry hoses. In the vertical system, a large- diameter drilling device mounted on a compensated steel pipe drill string recovers diamond- bearing gravels from the seabed following a systematic pattern over the mining block. Mining takes place on the ocean floor at water depths ranging from 90 to 140 meters. Although, a lot of research has been undertaken to date and it well known that the rehabilitation of marine exploration and mining environments occurs naturally once the exploration or mining has been completed in a particular area, long-term effect of marine diamonds exploration and mining

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 194 - operations remain to be witnessed. Although very remote, an accidental collision of a marine exploration or mining vessel resulting in an oil spill remains a threat to marine and coastal biodiversity hot sports.

6.3.2.3 Other Marine Minerals Exploration and Mining Vessels

Apart from diamonds, Namibian marine environments hold other mineral resources comprising three basic types and these are the:

 Dissolved minerals of the ocean waters such as seawater itself, sodium chloride or magnesium sulphate (salts) as well as minor constituents in parts per million (ppm) such as bromide ions, strontium, boron, silicon and fluoride.

 Unconsolidated mineral deposits of marine beaches, continental shelf, and deep-sea floor such as industrial minerals, cassiterite, and precious metals other than diamonds, and;

 Consolidated deposits contained within the bedrock underlying the seas such as cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts and massive sulphides.

Recently, there have been plans to mine marine phosphate in the Namibian waters and a number of exploration and mining licenses have been issued. As with land deposits, the initial stages preceding the production of a marketable commodity include discovery, characterisation of the deposit to assess its value and exploitability, and mining, including beneficiation of the material. Dredging is the most widely used technology applicable to offshore mining. Dredging consists of the various processes by which large floating machines or dredges excavate unconsolidated material from the ocean bottom, raise it to the surface, and discharge it into a hopper, pipeline, or barge. Waste material excavated with the ore may be returned to the water body after removal of valuable minerals. Dredging techniques have long been applied to clearing sand and silt from rivers, harbours, and ship channels.

With the ever-increasing demands from international investors to undertake other types of marine exploration and mining operations within the Namibian waters and the need for Government to diversify the mining industry, it’s likely that the marine waters of Namibia are likely to get crowded. The likely increasing numbers of exploration and mining vessels in the Namibian waters is likely to increase the chances for an accidental collision of a marine exploration or mining vessel resulting in an oil spill remains. The likely cumulative impacts of other marine minerals exploration and mining in addition to the diamonds are potential threats to conservation of marine and coastal biodiversity hot sports in Namibia.

6.3.2.4 Fishing Vessels

The Economic Exclusive Zone (EEZ) hosts a number commercial and no-commercial fisheries resources which encompass, the demersal (bottom or near-bottom dwelling fish), small pelagic fish (which inhabit the upper water column), large pelagic fish (highly migratory pelagic fish such as tuna), and crustacean such as lobster and deep-sea crabs (MFMR, 2003). There are also commercial harvesting of seals, and a largely recreational fishery for angling species taken from the beach or near-shore zone. The fish of this region, like those in other coastal upwelling systems, fall into three main groups, namely:

 Epipelagic Zone – Approximately the upper 50 m - Pilchard, anchovy and juvenile horse mackerel are, in terms of biomass, the main epipelagic fish. Traditionally pilchard has been the backbone of the pelagic fishing industry, although in recent decades anchovy and horse mackerel have assumed greater importance;

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 Mesopelagic Zone – This zone extends from the epipelagic zone to a metre or two above the seabed - Adult Cape horse mackerel, bearded gobies (Sufflogobius bibarbatus) and several species of lantern fish (Myctophidae) are classified as Mesopelagic. Horse mackerel is the only mesopelagic subjected to heavy fishing pressure. Although large stocks of gobies over the central Namibian shelf have attracted the attention of the fishing industry, attempts to catch;

 Demersal Zone - Hakes are commercially the most important demersal fish in the region, with a total of 12 million tonnes harvested to date. Two species occur off Namibia. Cape hake is found primarily in waters of less than 380 metres depth, while deepwater hake occurs closer to the shelf break between 150 and 800 metres and beyond.

Out of the 20 fish species commercially exploited in Namibia, eight species are regulated through TACs (Total Allowable Catch). Resources available in quantity for export are horse mackerel and hake. Overall, Namibian fishing industry is flourishing to such an extent that more fishing companies are investing in new fishing vessels. The likely increasing numbers of fishing vessels in the Namibian waters is likely to increase the chances for an accidental oil spill associated with fishing vessels. A number of incidences where fishing vessels have been on fire have occurred in recent years and luckily resulting in minor localised oil spills. The likely cumulative impacts of increasing number of fishing vessels in addition to the need to implement other marine PPPs by other Line Ministries, presents a potential threats to conservation of marine and coastal biodiversity hot sports in Namibia.

6.3.3 Recommendations for Other Sources of an Accidental Oil Spills

In mitigating this likely impacts of an accidental oil spill, shipping, exploration, mining and fishing vessel operators must undertake risk assessment for oil spill as part of the EIA and development of the EMP before undertaking operations. It’s important to delineate environmentally sensitive areas or areas of potentially overlapping economic interests with respect to the implementation of various PPPs by various Organs of State. This can be achieved by developing a series of maps showing the distribution of coastal and offshore mineral commodities (alluvial diamonds, hydrocarbons, phosphorite, glauconite), extent of economic zones, fishing and spawning grounds, current mining and exploration license areas, and the distribution of key marine and coastal biodiversity hotspots. The maps and the developed data sets will thus assist governmental policy makers in visualising and addressing the overlapping economic interest areas and issues at stake. Namibia may be at a distinct advantage in terms of the environmental impact assessments of the marine environment. Marine diamond mining, marine fisheries and international shipping routes are all established industries in Namibia as it is in few other coastal states in the World. Legislation oversees marine exploration and mining and management programs are already in place and only require additional human and financial resources for effective implementation and monitoring thereof.

6.4 Likely Negative Impacts by an Oil Spill

6.4.1 Overview

The type of coastline likely to be impacted by a major oil spill will have a major influence on the degree of biological damage caused by the spill. The coastal stretches of the Kunene and Erongo Regions comprises of varying landscapes and biodiversity resources (Figs. 6.6 and 6.7). Coastal types vary in their sensitivity to oil pollution, this being determined by:

 The extent to which the oil can penetrate the substrate of beach/coast material;

 The amount of natural wave energy available to fragment the oil;

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 The length of time for which the oil will be likely to persist or remain on the shore;

 The difficulty of mounting a clean-up operation and of removing the oil by manual, chemical and mechanical means; and

 The presence of sensitive populations or communities of flora or fauna on the shore or in the immediate sub-littoral zone.

The following is the classification summary of the sensitive areas likely to be impacted:

(i) Manmade structures (includes sea wall or pier);

(ii) Sand beach;

(iii) Mixed sand and gravel beach;

(iv) Gravel and boulder beach;

(v) Tourist/recreational beach;

(vi) Tidal and mud flats;

(vii) Vegetation, shrubs and trees (on erosion coast);

(viii) Estuary, wetlands and inland water courses.

6.4.2 Likely Impacts of Oil on Wetlands and Clean-Up Response

The presence of oil in the sediment will affect root functions of plants and may damage burrowing animals. Annual plants are likely to be severely reduced in numbers because they are unable to recover by developing new growth, and their seedlings are sensitive to oil. Although the majority of shore birds and seabirds will avoid slicks, some birds will suffer from oil presence through contamination of their plumage and by ingestion through preening and feeding. A summary of potential impacts of different oil types on wetlands and the recommended clean-up response is shown in Table 6.1.

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Figure 6.6: Characteristics of the Kunene Regional Coastal Zone with respect to oiling vulnerability, (Map Produced by Risk-Based Solution 2012).

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Figure 6.7: Characteristics of the Erongo Regional Coastal Zone with respect to oiling vulnerability, (Map Produced by Risk-Based Solution 2012).

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Table 6.1: Summary of potential impacts of different oil types on wetlands and the recommended clean-up response.

TYPE OF OIL POTENTIAL IMPACT CLEAN-UP RESPONSE Light Volatile No post-spill data but likely to cause Booms should be deployed to deflect oil widespread mortality. or to prevent the slick entering wetlands which have direct contact to the sea. Light-Moderate Rapid reduction in numbers and variety of invertebrate fauna; birds and Removal of oil that has reached a predators will also suffer damage by wetland site would be extremely difficult direct contact and through the food to remove without causing further chain. damage (e.g. by trampling and substrate erosion). Where removal of oil is Heavy Similar to light-moderate. essential to prevent its transfer elsewhere, low pressure water hoses/compressed air from SCUBA Residual Potential serious long term impact if oil diving equipment can be used to direct becomes incorporated into sediment; oil into open water where it may be otherwise moderate impact with possible to contain it with a boom for reduction of some species of subsequent collection. Sorbents are invertebrates. also extremely useful in confined areas such as wetlands.

6.4.3 Likely Impacts of Oil on Coastal Waters and Clean-Up Response

A particular shoreline's sensitivity to oil increases with increasing shelter from wave action, penetration of oil into the substrate, natural oil retention time on the shore, and the biological productivity of shore organisms. For instance fish eggs and larvae are sensitive to very low concentrations of hydrocarbons but are also subjected to many natural hazards. The survival of most fish species depends on the production of enormous numbers of eggs, and any mortality of eggs and larvae observed during an oil spill will not necessarily reduce recruitment to the commercial fish stock. Certain species of seabirds, as predators of fish in the upper layers of the water column, are particularly sensitive to pollution by floating oil slicks. A summary of potential impacts of different oil types on open coastal waters and the recommended clean-up response is shown in Table 6.2.

Table 6.2: Summary of potential impacts of different oil types on open coastal waters and the recommended clean-up response.

TYPE OF OIL POTENTIAL IMPACT CLEAN-UP RESPONSE

Light Volatile Insignificant impact; light oils will be rapidly evaporated and dispersed by Mechanical methods and chemical natural processes. dispersants should be used if oil contamination of seabirds is likely. Light-Moderate Slight impact on organisms close to the Seabirds only can be cleaned with surface; no recorded impact on water detergents. column organisms; adverse impact on some species of seabirds depending The use of dispersants near fish on season and location. spawning grounds should be avoided. Heavy As above. In shallow areas the enhancement of Residual As above. natural dispersion by the application of dispersants may cause damage to sea bed organisms.

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6.4.4 Likely Impacts of Oil on Subtidal Seabed and Clean-Up Response

The impact of oil on submerged floral communities has shown great variation, ranging from very little impact (Amoco Cadiz spill) to severe impact with high mortalities (Zoe Colocotronis spill). The rate of recovery of biological communities on the seabed is significantly affected by the extent to which oil has penetrated and become incorporated into the sediment. Benthic communities affected by oil contamination of the sediment may take several years to recover from a spill because of the continuing exposure of the organisms to hydrocarbons. The spill response will avoid, where practical, unnecessary oil contamination of the seabed. A summary of potential impacts of different oil types on subtidal seabed and the recommended clean-up response is shown in Table 6.3.

Table 6.3: Summary of potential impacts of different oil types on subtidal seabed environment and the recommended clean-up response.

TYPE OF OIL POTENTIAL IMPACT CLEAN-UP RESPONSE

Light Volatile Insignificant impact.

Light-Moderate Heavy pollution will eliminate a The use of chemical dispersants proportion of the fauna, decreasing with in relatively shallow areas (less depth, but increasing with the amount than 30 m) is not normally of hydrocarbons which have become recommended except in special incorporated into the sediment. circumstances. Heavy Similar impact as light - moderate oils. Residual Sticky residual oils will have similar impacts as light to heavy oils; non- sticky oils and tarry lumps have negligible impact on marine organisms but may remain on the sea bed for long periods of time.

6.4.5 Likely Impacts of Oil on Rocky Shores and Clean-Up Response

The variety of plants and animals often associated with rocky intertidal shores are usually of conservation and/or scientific interest (Figs. 6.6 and 6.7). Wave action and abrasion against rocks and boulders will lead to rapid fragmentation of any oil coming ashore, resulting in the flushing of the oil from exposed rocky surfaces, and natural dispersion of the oil droplets. Oil will not generally persist except where wave induced emulsification leads to the formation and trapping of “chocolate mousse”, or adsorption of oil onto particles of silt or sediment, e.g. under storm conditions, can cause sinking of the oil. If oil becomes stranded high on the shore, e.g. as a result of high tides and strong onshore winds, it may persist for longer periods, being out of reach of most waves. A summary of potential impacts of different oil types on the rocky and boulder shores and the recommended clean-up response is shown in Table 6.4.

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Table 6.4: Summary of potential impacts of different oil types on exposed rocky and boulder shores and the recommended clean-up response.

TYPE OF OIL POTENTIAL IMPACT CLEAN-UP RESPONSE Light Volatile Will be rapidly dispersed with little Booms should be deployed to deflect impact unless confined in significant oil, or to prevent the slick from quantities to a localised area - where entering ecologically sensitive areas. major mortality of organisms can be Sorbents may also be used in these expected. sensitive areas. Light-Moderate Minor oiling will cause little impact but a major spill will cause mortality of Where there is vehicular access to shore fauna. Seaweeds may be the water's edge any beached oil can temporarily affected but will rapidly be collected using skimmers, pumps, return. vacuum trucks or vacuum tank Heavy Will cause less mortality initially than trailers. moderate-heavy oils, but will have a similar impact in localised areas over a In situations where vehicles are long time scale, especially if the oil is unable to get sufficiently close to the allowed to remain in crevices. water’s edge, the oil can be picked up manually using buckets, scoops Residual Sticky residual oils will eliminate or dustbins. vulnerable organisms by smothering. Non-sticky asphaltic oils or tar balls will Once oil has been removed, the have negligible impact. remaining oil can be left to weather since a hard surface film readily forms, minimising the spread of pollution. The oil film will be broken up and dispersed by wave action.

6.4.6 Likely Impacts of Oil on Sandy Beaches and Clean-Up Response

The sandy beaches are mostly exposed to wave action and contain well-sorted fine to very coarse sand, in general moderately sloping with intermediate flatter areas. The beaches are used for recreation and provide access to the shoreline for fishing (Figs. 6.6 and 6.7). Oil coming ashore will rapidly penetrate the sandy beaches, particularly if the oil is still mobile and the sand dry. Under conditions of strong wave action and light oiling, any oil on the beach will be dispersed fairly rapidly. Heavier oils coming ashore are liable to form oil-sand-water mixtures which are heavier than water and may persist for long periods of time at or below low water mark.

The upper shores of sandy beaches may also be vulnerable as the oil is more likely to remain in the sand and become buried and re-exposed. The sensitivity of the intertidal fauna of sandy beaches is extremely variable, and depends significantly on the degree of oiling and extent to which the oil has become incorporated into the sand. No notable effects have been recorded for the majority of oil pollution incidents. However, the continuing presence of trapped oil in sediments may have a detrimental effect on the local fauna. A summary of potential impacts of different oil types on sandy beaches and the recommended clean-up response is shown in Table 6.5.

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Table 6.5: Summary of potential impacts of different oil types on sandy beaches and the recommended clean-up response.

TYPE OF OIL POTENTIAL IMPACT CLEAN-UP RESPONSE Light Volatile Minor impact, but more adverse impact likely where adhesion of the oil to sand has increased the exposure of the fauna to toxic fractions. Oil usually forms as a thin surface Light-Moderate Heavy pollution will eliminate most layer which can be efficiently sand dwelling fauna; light oiling will scraped off under proper have only a minor effect. Any impact supervision. Sorbents may also be will be more heavily experienced used in highly sensitive areas. around the lower levels of the intertidal zone and in the shallow sub-littoral Clean-up efforts should where oil may have accumulated, or on concentrate on removing oil from the splash zone above high water mark along the high-tide swash zone. after strong onshore winds. The lower portions of the beach Heavy Heavy pollution will eliminate most should be rapidly cleared of oil by sand dwelling fauna; light oiling will natural wave action. have only a minor effect. Impacts on the upper or lower levels of the beach Dispersants can be used during will be similar to those of light to final clean-up (e.g. to remove moderate oils. discoloration of beach material). Bioremediation will be another Residual Will not penetrate the sand, and technique to transform oil to an therefore will not have a serious acceptable material. impact. Greatest impact of sticky residual oils is generally on maritime vegetation below the high water mark on sandy beaches and in the subtidal zone where oil/sand mixtures have accumulated by sinking.

6.5 National Oil Spill Contingency Plan

6.5.1 Overview

Namibia has a National Oil Spill Contingency Plan (NOSCP). Prior to the development of the NOSCP the Namibia Government Action Control Group (NGACG) was the body that was responsible for any oil spill related incidences in Namibia. The NOSCP is the main plan which covers all oil spills in the country while the NGACG was mainly developed for the petroleum exploration activities before NOSCP. In accordance with the Prevention and Combating of Pollution of the Sea by Oil, Act 1981 and the 1991 Amendment Act, Act 24 of 1991, designates the Ministry of Works and Transport as the National Responsible Authority with regard to oil spill preparedness, response and coordination in the Republic of Namibia. This responsibility falls under the Directorate of Maritime Affairs (DMA) in the Department of Transport, Ministry of Works and Transport.

The Directorate of Maritime Affairs acts as the coordinating agency during an oil spill, while the Directorate of Civil Aviation is responsible for routine air surveillance through civilian aircraft reports, hiring of surveillance and rescue aircraft and helping in the facilitation of visas and clearance for foreign personnel, aircraft and equipment. Overall the response to general emergencies in Namibia is regulated by the National Emergency system. Under this system, the Namibian Cabinet is the highest authority. The National Emergency Management Committee (NEMC) reports to the Cabinet through the Secretary to the Cabinet. The NEMC is

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 203 - composed of representatives of Government and non-Governmental agencies. It is the principal policy formulating and coordinating body for civil emergencies.

6.5.2 Risk Assessment of the Sizes and Types of Spillages

Although major oil spills associated with petroleum exploration are very rare mainly due to improved drilling technology procedures and other exploration techniques, accidents sometimes do occur. Exploratory drilling and normal ship operations for minerals exploration, mining or fisheries carries a risk of potential accidental spillage of a variety of oil types. However, the worst case of oil spill is likely to be a continuous release of crude hydrocarbons due to loss of well control or a major blow-out from a petroleum drilling operation or collision accident of a massive oil tanker. It should be noted that the chance of a blow-out from petroleum drilling operation or collision of a massive oil tanker is extremely low. The quantity of hydrocarbons released and the duration of the accidental oil flow are largely dependent on the nature of the source. In the worst case scenario where there is an open-hole, approximately up to 10,000 barrels of oil per day can be released in the initial stage of a blow-out or massive tanker collision. The assessment of any likely oil spill accident with respect to all likely sources of an accidental oil spill has focused on the following aspects:

 Potential sources, sizes and types of spillages;

 Factors affecting the impact of spillages;

 Predicted oil spill movement;

 Clean-up techniques;

 Impacts on the marine and coastal environment; and

 Mitigation measures.

A variety of oil types that are often used during exploratory drilling operations include the following main categories:

 Light volatile oils (e.g. kerosene, petroleum spirit);

 Light to moderate oils (e.g. marine diesel, light fuel oil, light lubricating oil);

 Heavy oils (e.g. heavy lubricating oil); and

 Residual oils (e.g. heavy fuel oil).

6.5.3 Types of Oils associated with Key Likely Sources of Large Spills

No data is currently available on the properties of the likely type of crude oil expected to be found in Namibia. However, for the purpose of this assessment, it has been assumed that the properties and behaviour of the oil is likely to be similar to that of a light crude oil which has been found in the region. Therefore, given the environmental conditions typically found in Namibia, the oil is expected to float on seawater, be volatile and will tend to evaporate at a high rate. Also, the crude should be highly mobile and readily spread and disperse on the sea surface. This oil type would fall under the category of a light to moderate oil.

Other spillages from marine related operations (petroleum exploration, mineral exploration and mining, fisheries and shipping operations) are operational spillages, mostly of fuel oils such as diesel from storage tanks and during transfer of the fuel between operational vessels and

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bunkering vessels. Diesel, a low viscosity distillate fuel made from light gas oil, will float on seawater and will tend to disperse and evaporate very rapidly. As a guide to the dispersive and evaporative characteristics of diesel it would take up to 4 hours for approximately 95% of a 4 tonne diesel spill to disperse. However, wave and wind action causes diesel to disperse in the water column and it is difficult to assess the quantity remaining. Table 6.6 summarises the potential sources of accidental spillages that could occur in the Namibian marine environment.

Table 6.6: Potential sources of accidental spillages during exploration operations.

EXPLORATION ACTIVITY SPILLAGE TYPE SIZE GENERAL OPERATIONS  Transportation (e.g. loading and unloading) and leakages from supply Fuel oils <1 t boats Fuel oils <1 t  Storage and power generation Waste/used oils <1 t  Disposal IMPLEMENTATION AND DEMOBILISATION light crude oil and <1 t chemicals DRILLING Light crude oil Probably > 25 t • Well blow-out or loss of well control

WELL TESTING Light crude oil and gas Up to 25 t

The physical and chemical properties of oil accidentally spilled at sea generally alter throughout the duration of an incident. In changing its state, e.g. by evaporation or weathering, a light crude will lose its most volatile components and/or form a water-in-oil emulsion (chocolate mousse); either of these changes will lead to characteristics of a heavy oil. Further weathering of the water-in-oil emulsion can eventually lead to the formation of tar balls (a residual oil). In summary, the properties of the oil types with particular reference to their potential ecological impacts are described in Table 6.7.

Table 6.7: Classification and relevant properties of oils with particular reference to their likely ecological impact.

Type of Oil Volatility Solubility Natural Response to Stickiness Biological harmfulness in water dispersion dispersants

Light, High High Easily Responds Not sticky Highly toxic Volatile disperses very well

Light - Up to Moderate Some Responds Slightly to Variable toxicity Moderate about 50% components fairly well moderately can disperse Sticky evaporate

Heavy Nonvolatile Low No With difficulty Very sticky Smothering, clogging dispersion

Residual Nonvolatile Very low No Not at all Very sticky Smothering, low toxicity dispersion to solid

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6.5.4 Factors Affecting the Impact of Spillages

There are a variety of factors that can modify the likely negative impact of hydrocarbons on marine and coastal flora and fauna. These factors can be considered as variables with defined ranges or with assumed or known probabilities of occurrence, and can be included in an oil spill / dispersion modelling as an aid to decision-making. As a rule of thumb, the movement of oil on the sea surface can be calculated from a vector using the same speed and direction as the current and 3% of the wind speed. Overall, the direction of the oil movement will be slightly to the left of the direction of the wind.

6.5.5 Event Descriptors

The extent and severity of impact will depend upon the circumstances of the spill including:

 Quantity of oil spilled;

 Type of oil spilled;

 Location of the spill; and

 Type of spill event (e.g. large instantaneous release or slow leak/seepage).

Spreading is one of the most significant processes during the early stages of a spill. The main driving force behind the initial spreading of the oil is its weight. A large instantaneous spill will therefore spread more rapidly than a slow leak or seepage. This gravity assisted spreading is quickly replaced by surface tension effects. During the early stages, the oil spreads as a coherent slick and the rate is influenced by the type of oil spilled. For example, heavy oils will tend to spread slowly usually of varying thickness.

6.5.6 Factors Modifying Spill Behaviour

Weather conditions at the time of a spill together with wind and currents and other oceanographic local features are important factors that can modify spill behaviour. Local wind direction and strength will influence the direction and rate of travel of the spilled oil, and will also determine the sea state which will affect the degree to which the oil may become naturally dispersed and/or emulsified. As a guide, oil can be scattered within an area of up to 5 km2 approximately 12 hours after a spill. Air temperature and solar radiation will affect the rate of viscosity of the oil and the rate of emulsification. In general, the more energy - wind, wave and solar – is present, the faster the oil will evaporate and disperse. The temperatures and wind speed typically found in Namibian offshore environment will tend to facilitate the evaporation and dispersion process, particularly of the lighter volatile oil (e.g. diesel).

Horizontal water movements (residual or tidal currents) will also influence the direction and rate of travel of an oil spill, while the vertical range (spring or neap tide) will expose a greater or lesser amount of the shoreline to the oil. During spring tide, oil may be carried to the upper levels of the shore, to become deposited in areas where it may remain for a long period of time, probably as tar balls. However, given that the tidal range in along the Namibian coastal areas is relatively small, the potential for biological damage of the key marine and coastal biodiversity should not differ markedly between periods of high tide and low tide.

Other oceanographic factors that can modify spill behaviour include wave heights and direction, ocean swell, water temperature, salinity and suspended particulate matter. The amount of wave energy available at the time of the spill, i.e. the sea state, will significantly influence the rate at which the oil becomes fragmented, emulsified and eventually degraded biologically. Over a longer time period, the wave regime on the oil-contaminated shoreline, i.e.

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 206 - the extent to which the shore is exposed to wave action, will influence the rate at which the oil becomes effectively removed from the intertidal zone by natural means. The level of energy environment of the Namibian coastal waters will determine the rate of movement of spilled oil but natural cleaning (particularly along exposed rocky and boulder shores) of any beached oil will likely be slow.

With time the volatile lighter fractions in a slick will evaporate and so increase the overall density of the slick. Despite this, the slick is still less dense than seawater and will remain buoyant. However, in shallower water near the shoreline, the quantity of suspended particulates will rise and fine particles will adhere to patches of heavy oil or to lumps of residual oil, and will increase the rate at which the oil will sink to the sea bed.

6.6 Prediction of Spill

6.6.1 Oil Spill and Associated Processes

As illustrated in Figs. 6.8 and 6.9, it is conventional to think of the behaviour of oil spills in terms of the following three (3) processes:

 Spreading;

 Drifting;

 Weathering.

Spreading is the motion of oil induced by its buoyancy and surface tension properties relative to water (Figs. 6.8 and 6.9). Drifting is the motion of the oil caused by the ambient winds, waves and currents. Weathering is the processes causing physical and chemical changes of the oil by evaporation, emulsification, biodegradation, solution and sedimentation. Dispersion of the solutes as a result of ambient water turbulence is also considered a weathering process (Fig. 6.8). All three processes (spreading, drifting and weathering) are included in an oil spill modelling process (Fig. 6.9), but the weathering description does not consider sedimentation and biodegradation (Fig. 6.8).

Oil spill modelling allows the prediction of the spread and thickness of an oil slick floating on the water surface, the slick mobility, the amount of sunken oil and the evolution of the physicochemical properties of the oil. The above processes are based on the chemical and physical properties of the oil constituents separating the oil component into a volatile and a heavy fraction with different chemical and physical characteristics.

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Figure 6.8: Summary of the oil spill weathering process (Source: International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation (ITOPF), 2002).

Figure 6.9: Weathering process included in the oil spill model.

6.6.2 Methodology

A number of oil spill modelling commercial softwares packages have been developed by many companies Worldwide. As a result it’s important to note that the overall output patterns of an oil spill modelling results will always be different for different software packages. The general process of undertaken oil spill modelling often covers both stochastic (probabilistic) and trajectory (deterministic) model simulation in order to analyse the far field potential surface,

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 208 - shoreline, and water column oiling. The following is the summary of the stochastic (probabilistic) and trajectory (deterministic) oil spill modelling simulation techniques:

 Stochastic modelling simulations predict probable behaviour of potential oil spills under typical historic meteorological and oceanographic conditions. The stochastic outputs indicate the probability of where the spill may impact on the waters surface water column and on the shoreline; they do not indicate volumes of oil;

 Trajectory modelling is a deterministic approach used to predict the movement of an oil spill on the sea surface, based on a single set of meteorological and oceanographic conditions. It predicts the fate and behaviour of oil spilled on the water and the time it takes for oil to intersect pre-identified sensitivities and critical environmental resources that may be negatively affected by an oil spill.

6.6.3 Oil Spill Modelling Approach

The stochastic simulations provide insight into the probable behaviour of potential oil spills in response to temporally and spatially varying meteorological and oceanographic conditions in the study area. The stochastic model computes surface trajectories for an ensemble of hundreds of individual cases for each spill scenario, with each individual simulation start time selected randomly within the seasonal timeframe thus sampling the variability in the wind and current forcing.

The stochastic analysis provides two types of information and these are the:

(i) Footprint of sea surface areas that might be oiled and the associated probability of oiling, and;

(ii) Shortest time required for oil to reach any point within the areas predicted to be oiled.

The probabilities of oiling within the predicted cumulative footprint are a product of statistical analysis performed on the sum of the individual simulations from the entire ensemble. This footprint represents the likely area of sea surface oiling from a spill in that location. It is important to note that any one simulation will encounter only a relatively small area of this footprint. In addition, the simulations provide shoreline oiling data expressed in terms of minimum and average times required for oil to reach shore, and the percentage of simulations in which oil is predicted to reach shore.

The individual runs from the stochastic analysis for each spill scenario are further evaluated to select a representative or worst case scenario to be analysed in more detail by performing a deterministic trajectory/fate simulation. Typically, a worst case scenario would be selected based on the degree of shoreline oiling. Different parameters or indicators can be used to compare and assess the degree of shoreline oiling; for example “time to reach the key coastal biodiversity hot sports”, “oil volume to reach the key coastal biodiversity hot sports” or “total length of oiled coastline”. However, due the location of the well site offshore and the environmental conditions in the region, there is very little likelihood of the diesel spill resulting in oil arrival to the coast. For this reason, a deterministic case was chosen simply to show a representative diesel spill in the area as there is no “worst case” metric that could be clearly defined.

6.6.4 Model Data Inputs

The location of the study area is among the key data inputs required to undertake an oil spill modelling. Standard requirements to perform an oil spill modelling study include:

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 Geo‐referenced shoreline (land, water boundaries) including physical characterisation of the region including a description of the shoreline geometry, bathymetry and shoreline type;

 A long‐term wind time series from an unobstructed coastal or offshore wind station. Some oil spill models incorporate a transport term due to the wind stress applied on the oil slick floating on the water surface. This wind drift factor may range typically between 2.0 and 4.5% of the wind speed;

 A description of the major circulation features of the water body. Oil spill modelling required input included characterisation of the main circulation features in specific study area, inclusive of both the spatial and temporal variability of the currents. Hydrodynamic model datasets are often obtained to develop the necessary modelling inputs for a specific study area. In addition to circulation model inputs, some oil spill simulations may require a characterisation of the water column;

 Characterisation of the water column covers the far field analysis, which uses input from the near field analysis to define the spill in the water column. This input variable analysis addresses the fate and transport of the oil if the ambient currents dominate the transport. The near field modelling requires additional details about the water column structure (temperature/salinity vertical distribution) which could be collected from the publicly available climatological datasets;

 Description of the oil properties for the surface and subsurface simulations also form part of the input variables. Surface spills may assume marine diesel oil (MDO) because sometimes the specific information about the properties of the oil to be spilled is not available. Thus generic marine diesel oil can be used to define the viscosity, surface tension, maximum (emulsion) water content, and other properties of the oil that are necessary to run an oil spill model, and;

 Description of the spill scenarios to simulate (e.g. volume and duration of the oil releases). The surface potential spill may assume an instantaneous volume of marine diesel oil (MDO). Potential for a subsurface deep water blowout at well site offshore Namibia with all key input parameters such as duration can also be modelled.

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7. THE SEMP

7.1 Overview

The Strategic Environmental Management Plan (SEMP) is one of the most important outputs of the SEA process and is the synthesis of all the proposed mitigation and monitoring actions, set to a timeline and with specific assigned responsibilities. A Strategic Environmental Management Plan (SEMP) outlined in this section sets out an a framework and management strategy to manage and respond to current or potential future coastal zone management issues of the Kunene and Erongo Regions in a manner consistent manner and in line with the SEA findings and recommendations. A SEMP provides a framework for the sustainable use, development and management of the key coastal biodiversity hotspots vulnerable to the implementation of other coastal zone PPPs by other organs of State in the Kunene and Erongo Regions by considering the environmental, social and economic values and the role of the physical coastal processes.

7.2 Aims and Objectives of the SEMP

The aim of the SEMP is to assist the responsible Organ of State/s to ensure that the implementation of other PPPs are carried out in an environmentally responsible manner, thereby preventing or minimizing the negative effects and maximizing the positive effects on the key biodiversity hotspots of the coastal zone. Provision has also been made, on an ongoing basis, for sufficient management sponsorship and human and financial resources. It is the intention that through the parallel analyses of coastal policies and land use suitability this Strategic Environmental Assessment for the coastal areas will provide the Ministry of Environment and Tourism, regional councils, municipalities and other stakeholders with a broad strategic framework needed for improving both planning and management of the coastal regions of Kunene and Erongo.

By offering an integrated high-resolution assessment of development opportunities and conservation targets the SEMP should be viewed as an instrument by which the local and regional authorities may take the first steps to enrich the currently inefficient sector-based management with integrated and ecosystem-based management, particularly in the planning stages. In that sense, the SEA and the associated coastal Decision Support Tool, in concert with the various other outputs from NACOMA, will help in founding a shared strategic perspective on the economic, social and environmental interactions involved in the sustainable development of the Erongo and Kunene coastal regions, and of the adjustments, compromises and trade-offs that need to be made to assure better coastal planning and management in the short and medium term.

To be able to use ecosystem-based management as a vehicle to capture the new opportunities spawned by the decentralisation process and increased economic activity on the coast, existing institutional and legal frameworks also need to be updated. When enacted, the draft Urban and Regional Planning Bill will also result in the emergence of a more integrated, coordinated and effective system of land use planning, development and control in Namibia in general, and on the coast in particular.

7.3 Summary of the SEA Findings

7.3.1 Overview

More than 90% of the two coastal regions fall within Namibia’s national protected areas system. At the same time, the boundaries of the Skeleton Coast National Park, the National West Coast Tourist Recreation Area and the Namib-Naukluft Park were proclaimed before

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Namibia gained independence and the modern environmental legislative framework in support of the integration of nature conservation and sustainable development was established. Thus, with the exception of the Namib-Naukluft Park, no clear goals have been set up linking management of human resource use and the conservation status of key species and habitats. As a result it is unclear which biodiversity elements constitute the focus for the coastal parks, and which elements are the focuses of more wide-scale habitat conservation action due to their widespread occurrence or lower susceptibility to human activities. This lack of conservation targets degrades both the conservation of the most sensitive elements of the biodiversity in the coastal parks as well as the implementation of sustainable development within the park’s boundaries.

Like other studies on biodiversity trends in Erongo and Kunene, the SEA has indicated a mismatch between the boundaries of the coastal parks and the general trends in biodiversity found in the coastal regions. The trends are striking and underline the fact that conservation priority areas and habitats in the protected coastal parks are not evenly distributed along or across the coastal strip. The NBSAP provides for the implementation of article 95:l of the Namibian Constitution and the Convention on Biological Diversity and it offers MET the legal mechanisms for achieving the goal to develop management plans for the coastal parks. Currently management plans with zoning of the area and tourism development plans have only been prepared for the Namib Naukluft Park. In that respect the SEA provides guidance to the zonation of the parks into potential areas for sustainable development and areas of different sensitivity and importance as a basis for identifying core areas for conservation to be held free of any development.

Due to the vast biodiversity assets of the coastal regions of Erongo and Kunene and the sensitive ecosystems they support, the largest development potential is related to the tourism industry. Although tourism land use patterns cannot currently be separated into the various types of tourism activities undertaken on the coast, it is clear that low-impact adventure and wildlife tourism (eco-tourism) can be widely applied and developed hand-in-hand with the conservation of biodiversity hot spots. Indeed, in terms of competition with other destinations – both domestic and international and even regional – preservation of the extraordinary conditions of the coastal environment in Kunene and Erongo might give the industry a competitive edge62.

As the tourist policy and plan making are lagging behind both at regional and local levels, a current strategy and a support programme for both conventional and eco-tourism are urgently needed to boost the sector in both Kunene and Erongo. Local governments, at times working together, are enabling the activities of a resurgent private sector. But coordination between stakeholders seems poor, and there is little shared understanding of how coastal tourism has shifted its target markets, adapted its products, and moved forward. Up to date information to back up such an understanding is lacking. In this situation, there is a danger that environmental planning and management receives only lip service, and the resources on which coastal tourism depends are being degraded.

The need to strengthen the basis for capitalising on the potential win-win development scenario between eco-tourism and nature conservation on the coast is closely linked to the need to strengthen the power of MET relative to other line ministries. It is recommended that tourism development on the coast be aligned with the MET Concessions Policy, with guided tourism and camp/lodge development being undertaken as joint ventures between the private sector and state and/or local community groups (Barnes, 2007). This will assist in reducing open access problems and increasing the economic value and sustainability of the sector. The full use of the tourism potential in the coastal areas will also depend on the implementation of the Neighbours and Residents Policy, as tourism is currently growing in inland escarpment areas outside the coastal zone62. The implementation of this policy could be enhanced if it is

62 J.I. Barnes & M. Alberts, 2007. Sustainable tourism options for the coastal zone of Namibia and refinement of available data on coastal natural resource use practices. Draft report to NACOMA.

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 212 - linked to coastal tourism developments and the new schemes for obtaining licenses for concessions are offered to inland as well as coastal disadvantaged groups as well as to joint ventures between well-established companies and local residents. Compared to eco-tourism, other land-uses, including traditional ‘high-impact’ tourism, possess a significantly smaller development potential in the two coastal regions. In spite of the lower potential, sustainable development is possible to achieve for all land uses by adopting the following environmental standards for land use development in pristine and sensitive environments:

 Comprehensive environmental monitoring and management, which secures that the level of control necessary to assure authorities and NGOs of compliance with environmental quality objectives for development in proximity to sensitive habitats, require quantifiable compliance targets. Of equal importance are effective and rapid response mechanisms, to allow feedback of monitoring results into compliance targets and work methods.

As stated in the Vision 2030 sub-vision on urbanisation there is a growing need for Namibia’s secondary cities like Walvis Bay and Swakopmund to play a bigger part in absorbing urban development than they do today, where Windhoek is hosting the major urban growth. Accordingly, the need for better urban policy, planning and management to accommodate urban growth is likely to increase in the future. Sustainable urban development will rely on urban policy, planning and management practices facilitating the development of the Walvis Bay - Swakopmund area as a sub-regional platform to spatially concentrate, accommodate and enhance the benefits of urban and economic growth in the Erongo Region.

The location of nearby areas of conservation priority like the river valleys of the Kuiseb and Swakop rivers, the wetlands like Walvis Bay Lagoon, lichen fields and localised high densities of breeding Damara terns severely constrain the suitability for spreading urban land use beyond areas currently allocated to residential, beach resort and industrial establishments. However, even facing these constraints Walvis Bay and Swakopmund can increase their importance as key national assets by developing an improved basis for spatial planning and management, by observing high standards of strategic and impact assessment and by developing detailed tourism plans. In addition, enhancement of the legal framework for coastal protection is required to implement sustainable urban development, as the land between the low and high water marks is currently lacking any protection from development63.

63 SAIEA, 2007. Review of existing institutional mandates, policies and laws relating to coastal management, and proposals for change. Final draft for NACOMA. The Southern African Institute for Environmental Assessment.

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A major factor in the future economy of Erongo and Kunene is the mining industry. In order to improve planning of the extraction of minerals and avoid unsustainable development of the industry on the coast the environmental standards for land use development in pristine and sensitive environments mentioned above must be observed, and MET must increase its influence on the Minerals Prospecting and Mining Rights Committee and must be involved in the assessment of environmental monitoring programmes. It is particularly important to ensure liaison with MET at an early stage of prospecting for mineral extraction in the protected areas and national monuments. For each licence awarded, MME and the MET must agree with the licensee on the scope of the prospecting in terms of volume of soil/sand removed. Larger amounts may only be removed after exemption or renewed application and permit. A new Bill is being prepared which introduces requirements for financial guarantees for reparation of environmental damage and the setting up of trust funds for rehabilitation after mine closure. This may provide leverage for the enforcement of rehabilitation. The environmental monitoring of mining activities which is carried out by the Division of Engineering and Environmental Geology of MME provides for an important environmental control of potentially adverse impacts like excessive water supply, dust emission and pollution of surface- as well as groundwater. Here, again, MET should be involved as a third party to evaluate monitoring results.

Better planning of water resource use in mining activities is the key to more sustainable mineral extraction on the coast. The existing water use policy, which leaves the organisation of water supply to the individual mining company, has to be replaced by a policy which ensures that unsustainable water extraction/desalination and distribution patterns do not emerge. As the current water use in Erongo is over-utilising the water resource, desalination plants are being considered whenever future water demands are discussed. A feasible project has yet to appear, but other coastal developments in arid zones have resorted to this solution and the cost of the technology is decreasing. Namwater may licence a BOP to run a desalination plant feeding mines through a distribution network to mines based on the Rossing pipe.

Aquaculture has gained considerable interest in Namibia over the last few years. The current National Development Plan (NDP 2) calls for the promotion of aquaculture activities and the national policy paper Vision 2030 both foresee a thriving aquaculture industry. Since 2003, the Aquaculture Act has provided a legislative context, and the policy paper Towards the Responsible Development of Aquaculture (2001) and the Aquaculture Strategy (2004) were developed to address the development of a sustainable aquaculture sector. Recently, detailed plans have been developed for Erongo, while very little aquaculture has been proposed in the Kunene region due to the distance to market and infrastructure challenges.

In addition, the Walvis Bay Town Council has proposed to zone two plots between Walvis Bay and Swakopmund for aquaculture development with land based facilities. Unfortunately, the current plans have not been founded on the basis of a comprehensive environmental master plan which considers both the natural marine environment from a feasible production and environmental point of view. An environmental master plan could provide a detailed zoning on the basis of the SEA and water quality data available from BCLME and could provide a sectoral strategic environmental assessment including modelling of effects on local water quality properties. The modelled suitability for sea-based and land-based aquaculture made by this SEA indicates that suitable locations in Erongo are few and localised and associated with Walvis Bay, Swakopmund and Henties Bay. Hence, proper planning of aquaculture developments in Erongo will require careful scrutiny of potential land use conflicts between residential areas and suitable areas for aquaculture.

7.3.2 Tourism

Tourism is a sector of considerable importance to the Namibian economy. The industry’s direct impact is estimated at some 18,840 jobs, or 4.7 per cent of total employment, and N$1.584 million in output, approximately 3.7 percent of Gross Domestic Product (GDP). It has been

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 214 - further estimated that tourism directly and indirectly contributes up to N$6.788 million to the economy annually, and thus potentially contributes close to 72,000 jobs. The number of overall tourists – defined as a person visiting a country other than his/her usual country of residence for between one night and one year – has risen from 254,978 in 1993 to 777,890 in 2005. Output in 1993 was estimated at N$500 million. Some 82 per cent of just over 200,000 arrivals by air in 2004, i.e., 167,000 people, were tourists. The average length of stay is 17 days, with most tourists moving around the country to experience its varied attractions. Some 1,728 establishments have applied for registration with the Namibian Tourism Board (NTB), these split between 912 accommodation establishments of various types and 816 regulated businesses (e.g. tour operators, conference operators, vehicle rental, booking agents, etc.).

Namibia’s protected areas (parks) system, which covers some 18 per cent of the country’s land area, was recently estimated to generate between N$1.099 million to N$2.259 million in overall output. At the same time, the number of tourists visiting community-based tourism enterprises, which are often adjacent or in proximity to the parks, has increased promisingly from 30,000 in 1999 to over 90,000 in 2004, according to the Namibian Community-Based Tourism Authority (NACOBTA).64

In the post-2000 period, however, growth in both the numbers of tourists and in revenues has been less than expected. Despite rosy predictions of growth for the future – over the next decade to 2016, by 8.6 per cent in output per year to N$5.696 million, and 4.4 per cent per annum for employment to 28,845 direct jobs – travel and tourism in Namibia is under- performing, relative to its own potential, and compared to the performance of its immediate neighbours (and competitors) in Southern Africa, Botswana, Zambia and South Africa. This under-performance is now the focus of much GRN attention.

A White Paper on Tourism, which reflected the findings and recommendations of the National Tourism Development Plan 1993-1997, was approved by Cabinet in 1994. In recent years it has been augmented by the development of A National Tourism Policy for Namibia. It is understood that this policy is now close to being launched.65 Tourism is also emphasised in Vision 2030. Although it is not mentioned as yet as a specific sectoral goal in NDP3, it will certainly be regarded as a priority area for growth. Vision 2030 acknowledges that despite tourism’s “very important role in economic development…its full potential has neither been explored nor exploited.” Accordingly, the sub-vision for Wildlife and Tourism is declared as follows:

64 Statistics are drawn from the World Travel & Tourism Council (WTTC) Country Report, Namibia: The Impact of Travel & Tourism on Jobs and the Economy, commissioned by the Ministry of Environment and Tourism, 2006, and from Namibia Statistical Report 2004, Directorate of Tourism, Ministry of Environment and Tourism, 2005. 65 The consultant is in possession of the fourth draft of the policy, dated June 30th 2005. The process has been ongoing since 1999. 66 Vision 2030, op cit, p. 152. 67 A National Tourism Policy for Namibia, Fouth Draft, 2005, p. 6.

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 215 - current and future generations.”68 It must be seen within the context of the understanding that it is Namibia’s environmental resources – in simple terms, the country’s nature and wildlife – that are the key basis for its tourism industry. Accordingly, responsible tourism is to be promoted, as: …an approach aimed at ensuring that Namibia develops tourism that is economically, socially and environmentally sustainable – tourism that contributes positively to the local and national economy, the local environment and the empowerment of local people and, ultimately, to the quality of life of all Namibians. This means encouraging the sort of tourism that has the greatest chance of providing a long-term future for local communities, where ongoing market demand is most likely to sustain tourism businesses and where tourism can assist in environmental conservation.69

The National Tourism Policy can be seen as simultaneously ambitious in its intentions for the tourism industry in Namibia and strongly conservation-oriented (or even conservative). There are several issues that will have to be tackled if the tourism industry is to live up to its potential:

Funding and institutional strengthening: MET overall faces severe budgetary constraints. For several years, budgetary allocations have not covered operational costs (there was over- expenditure of N$12.3 million in the 2006/2007 financial year). The Ministry, with a budget of N$141 million for 2007/2008, is arguably under-budgeted with only N$50 million a year spent on maintaining and running its national parks, the cornerstone of Namibian tourism. At the same time, the tourism agencies falling under MET auspices, the NTB, responsible for tourism marketing and the licensing of tourism businesses since 2001, and the National Wildlife Resorts parastatal (NWR), which has managed resorts in the national parks since 1998, also face serious financial and capacity constraints. The NWR in particular has struggled with managing its assets, the resort facilities, which are widely seen as below comparable international standards and expensive. A refurbishment programme is now underway. The NWR received a Cabinet bailout of N$120 million in 2005.71

The definition of market segments and associated tourism products: national policy, while recognising that some diversification is needed, focuses on stimulating “high-spending low- impact tourism.” Vision 2030 warns against “Uncontrolled low quality mass tourism” (p. 153). However, apart from mentioning “lower-spending but more adventurous visitors who will travel more widely in Namibia,” it is unclear what market differentiation is envisaged by the policy.72 The WTTC report points out that of the 780,000 international tourist arrivals in 2005, the largest share, of 44 per cent, was accounted for by visitors to friends and/or relatives (VFR tourists) who are not necessarily high-spending tourists at all (many are self-driving South African and other South African Development Community region holidaymakers and visitors). This VFR segment nonetheless contributes significantly to tourism receipts, and is arguably under catered for in terms of the products offered to it, or the attention paid to its needs. It is also widely acknowledged that there is much that can still be done to encourage more

68 Ibid, p. 25. 69 Ibid, p. 2. 70 Ibid, p. 15. 71 See Brigitte Weidlich, “Conservation hit by limited funds,” in The Namibian, February 12 2007 72 Vision 2030, p. 153; A National Tourism Policy for Namibia, p. 2

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 216 - domestic tourism. Presently, many Namibians are priced-out of their own facilities by what the WTTC calls “prohibitively high accommodation prices and entrance fees.” 73

To address these challenges the National Tourism Policy calls for the development of a national tourism strategy and action plan to further its policy objectives. This is to be accompanied by regional tourism strategies to be developed by regional and local stakeholders under the framework of updated regional development plans. The WTTC report also recommends that a detailed Tourism Master Plan/Strategy be drawn up and adopted as a Cabinet directive. This should include a product development strategy (including wildlife tourism, cultural tourism, adventure tourism, game hunting, etc.). Region-specific master plans should also be developed which can be attached or incorporated within the national plan.

7.4 Kunene Region SEA Specific Findings

7.4.1 Skeleton Coast National Park

Development of diamond mining activities in the park is undertaken without advice on sensitive zones to be avoided and best areas for location of pipelines, tracks and roads. The lack of a detailed management plan has also allowed other activities in sensitive areas like off-road driving, recreational angling, private tourism, littering and the excavation of trenches. The SEA and the mapping of priority areas for conservation will contribute to the understanding of the locationally-sensitive areas. The most sensitive areas are the mouth of the Kunene River, the river beds of the ephemeral rivers with prominent stands of higher plants and the eastern- central sector between Koigab and Hoanib rivers. The easternmost parts of the river beds of the Ugab, Huab, Koigab, Uniab, Hoanib, Hoarusib and Khumib located within the Skeleton Coast National Park are characterised by habitats which support elevated densities of a wide range of taxa and species, like growth of Acacia spp. and Colophospermum mopane, rocky areas like the Agate Mountain and high topographic complexity.

The unique fauna includes several species of large herbivorous and carnivorous mammals, and bird species like the Black harrier. The eastern-central sector of the Skeleton Park between Koigab and Hoanib rivers marks a zone of significant concentrations of habitats, especially for mammals migrating between Etosha and the coast as well as for a number of bird species recruited in the Escarpment. In addition the zone supports extensive coverage of Welwitschia, and rock outcrops are found centrally while an area of high complexity is found in the south. The zone is used both by relatively common mammal species like Springbok as well

73 Namibia: The Impact of Travel & Tourism on Jobs and the Economy, p. 55. This judgement was passed by WTTC well prior to NWR increasing its rack rates at its 23 resorts threefold in May 2007, to take effect from November. Despite the 25 per cent discount for Namibians being maintained, this will significantly weaken affordability prospects for the vast majority of Namibians. The NTB also produced a study in May 2007 which concluded that the tourism sector was neglecting domestic tourists due to high prices for accommodation, food and services. See Brigitte Weidlich, “Tourism price-hike shocks” in The Namibian, May 14 2007. An article by the same author, “Tourism spots too costly for Namibians,” in The Namibian, December 8 2006 is also relevant.

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 217 - as by rare and endangered species like Mountain zebra, Lion, Elephant and Leopard. Elephants seem mainly to use the northern-most part of the zone.

The northern part of the Skeleton Coast Park from the Kunene River to Möwe Bay should remain a closed area and be integrated with the planned TFCA. Möwe Bay should develop its tourism potential to accommodate and shelter for day trippers from Terrace Bay and fly-ins; this would include new housing to replace the existing pre-fab constructions. The landing site (“harbour”) should be developed to allow launching of angling boats. The MET facilities should be rehabilitated with a clear objective of becoming a showcase sustainable settlement with solar and wind power, desalination, housing construction etc. Terrace Bay should be developed to capitalise on the suitability of the location for tourism, including beach resorts. The area might be developed into a high-end angling site and the point-of-departure for day trips to Möwe Bay and trips to the adjacent core wilderness area with accommodation in an all- inclusive resort. Torra Bay should remain a site for budget accommodation aimed at domestic, and SADC region eco-tourist and angler target groups. Develop a Skeleton Coast Biodiversity Centre in support of eco-tourism aiming at the improved potential for wilderness safaris in the Skeleton Coast – Etosha extension area.

Considering its vast area, the park ranger staff is severely understaffed. It should be discussed in MET, MME, MFMR and other relevant Ministries how existing responsibilities with respect to surveillance and inspection of the North West of Namibia can most efficiently be carried out. Costs could be shared and rangers could carry out duties for other ministries to increase frequency and efficiency. From the biodiversity and eco-tourism point of view the proposal for the construction of a port in Cape Fria or Angara Fria should not be pursued, since the necessary infrastructure developments will severely affect the present remoteness/wilderness attraction to tourists. Unless national strategic concerns or strong economic incentives dictate a revisiting of the proposal it seems neither feasible nor sustainable under the present conditions.

7.4.2 Conservancies

7.4.3 Kunene River Mouth

The building of a dam at Epupa will require that a management framework be set up covering the entire lower Kunene River for successful management of the TFCA. Water availability influences the type and biological quality of the planned TFCA.. This is especially true at the Kunene River Mouth as it is located in an arid region. A thorough understanding of the overall hydrology is thus imperative for all management aspects both in the TFCA as such as well as in the upstream part. Literally, the Kunene River Mouth is the ‘end of the line’ and any interventions in the upstream part will impact downstream. Unpredictable changes in the overall climate conditions may also dramatically influence the Delta area. Strategies to construct a dam may have significant adverse effects on the potential for freshwater fisheries, aquaculture and angling. Management aspects of the TFCA should therefore be seen in a dual context – both from an upstream view and from a downstream view.

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7.5 Erongo Region SEA Specific Findings

7.5.1 Sandwich Harbour

In line with the new Wetland Policy, Sandwich Harbour should be declared a Marine Protected Area to protect the large numbers of waterbirds, fish spawning and rearing, the shark population and the possibility of Southern Right Whale calving. A plan for transferring the management of the MPA from MFMR to MET should be developed. A detailed management plan should be prepared allowing strict protection of the site, while enabling low-impact eco- tourism to continue to take place. It would be an advantage if jurisdiction on enforcement of MPA regulations could be transferred to MET rangers.

7.5.2 Walvis Bay Wetland

In line with the new Wetland Policy, enforcement of the Walvis Bay Nature Reserve Management Plan should be pursued in the short term backed up by detailed mapping of the gradients in vulnerability of biodiversity in relation to the wide range of land uses. MET should formally designate the Nature Reserve as a protected area. MET, the Walvis Bay Municipality and the Coastal Environmental Trust of Namibia should ensure further enforcement of the national Wetland Policy in the area by adopting the Nature Reserve Management Plan.

MET, the Walvis Bay Municipality and the Coastal Environmental Trust of Namibia should as soon as possible also establish a long-term environmental monitoring programme including the biodiversity elements for terrestrial, coastal as well as offshore habitats found in the wetland. A baseline for the monitoring programme should produce diversity gradients in relation to tourism, aquaculture and agriculture and the acquired data should feed into the requirement for improved Environmental Impact Assessments. To make full use of the potential for development of eco-tourism and traditional tourism in the wetland, a tourism development plan for the Nature Reserve should be drafted by the Walvis Bay Municipality in collaboration with the Walvis Bay Tourism Association and the Marine Tour Association of Namibia. Developments of tourist activities in the reserve and accommodation adjacent to the reserve should only take place on the basis of permissions subject to Environmental Impact Assessment. A feasibility study of the development of the existing aquaculture farms for oyster and future marine and land-based aquaculture in the wetland should be undertaken in relation to the most sensitive parts and residential areas.

7.5.3 Dune belt

The dune belt should be included in the Walvis Bay Nature Reserve, and free zones for off- road driving should be maintained east of Walvis Bay and east of Long Beach. The demarcation of the free zone east of Long Beach should take account of the area used by Damara Terns from the colony south of Long Beach. The management and environmental monitoring of the area should be part of the activities proposed for the Nature Reserve. Expansion of eco-tourism activities should be promoted through inclusion of the dune belt in the proposed Walvis Bay tourism development plan. Once the existing mining licenses expire, new reconnaissance, prospecting or mining licences should not be granted in the dune belt.

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The zoning of eco-tourism and free zones for off-road driving should become object of a detailed Environmental Impact Assessment.

7.5.4 Walvis Bay

The SEA indicates high biodiversity values in the northern part of the coastal area adjacent to the Swakop River and the land use suitability maps indicate a lack of suitability for land uses other than eco-tourism. This area remains undeveloped, and the only proposal for development that was subjected to an EIA in recent years – a residential area near the Swakop River in 2002 – was rejected by MET on the basis of the EIA and the Peri-Urban Policy. In view of its biodiversity, recreational and landscape values, it is recommended that the area, which is still state land, be maintained solely as a Conservation Area, as per the original structure plan and Peri-Urban Land Use Policy. The proposals for nodal residential developments near the Swakop River Mouth and in the Caution Reef area should be rejected. Conservation, Eco-Tourism and Aquaculture are uses that do not fit easily with one another – the proposed mixed zone at Caution Reef should be shelved.

The urban and economic development on the southern part of the coast should be accepted by stakeholders. This development started nearly 20 years ago with the proclamation and development of Long Beach. It was given ample room for expansion by WBM’s rezoning in 2003 and the subsequent development of Long Beach Extension 1 and of the three new residential areas that are now either underway or planned for the near future. The structure plan revisions propose a mix of harbour and aquaculture, residential and public beach/recreational activities in the area. These should be accepted, as indicated by the SEA land use suitability models. More analysis will have to be done on the means that can be used, such as design guidelines, for assuring that these very different land uses do not conflict with one another, with negative impacts for residents and the natural environment. At the same time, sufficient public beach and recreational space and access to it for residents will be needed to also be assured. Given that the land-use suitability models indicate that the majority of the area sustains low suitability for aquaculture and high suitability for tourism the potential for increased recreational uses of the area should set the scene.

7.5.5 Swakopmund

It will be necessary for SM and MFMR to decide jointly which portions of the land between Mile 4 and the Mile 4 Saltworks should be allocated to aquaculture and which to possible future urban development. In principle, both uses can be accommodated, as indicated by the SEA land use suitability models, providing measures are taken to mitigate any impacts from the essentially industrial processes which characterise aquaculture. The area north of the Saltworks appears more suitable for land-based aquaculture development. An EIA is recommended for any future developments of scale in the area.

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7.5.6 Mile 4 Saltworks

The Mile 4 Saltworks comprises a private nature reserve of 400 ha, Saltworks, guano platforms and oyster production. No conflicts seem to exist between the waterbird concentrations, the salt extraction, oyster production and guano scraping at the Saltworks. In line with the new Wetland Policy the current seemingly sustainable activities should be monitored and any new development should be subject of environmental impact assessment. The area just north of the Saltworks has been identified as a potential development area for land-based aquaculture by MFMR, and the land use suitability models of the SEA indicate that the area is suitable for aquaculture development.

7.5.7 Wlotzkasbaken

7.5.8 Henties Bay

7.5.9 Brandberg Massif

The rocky areas of the Brandberg Massif, which are connected with Namibia’s highest mountain Brandberg, at 2,606m, located in the central section of the Namib Desert some 30 km from the boundary of the National West Coast Tourist Recreation Area, is a priority area for conservation of a wide range of desert plants and animals. Recent analyses show that Brandberg is the epicentre of a rich vein of endemic mammals, reptiles, plants and amphibians that runs from the Sperrgebiet in the south to the Otjihipa mountains in the north. No other area in Namibia is as rich in endemics as the Brandberg massif; among the 90 endemic plants, eight are found nowhere else, whilst three of six near-endemic frogs, eight of 14 near-endemic mammals, 49 of 59 near-endemic reptiles, and 11 of 14 near-endemic birds occur on or around this inselberg. No land use development, except for eco-tourism, should take place in the Brandberg Massif.

7.5.10 Cape Cross Seal Reserve

Currently this wetland is registered as a nature reserve with the purpose to restrict access to the public. The seal reserve is visited by 40,000 tourists per year. In line with the new Wetland Policy, the current seemingly sustainable levels of tourism, guano-scrapping and small-scale salt-extraction activities should be monitored and any new development should be subject of environmental impact assessment.

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7.5.11 National West Coast Tourist Recreation Area

The mapping of priority areas for conservation indicates that the most sensitive areas and areas with the largest eco-tourism potential within the NWCTRA are found at Cape Cross Lagoon and Seal Reserve, the river beds and associated areas of the Swakop and Ugab rivers and the rocky area associated with the Brandberg Massif. Other land uses, including conventional tourism, should be focused on the parts of the NWCRA with limited concentration of biodiversity. The development of conventional and eco-tourism should be guided by a tourism plan for the area.

7.6 The SEA Decision Support Tool (DST)

7.6.1 General Overview

The SEA report and appendices provide a principal output of the Strategic Environmental Assessment for the coastal areas of Kunene and Erongo regions. The other output is the SEA Decision Support Tool (DST), which offers a map-based documentation of the results of the modelled land use suitability, including the analyses of spatial trends in biodiversity. Accordingly, the SEA report and DST should be used together to interpret the background for the conclusions and recommendations given. An important usage of the DST in relation to spatial planning of future developments is the possibility to compare the suitability of an area for different and potentially competing land uses.

The DST does not offer any decisions, but rather comprises a user-friendly map in high resolution of the suitability of each land use evaluated on the basis of multi-criteria evaluations of economic, social and environmental issues. Another important usage of the DST is related to the screening phase of single or multiple projects in which the end user will be able to import his or her own GIS project data to explore various development scenarios against the modelled land use suitability data, the high-resolution backdrop of seamless landscape and topographic maps as well as against all available background information to the SEA project. The DST is organised into three types of themes:

(i) Current land uses, including existing protected area system;

(ii) Extent of area with exploitable resources;

(iii) Spatial description of regional development plans;

(iv) Modelled priority areas for conservation of biodiversity and sensitive areas;

(v) Modelled land use suitability on the basis of themes 1-4 and eco-physical factors describing the acceptance criteria in terms of physical characteristics for the suitability of each land use.

Apart from these themes the DST hosts a range of background data, including roads, rivers, municipal infrastructures and administration zones, as well as all individual data sets on the geo-physics and biodiversity of Kunene and Erongo coastal regions which were made available to the SEA (see Appendix I for details). The land uses considered are: urban,

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 222 - hydrocarbon and mineral extraction, port, coastal resort, agriculture, land-based fish farming, marine fish farming, eco-tourism, beach recreation and conventional tourism and desert recreation and tourism.

In the short term, the DST is available as a CD-ROM with two applications: one is a cluster of PDF files with results of the suitability maps for each land use type and the other is a collection of GIS files, encompassing all major results and background files, which can be viewed in ArcGIS, ArcView 3.2 as well as in the freeware ArcExplorer. The CD-ROM also contains the SEA Final Report and a manual for using the maps in ArcView/ArcExplorer. The collection of GIS maps with ArcExplorer will make it possible for the local user to add his/her own project data. In the long term the DST may be set up as a server-based web-application with the Ministry of Environment and Tourism’s EEIS unit.

7.7 SEMP Roles and Responsibilities

7.7.1 Overall responsibilities

The overall responsibilities for the implementations of the SEA recommendations and the SEMP framework will be led by the Ministry of Environment and Tourism in consultation with other Organs of State. The management options and strategies for the implementation and monitoring of the SEMP shall include the following:

 The provision of technical descriptions of the buffer zone management options in order to minimise adverse impacts on coastal zone preserving areas of high conservation or ecological values with specific reference to areas of state significance (natural resources), coastal wetlands, biodiversity, environmental values and water quality objectives, and any relevant marine park zoning plan or declared Fish Habitat Area.

7.7.2 PPPs Monitoring Objectives

The successful implementations of the SEA recommendations will require ongoing monitoring programme with respect to the implementation of the National Coastal Policy. By undertaking continuous monitoring, it may be possible to identify unpredicted effects of current and future PPPs on the coastal zone and take the necessary precautions to eliminate the likely impacts before the effects become significant. The main objectives of the monitoring programme are to:

 Check the overall effectiveness of the proposed measures of protecting the coastal environment;

 Comply with regulations, standards and other conditions;

 Detect sudden or long-term environmental changes;

 Measure physical disturbance and subsequent recovery;

 Compare actual impacts with those predicted in the SEA and thereby aim to improve the SEA process for possible future development along the coastal zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions.

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7.8 SEMP Implementation and Monitoring Strategy

7.8.1 SEMP Implementation

7.8.2 SEMP Monitoring Strategy

The proposed monitoring programme has been developed to allow maximum flexibility in both the timing and monitoring locations in order to allow adaptation to the conditions encountered and to allow decisions to be made in the field, based on all available data. The monitoring programme acts as a quality assurance check on all environmental procedures and environmental performances with respect to the implementation of the mitigation measures and the overall SEMP framework. The implementation of the monitoring programme with respect to the outlined PPP in Tables 7.1 and 7.2 will require resources to collect, analyse the required data sets and propose recommendations on what needs to be done.

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Table 7.1: SEMP recommended implementation schedule – sector-based actions.

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Table 7.1: (Cont.)

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Table 7.2: SEMP recommended implementation schedule – area-based actions.

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Table 7.2: (Cont.).

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Table 7.2: (Cont.).

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Table 7.2: (Cont.).

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Table 7.2: (Cont.).

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8. APPENDIX I - METHODS

8.1 Stakeholder Liaison, Requirement Analysis and Inventory of Planning Documents and Data

A key to a successful development and application of the SEA and DST has been the ongoing liaison with the stakeholders during the entire project. Stakeholder involvement has focused on delivery of planning documents and data, methodologies related to the analysis of land use suitability, including the analysis of biodiversity trends as well as on discussions on individual land use plans. The Erongo and Kunene coastal SEA has been divided into three phases with workshops during each phase functioning as focal points for communication with the stakeholders. During the Inception Phase, an initial stakeholder workshop and meetings with stakeholders and decision makers was held in both Kunene and Erongo coastal regions and in Windhoek, including the principal end-users; the Regional Councils of Erongo and Kunene. The aims of the workshop and meetings included the introduction of the proposed work plan and SEA process, definition of boundaries, confirmation of relevant PPPs, discussion of the proposed format for the presentation of SEA results and the soliciting of input and feedback related to the stakeholders’ specific needs as well as the identification and collation of available spatial data. During the Phase 2 workshop various issues related to the PPPs were discussed with end users from the Kunene region. During the Phase 3 workshops the team had the opportunity to discuss the major SEA findings and DST design with key stakeholders in Windhoek, Erongo and Kunene. During the third Phase, draft versions of the SEA report and the DST and recommendations for improved coastal policies will be discussed with NACOMA and stakeholders at four workshops both in Windhoek, Erongo and Kunene in July 2007. One of the main activities of the Inception Phase was the definition of boundaries, verification and confirmation of PPPs and identification of available geo-referenced data, all of which were addressed by undertaking a Requirement Analysis, by listing confirmed and updated PPPs, and by making a Data Inventory. As part of the Requirements Analysis for the SEA the following were defined:

(i) Users: primarily the two Regional Councils of Erongo and Kunene, coastal municipalities and line ministries. Other stakeholders below will also likely find use for the SEA and DST;

(ii) Stakeholders: Regional Councils, coastal municipalities, line ministries, fisheries including mariculture industries, mining companies, oil and gas industries, property developers, tourist companies, coastal and marine technical experts, NGOs and the general public;

(iii) Management tasks/ policy processes: Planning of land uses and conservation of biodiversity at the regional level;

(iv) Workflows / procedures: Exchange of policies, programmes, plans and GIS data, syntheses and summaries of biodiversity data, and modelling of coastal sensitivity from biodiversity summaries;

(v) Environmental priorities arrangement: The following sub-themes are required for the coastal SEA;

(vi) Coastal and municipality infrastructure GIS data:

 Political and administrative boundaries;

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 Boundaries of protected areas;

 Roads, railways, airports, landing strips, ports, power lines, sanitation, water supply incl. dams, sewers and solid waste dumps;

 Buildings;

 Public access.

(vii) Coastal land-use data, policies, programs and plans:

 Municipal plans;

 Regional plans;

 Protected areas management;

 Tourism and recreation areas;

 Coastal landscape – aesthetics;

 Mining (marine (near shore and offshore) and terrestrial);

 Aquaculture;

 Fisheries;

 Port development (Walvis Bay, Cape Fria);

 Local communities’ involvement;

 Wetland policy;

 Protected areas designation (IONA protected area);

 Water resources;

 Power generation.

(viii) Coastal landscape GIS data:

 Geo-referenced coastline;

 Digital elevation model;

 Landsat ETM+;

 Human density;

 Livestock density;

 Rivers, and tributaries;

 Coastal types, geo-morphology;

 Places, landmarks;

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 Bathymetry, close to the coast.

(ix) Coastal physics GIS data:

 Soils;

 Rainfall;

 Fog intensity;

 Temperature, radiation, humidity;

 Sediments;

 Sea surface temperature.

(x) Coastal biodiversity GIS data:

 Animal records - selected species;

 Plant records - selected species;

 Plant productivity (ENDVI);

 Mammal diversity and density;

 Plant diversity;

 Bird diversity;

 Frog diversity;

 Reptile diversity;

 Scorpion diversity;

 Mammal diversity;

 Bird endemism;

 Plant endemism;

 Reptile endemism;

 Scorpion endemism;

 Mammal endemism.

Documents and data on regional, national and sectoral land use and other relevant policies, programmes and plans (PPPs) were collected during the Project Inception Phase in October 2006. These are listed in Table 1. Although a large amount of data has been made available to the SEA process, some information has failed to become available for various reasons. During the second workshop held in Khorixas in February 2007, it was possible to receive feed-back on these missing data, and fill in the same most important gaps on land use, plans and biodiversity. The same procedure was followed in the third set of SEA Workshops were held as part of the SEA updating process.

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Table 1: Regional, national and sectoral land use and other relevant policies, programmes and plans (PPPs) used in the SEA.

Key PPPs:  NAMPORT’s Environmental Management System  Structure Plans for Walvis Bay, Swakopmund and Henties Bay Municipalities  Town Planning Schemes for Walvis Bay, Swakopmund and Henties Bay Municipalities  Walvis Bay Municipality Regulations for Dune Belt (draft)  Walvis Bay Nature Reserve (proposed) Management Plan (draft)  North West Tourism Plan  Namib-Naukluft Management and Tourism Development Plan  Skeleton Coast National Park Management Plan  Iona Transfrontier Park Memorandum of Understanding  Policy framework for Concessions in Proclaimed Protected Areas  Cape Cross Seal Reserve Plan  National West Coast Tourist Recreation Area Plan  MET Strategic Plan  National Biodiversity Strategic Action Plan  Namibia Wetland Policy  MFMR Mariculture Feasibility  MFMR Marine Protected Area Feasibility  Cape Fria Feasibility  MME Strategic Plan  MME White Paper on Energy Policy  MME Draft Minerals Policy Of Namibia  MME acts (Minerals (Prospecting and Mining) Act, 1992, Diamond Act, 1999, Petroleum Products and Energy Amendment Act, 2000, Gas Act - Draft)  Petroleum Exploration Onshore/Offshore Open Licensing System  MET Policy on Tourism and Wildlife Concessions on State Land (Draft June 2006)  MET Policy on Protected Areas, Neighbours and Resident People (Draft July 2006)  MET Biosafety Act (6th draft)  MET Policy and Legal Framework of the National CBNRM Programme  MET Namibia’s Pollution Control and Waste Management Policy  MET Namibia’s Environmental Assessment Policy  MET EMA Bill (draft)  Erongo and Kunene Regional Development Plans 2005-06

8.2 The Coastal GIS

8.2.1 GIS Design

An important element of the project has been the establishment of the coastal SEA GIS – a GIS mapping system covering all major landscape, biodiversity, infrastructure, land use and PPP data of the coastal regions of Kunene and Erongo. The main goal of the SEA GIS is to facilitate the DST as a tool for assisting the decision-making process at the regional level. A mapping system in support of a coastal SEA not only requires integrated analyses of land use, planning and environmental data, but it also requires a relatively high resolution to produce sufficiently detailed information to be useful in the decision-making process related to various land-use options. Although some GIS data, e.g. the infrastructure data held by the General Surveyor and the municipalities of Walvis Bay and Swakopmund, are available in high resolution, the majority of GIS data from the Atlas of Namibia or from the Namibian Biodiversity Database are only available in relatively low resolution, this typically exceeding 10 km. In

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 235 - addition, relatively few original geo-referenced observations were available to the SEA, thus, in order to map key habitat components of the coastal landscape with sufficient detail we used remote sensing data (ETM+) and digital topographic data (SRTM) in high resolution in combination with modelled distributions of key species of plants and animals from the Atlas of Namibia scenes.

The coastal SEA GIS has been geo-referenced to Universal Transverse Mercator projection (UTM Zone 33) with WGS 84 datum. Most of the data shown have been processed as raster data at a resolution of 90 m to align with the digital topographic SRTM data. Orthorectified data on the coastline were available both as a vectorised coastline developed from aerial photos (courtesy BCLME Project) and ETM+ data from 2001 (University of Maryland). After checking the precision of the rectified coastline the ETM+ images (9 scenes) were chosen as the basis for mapping river courses, locate areas with prominent vegetation and map coastal wetlands, and as a basis for a rendering the coastal landscape as a high-resolution (28.5 m) backdrop for all mapped data. In order to create a "natural-like" rendition a 24-bit RGB-composite image of bands 7, 4 and 2 was made using linear stretch with saturation points. The 9 scenes were then combined into one ‘seamless’ image of the coastal regions by running a mosaic routine, which created a new image by spatially orienting the overlapping images and balancing the numeric characteristics of the image set based on the overlapping areas. In the resulting backdrop healthy vegetation shows as bright green, grass will appear green, pink areas represent barren soil, oranges and browns represent sparsely vegetated areas. Dry vegetation will be orange and water will be blue. Sands, soils and minerals are highlighted in a multitude of colours, and are generally rendered close to “natural like”. The light-green spots inside the towns of Swakopmund and Walvis Bay indicate grassy land cover – e.g. cemeteries and golf courses.

The SRTM digital topographic data set was downloaded from NASA’s web server in one meter vertical and 90 m horizontal resolution. Missing data in the SRTM data set were assimilated by interpolated SRTM 1 km data (NASA). The SRTM data were used to estimate the relief and topographic complexity of the coastal zone. The relief was measured as the slope of each grid cell based on the cell resolution and the values of the immediate neighbouring cells to the top, bottom, left and right of the cell in question using the following formula:

Tangent  right  left /res  22  top  bottomres  22  which measures the tangent of the angle that has the maximum downhill slope; left, right, top, bottom are the attributes of the neighbouring cells and res is the cell resolution. The topographic complexity (F) was calculated for 7x7 kernels as: F = (n-1)/(c-1), where n = number of different classes present in the kernel, c = number of cells. The boundaries of the GIS are from the low-water mark to the eastern boundary of the Skeleton Coast National Park and the National West Coast Tourist Recreation Area. Only the north-western extreme of the Namib-Naukluft Park covering the south-western boundary of Erongo (Sandwich Harbour) is included. The coastal SEA GIS has been divided into the following main themes, which are dealt with in the next chapters:

 Biodiversity: priority species, habitats;

 Modelled priority areas for conservation;

 Policies and plans;

 Exploitable resources;

 Current land use;

 Modelled land use suitability;

Updated SEA for Coastal Zone of the Kunene and Erongo Regions - 236 -

 Support and infrastructure: buildings in Swakopmund and Walvis Bay, aquifers, power grids, roads and rails.

8.2.2 Support and Infrastructure Data

Table 2: List of geo-referenced digital data sources, formats and resolution for support and infrastructure data.

Data Source Format Resolution Regional government Atlas of Namibia Shapefile Low areas Park boundaries Atlas of Namibia Shapefile Low General Surveyor, Roads Roads and rails Shapefiles High Office Town administration WB and Swakm. CAD high zones municipalities WB and Swakm. Urban buildings CAD high municipalities Settlements Atlas of Namibia Shapefile Medium Aquifers Atlas of Namibia Shapefiles Low Power grids Atlas of Namibia Shapefiles Low Rivers Digitised from ETM+ Shapefile Medium

Updated information on the location of roads and rails were kindly made available by the General Surveyors and the Roads Authority offices. Although the roads data have been classified into different types of roads (e.g. trunk roads, dirt roads) all roads are currently included using the same symbology. The municipalities of Swakopmund and Walvis Bay kindly made their infrastructure data available to the coastal GIS. The data were transferred from autocad (Microstation) format to shapefiles. The data from Walvis Bay included the location of Peri-urban areas planned for various types of urban development. As no accurate data on the location of Namibian rivers exist the project decided to digitise the main rivers from the ETM+ composite image: Kuiseb, Khan, Swakop, Omaruru, Ugab, Huab, Koigab, Uniab, Hoanib, Hoarusib, Khumib and Kunene. The river courses were digitised as a line without demarcation of the river banks.

8.2.3 Biodiversity Data

A wide range of data sources were available on the habitat characteristics of priority species from data on wetlands of international importance74, The Namibian Biodiversity Database75, The Atlas of Southern African Birds76, The Tree atlas77, The Atlas of Namibia78, The Red Data Book of Namibian Plants79, Observations by tour companies (N. Dreyer, Catamaran Charters pers. comm.), The Kunene Lion Project80, data on red-listed mammals in Atlas of

74 Simmons, R.E., Barnes, K.N., Jarvis, A.M. & Robertson, A. 1999. Important Bird Areas in Namibia. DEA. Ministry of Environment & Tourism. Pp 68 75 http://www.biodiversity.org.na 76 Harrison, J.A., Allan, D.G., Underhill, L.G., Herremans, M., Tree, A.J., Parker, V., Brown, C.J. (eds). The Atlas of Southern African Birds. Vols. 1 and 2. BirdLife South Africa, Johannesburg. 77 Curtis, B.A. & Mannheimer, C.A., 2005. Tree Atlas of Namibia. Windhoek: National Botanical Research Institute. 688 pp. 78 Mendelsohn, J., Jarvis, A., Roberts, C. & Robertson, T. 2002. Atlas of Namibia : A portrait of the Land and it’s People. David Philip Publishers, Cape Town. 79 LOOTS, S. 2005. A Red Data Book of Namibian plants. SABONET Report No. 38. 124 pp. ISBN 1-919976-16-7. 80 http://www.desertlion.info/

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Namibia, experts on single target species (e.g. H. Skrypzeck, R. Braby) and PhD studies (C. Schultz, J. Lalley pers. comm.). A species was identified as a priority species if it met one of the following criteria:

 Endemic, rare or endangered;

 Plant species functioning as key food for large herbivores;

 Migratory species concentrated in Namibia.

In table 3 are listed the 20 priority habitats identified on the basis of all available data on priority species together with information on data sources, formats and resolution used for mapping their geographical coverage. The 20 habitats were chosen on the basis of landscape characteristics known as important environmental drivers in relation to the movement of prioritised species of large mammals between Etosha and the coast, in relation to the distribution of prioritised species of birds and higher plants, and in relation to increased levels of diversity and endemism in plants, invertebrate and vertebrate animals76,77,79, 81. The information about the importance of the escarpment and rock outcrops to endemism, rarity and diversity was obtained mainly from Simmons et al. 199881. Relationships between prioritised species and escarpment, rock outcrops and river beds have been taken from NNF, Curtis & Mannheimer (200577), Harrison (199776), Ryan et al. (199982), WWT Black Rhino project, WWT Brown Hyena Project and the Desert Lion Project. The distance to important habitats like the Etosha Pan, the Escarpment and vegetated river beds was estimated as the Euclidean distance to river beds in which vegetation could be identified on the ETM+ image taken in February 2001.

Estimated fine-scale distributions of lichen communities in the Central Namib Desert in 2003 based on a Remote Sensing Classification Approach were kindly made available by Dr. Christoph Schultz at the German Aerospace Centre. The coarse-scale distribution of lichens mapped in the central part of the Skeleton Coast Park in 2004 was kindly made available by Dr. Jennifer Lalley at the University of the Witwatersrand Wits, South Africa. A buffer zone of 500 m was added to the lichen distribution to take account of their sensitivity to excavation/construction works. Data on the current core areas for breeding Damara terns were kindly made available by Rod Braby. High density areas were estimated by adding a 2500 m buffer to the breeding zone, except where the complexity of the terrain is unfavourable for breeding terns (F > 0.3) and in urban areas. The Atlas of Namibia data on large mammals were derived from point locations of sightings of elephants in the Hoanib River between 1981 and 2000, sampling blocks used for MET aerial censuses in 1998 and in 2000, MET Aerial census data for 1995, 1998 and 2000 and MET Farm game census data for 1998. A buffer of 1 km was added to the Wetlands of international importance, and a buffer of 2 km was added to the ephemeral rivers.

The mapped priority areas for conservation listed in Chapter 1.2.3 were combined into three classes of area importance:

 Lower priority: one habitat present;

 Medium priority: two habitats present;

 High priority: ≥ 2 habitats present, or area hosts ≥ 1% of bio-geographic population (endemic/migratory flyway).

81 Simmons, R.E., Griffin, M., Griffin, R.E., Marais, E. & Kolberg, H. 1998. Endemism in Namibia: patterns, processes and predictions. Biodiversity and Conservation 7: 513-530 82 Ryan, P.G., I. Hood, P. Bloomer, J. Komen, and T. Crowe 1999. Barlow's Lark: a new species in the Karoo Lark Certhilauda albescens complex. Ibis 140: 605-619.

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Table 3: List of geo-referenced digital data sources, formats and resolution for biodiversity data. Data Source Format Resolution Erdas Imagine Lichen fields Christoph Schultz 30 m Raster 8 bit Welwitschia habitat Atlas of Namibia shapefile low Quiver tree habitat Atlas of Namibia shapefile low Mopane habitat Atlas of Namibia shapefile low Damara Tern key areas Rod Braby pers. comm. shapefile medium Heidi Skrypzeck pers. Fur seal colonies shapefile medium comm. Total herbivore medium abundance Atlas of Namibia shapefile low Elephant occurrence Atlas of Namibia shapefile low Lion density > 0.004/ km Atlas of Namibia shapefile low Leopard density > 0.005/km Atlas of Namibia shapefile low Mountain zebra density > 0.25/km2 Atlas of Namibia shapefile low Wetlands of international importance Digitised from ETM+ shapefile high calculated from Atlas of Distance < 50 km from escarpment raster file high Namibia Rock outcrops Atlas of Namibia shapefile medium Calculated from Atlas of Distance < 140 km from Etosha Pan raster file high Namibia Calculated from digitised Distance < 2 km from riverbeds raster file high rivers Distance < 50 km from Brandberg Calculated from Atlas of raster file high massif Namibia Vegetated areas ETM+ February 2001 raster file high Digitised from orthophoto - Rocky shoreline shapefile high BCLME© Topographic complexity > 0.5 SRTM raster high

8.2.4 Other Geophysical/Biological Data

A number of other GIS data, many of them available from the Atlas of Namibia, are highly relevant in relation to the SEA and DST and are therefore included in the coastal GIS. These data are listed in table 4.

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Table 4: List of geo-referenced digital data sources, formats and quality for other geo-physical and biological data.

Atlas of Namibia + Mountains raster file high SRTM Dominant soils Atlas of Namibia Shapefile medium % grass cover Atlas of Namibia Shapefile low % shrub cover Atlas of Namibia Shapefile low % tree cover Atlas of Namibia Shapefile low Number of fog days Atlas of Namibia Shapefile low Average annual rainfall Atlas of Namibia Shapefile low Average annual temperature Atlas of Namibia Shapefile low Variation in annual rainfall Atlas of Namibia Shapefile low Distance to coast calculated from raster file high orthorectified coastline Distance to roads and rails calculated from General raster file high Surveyor data Distance to settlements calculated from ETM+ raster file high data and infrastructure data from municipalities Average hrs sunshine/d Atlas of Namibia Shapefile low Average evaporation/y/m Atlas of Namibia Shapefile low Plant diversity Atlas of Namibia Shapefile low Relative humidity/most humid Atlas of Namibia Shapefile low months Max GVB Atlas of Namibia Shapefile low Altitude (m) SRTM Raster file high Relief (% slope) SRTM Raster file high Eastern Aspect of relief SRTM Raster file high Northern Aspect of relief SRTM Raster file high

8.2.5 Data on Policies and Plans, Exploitable Resources and Current Land Use

The data made available by the stakeholders have been used to map the spatial extent of current land uses, priority zones for development of land uses according to PPPs, the range of exploitable resources and current land use. The data are listed in Table 5.

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8.3 Modelling of Land Use Suitability

The suitability of the different areas of the coastal regions has been modelled in high resolution (90 m) by integration of PPP data, exploitable resource ranges, current land uses, environmental data, and modelled biodiversity priority areas for conservation (see chapter 1.2.3) using multi-criteria evaluation. Multi-criteria evaluation enables trade-offs between economic, social and environmental issues, and in this way the end user will be able to use the modelled land use suitability data with background information and his or her own data to explore various development scenarios.

The multi-criteria evaluation method used was a weighted linear model with up to three constraints and several factors per land use with acceptance criteria defined by fuzzy membership functions83. The fuzzy membership functions standardise scores for all factors to a fuzzy scale from 0 reflecting clearly poor conditions to 1 reflecting clearly suitable conditions for development. The use of fuzzy rather than accurate and quantitative criteria serves to reduce the decision risks (risk of making chance decisions), as in many cases the exact thresholds for suitable/unsuitable conditions are not well known. The fuzzy factors were applied using a cosine function with 2 control points, see table 6. The fuzzy environmental factors for each land use were then combined with information (if available) on exploitable resources, areas currently developed for urban land use, areas outlined by PPPs as priority development areas and the mapped priority areas/habitats for conservation. The four latter data sets were used as technical constraints to development; i.e. no development suitable if area outside PPP zone, in areas of no exploitable resources, or in urban land use zones or priority areas/habitats for conservation.

83 Alonso, W. 1968. Predicting Best with Imperfect Data. Journal of the American Institute of Planners 34: 248-255.

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Table 5: Environmental factors and constraints used in the calculation of land use suitability. Unless otherwise mentioned the factors are given equal weight.

Land Constraint Constraint Constraint Constraint Factors use/Factor Conservati Developed Resources PPPs Standardised with on priority areas fuzzy factors (0-1) Swakopmu nd Low relief infrastructur Access to water Urban X e data Access to power development Access roads WB Peri Adjacent settlement Urban data Low relief Access to water Port Namport Access to power X development plan Access roads Adjacent settlement Existing harbour facilities Swakopmu Low relief nd Low altitude Coastal infrastructur Access to water resort X e data Access to power development Access roads WB Peri Adjacent settlement Urban data Access coast Low relief X Access to marked

Low altitude Land-based Buffer 600 MFMR Plan X Access to water fish farming m from Erongo Access to power residential Access roads areas Access coast X Access to marked

Access to water Marine fish Buffer 600 MFMR Plan X Access to power farming m from Erongo Access roads residential Access coast areas Access roads High landscape Eco-tourism X complexity (> 0.5) Priority area for conservation Access to water Access to power Beach Adjacent settlement recreation X (weight 0.4) and tourism Access coast (weight 0.4) Access roads Access to water Access to power Dessert Adjacent settlement recreation X (weight 0.4) and tourism Access roads High landscape complexity (> 0.5)

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Table 6: Environmental factors and control points used for transformation to fuzzy factors. Cosine functions were used for all factors, and for all factors but landscape diversity and priority areas for conservation the function form was monotonously decreasing.

Priority area Land Coastal Access Access Distance Distance Distance Distance Distance Landscap Altitude for use/Factor slope water power port settlement coast roads marked e diversity conservation Urban A = 1º A = 1000m A = 1000m A = 1000m A = 1000m A = 500 m development B = 10º B = 25000m B = 25000m B = 25000m B = 5000m B = 10000m Port A = 1º A = 10m A = 1000m A = 1000m A = 1000m A = 1000m A = 500 m A = 500 m development B = 10º B = 100m B = 25000m B = 25000m B = 25000m B = 5000m B = 2000m B = 10000m Coastal A = 1º A = 10m A = 1000m A = 1000m A = 1000m A = 500 m A = 500 m resort B = 10º B = 100m B = 25000m B = 25000m B = 5000m B = 2000m B = 10000m development A = 1º A = 1000m A = 1000m A = 500 m A = 1000m Farming B = 10º B = 25000m B = 25000m B = 10000m B = 50000m Land-based A = 1º A = 10m A = 1000m A = 1000m A = 500 m A = 500 m A = 1000m fish farming B = 10º B = 100m B = 25000m B = 25000m B = 2000m B = 10000m B = 50000m Marine fish A = 1000m A = 1000m A = 500 m A = 500 m A = 1000m farming B = 25000m B = 25000m B = 2000m B = 10000m B = 50000m A = 500 m A = 0.4 A = 1 Eco-tourism B = 10000m B = 0.6 B = 5 Beach A = 1000m A = 1000m A = 1000m A = 500 m A = 500 m A = 0.4 recreation B = 25000m B = 25000m B = 5000m B = 2000m B = 10000m B = 0.6 and tourism Dessert A = 1000m A = 1000m A = 1000m A = 500 m A = 0.4 recreation B = 25000m B = 25000m B = 50000m B = 10000m B = 0.6 and tourism Hydrocarbon A = 1000m A = 500 m extraction B = 25000m B = 10000m Mineral A = 1000m A = 500 m extraction- B = 25000m B = 10000m terrestrial

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9. APPENDIX II Functionality of the SEA

One of the outcomes of the coastal SEA is the synthesis of PPPs and the GIS-based dissemination of information and data within the framework of a user-friendly, policy relevant and IT-based Decision Support Tool (DST). This chapter outlines the functionality of the GIS-based decision-support tool. The decision support tool respond to the increasingly difficult task of effective resource allocation for resource managers, not least at the regional level in Kunene and Erongo. In recent years, considerable interest has been focused on the use of GIS as a decision support system. The DST has the role of informing the decision making process on land use options in the two coastal regions, and does not provide decisions per se. As the GIS capacity of the primary end-users, the Regional Councils, is relatively low the DST has been developed as a stand-alone application, - either as a cluster of pdf files with results of the suitability maps for each land use type or as a collection of GIS files, encompassing all major results and background files, which can be viewed in the widely available ArcView 3.2 as well as in the freeware ArcExplorer.

Figure 1: Design of the coastal DST, with main themes and data types supported.

The early version of the DST will be disseminated as a CD-ROM, which apart from the pdf-files and GIS files will also contain the SEA Final Report and a manual for using the maps in ArcView/ArcExplorer. Following this a longer-term solution for the DST needs to be developed, which ensures that the DST data and functions are available via the Web. In figure 1 the design of the DST has been sketched. In figure 2 the potential coastal DST Web server has been sketched. The DST Web service may be installed on a PC server at MET with copies residing on the PCs of other key institutions like the regional councils of Kunene and Erongo and the municipalities of Walvis Bay and Swakopmund. Following the finalisation of the Strategic Environmental Assessment and DST for Karas and Hardap, the DST Web service could accommodate a full set of land-use suitability scenarios and background data for the entire Namibian coastline.

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The coastal GIS will have a resolution of 90 m. This high resolution may result in some of the raster data include some ‘salt and peber’ effect, but on the other hand it serves to provide the end users with possibilities for resolving land use conflicts/solutions at the finest possible scale with the data at hand. The choice of regions and sub-regions and themes to display is different between the pdf and the ArcExplorer application. In the pdf maps showing pre-defined themes for the different sub-regions will be available, while in ArcExplorer the end user will be able to select any theme and any portion of the mapped coastal stretch of Kunene and Erongo for visualisation. The collection of GIS maps with ArcExplorer will make it possible for the local user to add his/her own project data in vector and raster format.

Figure 2: Sketch of the potential coastal DST Web server.

Figures 3 to 8 show examples of theme selection from the coastal SEA GIS in ArcView/ArcGIS. The selection of data and use of the early version of the DST in ArcExplorer are detailed in the Manual.

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Figure 3: Background theme selection – here the ETM+ composite showing the coastal landscape image in 28.5 m resolution.

Figure 4: Selection of infrastructure and support themes – here towns and settlements, roads and rails, rivers, aquifers, power and distribution stations and power grid.

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Figure 5: Selection of biodiversity (habitat) themes – here area with regular occurrence of elephant.

Figure 6: Selection of PPP themes – here the area planned for urban development around Walvis Bay.

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Figure 7: Selection of themes on exploitable resources – here mineral deposits near Swakop river.

Figure 8: Selection of land use themes – here modelled suitability for beach resorts near Swakopmund.

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10. APPENDIX III- Available MAPS (Selected Examples)

10.1 Background ‘landscape’ and topographic maps

Figure 9: Composite ETM+ (Feb 2001) of Kunene.

Figure 10: Composite ETM+ (Feb 2001) of Erongo.

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Figure 11: Altitude (SRTM data) of Kunene.

Figure 12: Altitude (SRTM data) of Erongo.

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Figure 13: Relief (% slope) of Kunene.

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Figure 14: Relief (% slope) of Erongo.

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10.2 Support and infrastructure maps

Figure 15: Roads, rails, settlements and rivers in Kunene.

Figure 16: Roads, rails, settlements and rivers in Erongo.

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Figure 17: Infrastructure of Swakopmund.

Figure 18: Infrastructure of Walvis Bay.

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Figure 19: Aquifer at Cape Fria.

Figure 20: Aquifer at Torra Bay.

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Figure 21: Aquifer at Henties Bay.

Figure 22: Aquifer at Walvis Bay.

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Figure 23: Power supply grid in Erongo.

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10.3 Biodiversity (Priority Habitats) Maps

Figure 24: Modelled priority areas for conservation in Kunene.

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Figure 25: Modelled priority areas for conservation in Erongo.

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Figure 26: Topographic complexity in Kunene.

Figure 27: Topographic complexity in Erongo.

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Figure 28. High-density areas for breeding Damara terns.

Figure 29: Lichen fields in Central Namib 2003.

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Figure 30: Welwitschia habitat in Kunene.

Figure 31: Welwitschia habitat in Erongo.

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Figure 32: Mopane habitat in Kunene.

Figure 33: Quiver tree habitat in Erongo.

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Figure 34: Zebra habitat in Kunene.

Figure 35: Leopard habitat in Kunene.

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Figure 36: Lion habitat in Kunene.

Figure 37: Elephant habitat in Kunene.

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Figure 38: Large herbivore habitat in Kunene.

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10.4 Maps of Policies and Plans

Figure 39: MFMR Plan for land-based aquaculture at Pelican Point.

Figure 40: MFMR Plan for land-based aquaculture between Walvis Bay and Swakopmund.

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Figure 41: MFMR Plan for land-based aquaculture between Mile 4 Saltworks and Henties Bay.

Figure 42: MFMR Plan for marine aquaculture at Pelican Point.

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10.5 Exploitable Resources

Figure 43: Area of farming potential in Kunene.

Figure 44: Mineral deposits in Kunene.

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Figure 45: Mineral deposits in Erongo.

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10.6 Land Use Maps

Figure 46: Modelled suitable areas for urban development in Erongo.

Figure 47: Modelled suitable areas for port development in Walvis Bay.

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Figure 48: Modelled suitable areas for development of land-based aquaculture in northern Erongo.

Figure 49: Modelled suitable areas for development of beach resorts in southern Erongo.

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Figure 50: Modelled suitable areas for development of beach tourism in southern Erongo.

Figure 51: Modelled suitable areas for development of tourism in Kunene.

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Figure 52: Modelled suitable areas for development of eco-tourism in Kunene.

Figure 53 Modelled suitable areas for development of eco-tourism in Erongo.

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