A Comprehensive Review on Phytochemistry and Pharmacological Activities of Vernonia Amygdalina
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Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry 2019; 8(3): 2629-2636 E-ISSN: 2278-4136 P-ISSN: 2349-8234 JPP 2019; 8(3): 2629-2636 A comprehensive review on phytochemistry and Received: 09-03-2019 Accepted: 13-04-2019 pharmacological activities of Vernonia amygdalina Divneet Kaur G.H.G. Khalsa College of Divneet Kaur, Navpreet Kaur and Anuja Chopra Pharmacy, Gurusar Sadhar, Ludhiana, Punjab, India Abstract Vernonia amygdalina Delile is a small tree with brittle branches, up to 10 m tall and commonly called as Navpreet Kaur bitter leaf due to its bitter taste. It is native of tropical Africa but widely found on riverside and lakes G.H.G. Khalsa College of Pharmacy, Gurusar Sadhar, areas, in woodland and grassland up to 2800 m altitude, in areas where the average rainfall is 750-2000 Ludhiana, Punjab, India mm. The plant is considered as a medicinal herb and mostly used in traditional medicine system. The principal phytoconstituents of the plant are oxalate, phytates, tannins, saponins, flavonoids, cyanogenic Anuja Chopra glycosides, alkaloids, terpenes, anthraquinone, steroid, coumarins, lignans, xanthones, edotides and G.H.G. Khalsa College of sesquiterpenes and phenol. The plant attributed with anti-cancer, antidiabetic, anti-malarial, anti- Pharmacy, Gurusar Sadhar, inflammatory, cathartic, hepatoprotective, antimicrobial, antioxidant, chemo protective and cytotoxic, Ludhiana, Punjab, India Analgesic, anthelmintic, Anti-pyretic, hypolipidaemic properties and also used as Hemolytic, Antimutagenic, Anti-leishmanial, Spermatogenic, anti-platelet and abortifacient agent. The plant was traditionally used as appetizer and against the problems like constipation and diarrhoea. It is considered as a treatment for alcohol induced hepatotoxicity. Keywords: bitter leaf, flavonoids, anti-diabetic, Vernonia amygdalina Delile Introduction Vernonia amygdalina Delile (Gymnanthemum amygdalinum (Delile) (VA) is a native to tropical Africa and commonly known as ‘African bitter leaf’ or bitter leaf plant. The species is widely cultivated in Yemen and Ethiopia, South Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania, Brazil [1]. VA (Tribe Vernonieae of family Asteraceae) is a shrub or small tree of 2-5 m. It grows well under full sunlight in humid conditions as well as fairly well in drought conditions. It can be found on all soil types, but performs best in humus-rich soils. In cultivation it is mostly pruned to a shrub or hedge. Plant grows in wide ecological zones in Africa and produces large mass of forage used for medicinal and vegetable use [2, 3]. It is well reported for large number of [4] medicinal uses . The leaves are green with a characteristic odour and a bitter taste. Peak growth period for plant is May-August; propagation by cuttings is most successful in July- August. Flowering is induced by short days in dry season in early February-March. In India this species is presumed to be a recent introduction and found under sporadic cultivation in Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha and West Bengal for medicinal uses [5, 6]. In areas of Bihar, it is popular for its anti-diabetic properties and grown commonly in the courtyard for domestic use. Besides, this plant has also been widely used as fuel wood, stakes, fodder, construction poles, fencing of agroforestry buffer zone and as ingredient for compost. Due to its bitterness, it also can be used as a bittering agent, a hop substitute and for the control of microbial contamination in beer brewing without affecting the quality of malt. In Ethiopia, it is used to [7-12] make honey wine called Tei . Taxonomical classification of Vernonia amygdalina: Kingdom: Plantae Division: Angiosperms Order: Asterales Family: Asteraceae Genius: Vernonia Species: amygdalina Botanical Name: Vernonia amygdalina Correspondence Distribution and habitat Divneet Kaur VA grows naturally on riverside and lakes areas, in woodland and grassland up to 2800 m G.H.G. Khalsa College of altitude, in areas where the average rainfall is 750-2000 mm. humus-rich soils are favorable for Pharmacy, Gurusar Sadhar, the proper growth of plant but is can adapt in all types of soil and it needs full sunlight and Ludhiana, Punjab, India ~ 2629 ~ Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry humid environment. It is found at Kona national reserve in this plant are also found to have abundance of flavonoids such Tana River district (Kenya) (420 m), in the eastern side of as luteolin, luteolin 7-O-β-glucoroniside, luteolin 7-O-β- Mbololo forest in Taita (1400 m), and in Narok (2100 m). D. glucoside [22, 25, 27] Other than flavonoids there are some A [13]. sesquiterpene lactones such as vernolide, vernodalol, vernolepin, vernodalin, vernomygdin, hydroxyvernolide, are Botanical description present in VA [18, 28, 29, 30]. There are lot of research studies VA is a small tree of height up to 10 m tall. The bark of plant which confirm the presence of these phytochemicals in VA is usually light grey or brown and it have brittle branches. and these studies reveals the presence of some other Leaves of plant usually 10-15 x 4-5 cm in size and colour is phytochemicals such as Terpenes, coumarins, phenolic acids, medium to dark green, with or without sparse hairs above, lignans, xanthones, and Anthraquinones [21, 22]. Besides these with fine, soft, pale hairs below and conspicuous red-veining; all phytochemicals there are some peptides present in VA apex and base tapering, base always almost symmetric, leaves. These phytoconstituents may have synergetic response margin entire or very finely toothed; petiole usually very short to give results against life threatening disorders. but may be 1-2 cm long. Flower heads are thistle like, small, Some studies have specified the concentration of these creamy white, 10 mm long, grouped in dense heads, axillary phytochemical in particular extract. The concentrated was and terminal, forming large flat clusters, 15 cm in diameter, expressed as mg/100 g of extract [16] and the results are shown sweetly scented [14]. in table 2. These studies have justified the traditional use of this plant and quantify the extract required to get better treatment results. This plant is traditionally valued as nutritional supplement. The studies have reported the existences of crude protein in VA. The protein concentrate of plant was assessed to estimate the concentration of various amino acids present in concentrate [32] and the results are as given in table 3. Table 1: The phytochemicals identified from Vernonia amygdalina: Phytochemicals Authors Stigmastane-type saponins Ohigashi et al.[17] and Jisaka et al.[18] Vernoniosides A1, A2, A3, Kamperdick et al.[19] and Ohigashi et A4, B1, B2, B3, C, D, E al. [17] Terpenes, coumarins, phenolic acids, lignans, Wall et al.[21] and Tona et al.[22] xanthones, Anthraquinones Rwangabo et al. (1986), Ohigashi et Steroidal saponins al. (1991), Jisaka et al.,[18] Jisaka et al.[20], Igile et al.[26] and Igile et al.[25] Phytochemistry Flavonoids The results from the phytochemical studies of VA showed the Luteolin, luteolin 7-O-β- Igile et al.[26], Udensi et al.[27] and presence of components such as oxalate, phytates, tannins, glucoroniside, luteolin 7-O-β- Tona et al.[22] saponins, flavonoids, cyanogenic glycosides, alkaloids, glucoside terpenes, anthraquinone, steroid, coumarins, lignans, Sesquiterpene lactones xanthones, edotides and sesquiterpenes and phenol [15, 16]. The Vernolide, vernodalol, Kupchan et al.[28] and Jisaka et al. [20] vernolepin, vernodalin, various phytochemicals present in VA are concluded in table Koshmizu et al.[29] and Erasto et al.[30] 1. The saponins like stigmastane present in VA leaves could vernomygdin, be responsible for bitter taste. This category of saponins Hydroxyvernolide [31] include Vernoniosides A1, A2, A3, A4, B1, B2, B3, C, D, E, Edoties (peptides) Izevbigie EB are reported to be present in leaves [17, 18, 19, 20]. The leaves of OH O OH HO O OH H HO O O O OH O OH H O O OH H O O OH O hydroxyvernolide luteolin 7-O-?-glucoroniside ~ 2630 ~ Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry OH OH HO O OH HO O OH HO O OH OH HO O OH O OH luteolin 7-O-?-glucoside Luteolin O OH H H3CO O O OH O O O O O HO O O O vernodalin vernodalol O OH HO O O O H O H O O H O O vernolepin O Vernolide O OH O O O CH 2 O O CH3 CH3 vernomygdin Fig 1: Chemical structures of some phytochemicals present in Vernonia amygdalina. ~ 2631 ~ Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry Table 2: Concentration of various phytoconstituents in mg/100g and dose-dependent manner. It inhibited the expression of extract of Vernonia amygdalina leaves. anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 family members such as Bcl-xL and Bcl- Phytochemicals Concentration in mg/100g 2, and activated pro-apoptotic proteins like Bax and Bak. It Oxalate 3.48 further activated caspase-8 and caspase-9 which subsequently Phytates 3.95 induced caspase-3 and/or caspase-7 activation, resulting in Tannins 9.62 PARP cleavage. Saponins 5.97 Flavonoids 4.89 VA extracts counteract against cancer cells in many ways Cyanogenic glycoside 1.11 . VA inhibited the proliferation of MCF-7 and MDA-MB- Alkaloids 2.16 231 cells in a time- and dose-dependent manner. The ER- Anthraquinone 0.14 negative MDA-MB-231 cells were shown to be slightly Steroids 0.38 more sensitive to VA-induced growth inhibition than Phenol 3.24 MCF-7 cells. The cytotoxic action induced by VA may be independent of the estrogen receptor. Table 3: Amino Acid Content of Vernonia amygdalina Leaf Protein . In MCF-7 cells, VA induced time- and dose-dependent Concentrates. growth arrest in the G1 phase of the cell cycle, Amino acid Values concomitant with a significant decrease in the S phase Lysine 5.23 cells. While, in MDA-MB-231 cells, the effect on cell Histidine 2.56 progression after VA treatment was negligible.