About the editors Ineke Buskens is a cultural anthropologist with a passion for research methodology and women’s empowerment, and a deep appreciation for cultural diversity and individual ­human uniqueness. She graduated in Leiden, the Nether­ lands, and has lived in Ghana, India and Brazil. In 1990 she ­arrived in South Africa and in 1996 she founded her company ­Research for the Future. She has worked since as an independent international research, gender and pro­ cess facilitation consultant. In her research she focuses on emancipatory approaches that envision a sustainable, just and loving world, in her research training on bringing out the genius in every participant, in her facilitation work on gender awareness and authentic collaboration. Ineke is cur­ rently leading the GRACE Network, which has twenty-eight research teams, located in nineteen countries in Africa and the Middle East, involved in gender research in information and communication technology for women’s empowerment. Ineke is a student of Ramtha’s School of Enlightenment in Yelm, Washington, USA and this learning journey inspires her to embrace the unknown in all aspects of her life.

Anne Webb is the GRACE research coordinator. Her commit­ ment to feminist qualitive research is rooted in participatory action research approaches. She has worked with commun­ ities and research teams for the past fifteen years pursuing the reduction of inequalities. Trained in sociology, adult education and gender studies in Toronto (Ontario Institute for Studies in Education) and The Hague (Institute for Social Studies), her education has involved people from all walks of life and locations, formally and informally, in Canada, ­Europe and Africa, and is a continually enriching process. Anne currently resides in Quebec, Canada. This page intentionally left blank AFRICAN WOMEN AND ICTS investigating technology, gender and empowerment edited by Ineke Buskens and Anne Webb

Zed Books london | new york

International Development Research Centre ottawa | cairo | dakar | montevideo | nairobi new delhi | singapore African women and ICTs: investigating technology, gender and em­ powerment was first published in 2009 by Zed Books Ltd, 7 Cynthia Street, London n1 9jf, uk and Room 400, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, ny 10010, usa www.zedbooks.co.uk isbn 978 1 84813 191 0 hb isbn 978 1 84813 192 7 pb International Development Research Centre, PO Box 8500, Ottawa, on, Canada k1g 3h9 [email protected] / www.idrc.ca eisbn 978 1 55250 399 7 Editorial copyright © Ineke Buskens and Anne Webb, 2009 Individual chapters copyright © the contributors, 2009 The rights of Ineke Buskens and Anne Webb to be identified as the editors of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988 Set in OurType Arnhem and Futura Bold by Ewan Smith, London Index: [email protected] Cover designed by Andrew Corbett Printed in the UK by the MPG Books Group Distributed in the usa exclusively by Palgrave Macmillan, a division of St Martin’s Press, llc, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, ny 10010, usa All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior permission of Zed Books Ltd. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data available Contents

Acknowledgements | vii Foreword by Heloise Emdon | viii

Introduction | ineke buskens and anne webb 1

1 Doing research with women for the purpose of transformation | ineke buskens 9

ONE | ICT tools: access and use

2 Women’s use of information and communication technologies in Mozambique: a tool for empowerment? | gertrudes macueve, judite mandlate, lucia ginger, polly gaster and esselina macome 21

3 Considering ICT use when energy access is not secured: a case study from rural South Africa | jocelyn muller ...... 33

4 Rural women’s use of cell phones to meet their communication needs: a study from northern Nigeria | kazanka comfort and john dada 44

5 Egyptian women artisans facing the demands of modern markets: caught between a rock and a hard place | leila hassanin . . . 56

TWO | Female-only ICT spaces: perceptions and practices

6 When a gender-blind access policy results in discrimination: realities and perceptions of female students at the University of Zimbabwe | buhle mbambo-thata, elizabeth mlambo and precious mwatsiya ...... 67

7 An alternative public space for women: the potential of ICT | leila hassanin ...... 77

8 Using ICTs to act on hope and commitment: the fight against gender violence in Morocco | amina tafnout and aatifa timjerdine ...... 88

9 The names in your address book: are mobile phone networks effective in advocating women’s rights in Zambia? | kiss brian abraham ...... 97 THREE | Using ICTs: making life better?

10 Mobile phones in a time of modernity: the quest for increased self-sufficiency among women fishmongers and fish processors in Dakar | ibou sane and mamadou balla traore 107

11 Women entrepreneurs in Nairobi: examining and contextualizing women’s choices | alice wanjira munyua ...... 119

12 Internet use among women entrepreneurs in the textile sector in Douala, Cameroon: self-taught and independent | gisele yitamben and elise tchinda ...... 133

13 ICTs as agents of change: a case of grassroots women entre- preneurs in Uganda | susan bakesha, angela nakafeero and dorothy okello ...... 143

14 The mobile payphone business: a vehicle for rural women’s empowerment in Uganda | grace bantebya kyomuhendo 154

FOUR | Creating new realities

15 Professional women empowered to succeed in Kenya’s ICT sector | okwach abagi, olive sifuna and salome awuor omamo 169

16 Reflections on the mentoring experiences of ICT career women in Nairobi, Kenya: looking in the mirror | salome awuor omamo ...... 183

17 Our journey to empowerment: the role of ICT | ruth meena and mary rusimbi ...... 193

Epilogue | ineke buskens and anne webb ...... 207

Notes on contributors | 210 Index | 217 Acknowledgements

We want to thank, in the first place, Heloise Emdon, International Development Research Centre (IDRC) Acacia Programme Man­ ager, who had the vision to have African women’s information and communication technology (ICT) stories told. We also want to thank Jenny Radloff, Chat Garcia Ramilo and Anriette Ester­ huysen, of the Association for Progressive Communications, for conceptualizing the idea of an African ICT gender research net­ work, together with Heloise. We want to thank IDRC for funding us and believing in us. Ramata Thioune and Edith Adera especially have been a source of inspiration and strength. It has been a privilege to work with the women respondents who have contributed to our understandings of women’s journeys towards empowerment, and what roles ICTs are playing and could play in these. We have been greatly enriched by our research encounters with you. We are thankful to those organizations that created pathways for us to reach the women we needed to speak with. It is impossible to mention all those who have been assisting us and nurturing us as individuals and as a network. We want to particularly thank Helena Bailey, Leverne Gething, Lois Gibbs, Richard Grant, Nancy Hafkin, Grant Marinus, Tamsine O’Riordan, Nidhi Tandon, Fatima Timjerdine and Tatjana Vukoja. We are grateful to our families and friends for your patience and for putting up with our absences. Your love was the hand on our back as we went forward. We also want to thank each other for staying true to our passion and each other, taking in our stride the tensions and conflicts which such a diverse collection of people inevitably creates. Our alignment with the purpose we all stand for has been our strength and our convergence.

The GRACE Network Foreword

Women in Africa are undeniably participating in the information and communication technology (ICT) revolution and they are ­doing so in many and varied ways; the changes that the use of these tools have brought about are visible everywhere. Furthermore, the prospects of ICTs for development and women’s empowerment seem promising. Yet women’s stories about their experiences and use of these tools are not heard: are their lives changing for the better because of these new technologies? If so, in what ways are they changing? Are there areas in which women could and should participate in this ICT revolution but are not, because they are women? How can women’s perspectives, insights and realities in relation to the use and potentials of ICTs be integrated into ICT policies that are currently being developed and implemented across the continent? These were the questions that led the Acacia Programme of the International Development Research Centre (IDRC), which supports research in Africa on information and communication technologies for development (ICT4D), and the Association for Progressive Communications (APC) to call together in 2004 in Johannesburg, South Africa, a collective of African academics and activists known for their passionate involvement with women’s empowerment and ICTs. The perspectives of the women of Africa needed to be narrated and this knowledge needed to be brought to the world by African researchers. It was envisioned that a research network would emerge from this group of individuals that would operate as a virtual research team. The idea was accepted and GRACE (Gender Research in Africa into ICTs for Empowerment) was born. While the research teams were all encouraged to follow their individual research passions, design their own methodology and formulate their own research questions, there was a common ground and an alignment to a shared purpose. The thinking in development studies has evolved: the idea that providing interventions in the form of infrastructure suffices in attracting the intended beneficiaries and brings about change is outdated. The trickle-down approach – which counts on the de­ veloped aspects of the economy uplifting the more disadvantaged – actually leads to greater inequalities. Rights-based approaches to inequality, however, continue to draw attention and result in forward movement. The current focus on the ‘agency’ of the intended beneficiaries themselves for the purpose of development and empowerment also seems relevant and timely. Needed in any development thinking is a questioning of how to ensure women benefit from development. The group of academics and activists called together in Johan­ nesburg were aligned with the purpose of women’s empowerment, and accepted that their knowledge quest needed to be grounded in efforts to understand women’s agency. The focus on agency, however, necessitated that the researchers would be able to recognize this capacity in their respondents and make it visible in their reflections and their writings. This led to an emphasis on qualitative research methods; to a commitment to continuous research learning; and to the honouring of a culture of mutual respect, sharing and support. Challenging though this brief may have been and probably still is, it has undoubtedly been this same brief which has led to the success of GRACE as a viable researcher network contributing not only to the debates on ICT4D from a gender perspective in Africa, in the South and wider afield, but also to the pool of solid and sustainable research capacity in the field of ICT4D and gender. It is my hope that the book you are holding in your hands right now will enrich your thinking and encourage your questioning and reflection. The questions raised in this book, the perspectives examined and the realities revealed, reach farther than Africa, and farther than the field of ICTs. Anybody interested in questions of gender inequity and empowerment may find this book rich reading.

Heloise Emdon, Ottawa, October 2008­

ix This page intentionally left blank Introduction Ineke Buskens and Anne Webb

Now sit upright with your back straight. Relaxed, hands on your knees, bum on the chair. Take a deep breath and close your eyes. Take another breath, inhale through your nose, exhale through your mouth. And another one. Relax.

Observe your thoughts, your emotions, your body reactions, from the inside. Do not judge, do not give meaning, just observe. Whilst you are sitting in your egg, just observe. Focus on what you need to focus on: Go to your respondents, hear their voices, see their faces. Take a deep breath, relax. Be aware you are sitting here, in your egg.

What is the most important message they are giving you? What do they say? Take a deep breath, relax. You have all the knowledge you need, you have done the work, now just allow them to speak to your writing. Let the words come, do not censor them, just observe.

Ineke Buskens

Producing practical, functional knowledge for change This type of reflection may not seem very technologically advanced, but with the relationships between information and communication tech­ nologies (ICTs), women’s empowerment, gender discrimination, access, entrepreneurship, advocacy and so forth being so multidimensional, we had to start with centring ourselves. We were undertaking a momentous task in trying to better understand how and if women’s empowerment is being impacted by, and is impacting, their use of and contributions to ICTs; we were setting out to explore the external, structural ­barriers women experience, as well as the internal/conceptual factors which Buskens and Webb in Africa into ICTs for Empowerment) for ICTs into Africa Research in (Gender GRACE the of theme overarching the within justice, social and equality women’s to commitment and interests experiences, own their to due to drawn were they issues into delved They respondents. the among included themselves with sometimes, and, languages local in workplaces, their at or communities, their in cases some in regions, ical process. this supported resources, and feedback questioning, discussion, virtual of flow steady a and sessions, working and training research Annual in-person interests. research their pursued countries twelve in men) and in­ equalities. divisive ongoing the than rather development for ICTs of promises the on attention focuses predominantly that context women a the and themselves, of perceptions the with equality and struggle autonomy daily greater the for with on getting are who Africa in women of lives in the ICTs of place the of questioning a together bring authors The book. 2004). al. et (Buskens impediments overcome to use they strategies the and advantage, their to ICTs use to them enable or ­prevent best suited to learning about the lives and the thinking of their respond ­ their of thinking the and lives the about learning to suited best 2008). Earl and Buskens 2002; (Buskens research emancipatory critical of principles the in grounded were research, the accompanying gramme pro­ support and mentoring ongoing the as well as training, research the and and dimensions methodologies and various questions research The reveal phenomena. of to ­aspects us enable and data in-depth these yield as techniques, research qualitative used primarily We practices. ostrich-egg exercise was used more than once, as were other self -reflection The ourselves. centring required also significance, their understanding power. of positions in those of only not population, the of needs and interests the fulfil and reflect equitably to is pursued development of vision the if and development, their further to them use and ICTs from benefit to are whole a as societies if problematic is situation This 2005). information societythanmenandalsocontributinglessto it(Huyeretal. the currentsituationglobally,whichseeswomenbenefitinglessfrom counter to decision-makers, among will political the is there if potential, the revealing of terms in impressive also are They realities. those to give they meanings the and realities women’s about gained understanding For three years fourteen research teams (involving about thirty women thirty about For(involving teams research fourteen years three this of content the form exploration this from gained insights The The methods used in each case were identified by the authors as the as authors the by identified were case each in used methods The then and process, research the during meanings the Unearthing and knowledge of depth the for impressive are think, we results, The 1 The researchers conducted their studies in their own geograph­ own their in studies their conducted researchers The 2 2 project. Introduction 3 Working Working in familiar environments facilitated building rapport with authors revealing self-reflection practices contributed to the Particular But making sense of that knowledge also requires taking into account the norms and values of our societies and behaviour. It that is not shape a simple our matter to consciousness become aware of the factors ­shaping our perspectives and values, nor is it easy to visualize But this our own conscious knowing and imagining. that would transcend a reality is the challenge undertaken by the authors in this volume – to structure their research, and then their own analysis to and make sense interpretation, of the to research try participants’ perceptions and pursuit empowering of change in the context of their dreams. current This realities required heightened and reflexivity their on the part of the authors as they worked within their own sociocultural milieu. of local specificities, but the orien­ research participants, and recognition researcher a as oneself in and context research the in recognizing of tation economic (and so forth) relations the normalized social, cultural, gender, and assumptions is not simple. As empowered ICT users the authors also hoped that the benefits they were experiencing were sharedAs by others. would an ‘outsider’ be, the authors working gists’ (Rodriguez as 2001) ‘native were anthropolo­ confronted with the task of questioning revealing their own assumptions and and biases, becoming aware of their strange’anthropologically normal the ‘make to managing and lenses, own (Buskens 2006, 2002). This condition of self-awareness or reflexivity is a key quality of the qualitative research approach engaged. twothe surface the on when even actions, and words between connections awareness process, and to increaseseemed at odds. As a centring and self- their capacity to recognize the multiple layers of consciousness and the associated layers of meaning, the authors practised a process developed by Ineke called the Transformational Attitude Interview (Buskens 2008). It provides a process for in-depth interviewing that reveals experiences, ents. ents. The respondents were approached as active agents in determining their own reality, rather than as victims of their situation. This may seem to contradict the point that women’s lives are not well understood and are not setting ICT development directions; however, we wanted to find out how women understood their current situations, we wanted them to think beyond their current realities and to consider what needed to in be place for them to pursue their visions. and To do thinking women this had sort to of see reflection themselves as having action on their the own behalf (Buskens capacity 2002, 2006; for Buskens and Earl 2008; Hannan 2004; Kabeer 2003). It is this sort of thinking practical, which functional knowledge produces that can lead to change. Buskens and Webb odtos edd o e oeet ih h dsrd iin f h world the of identified. vision desired and the with strengths coherent the be to and needed recognized conditions are external) and us within (both attainable, become to reality desired the for take would it exploring what In them. between discrepancies the and dreams, and values Unsettling thehierarchy? cing the right and having the space for self-determination. for space the having and right the cing experien­ of question a more is it factors; significant affordability, are these and although access of issue the much so not is matter the the such of crux As role. reactionary conservative, a play thus and images and relationships situations, life gendered exacerbate also can they forth, so tribute to our well-being, effective use of time, economic development and 2005). Sciadas (ibid.; users women the of perspective the from examined sparsely only currently and environments ICT in perpetuated inequalities gender of complexity the demonstrate GRACE in tigations inves­ The 50). (ibid.: 2000)’ Westholm and Huyer in (cited priority” no is there visibility, the without visibility; no is there data, “without As it, puts UNDP strategies. and plans policies, ICT in issues gender forthe of inclusion topolicymakers case the make to impossible, not if difficult, it ‘makes ICTs of impact the to relation in issues gender of documentation limited the Currently, 2005). al. public et Huyer the 2006; Huyer and in (Hafkin realm power of positions hold not do who and discrimination, gender as well as poverty experience who women particularly women, of realities the in grounded not is development society’s information the of other. each to captive world’ ‘developing the and ‘developed’ the hold that relationships and political-economic the over does, it as glossing, naive, and arro­ gant once at assumption an is however, This, world. developing the in knowledge ispartlyresponsibleforunder­ [Western] in deficiency a that assumption the on based is which ment, are ‘formulatedwithinabroaderdiscourseofmodernizationanddevelop­ they explicit, be not may or may purposes those While 5). 2002: (Heeks particular a of artifact purposes’ particular an for stakeholders particular by created ‘as environment, constructed, socially is ICT values. and information of forms technologies, wedonotseeICTproductsaschan­ earlier with As realities. their transform people ICTs create different time and space coordinates, but what comprises what but coordinates, space and time different create ICTs con­ and lives our enhance to used be can ICTs recognize we While direction and nature the that recognized generally furthermore is It help can that tools as ICTs see authors the chapters following the In 4 development’ (Schech 2002: 13) development’ (Schech2002:13) ging inequitable systems ging inequitablesystems ­realities ­barriers Introduction 5 The authors in this volume raise a number of questions from their The research respondents all had exposure to particular ICTs, such and choices have made four groupings of the respondents’ options We The women in the chapters in Part One are affected by ICTs in a The women respondents in Part Two are benefiting from or would understandings of the perspectives and experiences of the women using ICTs who were involved in their research. The authors affecting look the at women’s what use is of the ICTs available to cases them, the and effects in of some lack of availability. They discuss factors. a complex web of as cell phones, computers and the Internet, CD-ROMs, and radio. How the women engaged with the technology, and the possibilities they saw and/or pursued in terms of accessing, using and controlling of (in the terms object and the content) ICTs, the impact the they implications experienced, and of those impacts when socio-economic, considered cultural context, in varied their considerably, broader but also certain overarching reveal questions vital to understandings of an equation of ICTs for development, or for poverty reduction, or social gender justice. equality, or in relation to their use of ICTs, against the question of empowerment. ‘passive’ way. Their lives have been changed by the various technologies but they are not at all or only in a use these very tools. These limited women’s lack way of able access and to use is access related and to lack of infrastructure (including electricity and hardware), poverty (their main priorities being involved with survival) and illiteracy. These factors often are partly and sometimes completely -related. gender For instance, in some contexts women were affected by ICTs entered their realm as through family usage, community the access and aware­ technologies had when the women did not activelyness of potential uses and benefits, even seek to utilize them. Some technologies were found to be irrelevant, and some a ‘mixed blessing’. benefit from ‘female-only’ spaces they create for could themselves be or created for which them through and with ICTs. In these spaces can they find refuge, express themselves, learn, network and trade. It seems that in certain situations women’s environments are so seriously gender The chapters space space for self-determination is not unequivocal; it holds different ­ mean ings and different descriptions in different contexts. Further, the use of ICTs to enhance one’s life presupposes a measure of control over one’s space and time. Buskens and Webb for women to access and use a particular ICT or to participate in spaces in participate to or ICT particular a use and access to women for place in be to need would empowerment of level what to as raised be can question the scenario, every in or station every at stage, every In stages. room. a out rent even and house own her buy to able now is and business her start to her enabled that phone cell save the buy to to years two for needed who hairdresser a to resources, extensive to access has for inspiration who corporation, ICT national a of CEO a from vary women These others. of sources becoming are they ceilings’, ‘glass breaking and conditions own their changing By levels. international and national local, household, the at ways and various in, in spaces work public and affecting are in they think in, live to others and themselves for spaces new creating are women These designs. own their to according lives their communities. their and relationships realities. their They havetransformedgenderedimagesandconditionsin theirpersonal transform also but lives, their enhance only not to ICTs of use their through able been have however, women, Some gender imbalance. general the to thus and labour of division gendered traditional the of strengthening use even ICT possibly and that maintenance argued the be to contributes can it better, roles triple their handle to them enables technologies these of use their because time, same the At gains. socio-economic create and ICTs, using of act physical the independ­ through ence experience Women spaces. public existing within ‘norms’ how­ gendered the and roles gender ICTs, existing upsets and challenges often of ever, use Their lives. professional and personal their in space creating? are they that options women empowering these the are for involved; empowerment of expression an this Is perspective? ity separate to desire from ratherthanconfrontexistingpowerstructures,agenderequal­ this at look we should and How choices ICTs? with women’s engagement about indicate technologies spaces of women-only use of the pursuit through or for desire the does however, themselves. for What, liberties and options new creating are women – works net­ advocacy existing enhancing sphere; public patriarchal the entering require not do that environments work and learning supportive creating spaces; physical isolating in perpetuated is violence when phone cell a using – space of forms new creating By freedoms. new to utilize and women enjoy enable would spaces ICT-created virtual The spaces. public physical existing within societies their to contributions their expand and lives their enhance to opportunities the get not do they that imbalanced These four groupings can be approached as scenarios, as stations or stations as scenarios, as approached be can groupings four These enhance to ICTs use who women with speak authors the Four Part In and time their over control increase to ICTs use women Three, Part In 6 Introduction www. Action . - www.GRACE . Radloff Radloff (2004) ‘GRACE: Gender

Network.net ‘Research for change – Outcome Mapping’s contribution to eman­ cipatory research in Africa’, , Research 6(2): 173–94. J. Research in Africa into ICTs for Interviewing’, Buskens, I. and S. Earl (2008) Buskens, I., A. Esterhuysen and the International Development Research Centre of Canada. The views expressed in this chapter and throughout the book are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the opinions of the funder. For more information on the GRACE project, please see our website, -Network.net GRACE 7 In addition to training in quali­ This project was funded by (2008) ‘Transformational Attitude (2006) ‘Gender research in Africa into ICTs for empowerment’, IICBA Newsletter, 8(2), UNESCO. 2 strong cords? Who do we think we are and how can we become what we want to be in the Quest for Quality in Qualitative Research?’, Education as Change, 6(1): 1–31. 1 In bringing more clarity to the way women exert their agency in rela­

— — tative methodologies, IT training was provided during the first two annual GRACE workshops through an initial partnership with the Association for Progressive Communications (APC), specifically the APC Women’s Programme. References Buskens, I. (2002) ‘Fine lines or Notes tion to the use of ICTs, how gender issues hinder or enhance access women’s to and use of ICTs, how women have accomplished their dreams in relation to ICT use, what obstacles they they faced, needed and how they in managed to order overcome their tointernal get and there, external barriers, what the authors contribute to a better understanding of the potentials of ICT use. Being ICTs deserve the serious powerful attention. tools Not to that grant they them this are, result attention could in missed opportunities for women, and unintentionally, women’s risk discrimination ICTs and disempowerment. reinforcing, created created with and through ICTs. Our research certain ‘empowerment indicates thresholds’ at that every level, there comprising supportive are internal and external factors in various combinations. Yet at every level, even at the level at which women would have the fewest choices because of general deprivation of basic necessities (such as electricity), women would express their agency. Amartya Sen states: ‘nothing, arguably, is as important today in the political economy of development as an adequate and leadership economic and social participation recognition of political, of women’. Yet at the same time, he of women’s admits agency that is the one of ‘extensive the reach more neglected areas studies, of and development most urgently in need of correction’ (Sen 1999: 203). Buskens and Webb Kabeer, N. (2003) N. Kabeer, Huyer, S., N. Hafkin, H. Ertl and Heeks, R. (2002) ‘i (2002) R. Heeks, rights ‘Women’s (2004) C. Hannan, (2006) Huyer S. and J. N. Hafkin, ddi2005/index_ict_opp.pdf www.orbicom.ca/media/projets/ ­Ottawa: Orbicom/ITU, pp. 134–94, ing Infostates for Development, Digital Opportunities: Measur­ (ed.), information society’, in G. Sciadas H. 14(1). Development, International development’, and ICTs on issue special e-development: the United Nations, 24 October. 24 Nations, United the of chapter Dallas Banquet, Day United the to entation Pres­ millennium’, new the in ity equal­ gender empowerment: and Kumarian. CT: Bloomfield, Society, Knowledge the in Women Empowering Cyberella? or derella proposal.pdf net/­ posal, pro­ Project Empowerment’,

Dryburgh (2005) ‘Women in the publications/GRACE%20 From the Digital Divide to www.GRACE-Network. . Gender Mainstream­ Gender - development not not development ­Nations Journal of of Journal . Cin­ 8 Arendal (2006) UNEP/GRID-Arendal (1999) A. Sen, Sciadas, G. (ed.) (2005) (ed.) G. Sciadas, change: for ‘Wired (2002) S. Schech, goes ‘Ahomegirl (2001) C. Rodriguez, UNEP. Environment, the and People to Threats Current of Atlas Peril: in Anchor Books. Anchor Toronto: and York New Freedom, ddi2005/index_ict_opp.pdf www.orbicom.ca/media/­ Orbicom/ITU, Ottawa: ment, Develop­ for Infostates Measuring Opportunities: Digital to Divide tal , 14(1). Development, International discourses’, velopment de­ and ICTs between links the Press. University ­Rutgers London: Poetics , and Praxis Anthropology: I. in anthropology’, native of lure the and feminism black home: tariat/IDRC/CIDA. Secre­ Commonwealth Ottawa: Goals, Development Millennium the and Eradication Poverty in ing McClaurin (ed.), McClaurin Development as Development Theory, Politics,Theory, Black Feminist Black From the Digi­ the From Journal of Journal projets/ Planet . 1 | Doing research with women for the purpose of transformation Ineke Buskens

Qualitative research with women of the nature that the authors in this book have conducted poses certain challenges. Both researchers and research respondents have grown up in androcratic societies.1 This means that both parties will look at themselves and each other through the filters formed by and within the prevalent sexist thinking. While there will undoubtedly be great variance between the filters within and between individuals, groups, communities and countries, which will remain un­ known to varying degrees, the fact that everybody still does have a sexist filter of some sort is inescapable.

Women as research respondents Women have internalized unexamined assumptions and biased con­ ceptions about their being, capacities or the lack of them to such a degree that they often do not really know who they are and what they want. Women may believe that as persons they are less worthy, ­capable, competent and talented, etc., than they really are. Furthermore, the cul­ turally accepted concepts in male-dominated societies do not always allow women to express their realities and experiences. The dominant androcratic ideology is also often judgemental and denigrating of women (Daly 1973; Belenky et al. 1986; Gilligan 1982). In asking women to talk about their lives, qualitative researchers also implicitly ask them to choose the concepts with which to do that. As these concepts will be influenced by images serving an androcratic culture, they might be normative, denigrating or simply unsuitable to reflect women’s realities. When the concepts women have internalized about themselves sabotage their human journey, they will experience tension and conflict between what they inherently know about themselves and what they believe they are capable of. They may not even know that the sociocultural concepts they hold about women in general speak to their personally constructed female self-image all the time. Asking women about their feelings is accessing the area of personal truth and experience while simultaneously opening up their relationship with this dominant culture. It is exactly in the mental space between culturally acceptable Buskens | 1 hy hn te aesol b ad o te ral fe (nesn and (Anderson feel really 2006). Jack they how and be are/should they think they how between tension the keep women that truth personal and concepts Research withwomen:theZimbabweexemplar What canresearchersexpectintheirconversationswithwomen? modate all students who needed access. The rule of ‘first come, first come, ‘first applied. of therefore rule was served’ The access. needed who students all modate accom­ to computers enough acquired not had time of library the the research, this At observations. the their and confirmed logbooks ratios the enrolment of student basis the on gathered had they faculties. statistics all The from students all to accessible are far. computers by library lab The computer library the in were students students male female that the noticed outnumbering had research, the of time the at ians 6. Chapter in presented fully is research This offers. research such construction knowledge useful and valid for portunities op­ the and women with research qualitative characterize typically that decisions research of type the highlight to discussed is Zimbabwe from (ibid.). researchers for and causedistress.Counsellingcapacityisthereforeanappropriateasset up this all bring may research In-depth dreams. doubtsconcerning these and of fulfilment the asanxieties as well dreams unfulfilled of lot a have women Many concepts. personal accepted own culturally critique their to use experience will they sometimes life; own their critique to cepts thenexttime.Sometimestheymayuseculturallyacceptedconcepts con­ different out try may women and construction’, in ‘concepts be may simultaneously throughmeta-statements.Theconceptswomenareusing (ibid.). experience personal authentic their of sounds muted the as well as role female their of part accepted culturally the voicing times, at ‘stereo’ in speak may They with at’. really are conjunction themselves ‘they in where sharing that do they sometimes and woman’ good ‘the of hold they stereotype the the against themselves measure between may Women lines. speak and themselves contradict experiences thus their may represent Women fully. which and them for right’ really ‘feel concepts that have not do often Women feeling. are they what and are they hear, becausetheyfeelinsecurewhenhavetoexpresswhothink t h Uiest o Zmaw, he rsaces uiest librar­ university researchers, three Zimbabwe, of University the At team GRACE the by undertaken project research the following, the In saying are they what critiquing while experiences share may Women to want researchers expect they what to sensitive very be may Women 10 Doing research with women 11 it. it. On the basis of their statistics and participant observation, the The researchers could have stopped at this point and would, with the The researchers then turned their focus, however, to the two main Turning to the ‘deviants’, the female students who did access the Regarding Regarding the ‘normal’ women students, it would have been under­ researchers ­researchers designed an in-depth qualitative study to situation. understand In this their analysis of these female students’ stories about their access to ICT labs on campus, the researchers found that there were ­ vari ous reasons that explained the female students’ limited access. Only one reason will be discussed here – namely that the competition for access often resulted in physical shoving; in other would words, push the the female students male away. students data they had gathered, have been able to compose an about insightful story the relationship between women students, the use institutions for of higher ICTs learning in and Africa. ‘anomalies’ their research had yielded: the few female students who did access the computer labs, whom they started calling ‘deviants’ because they deviated from the norm, and the fact that quite a few of the ‘normal’ female students, when asked about how they felt about not being to access able the computer lab as they would have liked to, did not question the ‘first come, first served’ rule at all. In these respondents’ minds, this was a perfectly acceptable rule and an improvement on what they were used to previously. At the same time, these very same students lamented the fact that they would have to turn to order Internet to gain cafés computer and access. colleges in library computers, the researchers found that these students were not only younger, but also had more ICT students experience. were very Furthermore, aware of the these other female students staying away and the reasons why they did so. They tween the were apparent fairness of aware the rule and of the unfairness that the resulted discrepancy be­ from standable at this point for the researchers and judgemental and assess these ‘normal’ respondents as contradicting to have become impatient themselves, being confused and not able to take an opportunity when it was provided. Fortunately they did not. The researchers understood the fact that their respondents had formed their opinions, in their a thinking, social setting where the ‘first come, first served’ rule isdemocratic considered and fair – in other words socially accepted. The researchers were aware of the fact that such a concept would be the maybe dominant the only concept their respondents would have and to give meaning to their experience of no access. They were sensitive to the fact that women Buskens | 1 open and not close it prematurely. it close process not analysis and open the keep to them motivated and inspired have would change sustainable generate to able and usable be would that knowledge practical get to drive researchers’ the Undoubtedly, model. explanatory reached which can make sense of all the data on the basis of one coherent is insight deeper of level a moment the until layers experience and meaning unveiling of keep to prepared are and go obvious to seems willing what are beyond who researchers by successfully done be can women experience. ICT in grounded be may context, ICT an in discrimination gender challenge to able self, in confidence the emerged: concept new a groups, two the under­ about their standing linking in And access. equal of rule the and non-access of for theexperience meaning ofcreating processes groups’ respondent two the includes and deeper level a went analysis Their not. did they tunately For­ computers. lab the to access getting in succeed to order in have to students female other all for necessary qualities the were had students experience. and meaning of layers deeper into insight yield would properly, analysed this when contradiction, apparent that of phenomenon understood also they researchers As women societies. as androcratic up in grown and born been having of reality the to speaks but women, of part the on shortcomings emotional or intellectual individual any reveal not does phenomenon this they that understood what They say feel. to really disposal their at concepts right the have not do often Relating withwomenrespondents a while because it is important not to make sense ‘too soon’. ‘too sense make to not important is it because while a Researchers mayhavetohold a‘spaceofnot-yetunderstanding’ forquite communication. non-verbal observe and lines’ the to ‘between said said carefully is what listen not to is important very what be will to It listening said. be also cannot but what and said, is it how and said is what pursue visions. to their them for place in be to needs what consider to and realities, that requires researchers encouragewomenrespondentstothinkbeyond theircurrent it more: even researchers the of requires of purpose transformation the for agency women’s engage and to receptive be to that aims Research possible. as and as be needed to as and innovative hear, they methodologically what contest and accept fully to able be to ize, n h bss f hs ae td, t eoe cer ht eerh with research that clear becomes it study, case this of basis the On ‘deviant’ the qualities the that concluded have could researchers The itnn t wmn ral lseig o oe, en lseig to listening means women, to listening really women, to Listening contextual­ to well, listen to researchers of asks women with Research 12 Doing research with women to selves ­female and researchers 13 son and Jack 2006), but also because it is important for ­ son and Jack 2006), but also because it Researchers Researchers should listen to themselves while they are listening to Because Because the moments of contradiction and paradox point towards the In order to understand women’s dreams and desires beyond their Ander­ women. Not only because their personal discomfort can alert them discrepancies discrepancies between what women say and (­ what they actually feel places places where the tension between women’s acceptance of ­ them for dreams and experiences authentic their and values cultural their socio­ are held, researchers need to be able to recognize these and use Using such them. moments often involves challenge and confrontation, acting from deep knowledge of the contexts in which women are situated and without judgement of women’s choices, thoughts and emotions. When focusing on the thoughts, emotions and choices express, the concept women of ‘adaptive preferences’ respondents has to be brought into the equation: women have internalized the myths of gender inequality that are prevalent in their society and have formed an attachment to identi­ ties informed by such myths and the practices them that (Nussbaum are 2000). coherent Women with may have accepted the ‘unacceptable as natural’ and may share ‘their truth’ truth from were not this to perspective. be examined, If women could such be made agents into of their own ‘informed’ disempowerment even in processes that were meant to be empowering and transformative. At the is same important time, to however, be it sensitive to women’s unfolding of boundaries their emotions, and thoughts respect and choices. the female-accepted role, it is often necessary to create a mental them space for where they can experience that part of voice. Research designs themselves and methods will and have to take give into account that it a women’s potential for sovereignty and change, as well as their socializa­ tion into limitation, exist in women simultaneously. stimulate Techniques women’s that creativity and free expression could with in-depth be interviews combined and participant observation. Relating to oneself when doing research with women Relating to oneself when doing research to get to know their own mind filters, to make themselves aware of any 2006, 2002; Smaling 1990,unconscious prejudice they may hold (Buskens 1995, 1998). Given the research focus of gender influence in the context of women’s empowerment in the research encounter, both male researchers will be confronted with their own gendered the sexist self filters they and have. The more they are prepared to look intomirror the and own what they see, the richer respondents their relationship will with be, their the richer their research process and the richer Buskens | 1 (Glick and Fiske 1996, 1997; Glick et al. 2000; quoted in Chesler 2001). Chesler in quoted 2000; al. et Glick 1997; 1996, Fiske and Africa (Glick South and Nigeria Botswana, Africa: in were three highest score, the sexism with countries four the of that found Fiske and Glick ents, prevalent contin­ five more in countries nineteen of study the their In be. will is, sexism female rate sexism general the higher the rate: general sexism country’s a to linked are women other towards attitudes sexist Women’s sexism. female behind force shadow the be to seems women other with connection and identification of Fear 2001). (Chesler cussed judgement. unexamined to revert could they because awareness lose could women dynamics, tion communica­ interpersonal unobvious the of many of unaware men be could Where women. for means it what to men for different something mean may relationship research the in dynamics gender the of perience their ilnd rcie f itrod Ti dsiln hs o e rudd in grounded be to has discipline This sisterhood. of practice ciplined attitude. sustainable a not is methodological prerequisite (Buskens 2002),becausewithoutitreflexivity a as constructed be thus can self-care sense, that In self-care. called be could itself expresses attitude this which in discipline the and self-love, toan called be could come attitude This and relapses. of acceptance and so understanding in place do to are resources financial) the and social that mental, sure (emotional, make to be, striving can keep one to best important the is become It themselves. with gentle be to have order attitude, reflexive In this maintaining in painful. themselves support and to hard very be can This prejudices. other possibly and have, they filters sexist the brings with relationship questioning direct into researchers reflexive This focus now?’ research participant the research to the relation and in itself expresses that self the is the What themselves ask also now? moment research this they to bringing am this?’, I self the doing is ‘What questions I am ‘Why and now?’ do I know shall ‘What to questions the ask researchers When get themselves. about more to opportunity the have researchers research up, the bring thoughts encounters and emotions the question­ and In decisions, crucial. research absolutely ing is it women with research gender in a lack of hostility towards other women. other towards hostility of lack guarantee a to seem not does feminist being Even 2001). (Chesler tizing stigma­ even and judging shaming, shunning, of form the in – indirectly Women’s aggression towards other women expresses itself predominantly ie ao sbet fml sxs hs o be oel dis­ openly been now has sexism female subject, taboo long-time A According to Chesler, female sexism can be overcome through a dis­ a through overcome be can sexism female Chesler, to According To maintainareflexiveattitudeisimportantinallqualitativeresearch; aa Te ofotto wt ter w gnee sl ad h ex­ the and self gendered own their with confrontation The data. 14 3 ­researchers 2

Doing research with women ­often 15 In research for change, such as GRACE, the researchers’ focus The challenges male researchers face in gender research with women, Looking in the mirror and becoming aware is a transforming act in Maintaining a stance of critical questioning and alignment with a Research for change Research for change however, where they encounter their gendered selves and sexist filters, may be, although of a different nature, their just commitment as to profound. a This discipline of makes self-reflexivity and hencejust as self-love imperative. self-love (Chesler 2001). Women may find it particularly challenging to love themselves. One of the most devastating the effects alienation of of self, oppression where is people lose loyalty to profoundest themselves, to feelings their and to their love of Mageo self 2002). (Fanon 1967, quoted in speaks directly to their own work and life. In GRACE, the research ques­ tion was: ‘How do women in Africa use ICTs for empowerment?’ None of they do, empowering would be able to do the work researchers the GRACE themselves, if it were not for their use of ICTs. In communities for turning their research, sharing language, ethnicity, religion and to their own sometimes even the village of birth or working in the same organization, the GRACE researchers operated as ‘native anthropologists’ (Rodriguez 2001). This has enabled them to establish close relationships with their respondents; it has also challenged their reflexivity, courage, persever­ ance and love for self. Furthermore, most of the researchers are women researching other women. The more directly the one’s mirror face, is the in potentially front richer one’s of insights into self become, and the the more other confrontational the research experience will be and the more important self-care becomes. itself. The act of self-reflection in itself brings about change (Reason and Bradbury 2001; Meulenberg-Buskens 1998; Van der Walt 2000). This can be challenging, even when the change is wanted, foreseen and embraced, because every change also carries loss in it. In research, which explicit purpose of has constructing knowledge for empowerment the and trans­ formation, change is on the agenda for everyone. It that is researchers learn thus how to imperative work with the change process, not only in their respondents but also in themselves. future of hope, while weathering the adverse conditions and emotional storms caused by direct confrontations with women’s disempowerment in and through the research context, is endeavour. The a challenge complex becomes even and greater when all-absorbing researchers turn Buskens | 1 engage in research with women for the purpose of transformation. of purpose the for women with research in engage to credibility the researchers gives ultimately which commitment a such in change evoke even and their respondents. Itistheacceptanceofvulnerabilitythatcomeswith witness to afraid be not will environments empowerment. women’s of potential the into insight yield will that questions the phrase that minds the are quo status the by affected and fire it.Itisthusimperativethatthemindsareintimatelyfamiliarwith research quest,however,cangobeyondthemindsthatconceptualizeand No research. their in environments living and communities own their to class, of varied ethnic groups, Cowan Cowan groups, ethnic varied of class, middle- and working- women, college sexism. benevolent accept will men, to relative women, that more the nation, the sexist more The sexist. very as classified be can Africa southern and rate, sexism general country’s a to linked are women other towards attitudes sexist Women’s quo. status the maintain to serves sexism of form This mould. the break who women of strongly disapproves and values traditional to adheres that woman of type the upon favourably looks sexism benevolent Female did. men than more cantly signifi­ sexism benevolent endorsed women Africa), South and Nigeria Botswana, Africa: in were three which (of score sexism highest the with countries four the In men’s’. than higher significantly sometimes or than different no often were sexism benevolent on scores their studied, nation every in sexism hostile on men than lower scored group a as women ‘whereas that found Fiske and Glick continents, five in tries (1995). Eisler patriarchy.See or domination male from differs which men, powerful by domination Notes Researchers who are not afraid of change in themselves and in their in and themselves in change of afraid not are who Researchers 3 2 1

In a 2000 study of 155 American American 155 of study 2000 a In coun­ nineteen of study their In the to refers Androcracy 16 Buskens, I. (2002) ‘Fine lines or or lines ‘Fine (2002) I. Buskens, Gold­ N. Clinchy, F.,B. M. Belenky, Anderson, K. and D. Jack (2006) Jack D. and K. Anderson, References dismissed. be cannot Africa in results similar find would study similar a that possibility the sexism, female of rate its with correlates rate sexism general country’s a that fact the given and 2001), Chesler in quoted 2000, al. et Glick 1997; 1996, Fiske and (Glick Africa in sexism of rates high cross Africa, in done been not has study similar a Although 150). (p. scale’ feminism a to or feminist as labeling self- their to unrelated is women other towards hostility women’s ‘that found 2001) Chesler in (quoted , 6(1): 1–31. 6(1): Change, as Education Research?’, Qualitative in Quality for Quest the in be to want we what become we can how and are we think we do Who cords? strong Books. Basic York: New Mind, and Voice Self, of Development The Knowing: of WaysWomen’s (1986) Tarule J. and berger Routledge. London: edn, 2nd Reader, History Oral The R. in analyses’, and techniques interview listen: to ‘Learning - Perks and A. Thomson (eds), Thomson A. and Perks cultural studies have found found have studies cultural Doing research with women The The Women Women Black Feminist Openness in Theory, Theory, Politics, mindedness, - Assen: Van Gorcum.

­openness: the dialectics ­Atkinson, Delamont and hoeven (eds), McClaurin (ed.), 1996–1998’, 1996–1998’, in S. Fehrsen et al., Coping Strategies Project Report South Africa, Unpublished ­ re search report, Brussels: EU. and Human Development: The Capabilities , Approach Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Handbook of Action Research: Participative Inquiry and Practice, London: Sage. home: black feminism and the lure of native anthropology’, in I. Anthropology: Praxis and , Poetics London: Rut­ gers University Press. methodological principle’, Paper presented at the William James Congress, Amsterdam, August. (1995) ‘Open open-heartedness and dia­ logical of openings and closures’, in Maso, ­ Ver Research: Research: The Tension between Self and Other, (1998) ‘Dialogical partnership: the relationship between the researcher and the researched in action research’, in Boog, Coenen, Keene and Lammerts (eds), Complexity of Relationships in Action , Research Tilburg University Press. their work in the Tuberculosis Control Programme for the ­ West ern Cape: too close for comfort’, Unpublished PhD thesis, UCT, Cape Town.

Nussbaum, Nussbaum, M. C. (2000) Reason, and P. H. Bradbury (2001) Rodriguez, C. (2001) homegirl ‘A goes Smaling, A. (1990) -taking ‘Role as a — — Van Van der Walt, H. (2000) ‘Nurses and 17 Vio­ Journal of Power Power and the In a Different Voice. Woman’s Woman’s In­ The Chalice and the Beyond God the Father Journal of Personality Buskens, I. (1998) - Self, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. dice as simple antipathy: hostile and benevolent sexism across cultures’, and Social , Psychology 70(5). ‘Reflections on research meth­ odology and research capacity building in a participatory action research project in South Africa Blade – Our History, Our , Future San Francisco, CA: Harper. ‘The ambivalent sexism inven­ tory: differentiating hostile and benevolent sexism’, (1997) ‘Hostile and benevolent sexism: measuring ambivalent sexist attitudes toward women’, Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21: 119–35. towards women and rape and sexual harassment myths’, lence Against , Women 6(3): 238–46. – Toward a Philosophy of Women’s Liberation, Boston, MA: Beacon Press. Psychological Theory and Women’s Development, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Personality and Social Psychology, 70(3): 419–512. humanity to , Woman New York: Thunder’s Mouth Press. (2006) (2006) ‘Gender research in Africa into ICTs for empowerment’, IICBA Newsletter , 8(2), UNESCO.

Meulenberg Mageo, J. M. (2002) Gilligan, C. (1982) Glick, et P. al. (2000) ‘Beyond preju­ Daly, M. (1973) Eisler, R. (1995) Glick, and P. S. Fiske T. (1996) — Cowan, G. (2000) ‘Women’s hostility Chesler, P. Chesler, (2001) P. — This page intentionally left blank one | ICT tools: access and use This page intentionally left blank 2 | Women’s use of information and communi­ cation technologies in Mozambique: a tool for empowerment? Gertrudes Macueve, Judite Mandlate, Lucia Ginger, Polly Gaster and Esselina Macome

As professional women working in the field of information and com­ munication technology (ICT), our assumption was that all women can benefit (as we have) from making use of ICT. A number of gender studies (Johnson 2003; Payton et al. 2007) have shown that the main users of ICT (especially computers, Internet and e-mail) are young males, and that women are marginal users, suggesting a gap between discourse and the reality of women’s empowerment through ICT. Scholars like Sharma (2003) and Stephen (2006) suggest, however, that ICTs can em­ power women through enhancing participation in economic and social development and facilitating informed decision-taking. These authors argue that ICTs have the power to reach women who have been outside the ambit of other media and can facilitate communication among them and other dispersed networks, enabling them to mobilize, participate in debates and express themselves. We therefore aimed to investigate whether women in Mozambique’s rural areas, who have access to ICTs through telecentres and the expand­ ing mobile phone networks, are becoming more empowered. Generally, farming is the basis for survival for rural women, accompanied by petty trading in the informal sector. Most of these women are illiterate (the national illiteracy rate is 53 per cent, but it is 66 per cent among women; UNDP 2006) and they do not speak the official language (Portuguese), let alone English, the language of so much of the information available on the Internet. Rural women play an extremely important role in society and in poverty reduction, and at the same time comprise the poorest and most marginalized group (Fórum Mulher/SARDC WIDSAA 2005). In this context, we undertook to investigate the following questions:

• Do women in Manhiça and Sussundenga in rural Mozambique use the ICTs available in the districts? If so, what for? If not, why not? • Does the use of the available ICTs empower the women? If so, how? If not, why not? Macueve et al. | 2 Study context based on fieldwork conducted during December 2005 to February 2006. February to 2005 December during conducted fieldwork on based Mozambique in women rural empowering in used been has them of each how discuss We landline). and (mobile telephones and Internet e‑mail, 1993). Nussbaum and Sen 1997; 1992, 1987, (Sen context valuable his/her and reach individual or each on achieve dependent being, to of and states acts valuable out carry to ability the meaning latter the capabilities, and 2002) Bank physical and (World assets both financial include Assets Mozambique. in rural women fically by speci­ women, of capabilities played and assets the expanding in role ICTs to access the meaning as ICTs define through we empowerment context, women’s particular the and chapter this of purposes the For 2005). Nations United 2006; al. et Alsop 2002; Bank (World political and 2006). al. et (Alsop outcomes and to makechoicesandthentransformthoseintodesiredactions capacity individual’s or group’s a as defined also is Empowerment own. one’s on difficulties face and negotiate agendas, set heard, be decisions, make to power equals empowerment lives: their control to women and ment Cooperation(1999)itmeansincreasingopportunitiesforbothmen to ability their Develop­ for Agency Norwegian the strengthening for while problems, own their resolve and worth own their of restoring sense means people’s empowerment (1994) Folger For and ofways. Bush for anumber example, in defined been has ‘empowerment’ word The gap. gender the increasing – unwittingly perhaps – than rather empowerment women’s of favour in work may they that so interventions akd h bgnig f n fot o rn IT ihn ec o rural of reach within ICT bring areas andunderprivileged groups,including women.Thetelecentreswere to effort an of beginning the marked is access ICT of level available. minimum a terms) technical (in where happening areas been in has what explore to opportunity an offered therefore and years, several for stations, radio community including telecentres, in ICTs of presence the from benefited have both because chosen were areas These region. central the in Province south, Manica in the Sussundenga and in Province Maputo in Manhiça districts: rural two study to hn e ee t IT i ti catr e en ais computers, radios, mean we chapter this in ICTs to refer we When social economic, – factors many include can empowerment us For empowerment. of model single no is there that is understanding Our ICT rural adapt and guide to useful be will findings our that hope We level telecentres in 1999 in telecentres district-level first the of installation Mozambique’s decided we Mozambique, of heterogeneity and size the Considering 22 A tool for empowerment? 23 Our field data are essentially qualitative, collected through semi- Eighty per cent of Mozambique’s total population (20 million, 52 per There are two mobile phone operators in Mozambique. Both operate inoperate Both Mozambique. in operators phone mobile two are There ­structured interviews, group discussions in various configurations, obser­ vation and life histories. The interviews were conducted in local languages with women visiting the telecentres during the period of fieldwork, local Exploring the use of ICTs by rural women in Mozambique Exploring the use of ICTs Manhiça, and one started up in Sussundenga at the end of our research period. The public telecommunications company still has a monopoly on the infrastructure and on landline voice services – a handful of phone booths are available in both districts studied, the in telecentres, addition and to key those local in government sectors, businesses. organizations The lack and of good and cheap access to a tion telephone (or often ­ connec any connection at all) is a major constraint on e-mail and professionalsICT of shortage the is factor important another use; Internet countrywide. cent of whom are women) is rural, and 80 per cent of rural workers women, are of whom only 2 per cent are in the formal sector. Manhiça dis­ trict, 80 kilometres north of Maputo, has a population of nearly 200,000, with a poverty rate estimated at 60 per women cent and in girls 2003. over Sixty five per have cent never attended of schoolcent and have only completed 12 per primary education, although 20 Ninety per cent Portuguese. of the economically active female population per cent speak work in agriculture, for the family or for themselves, and 15 per cent of the district’s farmers are girls under ten years of age (MAE 2005a). Sus­ sundenga, on the other hand, is three times the size half of the Manhiça, population. with Here only 9 per cent of and 83 women per speak cent are Portuguese illiterate (compared to 62 per cent of men). Ninety- six per cent of active women work in noting agriculture, that 12 although per cent it of teachers is and 52 worth per cent of health workers in the district are female (MAE 2005b). ng access providi owned, and are locally centres as development conceived to computers, IT training, -processing word and graphic design, public phone (landline), fax and photocopiers, e-mail, Internet and information were integrated for local broadcasting radio stations services. Community into most telecentres in a later phase. The most recent communication tool to be installed in increasing numbers phone. Although of the reach districts of mobile is phones deep the into the mobile countryside is still extremely limited, mobile phone users in by far Mozambique outnumber already landline phone subscribers. Macueve et al. | 2 organized by age group, sex and the services used. services the and sex group, age by organized are which statistics, usage own telecentres’ the analysed also We ations. associ­ women’s of leaders and sellers, street and market unemployed, and thirtyinSussundenga):teachers,nurses,homemakers,thosewhoare in thestreet.Seventy-fourwomenwereinterviewed(fortyManhiça and markets hospitals, schools, in including telecentres, the around area the in randomly selected women and professionals, and leaders female omnt rdo sil n fetv epwrn to i a ua context rural a in tool empowering effective an still – radio Community mrv cpblte t oeae s I/IS ciit, o eape and example, for activists, HIV/AIDS as operate help to capabilities women, improve for those especially programmes, radio behaviours. educational social The and health children’s cooking, HIV/AIDS, home, at taken be to precautions family, the within adolescents of behaviour the as such topics, of range a cover programmes women’s the and nationally, inter­ and nationally and communities their within both isolation their reduces that information acquire to women popu­ enable programmes also News were women for programmes special and programmes people. of number large a reaching of way economical most and tives isanessentialpartofthefabricsociety,andradiofastest rela­ and members community of mourning the in participating context, information public announcements, especiallydeathnotices;inthesewomen’s socio­ the are programmes popular most The schedules. programme the know they that us told districts both in many and radio, was. card her where discovered have not would she point central trusted a as act to radio the Without her. told and it heard neighbours woman’s The radio. the on made was telecentre, announcement an and the to it taken and it found had someone card: identity lost her collect to telecentre the at was she her interviewed we When asked. she for?’ phone a use I would ‘What day. every eat to something have to expensive.’ are batteries ‘Radio costs: more meant they since telephone a or radio a have to like wouldn’t she and technologies any used never she that us told Manhiça in household of head a example, available. are radios wind-up where particularly areas, rural in ICT affordable most the radio the making low, generally are costs Running home. at and places public mains electricityorindividualradioownership–peoplelistentogetherin Radio interviewed. women having on depend not the does access and listener, the to free are broadcasts all for ICT used most the certainly are telecentres the from broadcast that stations radio community local The Around 95 per cent of the interviewees confirmed that they listen to listen they that confirmed interviewees the of cent per 95 Around For radio. a own to afford cannot who people however, are, There 24 She wanted only wanted She cultural cultural News lar.

A tool for empowerment? We We found that

25 The radio also involves local women directly as volunteers to produce How can access to a simple radio be empowering to rural women? The at the Volunteering radio and telecentre is also seen as an opportunity We We believe that there is a process of hearing and learning from the awareness of mobile phones was high in both districts, and even though the network had not been fully installed in Sussundenga at the a climbing by them use could owners phone mobile few time the fieldwork, the of was this radio After capital. provincial the to went they when or tree nearby already the technology most commonly used by women in Manhiça. The role of the mobile phone in empowering rural women radio and applying it within families and educating others. In general, the and educating applying it within families radio and women said that radio programmes are very important to them, because it is through them that they find out what is happening in the world. and present programmes. In this manner they learn new skills and gain confidence through occupying a public space. In turn, the fact that the programmes are being made by people they family know members) (or inspires even greater trust. their The own volunteers lamented, how­ ever, that although they enjoy the work, the lack of problems incentives at home, leads as to exemplified by a woman in a discussionmeeting in Sussundenga: ‘We feel apprehensive when leaving coming our here to homes the and telecentre … because our husbands often … question what are the economic gains from collaborating with that the help telecentre the family?’ community radio provides information that rural women need and value because it is accessible, in their own language, and increases their capa­ bility to act, whether they receive the information directly or indirectly. Even today oral communication is the most means of powerful getting and information for affordable most Mozambicans. for socialization in the rural communities. Some scholars, such as Carnoy going to school not only enhances(1975) and Sen (2003), have argued that literacy skills but also enables children to learn how to socialize, which is good for their future. Similarly, although they assets, do in addition not to earn technical material skills the telecentre provides its female volunteers with a learning experience of socializing with other women, self-organization, and mobilizing playing a public role in the community, assets and ideas to solve problems of common interest. For many of the young women volunteers this may be their first such experience outside school or leisure activities. to change the way they deal with healthcare, social and other problems within communities and families. Macueve et al. | 2 phone use or dialling for them. for dialling or use phone them teaching by – women other mostly – clients assists also she while her threephones,whichhelps topayschoolfeesandhouseholdexpenses, from profit a makes interviewee One use. phone mobile for cards credit pre-paid selling businesses small opened have women Other food. send to them ask to Africa South in relatives contact to phone mobile the use they house, the in food no is there when that us told ten, of family a has and home at work domestic and field the between time her divides who woman, Manhiça Another could up. came she job temporary – a when work contacted be seek to phone mobile her used who woman a also found We are. they wherever members, her with communicate to phone mobile the uses She work.’ my feet, my is telephone cellular the me, ‘For journeys. fruitless sometimes and long for need the ending stock, more need they that Province Gaza in tell suppliers to their phones mobile use resell, to buy who Manhiça, in juice) cashew of sellers market example, For colleagues. work with the marketsusemobilephonesforbusinessmattersandtocommunicate in sellers female The phone. mobile via them with communicating Africa efficient. less be would most and not, could many landlines, through out carried be could described activities the of some an Although to communications. voice contributing of volume is the in but increase exponential landline, the replacing simply not is phone mobile the Hence, though calls. local for even cheaper was booth benefits, phone landline the social and economic time, by for is use compensated phone mobile of cost itis the not that view or women’s the to whether adding cost used, monthly fixed a has landline a owning while costs, hidden no have cards phone mobile Pre-paid high. relatively still with abroad. contact and regarding Mozambique in true members is family same The call. a receive to an time at phone agreed public a at queue or messages leave travel, to having than rather directly interact can they so – them have also suppliers or clients contacts, key their that fact the and workplaces; their abandon to ­having without it using time, save can they that means which mobility, its cial: benefi­ phone mobile the find women poor even why be reasons main to two seem there 2007), Mabila and (Muchanga network mobile the of expansion rapid the and areas, rural the in especially power, purchasing lhuh ot f h wmn e pk wt dd o on mobile own not did with spoke we women the of most Although that: us told Manhiça in organization women’s a of representative A South in working are husbands whose women found we Manhiça In was calls landline inter-urban of cost the fieldwork our of time the At limited people’s to owing declining phones landline of use the With 26 (fermented xicadju A tool for empowerment? bips (callback requests). Even 27 Around 31 per cent of the women we spoke to use computers, e-mail ICT-related tools, namely computers, e-mail and the Internet, were We We (the researchers and women interviewed) find the use ofmobile to increase their incomesMobile phones are also helping poor women Thus, through mobile phones women are enhancing their capacity essentially available in the telecentres or at a few workplaces (we did not find anyone among our interviewees who owned a computer); outsideof the telecentres the only female users are a minority of educated women. It was surprising to find from the individualeven when interviews,women have access, they however,make little use of that it at work because of ‘lack of time’. Promising tools – but less revolutionary in a rural context Promising phones, they shared the phones of her friends us that sometimes told in the market seller a xicadju example, family members and friends. For ask to make calls, send messages and though unable to send text messages, some illiterate women knew how to receive and make calls, and recognize a name on the phone list. Others did not contact even know how to dial a number, but used the phone by asking someone else to help. Those without mobile phones can ask their neighbours for help: ‘I don’t have a mobile and no one at home has one, but I keep the numbers of more distant relatives with me in case of emergency, when I will ask my neighbours to call them.’ some Interestingly, who did not own mobile phones also mentioned the importance of being able to phone the police in the case of problems. phonesboth socially and economically empowering. Socially, the mobility and flexibility of the mobile phone provides the capabilityregular to maintain contact with families regardless of distance; ily links as and a support networks result, are strengthened. fam­ Also, through sharing phones women are reinforcing their unifying networks, while increased access to communication facilitates organization of collective activities and campaigns. In addition, the mobile women phone to learn is minimal numeracy so stimulating that they some can recognize and dial numbers, which could be a step towards literacy. in various ways: cost-effective communications help their trading, while the emergence of a market in phone women to use establish has small businesses. opened Family contacts up can a also resolve space economic problems, for as when Manhiça women call South Africa to relatives ask for emergency food supplies. to provide assets that help them resolve their major daily a concerns, socio-economic process in that increases their autonomy. Macueve et al. | 2 practical advantages for them of use of these technologies. technologies. these of use of them for advantages practical illustrating examples seen not have They that. to directly relate not does that anything about think cannot and basis day -today a on needs daily basic families’ their for providing on focus to obliged absolutely are they that was argument essential their but expensive’, ‘too look or will stall?’ my ‘who after time’, ‘no were non-use for gave the sellers Among market market. reasons the in selling time their spend rather would they to information, they do not see the immediate material benefits. Therefore while recognizing potential benefits such as learning new skills and access poor people were automatically excluded from access to them. For non people,illiterate or uneducatedthat such as: ‘they aren’t for people like us’; in other words, a perception existed unreliability. and cost its to due credibility won yet not has access Internet Internet computers, and E -mail the e-mail. use or to than rather phone public the use to or made photocopies get to there were women) particularly (and clients of majority the Moreover, female. one-third and male are visitors of thirds two - centres both at average on coincided: results the that found we data, from resources. afford own not their could they which telecentres, the using on go to them locally work salaried get to enabling follow-up any been not had there Also, jobs. of lack the to ­owing them helped not had course the because training coursesatthetelecentresineachdistrict,theyweredisappointed was it since telecentre the established. at learned have children her but day, tech­ every the to travelled access she where Maputo, no in place having took course computer than Her nology. better is this that says but costs, the telecentre.Sherecognizesthatusingtelecentre’sservicesinvolves through technologies these of all accessing e-mail, and Internet the uses occasionally and projects, prepare to computer the uses she Manhiça: in centred. are infrastructure and services public mainly the where interviews capitals, district our the in conducted we because context, rural a for high relatively is percentage This workers. telecentre and nuns students, plus organizations, non-governmental work or who services women administrative mainly health, were in ICTs these of Users Internet. the and mail and e-mail computers, visited, districts the in women the of most For reasons, many gave all at technologies these use not did who Those own our with statistics usage telecentres’ the compared we When computer free from benefited had who women found we Although representative organization women’s the by is use of example prime A 28 - Portuguese speakers, women or Portuguesewomenspeakers, others, ­others, A tool for empowerment? puters 29 When we began this research, we hoped to findthat access to ICTs and never-ending workload faced respect the heavy responsibilities We We find that women have already started appropriating mobile the was contributing to the empowerment of rural women in Mozambique at some level, since we recognize that we ourselves have benefited from our opportunities to embrace the new technologies. Our findingsfirm, con­ however, that while the women involved in theconstructive studyuse of are making the mobile phone and community radio, most rural women do not find computer-related ICTs (computers, e-mail and Internet) the particularly relevant or sufficiently useful to theirsurvival immediate needs. In some cases these women are unaware of the possibil­ ities of computer-related ICTs. by rural Mozambican women (and other poor women around the world), methods for choosing priori­ and have learned lessons from their rational ties. We recognize that we cannot make generalized assumptions about needs and benefits based on our personal experience. It wouldwrong, also be however, to conclude that these women are unable or unwilling to make use of ICT owing to educational limitations, cultural lack constraints. of vision or language literacy, of difficulties overcome to ways own their finding phone, assets their expanding for tool a as it using and together working costs, and and capabilities with no need for technical training or back-up. Perhaps – ICTs new utilizing through self-empowerment of example best the is this are they way the given ICTs, computer-related with happening not is which cannot women rural that opinion the of are We women. rural to presented appropriate -related computer ICTs and consequently be empowered by them unless much more attention is given to making computer-related technologies and tools useful for them. These technologies are currently presented with limited content about issues relating to rural women’s survival (e.g. information for small business and agriculture), and limited more might women corrected, were factors these If mobility. and usability easily use computer-related ICTs, within their constraints of time, money and skills. For rural women computer-related ICTs present limited com ­ munication facilities compared to mobile phones, which women can use to talk and exchange their daily worries concerning survival. Conclusion: lessons learned Conclusion: the Internet are not currently seen as increasing assets and abilities ­ issues. Com and social survival their valued, namely most the areas in do, however, help the relatively few women users to improve and ­ profes sionalize aspects of their work. Macueve et al. | 2 hi aiiy o ov polm, ae eiin ad hie, n take and choices, actions. desired and decisions make problems, solve to ability their strengthen to them used and them appropriated have would they prob­ lems, immediate women’s rural to solution real a providing were ICTs needs ofagrouppeople,itisappropriablebythem.Ifcomputer-related households. their self-sufficiency and themselves economic for andachieve and costs, time save efficiently, more work to them enabling by term, short the capabil­ in assets their their and increase ities will that tools is priority absolute women’s the development of stage this At empowered. become to and ways, other in Recommendations: towardsrealICTuseandempowerment hi socio their socio for fighting are they because but useful, telecentres the in ICTs the find not not do they – because ICTs computer-related by empowered being not are women earlier that said We grow. will gap gender digital the otherwise survival, for the technology becomes available in the rural areas. rural the in available becomes technology the as promoted be can phone mobile via communications languages; data local similarly, and Portuguese in radio, via as well in as offline telecentres available the made be could Internet the through and provided information data relevant accessibility increase To realities. and tions condi­ empowering of pursuit women’s facilitate to each for potential the integration ofcomputer-relatedICTsandothertechnologiestomaximize the and ICTs, of performance the improve to infrastructure connectivity ways. economic) necessarily (not of number a in use this by empowered be to and ICTs, their computer-related of of use some making to give time to able be to women help may surviving, for means the as such conditions, -economic socio other Creating well-being. family and methods production agricultural prices, include issues These value. women rural that issues socio-economic and capabilities on more placing emphasis by women, rural by usable formats in content provide to efforts great make to have empowerment and development women’s in provide to just equipment. Thismeansthatthetelecentreandotherinstitutionsinvolved enough not is find it to empowering, women ICTs rural for computer-related order in that better understand now We tice. Our main conclusion is that when something responds to the actual the to responds something when that is conclusion main Our Changes need to be made in this society, where women are fighting are women where society, this in made be to need Changes In addition, literacy is key – without literacy there can be no empower­ no be can there literacy without – key is literacy addition, In efficient and reliable a place in put to striving recommend also We prac­ our of ahead is theory our and new not are conclusions Our - cnmc odtos ol hl te t se technologies see to them help could conditions economic - cnmc uvvl Hne ipoeet of improvement Hence, survival. economic 30 A tool for empowerment? www. , accessed Handbook in Oxford: Oxford .

On Ethics and Econom­ Oxford University Press. Development as Freedom, Capability and -being: Well Inequality -examined, Re On Economic , Inequality www.norad.no/default. Oxford: Blackwell.

March 2008. University Press. (1999) New York: Knopf. (2003) ‘The importance of basic education’, Full text of Amartya Sen’s speech to the ­ Common wealth Education Conference, Edinburgh, available at: guardian.co.uk/education/2003/ oct/28/schools.uk4 (1993) The Quality of Life, A. Amadi (2007) ‘Gendered per­ spectives on the digital divide IT education and workforce’, Pro­ ceedings of the 9th International Conference on Social Implica­ tions of Computers in Developing Countries, São Paulo. ics, (1992) Oxford: Oxford University Press. (1997) Oxford: 29 ‘2006 Mozambique telecommu­ nications sector performance review’, Unpublished report, Maputo: Universidade Eduardo Mondlane. Cooperation (1999) Gender and Empowerment Assess­ ment, asp?V_ITEM_ID=967 — — Sen, A. and M. Nussbaum (eds) Payton, F., Payton, L. F., Kvasny, Mbankn V. and Sen, A. (1987) — — Norwegian Agency for Development 31

The The nologies: nologies: Perfil do Distrito Comparative Education Beyond Inequalities 2005: Empowerment in Practice – – Practice in Empowerment tion Media Centre for Asia. Perfil do Distrito de Sussun­ (2005b) Perfil denga. Província de Manica. Série Distritais, Maputo: MAE. Perfis education in a strategy for social change’, Women’s Literacy and Information and Communication ­ Tech and the gender dimension: an examination of how engendered telecentres are diffused in Africa’, Estatal) (2005a) de Manhiça. Província de Maputo. Série Perfis Distritais, Maputo: MAE. , Implementation to Analysis from Bank. World DC: Washington, Promise of Mediation, San ­ Fran cisco, CA: -Bass. Jossey , Review 19(3). ­Lessons that Experience Has Taught Us, Commonwealth of Learning – Commonwealth Educa­ (2005) Women in Mozambique, Maputo and Harare: Fórum Mulher/ SARDC. Unpublished MSc thesis, George­ town University, Georgetown. (2006) Muchanga, A. and Mabila F. (2007) — Bush, R. and J. Folger (1994) Carnoy, M. (1975) ‘The role of Dighe, A. and U. Reddi (2006) Johnson, K. (2003) ‘Telecentres MAE (Ministério de Administração Fórum Fórum Mulher/SARDC WIDSAA References Holland J. and Bertelsen M. R., Alsop, ment, particularly for women and girls (Sen 1999; Dighe and Reddi 2006). ment, particularly for women and girls (Sen 1999; Dighe and Reddi We therefore strongly recommend the improvement of women’s literacy increased combined with that women’s literacy, believe We in rural areas. tools becoming in computer -related ICT of content, could result relevance an asset to women’s pursuit of the means for of their survival lives. and for control Macueve et al. | 2 United Nations (2005) Nations United (2006) UNDP (2006) A. Stephen, U.(2003) Sharma, , New York: UNDP.York: New Crisis, Water Global the and Power,Poverty Scarcity: Beyond – 2006 Report Empower­ Women’sand Technologies tion Press. Techno­ Information through powerment , New Delhi: Authors’ Delhi: New logy, , New Delhi: Rajat. Delhi: New ment, Human Development Human Women’s Em­ Women’s Communica­ Gender Equal­ Gender 32 World Bank (2002) Bank World /draft.pdf Resources/486312 worldbank.org/intempowerment/ WorldBank, (Draft), Sourcebook A Reduction:Poverty Nations. United Affairs, Social and Economic of Department Women, of Advancement the for Division York: New ICT, through Women of Empowerment and ity 2008. , accessed 31 accessed , Empowerment and and Empowerment - 1095094954594 1095094954594 siteresources.

March March

­ 3 | Considering ICT use when energy access is not secured: a case study from rural South Africa Jocelyn Muller

Background There is growing interest in the role information and communication technologies (ICTs) can play in enhancing the effectiveness of poverty reduction programmes in the South and efforts to achieve the Millennium Development Goals. Literature often speaks of ICTs such as the Internet, for example, as the ‘shining light’ for developing countries (Gurumurthy 2004; World Bank 2004). Yet what is often overlooked is that an adequate energy supply is a prerequisite for the development potential of ICTs to be realized. The intention of this chapter is to explore what women in a small rural community in South Africa think are the limitations of and potential benefits that may be realized through the provision of energy services (using the mini-hybrid system) in relation to their access to and use of certain ICTs such as cell phones, radios and televisions. Developing countries – and particularly rural people within these coun­ tries – suffer from a lack of investment in basic infrastructure and services, including energy provision. Power supply systems, which are essential for the use of most information technologies, rarely extend to rural areas; the trend over the last three decades has seen the number of people without electricity in rural areas in Africa doubling (and tripling in the urban areas) as a result of increasing urbanization (ITDG 2005). In fact, the International Energy Agency (IEA 2006) estimates that a total of US$200 billion worth of investments in electricity will be needed to help halve the number of people living on less than US$1 a day by 2015. Subsequently, in the rural hinterlands where poverty is still pervasive, people rarely benefit from the urban-based, technology-led ICT boom. Reaping the gains of the knowledge society is possible for some but close to impossible for the majority. The predicted ‘trickle-down’ effect remains elusive. Women are the least likely to reap the gains of ICTs in sub-Saharan Africa, where the number of female-headed households varies between 50 per cent and 80 per cent of rural households as men migrate to urban centres seeking employment, leaving their wives behind (ITDG 2005). This is a double-edged sword in itself. The gendered division of labour means that a woman’s domestic responsibilities, including caring for the Muller | 3 become white elephants (Villavicencio 2002). (Villavicencio often elephants they white become and dates, completion and/or implementation the beyond assessed rarely is programmes that energy renewable is of rate technologies functional the renewable of penetration or deployment further hindering factor Another addressed. being are – fuels these collecting in spent time and smoke indoor of effects health adverse the and fuels as waste animal and residues crop of use to localized due fuels, emissions environmental of wood use inefficient as such – sources energy tional tradi­ of use the to related problems the of none Hence deployed. being currently sources energy renewable the and by solved space be cooking, can heating, for water fuel as such urgent however, the needs, of energy None gendered explore. to avenue an as recognized become increasingly have technologies energy renewable as other, (such the sources on fuels) energy fossil conventional of use on the impact of the and environment hand, the one the on Africa of most in services energy (ibid.). levels poverty increasing to attributed be mainly can which demand suppressed and unmet indicating 2000, to 1980 from kWh 112 to kWh 431 from fell Africa in levels consumption electricity capita per thermal services like cooking and space heating. Illustrative of this is that energy-intensive for electricity using of instead lighting and radios TVs, black-andwhite to it of use the restrict to decisions in results this holds; to Linked used. house­ poor for unaffordable be often is electricity that fact the is factor this can that technologies and services the limits 2005). This (ITDG infrastructure in existing invest the of to servicing governments and of maintenance failure the to owing unreliable and poor often is sources renewable or conventional either from of supply electricity quality the sources, energy renewable or coal-generated) (e.g. tional genderized. are poverty ICT and poverty energy Hence, Khamati and (Clancy impacts most subsequent them to renders vulnerable which poverty, energy by affected proportionately dis­ therefore are Women electricity. without remain women, are most essentials. other and on clothing income food, for their needs use household the instead meeting and radios and phones cell TVs, as ICTs such own to likely less therefore are Women use. to wish they access ICTs or the buy to power purchasing more have men addition, in rural areas); in unavailable are (which ICTs to exposed be to likely are women than men more that means bias urban This areas. urban for leave’ up and ‘pick simply to them for difficult it make children, and elderly sick, In response to global and regional concerns about the lack of modern of lack the about concerns regional and global to response In conven­ either to access have do people where Africa in areas the In which of Africa, in population rural the of cent per 90 estimated An 34 - jm 2005). Njema ICT use and energy access ­energy ­capability, 35 In Lucingweni a mini-grid hybrid system was commissioned in 2004 This chapter arises from a participatory research journey in Lucin­ The activities of the community centre would probably be extended to In 2005 Lucingweni appeared to be the ideal site to investigate how gweni, a remote rural village in the Eastern women took Cape, part in South a process Africa. designed to Local capture their knowledge and values in relation to their energy and shift ICT in priority thinking, intended needs to and reinforce effect the a meaningful of empowerment women who are often relegated to subordinate (Hill positions 2003). in society as a renewable energy rural electrification pilot project by the National Energy Regulator of South Africa (as mandated Minerals by and Energy) and installed the by Shell Solar. The Department renewable of system comprises a 50 kW array of Shell Solar 100W modules photovoltaic and (PV) 36 kW wind generators. Two hundred and twenty holds ­ house in the village were connected to the system, allowing each the use of four lights, a radio, a television and a cell phone charger. The system was designed to provide a maximum of 1 kWh per -four-hour twenty amp period compared to with approximately 6 kWh per a daily limit of 1 month per household for the stand-alone solar home system. The average consumption of low-income households using conventional electricity is approximately 138 kWh per month. The intended mini-grid to system provide was electricity also for street lighting There is and also a supply water of 230V to pumping. two shops and a battery storage facility that was intended to support a community centre with communal ICT services. eventually become one of the government’s Multi-Purpose Community Centres (MPCCs) as part of its integrated MPCCs have been identified as the primary approach forthe implementa­ rural service delivery plan. tion of development through the provision of communication and infor­ mation services to people to ensure that they have the resources required to support improved livelihoods. The mini-grid system was supposed to provide the electricity needed for an MPCC in Lucingweni. the delivery of basic energy services from a renewable energy technology team’s research my Upon setting. rural remote a in ICTs to access delivers initial site visit, however, it became apparent that the system has had us informed community The day. this to continues which history, difficult a that since the launch of the mini-grid in 2004 there had been a number of main­ inadequate supply, of unreliability the including problems, ongoing technological local of lack a and support servicing and tenance Research context Research Muller | 3 development, had a very negative impact on the local community. local the on impact negative very a had development, of the array of solar panels. It gradually became evident that the whole whole the mini that evident became gradually It panels. solar of array vandalism the extensive of 2007 February in all, it crown to and, corruption this research a number of problems have arisen, including the settling settling of the including arisen, have problems of number a after research this and during Even locally. components of unavailability as well as The researchapproach ecpin o, ces o n ue f nry n h ae ad o this Lucingweni. how in ICTs and of area use the the on in impacted energy of use and to access in of, variations perceptions the of understanding broader a develop to able were we as research the complemented approach This Nkosini. Nothiswa and Nkosini Nozamile Skwati, Sylvia Manipa, Sindiswa Landule, Nontobeko Mangxa, Zanele were: selected participants women The project. research then proceeded to elect one woman from each village to participate in our community The represented. be all should villages other the that insistent was community The community. the of fraction a only constitutes grid mini- the using electrified was that area the and villages, different six of access to energy from the mini-grid system. Lucingweni consists, however, • • • • objectives: of number a achieve to attempted we approach this following By study. the in participated who women the between and an with dialogue create empowering to selected were methods participatory these of All et 2001). (Earl al. (OM) mapping outcome as well as 2005b), (Buskens (TAI) inter view attitude transformational the 2005a), (Buskens (FAI) interviews 1997). We used participatory research methods, focus groups, free atti­ (Eade methodology research the in concepts gender and ICT energy, of a adopted We people Africa. South in conducted was empowerment for ICTs owner­ ntal te eerh em nedd novn ol wmn h had who women only involving intended team research the Initially ICTs. use to women the of capacity the develop To collectively. and individually desires, and needs values, their reflects it that so ICTs, and energy for vision their grate inte­ creatively to women the for methodology participatory a offer To techniques. and methods participatory and tive qualita ­ certain use to women the in confidence and skills develop To lives. their into reflection and learning that build techniques explicitly and tools participatory women the to introduce To and energy into research our that context complex this within was It - gridexperience Lucingweni,in launched withgreat expectations for - ete dvlpet prah ht igd n h integration the on hinged that approach development centred ship of the system among government departments, concerns departments, government among system the of ship 36 tude tude of of ­ ICT use and energy access ­ 37

of energy and ICTs with the participants. This was an essential concepts and the related issues and options available before en­ Following Following introductory discussions that focused on the concepts of Before addressing the key issues relating to the development poten­ By telling their life stories and reflectingon their lived realities, the Cooking Boiling water pumping Water Lighting – including street lighting Charging cell phones Homework – lighting Radio Watching TV Domestic activities 1. energy and ICTs, a reflective process was­enable the participants introducedto define their individual and joint vision in­ rela and repeated to tion to energy and ICT services in Lucingweni. They did this by reflecting use and the perceived constraintson their lived realities of energy and ICT explored the potential strategiesto accomplishing the vision; further, they for overcoming the constraints. To determine the communities’ energy priorities the participants were asked to imagine their ‘energy dreams’ as current reality – this process stimulated imagining new possibilities, which inspired them to work towards a com the women’s creativity in mon vision. Each individual developed her own vision and then shared her ideas with her partners and the group. Individual visions became a shared vision. Their collective energy and ICT vision encapsulated desire for the a power supply that enables: visioning their energy and ICT development objectives. tial of energy and ICTs, it was concepts important to spend time defining the part of the empowerment process since drawing meaningful input from the participants was dependent upon them creating an understanding of the women women involved expressed their perceptions of the effects that and energy certain ICTs have had on their lives objective (Mbilinyi of the 1992). TAI process The was primary for the women living in Lucingweni to communicate the ways in which they visualize energy and ICTs contrib­ uting towards an improvement in their livelihoods. Establishing the energy­ ICT vision for development in Lucing and weni Defining key concepts and creating a vision Defining key concepts • • • • • • • • Muller | 3 2. What arethelivedrealities? ot aus n itns o nac i te uue Se xrse her expressed She future. that: saying the desires in enhance to intends and values most she that experiences ICT and energy her of aspects the upon deliberate • • • • • to their dreams. Inner constraints are those factors that you can control can you that factors those are constraints Inner dreams. their to their currentreality,and internalandexternalconstraintsinrelation describing map a creating by conditions living present their and dreams perception. current the beyond potential her expand to sought then and capacities existing her recognized it that in generative, and history, own her in grounded was it that in practical, both was which future valued more a envision to challenged was research the on livedrealities.Eachwomanwhotookpartinthereflective processesof exploring possibilitiesthatarebasedonextraordinarymoments founded 3. • • • Small businesses Small services Community iig odtos and conditions life-giving core her upon reflect to able was Sylvia facilities Laundry irrigation for pumping water – vegetables and Farmingfruit group Sewing salon Hair refrigeration and lighting phones, public – shops Spaza The women we worked with explored the inconsistencies between their involves it experience, exploratory an is future the for vision a Creating it. to next standing photo a taking am I and dream my is This children. our teach to computers ­having schools our and project gas and electricity an having myself see can I succeed. to about am I that feel can I now but happening was what of understanding clear a have not did I dream this on working was I When vision: her on reflected Zanele journal photo her In electricity.had we if phones our charge to us for easy be would It cook. to able be and phone my charge radio, my play can I that so electricity have to like would I way my go to had everything If using SMS using letters, writing radio, using – gatherings community to Invitations scheme feeding school – Catering facilities photocopying typing, ­access, Internet printing, e-mailing, faxing, computers, with centre ICT

38 ICT use and energy access 39 This seasonality of water access leads to vulnerability and has caused The water we have gets finished in the river in summer time even in the big rivers. We have taps and we thought that we would get water from this, but no progress has been made with the water project. We don’t know what the problem is. The government has installed these water taps and pipes, but still we have no water. The women repeatedly interspersed their energy and ICT experiences The women’s reflections supported the notion thatpriority the use Men can’t make a fire using wood, they waste it by usingmore wood than what they need because they do not know that it takes long and it is difficult to collect wood. Sindiswa was also able to make the distinction between the way that I took a photo of my neighbour cooking with black pots; when the food is ready she dishes out for her She family. is cooking with wood that she collected from the forest; the forest is very far but it is the way we live here at Lucingweni. We were born in this situation but we would like to improve the way we live if we can. We can see that the other areas are better than where we live. I wish that there could be light [electricity] here at Lucingweni. ­ reality using cook described her lived photo journal she In Nozamile’s many serious problems here in the past. During a feedback meeting this was emphasized: of energy in households in developing countries is for cooking, followed by heating and lighting. Households in Lucingweni appear to follow this trend, and generally use a combination of energy as dung, agricultural residues andbroadly categorized as traditional (such sources for cooking wood fuel), intermediate (such as kerosene) or modern (such as petroleum, biogas, ethanol liquid gel, plant oils, dimethyl ether and electricity). The service provided by the mini-grid in Lucingweni does these not priority energy address needs. with other basic priority needs: men and women used wood: ing as an example, intermingling this with her gendered understanding of women as users and providers of energy, and wrote that: or have influence over that prevent you from achieving your dreams,such as certain skills, behaviour and emotions. Outer constraints that are you have those very little or no control over, such as your -economic socio context, environment and gendered culture. Muller | 3 be o s i ol fr bu to or a a. codn t te women the to According day. a hours two about for only it use were to they working, able was system the that occasions the on that said She afford: not visions because they would need a special aerial, which most people could tele­ or radios use to unable were they and only, phones cell of charging the and lighting for used mainly was service the since anyway benefited that: because upset were excluded: village, been had the they of parts other in lived who Nothiswa, like women system, mini-grid the with problems the of complain to said were discriminatory.women households some 220 While only to services stresses. these relieve to able be must areas rural in technologies renewable) or (conventional energy to urgency, of responded terms in be to are challenges development If area. the in services by the lack of accessible healthcare clinics, public transport and telephone the forest. the from collect we that wood using water this boil We village. the in cholera stop can we how is this that us taught have nurses the as water boil now water.We dirty drinking from sick were people as tents their with coming nurses had we and cholera from died people years two past the In gweni. Lucin­ at here hard us hit it and cholera with problem a had have We it. with cook and water this drink We alternative. other no is there because it use we but flowing, not is that water find You problem. a is Water idsa opand bu te neiblt o te nry supply. energy the of unreliability the about complained Sindiswa connection. TV or radio a get to aerial an needs One scarce. are TVs the but phones cell have do people of lot A She also said, however, that households connected to the system hardly them. pay to have you and you for it charge can they that so town to going is that someone to phone] [the give to have you because phones cell our charge to want we when time difficult a have still We and electricity have not did village the of part her said also Sylvia about. talking are they what know and myself it experience can I that so village my in it had I that wish I it. like not do they that saying system], mini-grid the [from electricity this about talking people hear I and electrified not is village My energy basic supplies mini-grid the that fact the consider women The exacerbated was crisis health the participants, women the to According 40 ICT use and energy access 41 tinuous tinuous use. When the community queried this with local staff em­ This level of consumption exceeds the design capacity of the mini-grid. exceeds the design capacity of the This level of consumption The mini-grid does provide opportunities for the use of certain ICTs. Through dialogue the women were able to recognize inequalities of It was shown that, in spite of their difficulties, the women in Lucing­ this electricity is very weak. We were told that we could not cook with it but sometimes we were tempted, especially if one is tired of collecting wood. Some people bought hot-plate stoves and used them for cook­ ing and this tripped the We were supply. not told if it was switched off ­because we used stoves or not. On the occasions that the renewable energy system was working, It seems the community has not been sufficiently informedsystem and aboutthe the level of energy it supplies. The women described how ICTs allow information to be disseminated more widely than before; cell phones, for for instance, them made to it talk possible to people sometimes television thousands enabled of them to kilometres see away; what was happening of on the the world other (sometimes side even almost as it happens), and if the they Internet, had access, would support immediate of access information. Nothiswa to expressed and a keen exchange sense of physical isolation, and felt that ICTs were key to accessing the public services and reducing her sense of isolation. This sense of isolation government institutions and information from also led to the services, desire for roads markets, to be built as a matter of urgency. ICT access and use. Nozamile explained how at first it was only men who had access to cell phones because they lived and worked centres in (as the her urbanhusband does). Historical, cultural and socio-economic disadvantages experienced by women result in their restricted access to resources that allow them to purchase items considered a ‘luxury’, such as cell phones. Their limited decision-making power is also a factor that requires consideration in terms of household purchases. weni did use ICTs such as cell phones to their benefit, and the renewable ployed by Shell Solar, who installed the system, or the local leadership, they traditional were told either that they were overusing the system and this had caused it to crash, or that certain components had replacements were failed being and imported. Sindiswa acknowledged that many of the households connected to the ms, accord­ electricity for cooking. One of the proble system would use the ing to her, is that these these ‘special’ occasions hardly added up to more con­ than six months of Muller | 3 said that: said Nozamile fact In charging. battery and and phone cell phones for micro-enterprises cell of uptake the promoted has there programme energy Conclusion ai gos n srie. t eae vdn ta te eeal energy programme in Lucingweni hasneverreallybenefited theruralhouseholds renewable the that evident became It services. available and the goods of basic use productive make to communities and individuals allow that information and education access to ability the include also They facilities. sanitation adequate health­ and water, accessible clean of security, availability care, food as such life, sustain minimal to the as requirements understood are needs Basic met. be to needs basic for capacity. her develop and enhance could ICTs to access that opinion thatthiswouldincreaseherchancesofemployment. Sherealized the of was and skills computer learn to wanted She access. to keen was that: said Nozamile centre. ICT an build to promised contractor the women, the to According it. of part as centre community a establish to was Lucingweni text receive and send remarked: to Sindiswa how (SMS). messages learnt so have airtime not buy did to they money because enough mainly – did men than better technology an inverter because we do not have electricity in this village. this in electricity have not do we because inverter an and battery car] a to transferred power, [solar the from energy using by this does he village, the in people for batteries phone cell charges son My While energy itself is not considered a basic need, it is a precondition a is it need, basic a considered not is itself energy While Nontobeko which facilities, ICT communal had have would centre The sight. in computers no were there but built was hall a of form the in structure small a instead happen, not did this but village, the for computers have would which ture struc­ a build would he that contractor the by promised was village The in project pilot energy renewable the for intentions initial the of One calls. make to money have don’t we because features the of most know they and phone cell the using in knowledgeable more become Women message. the to respond to money have not may person other the that fear They this. in believe not do Men anyway.it do to how know not do they and this like not do Men SMS. to like I it. use men the way the from different is phone my use I way The phone cell the understood they that announced proudly women The 42 ICT use and energy access , Gender Gender Meena (ed.), Meena rtunities for gender- logies in gender gender in ­logies ­do , Harare: SAPES, Harare: Issues, heoretical (2006) ‘World energy outlook 2006’, Paris: IEA/OECD. reduction in Africa: Europe’s chance to help light up Africa’, Practical Action. ­metho R. in ­issues’, T­ 31–70. pp. energy development: the case of photovoltaic home systems’, Discussion paper, Roskilde: UNEP/Risoe. information and communica­ tion technologies: challenges and oppo­ ­equitable development’, ­ Washing ton, DC: Gender and Development Group and Global Information and Communication Techno­ logies Departments, World Bank, www.worldbank.org/gender/ digitaldivide/ict_brochure.pdf accessed August 2008. IEA (International Energy Agency) ITDG (2005) ‘Energising poverty ‘Research (1992) M. Mbilinyi, Villavicencio, A. (2002) ‘Sustainable World Bank (2004) ‘Engendering 43 . . centred - Feminist Feminist Econ­ Capacity Building: Outcome Mapping: Build­ powerment’, ­em­ (2001) ICTs: overview report’, Brighton: IDS. omics, 9: 117–35. Development, Oxfam. ing Learning and Reflection into Development Programs, Ottawa: International Development ­Research Centre. (2005) ‘Concepts and issues in gender and energy’, Energia in cooperation with ETC Nether­ lands, pp. 1–78. An Approach to People (2005b) ‘Transformational attitude interview’, GRACE ­Methodology Workshop, 9–21 July, Khaya Lembali, Durban, -Network.net www.GRACE tude interview manual’, GRACE ­Methodology Workshop, 9–21 July, Khaya Lembali, Durban, -Network.net www.GRACE It has also become clearer that access to new ICTs is still a faraway Hill, M. (2003) ‘Development as Earl, S., Carden F. and Smutylo T. Gurumurthy, A. (2004) ‘Gender and Eade, D. (1997) Clancy, J. and B. -Njenga Khamati — References Buskens, I. (2005a) ‘The free atti­ reality for the vast majority of people, such as the women involved in the research. Lack of provision of basic infrastructure and services hampers and appropriate energy of adequate, reliable of ICTs. The lack deployment sources in particular impedes access to and needs use electricity to operate, and of so do televisions and ICTs. the Internet. With A computer the current electrification levels in Africa, the potential ofa ICTssubstantial to play developnent role will remain limited. in the manner described or anticipated, particularly not in the basic relation needs to expressed by the women we spoke with. 4 | Rural women’s use of cell phones to meet their communication needs: a study from northern Nigeria Kazanka Comfort and John Dada

This research is an attempt to understand how rural women in northern Nigeria use mobile phones to meet their communication needs. The global trend in mobile phone technology development presents a mixed blessing for women’s empowerment, its use contributing to both integra­ tion and fragmentation of existing family structures. This research aimed to identify the challenges and benefits rural women in northern Nigeria face when they adopt the use of mobile phones. This focus helped us also to gain insight into how the lack of access affected the way in which the women met their communication needs. Gender disparity is very easily observable in the ownership of, access to and use of mobile phones. This research is crucial at this point since it helps to identify how women in this part of Nigeria are involved in the much-publicized mobile phone ‘explosion’ in the country. Women who live in rural areas are at a particular disadvantage in the digital world, facing multiple barriers relating to both gender and loca­ tion. Their roles are found more at the consumer end of the information technology chain (Mulama 2007). The challenges of managing a rural household create a heavy daily workload for women, leaving them with hardly any spare time to become familiar with new technologies. In Nigeria women represent the majority of the rural poor (up to 70 per cent), and they play a major role in the survival strategies of rural households. Nigeria ranks 139th out of 157 countries on the Human Poverty Index; out of 108 developing countries, Nigeria ranks 80th. It also ranked 139th out of 157 countries for the Gender-related Development Index (UNDP 2007). As subsistence farmers, Nigerian women are fully involved in agricultural production, harvesting, storage and marketing, yet their purchasing power parity remains at US$652, whereas in males it is US$1,592 (ibid.). The catalytic role of information and communication technologies (ICTs) in facilitating development for the world’s poor and marginalized people is widely recognized (SDC 2005). For example, women in the hand-woven textile sector in southern Nigeria felt that mobile phones Rural women’s use of cell phones It is this fortuitous coverage 45 Nigeria has witnessed massive growth in subscriber lines, from fewer per cent live in rural commun­ Of Nigeria’s 140 million people, over 70 ago to reactivate landlines areIn contrast, efforts that started five years ICT is therefore rapidly becoming one more signifier of the gender than 25,000 analogue mobile lines in May 2000, to 45,536,231 in 2007. Nigeria had 8 million Internet users 5.9 in per September cent of 2007, the comprising population (Internet World Stats however, n.d.). are not desegregated These to reflect data, the slow progress in rural areas or women’s access to these new facilities. This phenomenal growth has been in spite of the high cost user of about mobile US$600 per phones; year, it which is costs almost twice the Nigeria’s average per GDP. capita Thanksities to where there are neither landline telephones nor electricity. the low cost and long range of the cellular base stations, however, many rural areas receive some phone coverage. cell which first brought some connectivity to a couple of rural villages in the Kafanchan area. By the end of 2005 two mobile phone service providers, Celtel and MTN, had set up base stations in Kafanchan, which led to an explosion in the number of users of mobile phones. available, the cost of installationyet to bear fruit. When the landlines were was such that they were largely used by government departments and in the homes of upper- and middle-class citizens, while public access was erratically available in selected locations. For some of the women participated who in this research, their only experience of a landline phone is that they have seen them – but they have never seen them work. The Context of the study gap between men and women, with women having restricted access to ICT resources and opportunities (Wakunuma 2006; Mulama 2007). facilitated facilitated their businesses (Jagun et al. 2007). In were Bangladesh, the women main beneficiaries of a Ruralservice Information providers and Helpline,as users (Raihan 2007). both as In rural Nigeria, however, ICT has acquired a social status that tends to emphasize existing gender inequalities. For example, for a long time the transistor radio has been a status symbol for the rural man, and he usually of makes batteries the purchase for his radio a priority same attitude is above seen in ownership household and use of mobile necessities. phones by men in The particular. Women’s special responsibilities for children and the elderly mean that women typically cannot migrate to towns and cities as easily as men; this is where opportunities to learn about new technologies are more readily available. Comfort and Dada | 4 however, this affordable facility becomes inaccessible. becomes been digitized, facility yet affordable not this however, has language first the where and literacy low is there where populations with dealing When 6). 2007: (Shackleton ness’ South of Africa wherestigma(HIV/AIDS) isstillanobstacletodisclosureandopen­ areas rural in particularly – discreet and anonymous is which information to access have can people and popular, and cheap ‘easy, be (SMS). messaging text for effective them make also will format digital minority a in the available languages these of Making area. Kafanchan the five of languages of n.d.) Project Localization (Zitt localization working on is Foundation Fantsuam The 2005). languages UNICEF Nigerian 1994; many (Gardener of digitization of absence the with coupled level, literacy low population’s the and Nigeria in culture oral strong the phone. mobile the by filled being now is which gap, huge a left has Nigeria of parts most in landlines of absence Research methodology communications. non-verbal and dynamics group the of appreciation better and rapport of establishment rapid for made This Hausa. language, local spoken widely ities fortriangulation.Thebulk oftheresearchwasconductedinmost opportun­ provided and findings the of reliability the improved approach multiple-methods The experiences. participants’ and the of recognition documentation coverage, adequate ensure to selected were methods research qualitative These questionnaires. and self-reflection interviews, baseline informationcollection,focusgroupdiscussions,semi -structured participated. women 160 of and total A Katsit Zumunta. Orire, Yantuwo, Zakwa, Chenchuk, Rimi, Ungwa Kagoro, Kpunyai, Fadan Garaje3, Bayanloco, Masara, Ungwa Zikpak, munities: com­ participating thirteen were There participation. for shortlisted were in­ indicated which and period study the during road by accessible easily more were that communities those and research, the of informed Academy. comprised microfinancefieldofficersandICTinstructorsfrom Fantsuam team research The project. this for partners the were they and farmers, women rural for service microfinance thriving a has Fantsuam Nigeria. h ue f oie hns o ed et esgs a be fud to found been has messages text send to phones mobile of use The is use phone mobile in growth phenomenal the for reason the of Part This project used the following research methods: free call sessions, call free methods: research following the used project This were programme microfinance Foundation’s Fantsuam the of Clients Kafanchan, in research this conducted Foundation Fantsuam The 46 terest Rural women’s use of cell phones 47 The tariff system of the mobile phone network is highly exploitative. Tariffs were a sore point for most of the women. For those who were Poor quality of mobile phone services sometimes makes their use In the rural communities studied there is high morbidity and mortal­ The lack of landlines in the research communities made the arrival of Owing to poor signal coverage in some areas, users can waste precious money trying to get connected. They get charged even when they do not succeed in getting connected. In addition, when the mobile phones were first introduced, top-up cards had a lifespan of only fifteen days;used within if not this period they lapsed, and more money on had to a be new spent top-up card. When a woman make a has call to to distant spend relatives to her request last a remittance, naira and to yet get her cannot message through because of poor GSM (Global System/Standard for Mobile) coverage, she feels cheated since the she call. is forced to pay for able to pass on the cost of such tariffs to customers or distant relations, of some service providers does it was a necessary cost. The pricing regime not take account of the fact that some calls do not get to tions. This their means destina­ that ‘Hajo’, one of our project participants, has to pay the full cost of an unsuccessful call, even when she had to borrow money to make that call. This makes the cost of meeting needs her higher communication than she anticipated: ‘When I a borrow phone money call to to my pay son, so for that he can phone call send does me not go some through, money, and I and am still the charged for the call, that cannot be right, can it?’ frustrating. On occasion the service providers may offer no service at all, ity due to HIV/AIDS. Cell phones provide a reliable and quick means of informing distant relatives and ease some of the anxiety associated with funeral arrangements and related matters. mobile phone services a desirable and welcome development. The various and welcome development. services a desirable mobile phone women’s groups we met with pointed out especially the how it immediate helped them advantages, meet their communication needs. As the research went on, however, issues and observations were reduced made the initially which high rating of the positive value of mobile phones. It gradually became clear that mobile phones actually presented mixed blessings to our research participants. Mobile phones are expensive to run Mobile phones are Instant communication Findings: mobile phones bring mixed blessings bring phones mobile Findings: Comfort and Dada | 4 making it a double loss for the user. the for loss double a it making debited, still are cards call the on units the quality) voice low to leading reception signal GSM (poor service poor of periods During users. the to given are apologies or explanation no and days, for reception poor very or These phonesarealsoexpensivetoown ae ria ad al dprue f h ris a ayhn t d with do to anything had rains the the of departure early and arrival late recent the that true was it whether know to wanted woman climate one of change; issue the on was request interesting An sources. other from or them, the discussed husbands their that as fleetingly issues about heard had about women usually were and …?’, that true it ‘Is with started be beneficialtotheirlivelihoods. Invariablytheirrequestsforclarification could that information access to opportunities participants women the ceremonies. such in participate or host to order in remittance for our study, and some of the communication needs identified were requests in communities the of lives the in feature regular a are Ceremonies tivals. a ­ fes and that alcohol as such items non-food on spent was amount revealed significant countries sixteen in poor the of patterns consumption the of study (2006) Duflo’s and Banerjee patterns, allocation budget hold house­ explore not did study this Although budgets. household women’s income. disposable of level higher a had therefore women These opportunities. income-generating more were communities there where semi-urban in com­ located their typically meet were to needs phones munication mobile the use to afford could and works purposes. business and family for needs communication daily their meeting in tool indispensable an become has phone mobile the them for and tariffs, the afford could and access had supply. outstrips far demand moment the at market: phone mobile fast-growing a is Nigeria that illustrates again This research. the of time the at communities these to services their extended not they had providers phone but mobile major The coverage. – signal GSM no own had her on phone mobile a of cost the afford could woman each where other Zonkwa, and were Kagoro There Kwoi, as hitches. such however, into communities, ran phone one share to self women get seven to women the by Attempts project. The interactive sessions during the focus group discussions afforded discussions group focus the during sessions interactive The the of context the in understood be to has affordability of issue The net­ to access ready had that groups women’s the that observed We Chenchuk and Orire Rimi, Ungwa Zikpak, like places in women The Affordability wasakeyconcernformanyofthewomeninthisresearch loss of forests to illegal mining activities. This question illustrates the illustrates question This activities. mining illegal to forests of loss 48 - selected groups of six or or six of groups selected Rural women’s use of cell phones who their meeting meeting 49 This ‘distance’ and sense of isolation is felt more keenly when voice Mobile phones provide a cheaper way to stay in touch with distant rela­ Mobile phones provide a cheaper way to The local interpretation of the religious requirement of purdah places Some women complained to the research team that their husbands Current tariffs are rather stiff, and this expense plays a mixed role in tives than travelling to see them. In closely knit communities, however, where a premium is placed on face-to-face communication, the mobile phone is seen as a threat to cohesion. One participant expressed it this way: ‘I can hear his voice all right, but I need to he see his understands face to what be sure I said. This mobile distance thing from home.’ seems to increase his quality is poor (as is often the case) or when calls do not go through. constraints on the ‘acceptable space’ for a necessary for woman; some Muslim for women who wish example, to engage it in certain is busi­ ness transactions to have the services of a third Access party. to a mobile phone now makes it possible for these women to have direct links with their purdah status: ‘With their business partners without compromising this handset, I am less dependent on third parties for my business as can I now talk directly to my customers.’ would rather spend money to buy top-up credits for their mobile phones than give such money for household expenses. The come now meagre has stiff competition family from the need in­ to buy top-ups for phone credits. exacerbating the economic and power differentials within a household. Accusations of a spouse using meagre family income to pay calls for were phone made by both sexes, although we since heard our research dealt more with women. from There were, however, women women mentioned that some of their friends also had spending priorities com­ parable to those of some men when it came to this use of limited family finances. Face-to-face communication preferred In a circumscribed space mobile phones can enhance sense of In a circumscribed space mobile phones control Household budget versus phone top-ups budget versus phone Household impact impact of a global phenomenon on the livelihood of this female farmer. It also indicates that while the mobile phones may have been some of the women’s communication needs, they were not meeting information needs. Comfort and Dada | 4 en ms be consideration. into must taken well-being and self-worth of sense their on technology this of With survival. communal women as the bond of that keeps many rural communities intact, means the impact the is dependence mutual where communities knit closely in significant be can technology a such of pact im­ isolating The effect. destabilizing emotionally potentially a has also powerment, asinthecaseofMuslimwomenpartners thisresearch, women. these for disempowering was isolation of feeling good resultant a The longer. culture, takes oral necessarily strong conversation a such have who afford people can For calls. she such money for of amount the for conversation meaningful in engage to unable is she that said unsatisfactory.woman emotionally is One tariff) the on eye an with done be to has it when (especially versation the by phones. mobile affected of adversely use constant be may assistance safety mutual a of as serve source that and family net extended the of bonds close the that was concern The Chenchuk. in women of group the for worry of cause a was system, family extended the within contacts face-to of replacement its as well as of however, technology, this shrinkage by about brought The space and time remittances. and phones mobile of use the through transactions business for contacts faster of value economic the ledged option. the nothing’ makes than ‘better home, a phone from mobile far pastures economic seek members as ever, how­ ties, family close traditional the of loosening gradual The provide. face-to to phones mobile that precedence communication voice-only the gives over communication proverb Nigerian This face’. the ‘speech that in believes is that culture a for disadvantageous be can cation conversation’. good a not is see not do you someone ofarelative with talking ‘because short cut soon the voice is away of far is who sound first the at feels participant this mobile relief a on initial The UK, conversation.’ our the in missing is in something if as lives feel I who phone, son, my to talking after time ‘Each Phone top-upsusedasremittances ed okt n tae mny o hi cide wo ted col far schools attend who children their to to money travel them and use pocket participants send the of Some relations. and friends to money Hence, a technology that has such great potential for economic em­ economic for potential great such has that technology a Hence, con­ phone a phone, by touch in stay to cheaper relatively is it While acknow­ generally study the in participated who women of groups The communi ­ face-to usual the for calls phone of substitution The Mobile phones are increasingly being used to send small amounts of amounts small send to used being increasingly are phones Mobile 50 Rural women’s use of cell phones 51 The SMS feature that makes mobile phones affordable was hardly used Assas is an example of a woman who has increased her earnings by Assas is the breadwinner for her family and has five children and her For For some participants who provide a phone service for a fee, this is a The potential of using the mobile phone remittance system to make by participants, owing largely to low literacy preference capacities for and verbal a communication. cultural The number of by languages used these communities further compounded the issue of low literacy. useful source of income. They also charge a commission for remittances sent through their service. starting a phone service and deciding which type her call of business. Assas’s phone entrepreneurial initiative to can be use traced to for the free phone calls the women participants were offered at the beginning of this research. Giving the women a phone giving to them a use phone connection. in It is this important to way emphasize that meant it is not the mobile aspect of the phone which was being tested, the but impact rather of access to any phone. This was demonstrated when Assas heard that her competitor had signed up for a newly proposed landline. She came to the Fantsuam Foundation to negotiate a new loan she could also so register for this new service. She has already lost a number that of her customers to her competitor, who is promising to provide cheaper calls through the new franchise agreement. parents to look after. Her call centre business is in addition to job as her an day ICT instructor teaching basic computer literacy. Safiya, on the other hand, as a user of phone services, difficult has 15-kilometre to journey undertake by a motorcycle long taxi and from highway phone kiosk, where she can make and receive calls. She needs her to village to a make these calls as part of a part-time job that supplements her income from manual farm work. The cost and travel time and possibility of poor voice signal reception at the roadside kiosk all add to meeting her Safiya’scommunication costsneeds. in It is cheap, but not accessible: text messaging It is cheap, but not accessible: text Roadside phone kiosks bring in extra earnings Roadside phone kiosks larger purchases is already being explored by -hand second car dealers, who try to avoid carrying large sums less of society seems money to with be coming them. to The rural cash­ Nigeria unforeseen as consequence an of unplanned this technology. and from from home. They buy airtime and send a code that can be redeemed for cash at a roadside mobile phone kiosk. Comfort and Dada | 4 northern Nigeria. northern of women rural technology illiterate the this for expensive makes and languages inaccessible largely own still their in option SMS the use to language. own their or whether Hausa literate, in be should they that required messaging text whereas languages, first their in speak to them there­ for opportunities phones presented fore Mobile friends. and members family having with when discussions Fantsuam, or Gworok Atyap, Jju, their as use such would languages, women own the of most Hausa, everyday was and transactions economic external for language used commonly most the While Conclusion oie hns a bedd no h diy otn o vros struggles. various of routine daily the into blended has to phones access/non-access mobile have by they caused way challenge the additional is The that lived. because always struggle the with on gets just body every­ granted; for taken is life of necessities the provide to just daily struggle The light. new a in things showing and issues, various the to eyes emotional responses – was important in opening our (the research team’s) women’s the of recollection and responses transcribed the on flections • • • • • • structures. family existing on effects fragmenting and rating presents amixedblessingforwomen’sempowerment,havingbothinteg­ development technology phone mobile in trend global communica­ The their needs. meet tion to phone the of use make Nigeria northern in Mere ownership of mobile phones without the ability or opportunity or ability the without phones mobile of ownership Mere et itriw, re­ interviews, in-depth the – research the of nature qualitative The communication. face-to replaces call phone a when ities commun­ knit closely traditionally in bonds the weaken also can It ­women. for empowering economically be can phones mobile to Access needs. hold house­ urgent other are there when even phone cell their on money spends spouse a when families in conflict cause can technology The participants. the of most to accessible readily not was messaging, text phone, mobile the of feature cheap A difficult. accessibility make that costs high entail phones mobile of use and Ownership landlines. have not do which communities, these for coverage provide phones Mobile that: established research The women rural which in way the on focused questions research The 52 Rural women’s use of cell phones 53 In terms of cost, some service providers do not take into account the practicesexploitative the counter to lobby in-country strong no is There Our research supports the opinion of Mulama (2007: 5) from Nairobi, The 2006 Global Gender Gap Index, which assessed 115 countries, This exploration of how women in rural Nigeria use mobile phones to How and why should a device that could make life easier end up in some some situations becoming almost an additional burden? and families in urban from friends should make remittance phone, which The mobile centres easier, is not readily accessible, or is cost – only and available not all at its a effects are steep positive. cost of calls that do not get have to been caused by their a software destinations. configuration that This does not situation distinguish may between successful and unsuccessful calls, and will require the service providers to review their billing systems. of service providers in relation to reception and tariffs. directive telling A the recent providers court to make a cash refund to customers yet was to be implemented four months after the ruling. As Affairs the Movement Consumer of Nigeria (CAMON) stated: ‘what Nigeria at is present happening regarding GSM in services is exploitation of vulnerable consumers by GSM service providers’ (2004: 2). Kenya, when she observed that ‘the benefits of ICTs are largely restricted to towns and cities, as most rural areas lack ment the and skills infrastructure, needed for equip­ communities to take full advantage of these in terms of meeting needs,technologies’. The phones raised expectations but lack of affordable access made the realization of these expectations very difficult. ranked Nigeria at number 94 (Hausmann et al. 2006: 17). Although the ranking was based on only four broad areas (economic participation and opportunity, educational attainment, health and survival, and political empowerment), the findings support the experienceswomen in this research. For these rural women gender-defined roles of and mostof the responsibilities constitute significant constraints on their accessto the resources and opportunities available through cell phone not use. underestimating the impact of other cultural This factors that may not be is householdscarce of allocation preferential as such related, gender directly budgets to festivals rather than to meeting communication needs. meet their communication needs has, among other things, revealed how global trends and technologies can have an immediate and significant mbers tombers team me research enabled the processes research The qualitative step back a little and tease out this additional layer in the daily struggle that arrived in the form of a device called a mobile phone. Comfort and Dada | 4 communities requires more investigation. more requires communities com­ needs. their munication of some meet to SMS use to begin can they that literacy so abilities, low with women those even empower to aim will training This in possible. SMS, as simple receive as messages and the keeping send languages, to preferred their how on groups women’s various for ing women. some for mobility communication all for economic and social upward to panacea avenue an become has it although needs, a not clearly is It impacts. and values The mobilephonethereforepresentsamixedbagofpositiveandnegative inaccessible and overly expensive for the rural women of northern Nigeria. largely technology this keeps SMS as such technique affordable an of use make to opportunity or Mere ability the without women. phones mobile rural of ownership especially – women of needs communication the communication. verbal for preference cultural a and hardly was capacities literacy low to affordable largely owing participants, research the by use used phone mobile makes that feature SMS The call. phone a with communication face-to for users opportunities replace when communities close-knit traditionally in bonds the weaken also can use their women, of empowerment economic the to contribute use. phone cell their drop will women provide, can they resources are of these and money, use or time their needs family the above when ICT: and over needs and roles family their to preference give would women that found also research The level. local a at impact Fantsuam Foundation (n.d.) FoundationFantsuam (2004) CAMON (2006) Duflo E. V. and A. Banerjee, References h eoinly etblzn efc o mbl poe o close-knit on phones mobile of effect destabilizing emotionally The train­ of provision the be therefore will research this to sequel The serve automatically not do ICTs that showed investigation our Thus, thus and generation income for used be can phones mobile Although Development, 1(1) July.1(1) Development, Sustainable and Environment Trade, Competition, Protection, Consumer for Centre (CAMON) Nigeria of Movement Affairs Consumer the of bulletin Monthly Technology.of Institute chusetts Massa­ Lab, Action Poverty Jameel Latif Abdul MA: Cambridge, Poor, the of Lives Economic The Consumer Link, Consumer www. 54 Gardener, L. C. (1994) C. L. Gardener, Hopetun, S. D. and L. Dunn (2006) (2006) Dunn L. and D. S. Hopetun, and Tyson D. L. R., Hausmann, 3 nigeria/orality.html tions, Tradi­ Written and Oral Literature: 2008. fantsuam.org ‘Mobile opportunities: poverty opportunities: ‘Mobile Forum. Economic World Geneva: Report, Gap Gender S. October 2007. October ­ Zahidi (2006) Zahidi www.usp.nus.edu.sg/post/ , accessed 20 August 20 accessed , The Global Global The Nigerian Nigerian , accessed accessed , Rural women’s use of cell phones

, zitt. , SDC SDC , accessed Human The Internet Women’snet. Women’snet. , accessed Livelihood Livelihood Case At a Glance, Nigeria www.unicef.org/infoby www.unicef.org/infoby www.pallitathya.org/en/ January 2008. ,Studies Development Research Network, l case_studies/index.htm 27 December 2007. and Cooperation) (2005) ICT4D Strategy. Rapid Assessment of Cell Phones for Development, Commissioned by UNICEF, Johannesburg: Newton. accessed 12 July 2007. Programmme) (2007) sourceforge.net/zitt.php?su=eng &ibe=2&PHPSESSID=c8e5d7d2f5 d0d083f930e7a9962fe383 ­accessed 20 August 2008. Statistics, l country/nigeria_statistics.htm Development Report 2007/2008, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. and Mobile Telephony: Implica­ tions for Women’s Development and Empowerment in Zambia, ICTs Gender, and Development, www.womenictenterprise.org/ manworkshop.htm 23 Raihan, Raihan, A. (2007) SDC (Swiss Agency for Development Shackleton, -J. S. (2007) UNICEF (2005) UNDP (United Nations Development Zitt Localization Project (n.d.) Wakunuma, Wakunuma, K. J. (2006) 55 ­ www. Usage Usage , accessed , accessed ICT and the publications/ A Rural–Urban manchester.ac.uk/ , accessed 19 August Mobile Telephony and index.htm#wp prise, Development matics Working Papers, uary 2008. July. December 2008. Jan­ idpm/research/­ 29 IDPM, University of Manchester, ­ www.sed. wp/di/­ Digital Divide Challenges , Women Inter Press Service, 15 February, / www.ipsnews.net Developing Country Micro- Enter­ Infor­ 9 ­ Education of the Girl Child, Paper presented at the African Regional Preparatory Meeting, Abuja, 3–7 (2007) internetworldstats.com/africa. htm#ng 2008. and telephony access in Latin America and the Caribbean’, Genderstanding Mobile Telephony. Women, Men and Their Use of the Cellular Phones in the Caribbean, Background paper, Mona: Inter­ national Development Research Centre. and Population Statistics, Mangha, E. (2005) T. Mulama, J. (2007) Jagun, A., R. Heeks and J. Whalley Internet World Stats (n.d.) 5 | Egyptian women artisans facing the demands of modern markets: caught between a rock and a hard place Leila Hassanin

Many of Egypt’s female artisans only produce crafts and are not involved in the selling process; they receive only a slim slice of the profits made in the sale of their wares. ArabDev (see www.arabdev.com), an information and communication technologies for development (ICT4D) organization working in Egypt, has been promoting the use of the Internet among low-income groups throughout Egypt, with a special focus on women. Several women in the training courses began asking whether ArabDev could assist them in selling their goods online. The women and various supporting non-governmental organizations (NGOs) wanted to explore this option as a way to improve their earnings. Donors and development agencies supporting income-generating activities­ have been focusing on micro- and small enterprises as a tool for poverty alleviation in Egypt for years. According to this trend, develop­ment specialists believe that women benefit from becoming entrepreneurs­ – but are the conditions for this entrepreneur-oriented model realistic? Is ‘entrepreneurship’ a learnable skill for most women? Or are some key factors that are needed to make this entrepreneurship model a reality missing? To be effective, do entrepreneurship, self-sufficiency and a ‘can make it’ attitude need certain contextual circumstances that recognize the constraints that lower-income and lower-educated women face (Mueller 2006; Ofreneo 2006)? Further, is globalization an economic opportunity for Egyptian women involved in handicrafts? Are global markets a realistic vending place for the crafts that Egyptian women produce – or are they in fact a barrier, increasing the socio-economic inequalities that these women face? My examination of the potential use of the Internet to market women’s handicrafts is in anticipation of the institutionalization of e-commerce in Egypt in the coming years, although an exact date for this has not yet been set by government. Currently the Information Technology Industry ­Development Agency (ITIDA) is responsible for setting up electronic ­systems needed for buying and selling online. Electronic-signature sys­ tems were established in 2005, paving the way for e-commerce. The Egyptian women artisans 57 Ten Ten women from different regions of Egypt were interviewed during Analysis in this chapter is based on the situations of artisan women I did not plan to extend the study beyond Egypt, but to comprehend Despite the interest of artisan women in online marketing, I found 2005/06. Varying geographical locations were chosen to encompass some 2005/06. Varying The research includes interviewees of the multiple cultures in the society. from Cairo, the community of Coptic solid waste collectors (‘Zabaleen’) in Old Cairo, Siwa, Aswan and Helwan, an Cairo. industrial In addition district to south the craftswomen, of some of the related NGOs’ staff and organizations working in the crafts sector. To gain an overall under­ standing of the requirements for online commerce, I also reviewed the quick a made and export, crafts in involved issues transport and regulatory market analysis of the national and international craft business as far as this relates to the female handicraft sector in Egypt. The central question is whether Egyptian crafts – in this case crafts produced and by marketed females – are marketable and competitive globally, and can therefore and generate profits. Further,bring in sufficient income to cover expenses could use of the Internet remove some and the of monopoly of intermediaries the who are existing currently taking a trade sizeable barriers portion of the craft trade profits away from the producers? the conditions necessary for successful e-commerce for Egyptian crafts­ women, it became essential to understand the overarching dynamics of the international crafts market. I visited the New York Gift Fair, a major global crafts exhibit, as an example of the global artisan market. The female artisans Methodology that those I interviewed did not make substantial use of ICT. In fact, became obvious it that ICT constituted a new set of limitations, inequities and barriers that craftswomen are facing. It also became apparent that ICT is only a small part of there are the other fundamentals handicraft in the marketing production and cycle, marketing process and that that are hindering export of Egyptian handicrafts. The female artisans’ main barrier to success in their micro-businesses demand for Egyptian is crafts in the domestic the market. An Egyptian market low level of for their crafts would make it more realistic for craftswomen to establish independent businesses. Local markets would make the use of ICT for marketing viable for some of the artisan women. electronic electronic authentication of signatures is essential for e-financial trans­ actions. Hassanin | 5 than the use of ICT for marketing. for ICT of use the than sales on impact greater a have these and – handicrafts Egyptian of it) lack of (or competitiveness the determine which quality, and production for Egyptian craftswomen. The research revealed, however, gaps in design, retention profit higher and markets wider to access offer could ICT that was the main provider for herself and her two children. two her and herself for provider main the was woman one and households, their co-financed women the of some cially Finan­ separated. and children, with married married, were who those to women single from ranged They fifty-three. to eighteen from ranged ages interviewees’ The illiteracy. initial their beyond themselves moved had programmes, education adult through who, those by gained diplomas to backgrounds. historical and have crafts traditional they distinct since included, also were women Siwan and patriarchal Nubian traditional, norms. same the to subject are women communities both in and chapter, this of focus the to regard with differ not did gions reli­ both from women included; were craftswomen Coptic and Muslim ArabDev. by supported associations crafts and Environment, the of Protection the for Association the Egypt), in Agency Cooperation Italian the of part is (COSPE cooperatives women COSPE-supported Bashayer, El being NGOs major the interviewed, were Craft production abandoned for ICT office jobs office ICT for abandoned production Craft rare is use and skill ICT and crafts of combination The Findings the norm. the not certainly and few, were skills. ICT using IT craftswomen of her examples Overall, with work artisan her combine not does she Yet income. school local additional for the evenings the in stitching Siwan traditional do to continues at works trainer who organization computer development a local Siwa, a In from products. her for ideas explore to online goes she said Helwan in candle-maker A ideas. design new for Internet rule. the than rather exception the are do who technology.Those information and handicrafts both with experience have women artisan very where also cases are few There cycle. marketing the in women by used commonly tool a not are phones mobile Even Egypt. in their Internet the marketing through wares in involved directly are craftswomen where examples The women’s education attainments ranged from university degrees university from ranged attainments education women’s The minority. Coptic a with Muslim, predominantly is society Egyptian One woman doing crochet at El Bashayer said that she had tried the tried had she that said Bashayer El at crochet doing woman One 58

I began with the premise the with began I

hr ae few are There Egyptian women artisans ­ been In Egypt

59 Most products bought from the crafts­

The difficulties facing women artisans and

What are the issues and challenges facing a woman

are not immediately sellable owing to their poor finish. The mer­ COSPE-trained Siwan women artisans in quality improvements, such The Internet has none the less been a resource for some of the women women chants are finishing many of the products themselves and reaping wide margins of profit by doing this.For example, they will take an exquisite but frayed piece of stitching, line it and sew the edges, and the piece will sell at a much higher price. as finishing techniques, without success. Most women claimedbe able not to to clean up their embroidery because of their many duties. household who wants to establish an online crafts-selling business? Are there other I spoke to. Among those women interviewed who did utilize ICT, several ­ including com furthered their education, craftspeople who were formerly their income-earning subsequently changed Internet skills, and puter and source to a clerical job. Craft production woman has is marketable ICT often skills; more abandoned income can once be earned through a clerical work than through handicrafts. Some craftswomen who it made ‘up the ladder’ through additional education became supervisors for other craftswomen, but stopped their direct production of crafts. women involved in the crafts trade in terms of exporting Egyptian crafts competitively to global markets involve, among the many requirements for a successful export trade: literacy, language skills, how, technical knowledge know- of how to navigate the regulatory and legal the export trade, quality control, transport aspects requirements, and availability of of e-commerce. there is not much daily demand for locally made crafts, other the than simple, inexpensive for crafts used by lower-income Egyptians (such as pottery urns for water, palm-reed baskets and areas). ironwork These used types of in crafts rural are not covered in fall into this the category of chapter objects used daily since by the average they Egyptian which have a slim profit margin, and are not marketable in their present form to other market niches. Most women interviewed are involved in crafts that are more sophisticated in their production and aesthetics, yet have lost their traditional use due to -style Western modernization, and have relegated to the ‘souvenir’ category. Selling crafts online Low demand for craft and craft themes in the Egyptian market Poor Poor quality of craft products Exporting Egyptian crafts Hassanin | 5 to take over from her to enable sustainability of this initiative. this of sustainability enable to her from over take to person local a recruiting and training of possibility the about optimistic not is herself author The her. without existed have not could which ative, initi­ this of viability technical and financial the of gives picture unrealistic this an rugs; their of sale international through weavers women the for profit marginal a shows which spreadsheet, financial the in expenses her for account not does Davis outlet. online commercial this enable to American who used her social relations, language and technological skills and marketing the rugs were only possible through website the author, a well-educated the establishing that however, illustrates, also article The Internet. the through rugs Davis sell and market to areas. possible was it that isolated showed and remote in were which of some villages, their by Moroccan women through a website without the women having to leave ject: present I cases: and such work, two did e-commerce where examples some are crafts? There market to women help could that Internet the beside tools ICT Suzanne, the online crafts entrepreneur crafts online the Suzanne, Suzanne is persistent. is Suzanne but in, brings it than services) IT the for (especially money upfront and effort more taking is it think They enterprise. commercial her her in parents and sister her by discouraged been has Suzanne bill. phone the up more. ordering would be he well sold they if that promise the some ofthe with markets, she try products to waswilling who she inCalifornia way this a merchant in end: identified the in results brings it at keeping that knows methods, but her with experiences bad and good had has She rooms. chat through wares her peddle to trying even and traders wholesale potential internationally. sell to website a establishing business by and own fairs, her at souvenirs establish Egyptian marketing to decided she years, several for jobs odd holding After Finance. in a BA a attended has She and school parents. foreign-language her private, with lives Egypt) in custom the woman is (as single who middle-class, young, a is Suzanne website. her through handicrafts of exports overseas arranging is who woman Cairean a young of made was study in-depth an crafts, and pursue tools ICT to of focus want dual the who women Egyptian facing limitations and sibilities selling pro­ carpet-selling a led (2004) Davis weavers. women Moroccan The e prns ae en hdn hr eas se a be running been has she because her chiding been have parents Her researching hours for online is and user, Internet avid an is Suzanne WomenWeaversOnline. The project sold carpets traditionally made made traditionally carpets sold project The 60

To understand the context, pos­ context, the understand To ­ Egyptian women artisans 61 She has a website which she continually upgrades. Suzanne has ex­ In addition to finding alternative solutions to be able to sell herwares, Suzanne had also dealt with customs before in order to export her Customs are a major issue for most import-exporters. At the New York Suzanne is the epitome of persistence and the creator of inventive business. One of the main One e-business. for her solutions back-office in finding celled challenges that faced her was the lack of e-commerce in Egypt, making it impossible to charge customers’ credit cards through an online trans­ action. Suzanne had to find a creative solution, since having a credit card payment option is a necessity to be competitive in today’s business. online Her craft site has a selling link to a e-commerce options US to company, her which customers. provides finding reliable and cost-effective shipping for her micro-business was a major challenge for Suzanne. She researched all shipping and air ­ com panies to find economical shipping rates from a dependable company that she could trust to handle the goods with care. goods. The systems proved to be quite someone who knew how to navigate them. She now uses an complex, international and she had to hire company to manage shipping and related logistics since this company offered the most convenient solution for her micro-business. Gift Fair an American merchant told me that the US customs regulations change each year, and that this is a problem for every exporter and porter; im­ they never know what is going to be allowed to be imported next For year. example, someone may make a deal to import a load of textiles, only to find out that the US import regulations have changed, preventing them from importing them. Sometimes they circumvent this by giving the import lot a different name, and may get away with is not guaranteed. that Therefore, most merchants – have contact points but at the this customs offices to get to know about new regulations as soon as possible. Problems regarding these changes still often come up, however. solutions which have enabled her, through trial and error, to establish a a website,successful online crafts-selling business. The setting up of such attitude combined with educationhowever, requires a highly enterprising and technical skills or the money to afford outside technical assistance. Suzanne’s command of English is excellent too – for most of the artisan women interviewed the absence of language skills is a major obstacle to use of the Internet for international trading. Suzanne was also aided by her family’s financial support; as a single, middle-class woman in Egypt she is expected to be, if not fully supported financiallythen by at her least parents, substantially so. This freed Suzanne from worrying living about expenses such as shelter and food, which could have affected the Hassanin | 5 making it possible for her to use the Internet as a marketing resource. marketing a as Internet the use to her for possible it making sophisticated, quite are skills IT Her enterprise. her starting before years project. entrepreneurial her Suzanne has a computer at home and to had been an active Internet user for giving) is still (and given has she input Conclusion aho. hs n un ol mk i ese fr rfsoe t market to craftswomen for easier it make would and turn design in This interior fashion. in crafts Egyptian for demand greater promote to ranges. price various at consumers Egyptian to available crafts making and demand creating on depends market a such of establishment The style. design revived this of part are that products into incorporated be interior design, manyofthetraditional craftsnowonthebrinkofextinctioncould in style Egyptian an for demand local based widely could a Egypt establish if example, for one: domestic a be would them for market realistic possibilityforEgyptiancraftswomen.Infact,themo st promising explored. be could marketing and control a whereby quality design, product of stages various the handles enterprise collective formula The women. low-income of numbers larger the for true not chapter.is this Yetsame in the example the by shown as women, goods. these of many for channel selling and marketing global a as IT, especially ICT, using of question the precedes merchant donor, and NGO interviewed in this every research. This is a fundamental concern that for issue an been has market international the in crafts Egyptian facing competition stiff The case. Egyptian the in ing and quality,exportingisnotastraightforwardanswertocraftmarket­ portal amarketing such for effective. be to beestablished to needs first market a of existence however, crafts, of case the In wares. the for thereby portal a together, creating producers of number considerable a pooling is tion organiza­ an if possibility a be could marketing Online craftspeople. of cooperativesanddevelopment organizations geared thetoempower information forsolution a the is lattermarketable.The more wares their make would that to closer and artisans women production bring the to in process tool marketing communication a mobile as as used such be ICT can scale. phones cost- this a on not enterprise is competitive it or cases effective most in demonstrates), case Suzanne’s (as ing aes n sca laes r wl situated well are leaders social and decision-makers Government a not is market global a that show research this from examples The ICT canbeavehicleformarketingcraftsentrepreneurially inclined price in both sphere, competitive highly a is market crafts global The market ­ business-toconsumer for used be can Internet the Although 62 ­ment Egyptian women artisans ­ ­faculty PUBLICATIONS_ . Gender, Development Gender, logy, journal of the ­DOCUMENTS/ www.upd.edu.ph/~cswcd/ microfinance as an empower­ ment strategy for women living in poverty: some policy ­directions’, Ofreneo2.pdf and ­ Techno Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), Bangkok, available online at webpages/ publications/­ Ofreneo, R. (2006) P. ‘Problematizing 63 www. Gender, Techno­ Gender, . ment, environmental sustain­ ability, and poverty alleviation: a critique of current paradigms’, DESA Working Paper no. 11, January, available online at logy and Development, 8(1): 53–75. Online: rural Moroccan women on the Internet’, un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/ wp11_2006.pdf The common trend of looking for international market outlets for Mueller, S. D. (2006) ‘Rural develop­ References Davis, S. S. (2004) ‘Women Weavers female Egyptian crafts producers through the Internet, other ICT-related tools or traditional marketing has not proved successful. offering To foreign continue markets as financially viable forethical. Furthermore, to theseadd new technologies womensuch as ICT to the mix as is not a possible solution to their obstacles in reaching global markets is only an obfuscation of a widening trading gap, and the diminished options that these women have under the present circumstances. their their crafts individually, collectively or through an intermediary, and ICT would be a promising tool to help them in this endeavour. This page intentionally left blank two | Female-only ICT spaces: perceptions and practices This page intentionally left blank 6 | When a gender-blind access policy results in discrimination: realities and perceptions of female students at the University of Zimbabwe Buhle Mbambo-Thata, Elizabeth Mlambo and Precious Mwatsiya

In Zimbabwe women’s experiences of information and communication technologies (ICTs) are not divorced from their social contexts. ‘But you are only a woman!’ was a response a female teacher, and a respondent in our research, received when she volunteered to take charge of the computer laboratory in a school at which she was a senior teacher. This chapter focuses on the experiences and reflections of women students regarding online learning at the University of Zimbabwe (UZ). It attempts to uncover inequity in female students’ everyday learning experiences at the university and the social construction of gender within the context of their access to and use of the computer labs. Recent research has indicated that in institutions of higher learning such as the community of the University of Zimbabwe, males continue to safeguard their privileged positions. Female students struggle, sometimes unsuccessfully, to have access to facilities such as the cafeterias, the sports facilities, the library and other common services on a basis equal to that of male students (Ndlovu 2001). The same research by Ndlovu confirms that one’s sense of self is inevitably gendered by socialization. Men and women structure their masculinities and femininities according to their contexts, their class, their age and their ethnic and religious backgrounds. It is these gender considerations which shape the learning experiences of these students. Gaidzanwa highlights her concerns on the issues of democracy in institutions: ‘women have generally been underrepresented in universities and society in general’ (1996). At the University of Zimbabwe until 1997 no female occupied any of the top three posts in the Student Representative Council (SRC). When the council got its first female secretary-general, her time in office was short lived as she resigned from the post in April 1998 owing to harassment by male students and lack of support from female students (Mashingaidze 2006). The chapter is informed by the findings of research that was conducted at the University of Zimbabwe in 2005/06. The research examined the Mbambo-Thata et al. | 6 they can take full advantage of ICTs for academic purposes. academic for ICTs of advantage full take can they that such students female of building capacity the supporting to mitted com­ be would which and policies, gender-blind of effects the reducing decision case. the was this why of ing computer in and library the laboratories weremale.Thisstudywasundertakentogainanunderstand­ in computers the at work at students the of majority the that observed had researchers the research, the to Prior students. graduate women empowered learning online which to extent Research methods essential in order to create a shared understanding of the objectives of objectives the of understanding shared a create to order in essential were discussions group focus The 15). 2000: Lincoln and (Denzin focus greater in but life everyday in occur that those to akin interactions social basis. served’ first come, ‘first a on morning every students the to provided are they as analysed were sheets booking Furthermore, also data The transcriptions. interview formal and notes interview campus. informal comprised on elsewhere located pat­ laboratories usage the computer in observed terns also we study, this of purposes the For male. were laboratories computer in and library the in computers the at resources. learning and computers access to facility alternative no have students most university, the by provided laboratories computer the Without university. the by provided access computer on depend and computers personal have not do students Most library. the leaves or in comes one as spot observation ideal an provide therefore and lobby the in are computers library’s The usage. student for aside set laboratories as university. the at librarians time were researchers the research, the of time the At time. part studying some while students full-time were Some participated. post- graduates Twenty-seven experiences. their about talking comfortable more final-year were and thinking of line write their defend to had they to which in dissertations chance a had Some undergraduates. the than more were undertakingmaster’sdegrees.Theyexposedtoonlinelearning and degrees first their done had students post-graduate These culture. Agri­ and Studies Social Law, Education, of faculties the from students the UniversityofZimbabwe.Thoseinterviewedwerefemalepost-graduate Findings from this research will hopefully help influence those policy those influence help hopefully will research this from Findings Focus groupdiscussionswereheld,in the recognitionthattheyinduce work at students of majority the that observed had researchers The to referred rooms computer several has Zimbabwe of University The at year one of period a over done was research qualitative In-depth - making processes that would benefit from recognizing and recognizing from benefit would that processes making 68 were full- Gender-blind access policy did 305 446 889 Total 8,870 7,343 5,618 7 8 % 15 19 12 16 45 86 577 571 108 897 Female Below is a table showing the

69 % 93 92 85 81 88 84 260 360 781 Male 8,293 6,772 4,721 female students are on campus less, it would be expected In all months males outnumbered female students. Female students A few female students were found using labs in the male-dominated Free attitude interviews (Buskens 2005) were also conducted, as these comprised 13 per cent of users while male students cent comprised of 87 those per who booked computer time. The percentage of female to male students enrolled at the university is 51 per cent female and 49 per cent male. The analysis of booking sheets corroborated our observation that male students predominate in use of the PCs in the computer labs. Even though that booking statistics would mirror the enrolment ratio. Month Results Female–male ratio of computer lab use provided an opportunity for the researchers and respondents without to experiences, their about thinking assess their explore and negotiate, and interruption. library lab environment, and they were purposefully sampled as ‘deviant cases’. We use the term ‘deviant case’ as students Female deviant. is used norm the from differs which that that meaning in qualitative research, students female of majority the when laboratories computer used who the research, create a transparent atmosphere that reduced suspicion, and suspicion, reduced that atmosphere transparent a create research, the gather data on women’s experiences with access to and use of computers for online learning. Participants were given the opportunity to their explore dreams about ICTs and their expectations of what ICTs in general, and computers in particular, could do for them. not were, according to us as researchers, ‘deviant’. What they benefits accrue did from the use of the labs? And behind what their was usage the of driving these ICTs force when the majority of female were absent? students bookings bookings made by male and female students and March between 2006. October 2005 October 2005 November 2005 December 2005 January 2006 February 2006 February March 2006 Mbambo-Thata et al. | 6 prcaig erig e skills new learning Appreciating students’ ‘normal The Gendered expectations Gendered their appreciation of ICTs. One respondent noted that: noted respondent One ICTs. of appreciation their Rural and Urban Planning stated. Planning Urban and Rural from – student post-graduate a them same,’ the do beat could I level higher could a at even I prove could I times at counterparts; male my and me between difference no was ‘There students. male with comparison in Education of Faculty asserted. the from student post-graduate female a skills,’ new learnt have I because ICTs by empowered am ‘I learning. online benefits of the appreciate and know They them. for do can they what and for compulsory made was training all ICT activities. academic of all in areas ICTs of implementation the to committed strongly was 2003–07 Faculty of Education. of Faculty the from student female a said things,’ other do and home go must I and so affairs having of accused be will I evening the in stay I ‘If learning. for computers the access to responsibility campus on family staying over above, pre-eminence took responses the of one respon­ in stated and As time sibility. for priorities competing created burden triple This responsibilities. family had and employment full-time in were studied, majority The responsibilities. other had and students part-time were they because lectures beyond campus on spend to time no had They puters. com­ the on working time more spend to liked have would they as much home.’ rush to have I cannot. I woman a as but p.m. eight till lab computer the in working continue can man a ‘Maybe say: to this had respondent One late. open were laboratories the though even hours, after computers the to access have not could They duties. household to attend to time in home be to expected were They time. their on demands The women students did not lack confidence in their capacities, even capacities, their in confidence lack not did students women The oe’ gnee rls rvne te fo saig n h labs, the in staying from them prevented roles gendered Women’s sociocultural by inhibited however, was, access for opportunity Their Internet. the use can we as empowered been have we so and efficient really is it and helpful really is it say would I so easily computer the access to able are we now But men. to belonged […] they because gadgets electronic these of some touch to supposed not were they learn, to supposed not were they segregated, were women ture cul­ African our in sure am I [ago] long because empowering really is It tdns Suet hv sm kolde n apeito o ICTs of appreciation and knowledge some have Students students.

The majority of the female students expressed students female the of majority The 70

er taei pa for plan strategic five-year UZ The Gender-blind access policy Female Female

At the time of

‘When ‘When working with male students

71 As an alternative, some respondents opted to go to Internet cafés,

Some female students strongly felt that they had to rely on the male The respondents felt that the limited number of computers was a they make you feel like you do not know what you are doing,’ according to a female respondent from the Faculty of Education. students for assistance. They believed that ICTs were a preserve of their male counterparts. ‘I sacrificed my own dignity to ask a male colleague to teach me – I could only learn from male students,’ a female respondent from the Faculty of Social Studies contended. Coping with ‘first come, first served’:tions students’ alternative solu- First come, first served: creating a reality of inequality? First come, first served: the promise of equal access? Turning Turning to male students for help this research, the library had not acquired enough computers to ­ accom are accessible who needed access. Library computers modate all students to all students from all faculties and some departments do not have their own computer labs. Although access to all computer computer lab labs, included, the was library on a ‘first come,female firststudents accessed served’the basis,computer labs fewer than male students. Some respondents felt the ‘first come, first served’ rule was fair in that whoever got there first would be entitled to access.seemed Forlike an improvement on having some no access at of themall. Speaking about this rule the situation at her department, one respondent equal basis stated, because if ‘It’s I get there, on there are [an] seventeen computers in our group [and] we are just fifteen so [you] can just go and[whether] getyou aare computer a man or a woman. We are at par.’ students reported, however, that in most instances there is pushing and shoving when it comes to accessing the computers. ‘When the pressure is on, the male students push and shove to get to PCs,’ reported a female respondent from Rural and Urban Planning, speaking of the at situation her department. ‘There is male domination in the computer labs – it is survival of the fittest,’ noted a female respondent from theFaculty of Social Studies. This physical behaviour scared female students off as they did not want to be embroiled with the male students. that one computer lab with twenty- major concern for them. They claimed five computers was inadequate for the threestudents in the social sciences; as a result there was pushing and hundredshoving graduate or so for access. The physically stronger male students would then prevail over the physically weaker female students. Mbambo-Thata et al. | 6 University,’ said a female respondent from the Faculty of Education. of Faculty the from Virtual respondent Africa female at a said course University,’ a in enrolled ‘I indicated. group focus a in ent course [on]IntroductiontoComputersinacollegetown,’onerespond­ a for enrolled ‘I points. access educational different out sought Others expensive. are they as sustainable not was practice the said they although Discussion labs computer the access did who students female cases: deviant The future the for Suggestions edr qiy n ee epwret Yt wie hy ol observe could they while Yet, empowerment. even and equity gender previous their to comparison in experi­ many, For idea. acceptable an was fair? really policy the Is labs? computer accessing in equality and female usage of computer labs would become normal. become would labs computer of usage female and reached be would mass critical a participated, women more if Perhaps to continuing pioneering. are and they play, of rules dominated, the changing not male are they While work. are that labs the into going They tower’. are the storming ‘are cases deviant these sense a In away. ing stay­ were students female other and that male aware were by They students. equally female shared be should arena ICT the that felt strongly students. post-graduate women than younger and residents, campus undergraduates, were students ‘deviant’ they couldalsocommunicateonlineandnetworkeasily. These online; assignments their write could They computers. the of use making in comfortable were and university the joining to prior ICTs to exposed library. university the at labs computer the of use and to access their from benefit to able been had students female of number limited jostling male students, making it more accessible for female students. female for accessible more it making students, male jostling arecontinuously asthey by used computers available find cannot they library the to come and timetables pur­ their study juggle they for if even lab stands, the it As to poses. access have time same the at and roles their other juggle to able be would they then them, for aside set be could lab who hadotherrolesoutsidetheuniversity. Theysuggestedthatifa­ students those for access ensure would scheme reservation systematic To the ‘normal’ female students interviewed, ‘first come, first served’ first come, ‘first interviewed, students female ‘normal’ the To gender guarantee really practice served’ first come, ‘first the Does hy i nt el hlegd y h mjrt o ml suet and students male of majority the by challenged feel not did They been had students women these of most that discovered we probing In ences of no access, this rule was a definite improvement towards improvement definite a was rule this access, no of ences male students. Furthermore, a women’s lab would be free from free be would lab women’s a Furthermore, students.

oe epnet togt ht more a that thought respondents Some 72 female female

A Gender-blind access policy ­students 73 The UZ strategic plan (2003–07) placed emphasis on ICT students ­students making more use of the labs, they could not make the This study thus provides an argument for a gender analysis of resourceThis study thus provides an argument for Furthermore, we note with concern the ‘gratitude’ of women The female students felt no discrimination on the basis of their sex competence: ‘every student who goes through the UZ is to pass at least one compulsory course in Information and Communication Technology, irrespective of discipline’ (University of Zimbabwe 2003). Graduates from the UZ were expected to have the necessary competitive edge from resulting the ICT programmes. Our research revealed, strategic direction however, may be that impeded by the gendered and unequal access to learning resources, includingICTs. As in all higher education institutions, ICT resources, were not allocated on the basis of gender. The university mainstreamed access without consideration for gender inequalities. The practical application of ‘first come, first served’ disregards the fact that first, owing to other demandswomen students may not be able to be there on their time. A second related point is that with limited ICT resources, competition for access often included physical shoving, in which the physically case stronger students prevailed. allocation, especially as regards ICTs. Such an analysis insights into the creation of a gender-sensitive resource allocation model. would provide In light of the exclusion resulting from a on gender-blind access, policy it would position seem that a gender-sensitive access policy would be a logical and fair demand. Discrepancy between the intent and the reality gender analysis of the access policy: a practical ensuing rule and the of this application the between connection reality that disadvantaged them as women. The female students experi­ enced gender inequalities in this, but overruled their interpretation the of reality in the labs by adhering to and supporting the policy come, of first ‘first served’. in terms of access, even though they were aware of the fact that the male students dominated the labs. What stood out foremost in was the way their their other, ‘typically female’ responsibilities and constraints minds prevented them from accessing the labs within the time limits available for students. male male for their limited and constrained access to computers. Grateful for the ‘privilege’ of apparently being included in the access policy, the ‘normal’ women students do not challenge the limited improvement they experi­ ence in the context of the male domination of the equal access labs. seems to The take precedence notion over their of experience of unequal Mbambo-Thata et al. | 6 h ter ad rcie f h acs plc, n mye oe f an of more women. maybe as discrimination and experienced they policy, that understanding access the of practice and theory between discrepancy the the of understanding an of more had apparently group latter the why explain would This concepts? dominant disregard to them enabled use, their in have women ‘deviant’ the confidence the and computers, to exposure previous the Has different? become nesses conscious­ their have how ideas, certain internalized have they way consciousness, the their by mediated being is them) (for meaning its to as reflections their and happening is what of perceptions students’ the to theoretically a empowering accesspolicyandtheresultingreality?Ifthisvariationisdue of experiences their perceive students women ‘deviant’ equitable. be should policy the footing, the equal an accessing on approach labs theory, in could, students all If first policy. come, served’ ‘first the fair as accept respondents women of majority the that unusual not is it defend perspective, this From privilege, them. reproduce and and them dominance male Women of itself. values perpetuates internalize patriarchy men which and in way one is This us. to society. male-dominated a of the context in formed been have have to that would imagery and concepts thethinking current transcend experiences, women’s the reflect to ings mean­ such For meanings. new creating require would things, seeing of ways existing to adherence without it on reflect to differently, experience their see To with. familiar is one that meanings and values societal with aligned is thinking one’s when counter-intuitive, is policy equal-access accepted an of intent the contradicting as experience their see To access. Recommendations simply in theory derived from dominant concepts such as ‘first come, ‘first served’. first as such concepts dominant from derived theory in not simply practice, in access equitable offer could that interventions for tion informa­ provide would This analysis? gender a to practices its open to higher educationingeneral,and theUniversityofZimbabweinparticular, learning resources may not address women’s needs. Is it perhaps time for consequences. its and causes its resources, to access gendered of reality societal the foregrounds also It experience. their stand under­ they how and experience women what between variance and gap But why is it that there is discrepancy between how the ‘normal’ and ‘normal’ the how between discrepancy is there that it is why But We sense make that concepts upon draw and familiar the with work all t ol frhroe e n moeig xeine o te women the for experience empowering an be furthermore would It and ICTs to access mainstreaming that study this from evident is It understandable the recognizing of significance the reveals study The 74 Gender-blind access policy of Speaking Speaking Beyond God the , 2: 14–16. 2: Action, in Women inities amongst Students gender and democracy issues’, in R. B. Gaidzanwa (ed.), Father: Toward a Philosophy of for Ourselves: Masculinities and ­ Femin at the University of Zimbabwe, Harare: University of Zimbabwe. con­ international in participation information new the in ferences society’, Cottes, J. (2003) ‘Young women’s ‘Young (2003) J. Cottes, Daly, M. (2003) 75 www. CODESRIA . Attitude Inter­ Free the rule ‘first come, first served’ did not in itself guarantee equitable view Manual, available at -Network.net GRACE Women Women in Zimbabwe, Harare: Sapes Trust: Harare. and resident male students at the University of Zimbabwe: Abidjan cybercafés’, Bulletin, 1/2: 67–71. The student respondents stated that a computer laboratory exclusively stated that a computer laboratory The student respondents In order for ICTs to be empowering to women, hurdles to limited their own actual experiences. Learning to question dominant social Buskens, I. (2005) Batezat, E. and M. Mwalo (1989) Chagonda, (2001) T. ‘Masculinities References Bahi, A. (2004) ‘Internet use in students students who gave meaning to their experiences, using the socially cepted ac­ concept ‘first come, first served’, realize to how this process access, such a ‘women-only’ computer lab could be an step important towards first a real empowered use of ICTs for online students learning at the for University the of Zimbabwe. constructing constructing meaning has actually estranged them of from the reality norms and concepts, in relation to their their own feelings actual about experiences these, and will equip current them unfair and to discriminatory practices. A learn programme of to education critique other for empowerment aimed at stimulating such reflexive awareness among female post-graduate students would provide them with a valuable life skill that could help them to protect and further their career in a ­ patri archal context and society. for women would enhance their access to ICTs for learning. Such a lab would respond to the needs of women students in terms of being open at hours that are convenient to women tailored and to enable them to effectively use ICTs. It providing is important for women support that is students to build their self-confidence and self-esteem by providing the necessary training to make maximum use of make their ICTs, own decisions enabling and control them their resources to (Rowlands 2003). These female students should be given encouragement so that they have their hands on something real and physical. That way, they can discover, explore, learn and share. access need to be realized, confronted and use of ICTs and an awareness ous that there was a link between confident removed. As it was ­ obvi that Mbambo-Thata et al. | 6 Denzin, N. K. and Y. S. Lincoln (eds) (eds) Lincoln Y.S. and K. N. Denzin, Mashingaidze, T. M. (2006) ‘Gender ‘Gender (2006) T. M. Mashingaidze, (1997) M. Maboreke, — (1996) R. Gaidzanwa, (2000) Beacon. MA: Boston, Liberation , Women’s , 3(1): 33–9. 3(1): Bulletin, OSSREA issues’, policy on reflections tentative Zimbabwe: colonial post- in education higher and Zimbabwe. of University Law, of Faculty Harare: Framework, Legislative Relations Labour the of Dimensions Gender the Exploring Act? Relations Labour the of ployee 15–34. 20(1): Zambezia, Zimbabwe’, of University the at politics student in issues cultural and gender class, of analysis an control: of politics the and body the of politics ‘The (1999) Zimbabwe. of University Harare: Zimbabwe, of University the at Femin­ and Masculinities Ourselves: Sage. London: edn, 3rd Research, Qualitative inities amongst Students amongst inities The Sage Handbook of Handbook Sage The Who is the Em­ the is Who Speaking for for Speaking 76 University of Zimbabwe (2003) (2003) Zimbabwe of University (1999) A. Sen, percep­ ‘WomenT. (2003) Runhare, (2003) J. Rowlands, ‘Femininities (2001) S. Ndlovu, Mason, J. (2004) J. Mason, University of Zimbabwe. of University Harare: 2003–2007, Plan, Strategic Five Zimbabwe of University Books. Anchor York: New ­Freedom, 15(3). Research, Educational of Journal Zimbabwe Zimbabwe’, Gweru, of city the in occupations employment line mascu­ and feminine in women of study comparative a careers: technical masculine of tions Oxfam. Oxford: Honduras, in Women with Working powerment: Zimbabwe. of University Harare: Zimbabwe, of University the at Students amongst ­Femininities and Masculinities Ourselves: for Gaidzanwa, B. R. in Zimbabwe’, of University the at students female resident amongst Sage. London: edn, 2nd ing, Development as Development Qualitative Research­ Qualitative Questioning Em­ Questioning Speaking - year year 7 | An alternative public space for women: the potential of ICT Leila Hassanin

Throughout history and across cultures, spatial arrangements have reinforced status differences between women and men. The issue of space and how it is experienced through the lenses of gender is the subject of this inquiry. Women and men are spatially segregated in ways that reduce women’s access to knowledge and income sources, thereby reinfor­cing women’s lower status relative to men’s. ‘Gendered spaces’ separate women from knowledge used by men to produce and reproduce power and privilege (Spain 1992: 3; Folbre 2001). In Egypt females are officially encouraged to join traditionally male- dominated public spaces such as educational institutions and work environments to be able to learn and earn an income like their male counterparts. Joining public spaces in Egypt is, however, still hard for many girls and women. Even if they are able to gain an education and work for a while, in many cases this is temporary and reversed once a woman has a family of her own. Public space here means what we define as the ‘commons’ – a geo­ graphic and social area where people are supposed to go about their daily lives. This definition is different from Habermas’s ‘public sphere’ (Habermas 1989 [1962]), which holds a more political and bourgeois connotation. This chapter upholds the critique that Habermas’s public sphere does not give adequate reference to gender, but here public space is used at a much more basic level – in fact it refers to what Habermas defined as the ‘private sphere’, the economic realm where peopleex­ change goods and labour. The spatial issues were an unexpected aspect of a study that looked at the role that information and communication technologies (ICTs) are playing in marketing handicrafts produced by women. In Chapter 5 in this volume, I discuss the limited capacity that Egyptian women artisans have to use ICT. The women’s life stories also highlighted, however, the importance of having access to flexible learning and working options as a means to female empowerment. In A Room of One’s Own (1929) Virginia Woolf declares that ‘a woman must have money and a room of her own if she is to write fiction’. It Hassanin | 7 rm neves ih n osrain o Eyta wmn okn in sector. crafts working the women Egyptian of observations and with interviews from to women, menandtheirfamilies.Thischaptergivessomeexamples drawn benefit andsocial ofproductive be could and space-flexible are that frameworks work and educational much-needed achieving in underused is ICT Egypt, in use present its from Judging spaces. such of increase and self-actualization. their and to barriers awhole severe from as women many unburden society benefit would accessible more spaces earning and learning female these Making present. at elusive are that goals ment develop­ skills and educational socio-economic, achieve to women and ing and increasing female-friendly domestic/public areas could assist girls their in woman average the immedi­ than have levels and educational independent financially higher are achieved them of all and – issues rights female for advocates became even women Some publicly. and privately both empowered more become to respondents the for possible it made spaces these offer. Frequenting spaces public that benefits exposure and educational the with privacy for requirement societal the combined spaces that blended these within skills and education gain to allowed were house). the higher outside for working or opting education circumstances some in (e.g. conventions societal to challenges outright deemed be would what is circumventing aspirations while raised, their to according lives their shape to able being of ness aware­ their and work paid and education to exposed are women where sphere public the and domestic the between fusion a is space This lives. their reshape to them and helps that advice awareness an get to exposed are can and help, skills, income-generating taught are they where – (NGO) organization non-governmental a case, this in – learning’ of ‘place potential. own her supportive develop a to order and in place income an needs who woman, Egyptian average to the applies same the – writers fiction for only not true is this that seems Siwa: blendingtraditionalism andIT eea poet wt te omnt Dvlpet n Environmental and Development Community the has with projects organization several the where border Egyptian–Libyan the an to Siwa, close in oasis participants research with contact my facilitated (COSPE) Because of its nature, ICT is highly suitable for the creation, support creation, the for suitable highly is ICT nature, its of Because support­ creating, that maintains research this findings, the on Based they when self-actualization of goals their reached women Different a having of importance the emphasized respondents research The h Iain oprto fr eeomn o Eegn Countries Emerging of Development for Cooperation Italian The ate environment. ate 78 An alternative public space for women 79 in the local language).

1 round, low table traditionally used for eating in rural tableya, a It will be hard for Lamia, Iman and the other working girls (custom­ I met her at the school, where she was working with a class in the In addition to her IT work, Lamia excels in traditional Siwan stitching, After the class we go to the literacy class that Lamia’s sister Iman It is hard for an outsider to contact Siwan women directly. Siwan women Siwan directly. women Siwan contact to outsider an for hard is It areas in Egypt. Iman is leading the trainees class shows me of the four government’s women. literacy One software ‘Fahima’, of which is the user-friendly with visuals and audio. The Tableya IT Literacy Centre is mobile and circulates around the town to welcoming family houses that so local women do not need to walk long distances to go to the literacy class. It offers the classes in well-respected houses Women in would not the attend the classes community. if they were held in a public space such as a school. arily in Egypt a woman is a married woman, hence the distinction here) from Siwa to work outside the house tradition a after woman they lives marry. with Under her Siwan husband’s family is after not marriage allowed to and work outside the home. Many women have earned an income through stitching in the last decades, since the oasis opened up to the outside world. and girls are secluded and appear in public fully covered. COSPE has been has COSPE covered. fully public in appear and secluded are girls and working with local NGOs and through them with Siwan females. One of these is Lamia (names have been changed to protect the privacy of inter­ viewees), who is eighteen years old, has a visual arts diploma, and is the IT trainer at the secondary school in Siwa. Lamia had IT training through the NGO with other girls from Siwa, and then was selected as the female school trainer. Lamia’s only contact with outsiders had been a Italian officer female from COSPE. The director of this association encouraged her meeting with me as a way for Lamia to gain further outside contact. computer lab. Following local tradition, Lamia is in niqab, a showing only black her robe eyes, and while she is handling the applications. latest Lamia has Internet also completed a Cisco network training course and is a qualified ITtrainer for local women. like most women from the oasis: ‘Though I now hardly have time to stitch, I have been working on a neighbour’s wedding dress.’ Lamia shows me her exquisite stitching wrapped in layers of white cotton gauze. gives at a private residence. We arrive at the house of an upper-middle- income family where a room is set aside for the PC with four terminals on a Protection Protection Association, a local Siwan NGO. society is quite different from the rest of Egypt. Siwans identify themselves more closely with Libyans in origin, being Berbers (Amazegh Hassanin | 7 Abeer –careerwoman,singlemotheranduniversitystudent training. She said that could be a workable idea. workable a be could IT that advanced said more She training. for only class, literacy the like group house a continue up to to set able be able might she be whether not ask I will Lamia. says I school,’ the marriage at teaching after Siwa in work. stay IT my should continue I can I If way this too, Libya to go and marry to like would ‘I Siwa. outside is she because there work to able is She works. he etns Se a be hr aiys an noe anr vn during even earner income main family’s her been acceptthe had to She refused Abeer beatings. but you’, of two the between again fine be will things and pass ‘will beatings the that her persuade to tried family productivity.enhance to useful and realistic be in to need sophisticated do be they but to instances, many need necessarily not time do the applications for IT needs being. inventory the cover would digitize This to spreadsheets. order in her training Excel get to wants Abeer it. using stopped soon Bashayer and results faulty gave programme for the but database inventory, tailored its a establish to programmer a hired had Bashayer system. inventory the for bookkeeping digital use could she that so work department.’ inventory the for responsible became I then and diploma financial a had I as section accounting NGO’s the in worked I while a For children. my up bring to using I’m that background pedagogic a me gave experience teaching ‘The work: of years several after headed she which school, nursery the at began and years fourteen for Bashayer at working been has She NGO. the at work her continue to her helped which small, school. mother after children her her and of care by takes close lives family Abeer’s evenings. the in Finance in BA her completing is she career her at further To department Bashayer. El inventory NGO, an the of head the being by supports she whom Lamia has a married sister who lives with her husband in Libya, where Libya, in husband her with lives who sister married a has Lamia Her husband’s beatings were the main reason for the separation. Her separation. the for reason main the were beatings husband’s Her future. the in one afford to able be to hope I but myself, for one buy to money the have not do I now Right him. with PC the took he out moved he when and years, two for apart living been have I and husband IT.My with iar famil­ more get to me allowed which home, at computer a have to used I Abeer: Says at trained was She ago. years ten about computer a using began Abeer were they when school nursery Bashayer’s El to went children Abeer’s children two with parent single a is old, years thirty-five is who Abeer, 80 An alternative public space for women 81 Salma and Vivian spent their working 2 I always wanted more from life. I was strong willed and difficult to Vivian talks sadly about her childhood: Since I was six years old I have been working in garbage recycling as this is my father’s job and the whole family participated in it. I never went to school, though I wanted so much to go. I would enviously watch the schoolchildren, looking at their clean clothes, resenting how they saun­ ter to school when I had to accompany my father going off to work on a garbage cart. handle. When I heard about the literacy course at our local church, I kept asking my family to let me attend. They finally relented but I had to have the recycling and housework done for the day to be able to go. I took the course for three months and excelled in it. I was not going to stop here. Vivian and Salma are from the marginalized community of garbage Her income gives her indispensable freedom; without her education Men these days are comfortable with their wives being the main income earners, it makes life easier [for men] – they are upholding their old rights and taking new ones. I don’t mind being married on paper, it is easier for me to face society as a legally married woman than a divorcee, it is also better for the children. The only reason for me to divorce would be if he remarries; I would never allow a second wife. childhood helping to collect garbage and sorting it. Because they an were income-generating part of the family they were not allowed to go school to lest this interfere with their work. collectors and recyclers, the Zabaleen. The Zabaleen are a distinct social Upper traditional strict, the maintains and intermarries mostly that group Egyptian habits of the area where they originate. The work working with their fathers andpassed from parents to children, with girls tradition is brothers until they reach puberty. and her job she would not have been able to leave her husband. The NGO has been supportive with childcare and with educational development, both of which were important for Abeer to financially self-supportive. continue being able to be Dreams lead to changed lives the marriage, and she saw this as an even greater reason not to tolerate her husband’s physical abuse. Despite her earning power, not Abeer like does being the main breadwinner; she an does income not to bolster mind family bringing status, but in would have preferred to more financially have responsible a husband: Hassanin | 7 f ee t tn er. oa te ae eir tf a AE Vva i the is system. Vivian inventory the APE: heads at Salma and staff secretary senior executive are they span Today a years. over ten to programme seven diploma of school high a in enrolled then and classes, literacy attending by farther step a development personal their basis. continual a on space public a in work to allowed been have not would they since weave, to would able been girls have these not of most home at loom the use paid. to get able to being APE Without the to it deliver would they rug a finishing Upon rugs. expenses. household to weaving from income her contribute would she that deal a brokered Vivian mother, her with arguments long After disapproved. parents their but training, weaving the join to wanted Vivian and Salma girls. Zabaleen to products weaving finished the from income and classes literacy courses, weaving offering began (APE) ment pay for her next delivery at a private hospital. private a at delivery next her for pay therefore would and hospital public the at delivered she when stillbirth a had previously had she that me told and interview the during pregnant months nine was Vivian kindergarten. private daughter’s her for paying spare theirdaughters.Vivian’s daughterwillnotbecircumcised.Vivianis to relatives and friends siblings, her lobbying been has and FGC of victim a been has She expenses. life and education health, for pay to and (FGC) circumcision genital female against up speak to her allow They munity. services. health better to access her allowed has work her through facing health challengesthroughoutherlife.Havinganincomeand connections been has She family. the in status elevated an has therefore household and the to financially contributing is she housework; little does Salma illiterate. is wife brother’s her because work school with nephews parents died. Salma is forty years old and single. She has been helping her her since household brother’s her of part been has She house. brother’s Salma’s life has changed dramatically in the process: the in dramatically changed has life Salma’s took Salma and Vivian income, the and training the by Encouraged the weave to home take to looms given were girls the training the After Environ­ the of Protection the for Association the 1980s late the In Aida also took part in the APC weaving programme. She lives in Zaba­ in lives She programme. weaving APC the in part took also Aida com­ and family her in voice a her give income and education Vivian’s her of roof the on herself for room a build to planning is Salma necessities. some buy to dark the after out go to afraid not am I now evenings; the in house the leave never would I travels my Before life. of understanding and perspective my broadened and self-assured more me made countries other to Travelling 1995. in China and 1993 in Paris visited I NGO an with work my Through 82 An alternative public space for women 83 diplomas. ­diplomas. Aida experienced a rough youth as she perceived the sur­ The examples of the Siwan and Zabaleen women’s training and work Owing to her hard circumstances Aida wanted to leave her formal It is hard to live without a father, brother or other male relative around. A It is hard to live without owned area his house by taking over a publicly neighbour tried to expand our house at 3 a.m. while he When I complained he attacked in our alley. office, but what really helped was drunk. I made a complaint at the police NGO in this legal complaint; me was the backing by members from the making further attacks. with their help we were able to stop the neighbour run counter to the focus of the present Egyptian education and systems, labour which are geared towards females’ participation in the public domain. A female has to go out into the public The dichotomy of public versus domestic spaces has the system, however. sphere to benefit from been a central issue in women’s development (Gilman 1917), and to this date has not been satisfactorily resolved to recognize women’s current daily obligations and restrictions (Valian 1999; Waring 1988). education when she was at the end of middle school and join the NGO’s loom business to bring income to her mother. The NGO and her mother encouraged her to work from home while continuing her finished her finance diploma and became a clerk at studies. Aida the is NGO. now She one of four women leading the recycled paper division, which produces other paper goods. The finishedcards, wrapping paper, writing paper and products are sold to hotels, schools and businesses and are displayed in the NGO’s shop on the premises. Can ICT contribute to creating an alternative public sphere for Can ICT contribute to creating an alternative women? leen although her family is from outside the moved community. to Her this mother area because it was cheap; Aida’s mother brought her after and her sister her up doing janitorial jobs, husband’s all the death while encouraging her daughters to go through school until they got both rounding society to be unsupportive of, if not outright hostile towards, a in security on focused her made has perception This women. of household and modest was in up grew she house The house. family safe a of form the attributes Aida contractors; by done badly were that repairs of lots needed this to the workers not taking women She seriously. wants to rebuild her mother’s home and to live in it with her new husband and mother. She had been saving up for this, but her savings got used build to determined up is and anew save to starting paying is She expenses. marriage for her a strong, beautiful house. As Aida explained to me: Hassanin | 7 to pass exams, although she took them twice: them took she although exams, able pass to not was she that poor so education adult part-time the found job, two-year a clerical a for degree has university a gain to wanted and diploma commercial who Asmaa, in Aswan, reflected from respondent was A attitude interviews. This the public. the by quality lesser of sidered con­ are systems education parallel these Egypt in although Abeer, and systems. increase work and and education promote alternative to employed be could that ICT) (especially able life, avail­ technologies the appropriate using women for more model empowerment and a work for quest creative the supports research This structures. gender-insensitive prevailing the beyond to context a in yet used be have technologies the but model, development female a for tool productivity.and development skills education, ideal the be to seems ICT life for with returns higher and experiment to access greater to offer that frameworks need work and a and is citizens There as 232). terms 2002: equal (Hayden on ­workers’ women and men support to culture pursue their goals in the public domain, many are put off and their their and off put are many suffers. domain, development public the in goals their to constraints pursue societal imposed the counter first to have women when contrast, In face. females that difficulties societal the account into took of that out frameworks within capacities break their building first to by mould them society’s for easier was It facing. are they boundaries and challenges the account into taking by assisted is growth women’s some 2006). Hirshman 1993; (Stone Walker and forth Swiss so 2007; and work, paid with interfere household that children, duties social raising duties, i.e. reference, of terms worker’ ‘ideal the into fit not does that life of package whole the is family.Domesticity hearth and of care take to home at stayed who wife, his by supported was being who man a originally was worker’ ‘ideal The obligations. family unencumbered by and overtime working often worker, is full-time 1–6), a (2000: of Williams that to according worker’, ‘ideal the of notion The economy.the in participation women’s of landscape the dominating still - part and adult Using Until today, ‘no country has … created an urban fabric and an and fabric urban an created … has country ‘no today, Until how show Aida and Vivian Salma, Abeer, Iman, Lamia, of stories The is and dominated has argument domesticity’ versus worker ‘ideal The office in Aswan and hope to be employed with my diploma. my with employed be to hope and Aswan in office employment government the at CV my put now have I exams. semester end-of the in grades needed the me give to enough good not was year the during getting was I education The trying. of years two after up gave I time education systems worked for Vivian, Salma Salma Vivian, for worked systems education time 84 ­urban An alternative public space for women Asmaa lives in a 3 85 The continuous association with a supportive organization (such as a local NGO) made it possible for these women to solidate sustain their and advancements. con­ Nearly all the women said that their dream would have been to have a university degree, despite the fact that there are limited job oppor­ tunities for women with degrees. The importance given to education among Egyptian women harks back to the social mobility a university degree provided during the Nasser regime. It would be beneficial to offer women education and skills training that realistically reflected earning opportunities in present-day Egypt. Higher-quality alternative and parallel educational systems need to be put into place in Egypt. At present education outside realm and the hours formal is in most cases of lesser quality and has less value attached to it. ICT is an education excellentin settings tooloutside of formal for structures. providing quality adultThere is a need to make decision-makers aware of successful examples of women who, by finding spaces that adapted educationneeds to and work the realities of their lives (domestic duties and restrictions regarding participation in the public domain), were able to high achieve levels of personal development. ­bridging ICT public and domestic is spaces since it especially enables the suited creation of to virtual spaces that can be accessed by females and other secluded (currently) members of society, e.g. people with disabilities. To date the Women Women benefit from participating in the activities of local NGOs that women customs and work around the restrictions are sensitive to local face. Some of the main findings were as follows: The research examined the importance of alternative frameworks for Asmaa Asmaa does not think that the computer training she got will give her

• • • • • women’s empowerment through a selected sample of Egyptian women. crafts­ The interviews showed commonalities deemed in as what important the life-enhancing women support. These learning–earning frameworks highlight how crucial space and geographical factors were for female development in the researched group. an edge in securing a government job. She says she a has lot also of forgotten what she learned because she is not using it. village and acutely feels the disadvantages of not being allowed family by to her attend college and telecentres. Conclusion Hassanin | 7 Habermas, J. (1989 [1962]) (1989 J. Habermas, house­ ‘The P.(1917) C. Gilman, (2001) N. Folbre, References crafts. traditional of ­commercialization crude the and oasis the from silver old of up buying the is them of one it; to changes of lot a brought oasis the mid the in highway major a and oasis the connect to built was road a after tion Notes • •

and time -flexible and space- learning more a accessible make and construct to used being of instead education, and work of modes traditional the within used been mostly has ICT information Egypt. in explored an been not has tool as and work and education for ICT of potential full domain. public male-dominated the in possible currently than degree greater much a to potential their upon draw and develop could women mean would part) large a playing ICT (with the means technological with available structures work and learning skills education, redesigning alternative and Strengthening spaces. women’s in available ment develop­ skills and education making by augmented be could date to be to is development females Egyptian in made investments educational The strengthened. Egypt’s in participation female if women of needs the at eyes critical more with look to advised are Policy-makers resources. human of amount vast a of economy Egypt’s depriving used, be to continues framework life/work traditional the fact that ICT offers alternative ways of connection and communication, the Despite working. and learning for spaces public attend constantly to need the minimizes that framework socio-economic ICT-supported The studyproposesincorporatingthetraditionalfemalespacesintoan , 123: 127. 123: Science, Political of Academy American the of Annals problem’, food the and keeper Press. New York: New ValuesFamily, and Economics 2 1

Lately the Zabaleen community community Zabaleen the Lately Siwa became a tourist destina­ tourist a became Siwa - man. 1980s. The opening of the the of opening The 1980s. n poutvt mdl o te vrg Eyta woman Egyptian average the for model productivity and The Invisible Heart: Invisible The The Struc ­ The 86 Hayden, D. (2002) D. Hayden, online. go to used hardly are NGO the at PCs the that low so cycle. collection garbage the of aspects certain on work to Zabaleen the allowing brokered was agreement An companies. Italian and Spanish to it outsourcing system, collection garbage the modernize to decision government’s the by shaken was New York: Norton. York: New Life, Family and Work, Housing, of Future The Dream: American Press. MIT MA: Cambridge, Society, Bourgeois of Category a into Inquiry An Sphere: Public the of Transformation tural 3 Connectivity at the village is village the at Connectivity Redesigning the Redesigning An alternative public space for women Unbending Gender: If Women Counted: Why So Slow? The A Room of One’s Own, al Women are Finding Solutions , New York: Wiley. Advancement of , Women Boston, MA: MIT Press. A New Feminist Economics, New York: Harper & Row. Why Family and Work Conflict and What to Do about It, Oxford: Oxford University Press. London: Hogarth Press. Valian, V. (1999) Valian, V. Waring, M. (1988) Williams, J. (2000) (1929) Woolf, V. 87 Get to Work: A Gendered Spaces, Opting Out? Why Women Women and the Work/Family ­Dilemma: How Today’s Profession­ Women Women Really Quit Careers and Head , Home Berkeley: University of California Press. Manifesto Manifesto for Women of the , World New York: Viking. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. Hirshman, Hirshman, L. (2006) Swiss, D. J. and J. Walker P. (1993) Spain, D. (1992) Stone, (2007) P. 8 | Using ICTs to act on hope and commitment: the fight against gender violence in Morocco Amina Tafnout and Aatifa Timjerdine

Change, hope, starting anew, despair, defeat, power, challenge and com­ mitment: these are the terms with which we express ourselves about encounters with women survivors of violence and women in charge of Moroccan Counselling and Legal Aid Centres to which the former turn in their time of need. Change is implied in the rejection, by the women survivors, of violence as a reality that is frustrating and offending to their human dignity. There is also the feeling of hope – for a better future and a different world for women in which peace prevails and women’s dignity is respected. Despite the fissure that marked one part of their lives, some women were able to open up to the world again, and to head confidently and boldly towards a new experience, thus starting anew. There was also, however, despair and defeat for others who broke down under poverty and violence. The women working in the Counselling and Legal Aid Centres exhibit the power and the desire to take up challenges, to face the prevailing culture that allows and legitimizes violence and discrimination, and to fight mentalities and a discourse that sees women as inferior tomen. There is a commitment to creating new methods for defending women and a belief in information and communication technologies (ICTs), which for them are the most effective tools to expose violence and manage the centres. ICTs signify a media revolution to them – an opening up and an essential asset for development and communication.

Research context When we thought of conducting research on ICTs from the perspective of their use by the Counselling and Legal Aid Centres and by the women who are victims of violence in Morocco, the research appeared to be of a general and descriptive nature. In the course of preparing for and thinking through its hypothetical and methodological aspects, however, some questions were raised:

• Which research approach can be adopted to address gender-based violence in a context where this constitutes an accepted part of private Gender violence in Morocco 89 For For me, I want to learn how to use it, but it is not possible It now. pro­ vides many services. It has become a necessity and the one who does not know how to use it is illiterate. I consider myself illiterate. I started learn­ ing for some time then I gave up. One needs many hours per day. Living in a world where information technology has become a tool for work in Morocco is know that the environment in which we live and We Moroccan women face numerous economic, social and cultural chal­ It became clear to us that the research question itself provoked debate women rights of human abuse of the as an recognized and is not space, and a social phenomenon that needs deep study and analysis? Which theoretical and methodological approach can be adopted to address the use of ICTs by women survivors of domestic violence? on the role of ICTs as tools women can use all in forms their of efforts to discrimination. counter Presently a lot ‘violence against of women’ by human importance rights and women’s is associations in given to Morocco. Also, because of the current focus on the use of ICT, the issue of violence against women was drawn into the discourse on change and development related to ICT. work, a means of empowering people and an avenue numerous for entering worlds, into narrowing distances and establishing relationships, we raised the following question: how and why do women violence survivors and of women working at the Counselling and Legal Aid Centres coulduse ICT to fight gender-based violence? The answer to this question shed light on whether women survivors of violence actually benefit from Morocco’s opening up to the world of ICT. gender of absence an and women and men between inequality by marked awareness. This environment is also characterized by lack of participation of women in decision-making, no efforts to eradicate digital and no attempt to remove the constraints that women illiteracy, experience related to their triple gender roles (Smyth et al. 1999: 14). lenges that prevent their access to and use of (and hence their ability to benefit from) The ICT. ICT sector is characterized by disparities between men and women, and does not take into account gender and equity development in when addressing social problems. Moreover, the ICT sec­ tor also limits the possibility of the social and professional integration of women, especially those who are poor and illiterate. This is because the use of ICT requires at least an average education standard, financial for (especially training for time and equipment of purchase the for means women who assume family responsibilities). As one of our respondents told us: • Tafnout and Timjerdine | 8 Methodology told us: us: told Meknes from Lamia pornography). for it use men some since Internet, the of use to regard with (especially men for reserved be to considered are spaces such because large, at society by accepted not is cafés) (Internet spaces public some in women of presence The 104). 2003: Maroc du tion Documenta­ de National (Centre society Moroccan in gap gender digital the deepens which spaces, Internet in existences different have men and women that fact the to contributes This has. she ‘sovereignty’ whatever loses and control social and moral becomes patriarchal of norms public to she subject household, her leaves woman a When Morocco. in area ifrn ae wo o o bln t te ae oil ls, n neither and class, social same the to belong not do who ages of different women are survivors These them. to access had who heads, centres’ assistance. judicial and psychological and advice legal guidance, seeking centres the to went who and violence of violence; survivors women of phenomenon the with with communicate concerned and stakeholders them other assist women, to listen to assistants is legal task whose and counsellors women belong); centres the which to legal centres(whosupervisetheworkandcoordinatewith theassociation process. research particular this into them bringing by working were we whom with women the empowering and skills, our of exploration of type a is which capabilities, developing rapidly with ourselves empowering empowerment: women’s on women focused as and researchers as us for opportunity double a gender-based was against violence fight the in ICTs of use women’s into empowerment. study of This terms in have we that all and around are we place that taking all with is us, that change the in actors are we feminists researchers and As clearly. ourselves position to us required situation This debate. society civil and political of centre the at now rights, women’s of issues thathavelong beentaboo,themostimportantofwhichisissue At the core of the problem is the issue of women’s status in the public public the in status women’s of issue the is problem the of core the At To select women survivors of violence we sought the assistance of the of assistance the sought we violence of survivors women select To the of charge in those were research our in part took who women The to up opening debate public Moroccan the with coincided study Our privacy.no is There owner.café’s Internet the by even watching, or writing are they what on eye an keep who others by watched are they because embarrassed feel women the But that. about cares nobody and […] websites graphic porno­ use sometimes They supervised. not are men cafés, Internet In 90 Gender violence in Morocco 91 kesh and Oujda. We We consider the women respondents not as objects of study, and We were able to establish relationships with the women survivors of In our fieldwork and our meetings with the women we tried to open We found that conducting a study on the relationship between gender- found that conducting a study We for future better a of dream the by guided was research our of focus The neither do we approach them solely as see of their daily lives. We create meaning in and construct the rationality the interpreting subjects who them as the actors who co-create their reality and are thus inevitably the main contributors to social change where it pertains to their lives. This perspective has led us to adopt an interactive to fieldworktake approacha critical and stance towards the knowledge construction process in the recognition that researching women who live in difficult conditions becomes even more challenging when these women to have channels of lost self-expression. access It was also our aim action to develop plans effective based on this research and then step, the to next dream. move on to the next ­violence and also with the women employees at the centres/associations, with whom we could continue to work to draw grammes aimed up at denouncing violence against women and breaking the strategies and pro­ taboo and silence that encourage the aggressors to continue their acts. Our selves and other selves do they have the same educational level. In this chapter we survivors quote (whose four real names are not used, to protect them) who the reflect diversity of those who seek the assistance of these centres. general understanding Yet has our been grounded by the conversations we had with forty women who use the services tors of of the the six legal centres, centres that and are based the in direc­ Rabat (two), Marra­ Fez, Meknes, based violence and the use of ICT was easy in a both sense because easy of the availability and of data and difficult.working tools Itand was because we had clear perceptions at the methodological level of how to address our research problem, and difficult because these women were in a crisis when we engaged with them and were had come also to the so centres specifically diverse. to seek They a solution to their problem, so it was difficult for us to get answers to our questions about a subject (ICT) that they might not consider a priority at that point. women in Morocco. This dream presupposes that access to information is a right for all, and that women survivors of right to violence live can in economic, claim social and their psychological security and demand their right to access to information and its production. Tafnout and Timjerdine | 8 h rgt o pa i nt oehn ta i gvn bt oehn that something but given, is taken. is that something not is speak to right the – themselves express to ability their to thanks respondents women about the did we what know to came We –acombination intimacy. and time professionalism of same the at reflective stay and women the to up Findings s bu ter ie wt ter p ad on ad eae ter experi ­ their related and downs and ups their with lives their about us violence of phenomenon the about an awareness play raising in to mainly ICT role, consider important centres legal the in working women the ants, said: centre, legal a of charge in is who against fight the decision-making. on and communication impact enhancing by positive violence domestic a had ICT of use the such as and Internet), e-mail, (phone, technology information of tools various the of propels them forward whenever despair sneaks in. They made effective use and self-confidence them gives This Morocco. outside and inside vision one and goal one for fighting and working groups to belonging by ability on pressure, negotiating and supporting solidarity. They gain in power and putting in know-how their of impact the and change, making in role their centres. Said Zakia from Marrakesh: legal from Zakia other Said with centres. information of exchange the facilitated and methods The women survivors of violence who opened their hearts to us told us to hearts their opened who violence of survivors women The day.one in it do I month, one in work of piece a doing of instantly.Instead answer the get you e-mail, the For days. three take may which letter, a sending of instead telephone and Internet fax, the time, same the at things many do can I working. while -mails e to reply can I work. the facilitates e-mail the day, one in Rabat or Marrakesh to moving of Instead things. many so facilitated has It assist­ or directors counsellors, as whether tasks, their of Regardless information. other to addition in file full the identify to computer the through name victim’s the for look now we victims, of files the regards As phones. cell their of numbers the us give them of most now but phone, tele­ landline the and address the on relied we past, the in victim the For etc. region, age, by example for result, particular a obtaining in difficulty no have we network the to thanks now but manually, work to used we statistics of level the at example, For work. the facilitates certainly It Rabat, from Fatiha action. collective and self-expression allows ICT The women working at the centres were aware of their significance and and opening up new prospects for work, since it has improved has it since work, for prospects new up opening 92 Gender violence in Morocco 93 of violence also spoke about their new life, and felt like adoles­ The women survivors of violence who were ready for change seemed When these women possessed ICT tools, such as the mobile phone, In the past, the situation was different from There now. was violence in a specific context.People used to live in large families. If the violence is committed by the husband, the family intervenes and provides protec­ tion. Now a crime may be committed and there is nobody to provide protection. There is God and the cell phone. When we asked these women to tell us about ICT in a few words, Sanaa from Meknes: ‘I was expelled from my house and I called my Lamia from Meknes: full of life and vitality. The women, who were self-confident,fidence in their own with power, had restored their self-regard con­ and reconciled with themselves by making a decision about an despite unpleasant social, situation, economic, physiological and family impacts. come to They gain control had of their lives and fate, and the lives and destiny of their families and children. They rejected violence and militated to fight against it. These women had shifted from being survivors of violence to becoming actors and militants. they were aware of the strategic role of these and in protecting in themselves opening up to what is and happening limited milieu. outside According to their them, surroundings the mobile phone replaces role the of the family in reporting. As one woman it: survivor ‘In of the violence past put when your husband beats you, you family who seek asks you to be help patient, but now you from can contact a legal your centre which can make your problem known and thus you help other to women reject violence.’ Women survivors ready for change Women ences ences of violence so, we felt, that they would survivors not forget. Some women cents, opening up to life. we did not expect such strength and depth of expression. respondents Some considered the of mobile the phone as ‘your friend in need, your brother, mother, and father’, ‘a solution to closer’, problems’, ‘a ‘brings protection people sometimes’, ‘a necessity’. Others for knowledge, just use it to expose violence but also Internet: ‘we will not said about the our relationships and education’. These simple and deep words can be interpreted and linked to the conditions and the circumstances women use in this technology. which father asking him to visit me. I called my family to help me. If there had been no cell phone, they would not have come to me.’ Tafnout and Timjerdine | 8 No access–yetthefirststep istaken Access withoutcontrol anddetermination hi rsucs n d nt ed h priso o ayn t acquire to anyone tools. these of use or permission the need not do and resources their control to come have violence of of survivors missing women These the opportunities. and exclusion reject and progress, technological with These world. pace keep to order the in educated and trained be in to determined are women women other of experiences the become with and conversant connections establish to women enabling information, and dissemination creativity, for space important an become clearly has vnuly civn a erbe eainhp ih hsad A such, As husband. a with relationship bearable a achieving of eventually way best the considered is that as acceptance interpreted patient be the of can rejection did, a them expressing of Even some as them. however, change tears, in to ­despair ability no had who but situations said: Fez from woman A conditions. of living improvement and knowledge to access through ‘promises’ ICT that it.’ of need in is and it have right to the has also woman the phone, cell the have to right the has man the If enemy. an as phone cell the sees man The agree. must he because husband my tell to have ‘I us: told Aicha angry. get husbands their or when time any at them of deprived be can they because them over control who no have women but phone, are cell the especially too means, technological them the possess Among tools. these from we more that expect knowing can while rich, as and it poor see between disparity but the ICT widening possess who women are or them them to Among due predestined. not is from suffering and that through unaware living yet are as they what are They future. the about hopeful still somehow are but self-confidence, of lack a and fear with broken. seized are was women These determination whose those were them Among rejecting. and rebelling of level the reached yet not had who women ‘submissive’, Some of these women are using the Internet with its services, which services, its with Internet the using are women these of Some hn hr wr toe oe wo ee tl baig hi difficult their bearing still were who women those were there Then learn. to opportunity the have not did I because learn to blackboard the use must I me tells brother My phone. cell the use to how know not do money.I have I phone. cell a have not do I why reason the not is aspect financial The convinced. not am I future bright the in participate to equipped feel not do women These remained but condition their rejected who women other were There 94 Gender violence in Morocco day day work and direct contact with - 95 to For the For centres’ employees, lack of training is the first barrier to use of The saying ‘all women are equal in violence’ proved true, regard­ Yet, between the blackboard in the world of learning to read and Through our research and encounters with the women respondents, According According to the counsellors and assistants at the legal centres, based the women survivors of violence, the major obstacles to these use women of are illiteracy, ICT poverty, by ‘unawareness’ and their husband’s authority over them. , obliged adopted by the associations, however the Internet. The approach them to employ people who specialized in data processing. The centres’ directors saw their limited financial means as a major barrier to the use of technology. It is true that the Moroccan state has begun to recognize the role of such associations (especially women’s associations and legal centres) in development and raising awareness, but this recognition is not accompanied by financial support. The centres rely on international organizations for financing projects, and permanentlyare funds lookingto ensure for their continuation. it became clear to us that we cannot in speak a of context women’s characterized by access the to absence ICT of approaches that consideration take gender into and the needs of poor people. less of their age, educational standard, social and economic conditions and geographical location (rural or urban). Our focus groups comprised women of different ages and cultural, economic and social conditions. There were adults, young women, the illiterate, the literate, employees, workers, teachers, single, married and divorced women. It became clear to us that ICT plays a role in raising awareness of gender-based violence, and is also a tool for expression, opening improvement up of new work methods prospects and for saving valuable work, time. write and contemporary technology, there is a historical gap that appar­ ently cannot be jumped by a large proportion of women. the blackboard Returning is to not possible, and nor is getting into the adventure of virtual worlds. This transforms the relationship with ignorance of the subject. What is the ICT relationship here with the authority into one of of men? Can one talk about a kind of ‘phallo-technology’? As one of our on on their experiences of their - day Conclusion Perceptions about obstacles to ICT use about obstacles Perceptions the expression of their grief and anger can be overcoming seen despair. as a major step in Tafnout and Timjerdine | 8 these technologies to better their lives and bring about change. about bring and lives their better to useof technologies make these to power women’s in confidence and belief our increased and optimistic us made hope, gave which ICT of use the in experiences to relating opportunities about learn also however, did, we world, the in prevailing progress digital the of advantage take to unable are violence phenomenon. this surrounds that silence the breaking towards step a as and violence, of survivors women especially women, affecting gap tal digi­ the overcome to factor essential an as ICT in interest an take ­women Maroc du Femmes des Démocratique (Association point to highest its seems reached illiteracy have and poverty of feminization the but country, our in see we that progress technological the with pace keep to able be would women these that thought ICT.Wehad to women of access the to reinforce measures of adoption requires and ICT, of use the of generalization tions and their autonomy. This raises the question of democratization and condi­ living their standard, educational their situation, socio-economic their by determined however, is, ICT to violence of survivors women of access The it. to related information handling and controlling by lence vio­ of phenomenon the contain to tools essential are ICTs that cluded totriple women. related for roles gender ofconstraints theremoval and illiteracy against fight the decision-making, men, in women and of participation women the on by focus also ICTs must of use equal to addition in intervention, of priorities the that and gap gender digital the of existence the reaffirms ­women’s empowerment.AstudyconductedbyUNESCOin2003,however, brother’. older the or husband father the the or by controlled is control remote ‘the us: told respondents Centre National de Documentation de National Centre des Démocratique Association References hl i i aprn ta a ag nme o wmn h survived who women of number large a that apparent is it While of empowerment the supporting policies the that necessary is It con­ we centres, legal of charge in women the of opinions the From for opportunities tremendous provides ICT of development The perspectives. et enjeux Maroc: au d’Internet (2003) Maroc du marocain. ment gouverne­ du périodiques rapports 4ème et 3ème au ONG des parallèle (2007) Maroc du Femmes 2007). L’implantation Rapport 96 United Nations ICT Task Force (2003) (2003) Force Task ICT Nations United M. and March C. I., Smyth, paper. Working Goals, Development nium Techno­ Infor­ Using Development: for Tools version. Arabic Publishing, Oxfam Framework, Analysis (1999) padhyay mation and Communications and mation logy to Achieve the Millen­ the Achieve to logy Guide to Gender Gender to Guide Mukho­ 9 | The names in your address book: are mobile phone networks effective in advocating women’s rights in Zambia? Kiss Brian Abraham

For a long time, women have formed groups and organizations within their communities to collectively solve common problems, to network, to share experiences, and to advocate for change. These groups have been physical groups configured around church associations, community and neighbourhood initiatives and professional interests. The introduction of the mobile phone has affected the communication within these women’s groups in various ways which need to be investigated. Harnessing the potential of mobile phone communication to gather support for advocacy on women’s issues presents a number of chal­ lenges. These may include prohibitive service provision costs, absence of formal and effective integration of the mobile phone in administrative networking initiatives, and the constraints (both traditional and practi­ cal) on women’s freedom to access and utilize communication services independently. This chapter is based on a study conducted in Lusaka in 2007 and 2008. I set out to explore how the communication for advocacy and change in women’s groups (which are formed for that purpose) has been changed and/or affected through the use of the mobile phone.

Research process My main sources of information are five leaders of women’s groups that focus on women’s empowerment (active participants in net­works that comprise or are associated with the membership of the Non- ­Governmental Organizations Coordinating Council – NGOCC1), officials from the government regulating body responsible for mobile phone ser­ vice provision, and representatives of mobile phone service providers. Qualitative in-depth interviews were carried out with these individuals.

Findings Possibilities for women’s networking Mobile phone communication is possible across Zambia regardless of remoteness since it uses wireless technology that demands minimal infrastructure installations for its Abraham | 9 whatever their geographical location. She explains: She location. geographical their whatever for Research andDevelopment,participateinNGOCCadvocacyinitiatives as Priscilla Mpundu, Priscilla as ment, but also nationwide. Members of the general NGOCC network, such towards changes vast environ­ achieving organizational immediate its within only not progress, women’s in utilized has NGOCC the that ents members. individual the of books address phone the within women of lists the through communication for potential able Beyond their individualmembers,organizationsliketheNGOCChaveimmeasur­ support. seek to bid a in lists own general the their to interest channel of matters can users where communities virtual into have turned networks These interest. common of on issues users advocacy of individual basis connect the which formed have networks result, a As phones. mobile of users to messages advocacy channel to potential this users regardless of distance. Women’s empowerment advocates have used files. other data to access of address assured are phone users book, or address phone their book Through phone their in listed are as people words. their editing conversation the to external one no with communicate, they as develops content the unmoderated; men, as well as women other with municate com­ phones mobile own that groups women’s or Women system. tion operation, in contrast to the ‘traditional’ fixed-line telephone communica­ association runs a mobile phone project in the Eastern Province’s rural Province’s Eastern the in project phone mobile a runs association Women’sDistrict Chipata the is networking community The Association. women.’ to support render and court them at mobilize meet we to and us affect that hearings court the as such events mon com­ of them notify the to members for our call usually specialist ‘We explains: NGOCC, communications Mitaba, Leah support, of ization Women’s organizations and activist networks are the structural elem­ structural the are networks activist and organizations Women’s many as of reach within seem phones mobile of users Individual ment Another groupthatutilizesthe mobilephoneinwomen’sdevelopment mobil­ for phone mobile the utilizes NGOCC the how explaining In here. forming am I organization new the of members to messages the relay day.I every check don’t I which Internet, the to opposed as happening, is what [to] alerted quickly am I and faster me reach messages phone mobile the that find I but phone, mobile my on and e-mail my in actions advocacy on Secretariat NGOCC the from updates receive I Zambia]. [northern Province Copperbelt the in based now am I and Lusaka from moved I advocacy measures, we send text messages to our membership on membership our to messages text send we measures, ­advocacy 2 former executive director of the Zambia Association Association Zambia the of director executive former 98 Mobile phone networks in Zambia While it is true that

99 To improve their personal livelihoods 3 Over a period of time, low-income-earning women who are part of the Beeping or paging (calling a user and hanging up before they answer When you have names of poor people in your phone book, you will not have much access to your own development through your phone. More beneficial are names of people with resources in your phone book; that way, you can call them when you are faced with problems and they will assist you. Poor people will not call you back when you ask them to because they usually can’t afford to make calls. communities can be created through exchanges of voice mobile phones, and a major data factor to via consider is cost. The economic status l networks their position in relation to the virtua of women predetermines sustained by mobile phone communication. This consideration impacts on women’s ability to communicate. According to members Leah privileged be will units) (call talk-time with women only NGOCC, Mitaba at the of the mobile community, with the ability to initiate conversations and the power to choose when to communicate. may be Those included at the discretion with of those who have them. no This can lead call units to the negative effects of such networking and exacerbate if not inequalities rectified. women’s empowerment mobile-phone-sustained virtual network begin to lose their ‘voice’. They become silent listeners and simply recipients of texts and alerts from more financiallybecome the mobile phone empoweredvirtual network’s ‘lower classes’. Brenda Zulu, members.They an information communication technologies journalist based in Lusaka, laments: the phone, which evades the call charge) and the Short Messaging vice Ser­ (SMS – allowing users to communicate with others text through messages) short are coping methods in situations avoid where costs, users since want they to are almost free (SMS) These and methods totally are free becoming (paging). increasingly common as users avoid the and sustain their use of the mobile phone, the women generate income their to services communication of provision entrepreneurial the through community members. The economics of mobile phone communication gically basesIt strate gically Africa. Oneworld support of with the district Chipata its use of mobile phones on three principles: advocacy, livelihoods and entrepreneurship. Utilizing these principles in their use of the phone, mobile the association carries out advocacy work for women’s ­ progres sive change in their community. Abraham | 9 member basis. She explains: She basis. staff-tonetworkmember a on communication phone mobile to facilitate would inability institution the the since units, by call purchase silenced are who members network empower can budgets organizational in costs phone mobile of adaptation that lieves be­ NGOCC at this Leah budgets. sustaining advocacy of their in costs system the communication adapt to slow are networks, munication users’. ‘underprivileged are number great a users, phone mobile women of spectrum the of that presume can one and Zambia, in poverty by hit worst the are women Generally, distress. or need in those for nity opportu­ outreach an also are they practices, these by inconvenienced be the ‘cost irritation’ attached to using mobile phones. While recipients may your using them.’ are call you to money that own considering without back them call you beeps until their with you bother they menace, beepers a the are association of pagers ‘Members and suggests: user one as however, emerging, is system class virtual A calls. traditional making to attached costs ­limiting ae conflicts Gender-based cording to Kelvin Chibomba at Oneworld, in reference to the project: the to reference in Oneworld, at Chibomba Kelvin to cording Ac­ project. phone mobile Association Development Women’s District Africa Oneworld the of case equitable the in as for advocacy, mobile-phonesustained hope a present conversations development in included to ensurethatthe‘silencedmember’(owinglowincome) issustainably because advocacy does not directly generate incomes. employed Strategies real, very is members network advocacy poor in poverty entrenching of risk The poverty. entrench will calls phone mobile these information, or gain economic comfort, emotional of terms in itself call the of cost the oml ntttos ie h NOC wie tlzn mbl com­ mobile utilizing while NGOCC, the like institutions Formal represent user’ ‘underprivileged the to respect with sentiments These profit’ advocacy.‘non -profit’ the sustaining of purpose the for designed activities income -generating collective other through for paid are units call of costs the that ensure to mechanisms collective developed have they And services. social for and rights women’s for advocate to phone mobile the using actively are women The than her to value more have that calls making is user ‘poor’ a Unless organization. our in policy this have don’t we communication, mobile for incentives officers their give that organizations corporate unlike that is limitation Our exchanges. information up speeds it because back them call to tend we and numbers personal our call members because often very phones mobile personal our utilize we department advocacy the In

nte brir o h efcie s o mobile of use effective the to barrier Another 100 Mobile phone networks in Zambia specific purposes. Once deliberately 101 lated by women are an essential form of social capital. Networking via the mobile phone establishes virtual communities andNetworking via the mobile phone establishes In homes where couples are in possession of a mobile phone, the Based on deep cultural, traditional and religious grounds, most married couples in Zambia believe in the principle that married couples are one. This principle contradicts the ownership model of the mobile phone companies that is presented as personal and private property owned by its user. based conflicts were frequently men­ gender-based conflicts were During our conversations yields ‘social capital’, meaning ‘stocks of social trust, norms and networksyields ‘social capital’, meaning ‘stocks of that [women] can draw upon to solve common problems’ (Sirianni and Friedland n.d.; Sinha 2005). In the context stocks of of social mobile trust, phone norms use, and the networks are virtual as and they amorphous are embodied in the mobile phone tion book, of which the is user’s a contacts. compila­ These contacts configured to are form networks to suit individual but can be configured, networks of civic engagement on the issues and visions for change articu­ The denser these networks are, the more likely that members of the boundary of ownership is often crossed out of curiosity, suspicion and disregard for the independence of women. Partners about tend whom the to other partner be is wary communicating with, and because of the ‘oneness’ principle tend to claim the right to know. Conflictwhen arises either partner claims independence. It has females who been have the claimed their case independence that and autonomy in using consequencesThe 2007). (Chakwe victimized been have phone mobile the in the extreme have included abuse, death and divorce. Discussion tioned as having occurred as a result of mobile phone use. The conflict usually occurs because of suspicion about male or female) whomin a relationship is speaking a to. The names listed partner in the (whether phone book of a woman’s personal mobile phone must be dialled with caution lest she upset her partner. Leah Mitaba explains: phone phone networking for advocacy is based gender - conflict over use of the mobile phone. The Zambian media’s (Chakwe 2007; Batista 2002) cover ­ age of communication by mobile phone among has heterosexual hinted at couples gender-based tensions. Reports have noted how values cultural have influenced the way women communicatehave and hampered their to a degree freedom of expression and This freedom perspective was to echoed network. by the women I spoke with. Abraham | 9 codn t ter xeine i a ubr f ae wee h mobile used. the was phone where cases of number a in experiences their to according advocacy, successful and policy influencing ‘social to prerequisite this a organizations, is capital’ these For women. of advancement the for each to linked changes achieve to collaborate subsequently can and calls phone via other be can purposes particular for organizations or groups women’s by formed networks Similarly, capital. social generate turn in n.d.). Friedland and (Sirianni recommendations their to respond will decision-makers and community evs I te book the In selves. them­ express and communicate to freedom women’s of restriction its to negatively women among advocacy for networking phone mobile communication. of cost high the to due concepts misleading and unrealistic communication’ phone mobile ‘free and access’ phone mobile cept of‘freedom’thatissynonymous withmobilephoneuse,making‘free economically. women to these empower taken deliberately are measures unless women disempowered economically of involvement the with purpose this serve cannot empowerment women’s for advocacy in used are that networks virtual Mobile-phonesustained poverty. their to addition further a being risks units call of purchase the inadequacy, capability In with member network units. virtual poor the for call ­reality, of purchase constant demands which constant on communication, reliant is advocacy phone mobile of effectiveness the that note to critical is It units. call of purchase every with financial diminish resources their since users poor of abilities the reduces phones mobile community. the virtual the of case, life this in the including, in community, part take normally cannot they and exclusion, social experience may poor the deprivation; capability of terms in identified be Accord­ poverty. of indication an itself is potential diminished communica­ This will. afford at ting to inability their to owing diminished is potential the user underprivileged the for while resources, or well-being emotional realistic portalthroughwhichtoaccesssocialamenities,i.e.information, a is book phone the units, call with user the For discourses. development these from woman disempowered the of exclusion represents it because without negativelyaffectsadvocacyforwomen’sempowerment,however, rks and Sinha (2005)maintainsthatphonecallsreinforcevirtualnetworksand based conflict over use of the mobile phone alsoinfluences phone the mobile of use over conflict Gender-based con­ the undermine to begins thus thought of train this ‘poor’, Forthe Adequate income, then, is a means to capabilities, and the cost of using those and units call with those separating system’ class ‘virtual The ing to Amartya Sen in Sen Amartya to ing 4 Ssi Sassen, Saskia Women?, for Bad Multiculturalism Is (1999), poverty can poverty (1999), Freedom as Development 102 ­owing Mobile phone networks in Zambia 103 Returns from the efforts of women’s mobile-phone-sustained advocacy Returns The incapacity of disadvantaged women participants to afford to sus­ Only when these two barriers are overcome will ‘the names in the The current gender conflicts overmobile phone use expose women’s networks are more immediate when the networks are dense. Depending on the strength of this density, social networks are formed and potential social capital for change can be realized. useful This prerequisite social for women’s capital progressive change. can be a discourses developmental -phone-hosted mobile in participation their tain represents poverty and inequality among women. It also represents the of ‘poor’risk that mobile-phone-enhanced advocacy may ignore the voices women if deliberate measures are not put in place to include the them on basis of the recognition of their thereof. Furthermore, women absence must elect and to uphold their the individual and circumstances collective rights as women amid the patriarchal society live and in resist the which traditional they gender norms that limit their freedom of expression and networking. address book’ have substantial meaning in rights networking in Zambia. for women’s Conclusion resistance to cultural restrictions that limit their freedom of expression and freedom of networking. Women in situations from their of new-found independence conflictlinked to arising use of the mobile phone are faced with the dilemma of either adapting their phone use to fit of with their the constant cultural/traditional mobile subordination, or of adapting it to their desired or self-elected emancipation. In mobile phone presents itself as effect, a culturally revolutionizing tool, bringing the to the fore long-standing but unresolved injustices. in an essay entitled ‘Culture beyond gender’ rights as (1999), cultural rights describes and stresses group that group rights are considered a way of protecting the importance of culture. In this context, we observe that the rights of the individual woman user may contradict the cultural principle that married couples are one. Sassen insists that it is difficult for women to both exercise their individual richness of experience/norms/rituals sense in most cultures of where women are self and attain disempowered. It is this sense of self which is in conflict with the cultural demand for women’s subordination and collaboration in the patriarchal status quo. Where conflict occurs and affects women, it is often because the woman sacrifices the group rights that generally uphold patriarchal values, in favour of her individual rights. Abraham | 9 effort for mass education. mass for effort publicity a as and victims to arity solid­ of show a as hearings court at up turn to masse en members alerts and abuse rights human of victims organ women. for vote to remember to public general the of members advising NGOCC the of members by campaigns message text to extent an to owing officials, women elected of rise steady a been has There women: public. general the to commemoration in messages advocacy text also and days the commemorate to reminders text Members violence: gender-based include: work its in phones mobile implements NGOCC community.their in empowerment women’s for issues development for linkages network for phones these use also They answered. and asked be can tions ques­ developmental where forum a create and leaders local invite they phone a run station, radio community their chapter. this in names real their of networking. and building capacity through development and gender addressing organizations community-based and NGOs member its strengthening and tions organiza­ women’s a as serves that (NGO) organization ­governmental Notes d) General information dis­ information General d) The appearances: case Court c) of office public into Election b) against activism of days Sixteen a) 4 3 2 1

Other programmes in which the which in programmes Other They, in collaboration with with collaboration in They, use to agreed interviewed Those non- a is NGOCC The umbrella body, coordinating body, umbrella ization supports women women supports ­ization - in radio programme on which which on programme radio in 104 Sirianni, C. and L. Friedland (n.d.) (n.d.) Friedland L. and C. Sirianni, mobile of ‘Effect (2005) C. Sinha, (1999) A. Sen, beyond ‘Culture (1999) O. Sassen, NGOCC (2004) NGOCC a in ‘Marriages (2007) M. Chakwe, the phones: ‘Cell (2002) E. Batista, References 2008). January NGOCC, Mitaba, well the to related information general of tion dissemina­ of tool a as phone mobile the using increasingly is organization semina March 2008. March accessed dictionary/capital.html, www.cpn.org/tools/Movement, Renewal Civic capital’, ‘Social 2008. March ­accessed wf2005/papers/sinha_chaitali.pdf, www.irfd.org/events/2005, Society Information the and ment Develop­ Global Divide, ­Digital on Conference communities’, rural empowering on telephony Knopf.York: New dom, Press. versity Prince­ Women?, for Bad culturalism Okin, M. S. in gender’, (NGOCC). cil Coun­ Coordinating Organization ZARD/Non ment Develop­ and Research for ciation Asso­ Zambia Lusaka: Zambia, in Women of Situation the on Report accessed March 2008. March accessed article.php?articleId=25563, postzambia.com/ era’, phone cell 2008. September news/2002/06/53452 wired.com/gadgets/wireless/ breaker’, marriage tion and receipt: The The receipt: and ­tion ton, NJ: Princeton Uni­ Princeton NJ: ton, - being of women (Leah (Leah women of being Development as Free­ as Development Beijing +10 Shadow +10 Beijing , 22 Post, The - Governmental Governmental ­post Wired, , accessed accessed , - ­ read_ Is Multi­ Is www. April, three | Using ICTs: making life better? This page intentionally left blank 10 | Mobile phones in a time of modernity: the quest for increased self-sufficiency among women fishmongers and fish processors in Dakar

Ibou Sane and Mamadou Balla Traore

The evolution of information and communication technologies (ICTs) is upsetting the long-standing socio-economic and cultural landscapes of human societies. They push the boundaries of human action, and are often regarded as a panacea for various ills of humanity, particularly in countries in the South, leading to associated hopes and fears. ICT is redesigning the architecture of our world with a speed and intensity unprecedented in the history of human societies. These days it is widely acknowledged that the quality of ICT is an influencing factor in building and strengthening economic and social development in the North and South. In African countries there is an urgent need to look for appropriate ways to fill the technological gaps that separate them from developed countries (Mottin-Sylla et al. 2004). Today, the influence of ICT brings up several questions. These tech­ nologies give rise to phantasms of all kinds, creating dreams in millions of women and men around the world. Some analysts attribute to them excessive powers to transform societies, while others declare that ICTs do not have the power to change society but simply accompany a general and widespread movement which is witness to worldwide economic and cultural exchanges. It is the more optimistic reading of ICT which seems most widely accepted in the literature (Flichy 1991). Neglected for a long time by economic development theorists as a transforming factor in socio-economic relationships, ICT is now con­ sidered a tool that can contribute to the creation of wealth for nations. It can act as a lever to accelerate growth and development by facilitating social exchanges and economic activities. It is this ‘developmentalist’ concept of progress through ICT which is now regarded in all African countries as a way to solve the serious problems of underdevelopment and poverty among their citizens (Commissariat général au Plan 1991). In Senegal interest in ICT is primarily in the Internet and mobile (cel­ lular) phones (Chéneau-Loquay 2001). Here the use of mobile phones is predominant but lack of economic means among most of the population, Sane and Traore | 10 to more generalized use of ICT. of use generalized more to obstacles are French in schooling of level low a and illiteracy widespread Theoretical frameworkandmethodologicalapproach hs ipre dvlpet oes ae o poue te expected the results.) produced not have models development imported these why explains doubt no affected (Which relations. gender actors relevant the social or these by the of perspectives the account into take not do abstractions whose theories development general use to refusal our on based positioning this justify We change. social endogenous and develop­ ment economic of framework a within contribution our located we research our of outset the at schemes, development imported on based modernize dif ­ to trying multiple in with the contend to with have states Faced African that chapter. ficulties our of heart the at lie that tions transformation of the social relationships between the sexes. the between relationships social the of transformation is objective whose positions discourse work development and our gender words, the within other itself In change. social of purpose the for potential creative their liberating of process the in are visibility they more as them) give to doing so in (and Senegal in entrepreneurs women space. and time of (contraction) control their increases technology this because difficult less profession their making the transactions, commercial for are tool preferred phones mobile – chapter this in on focus we group in the – fishprocessors Dakar and fishmongers women For self-sufficiency. their home. the in men of Senegalese power traditional the questions that process a motion in setting are subsequently and self-sufficiency, financial their affirming while creative skills their strengthen to tending are women entrepreneurship income this in involved more getting are With the country. of fabric economic economic pressuresimpactingonasignificantnumberofpeople,­ the into fit to forces men which and economy, women world capitalist the to linked behaviours new generate that changes socio-economic the of parcel and part is process we are observing unprecedented growth in the use of mobile phones. Africa, in elsewhere as – economy’ solidarity and ‘popular the called here and economy ‘informal’ the as (incorrectly) known elsewhere – Senegal ahrn ncsay o this for necessary information -gathering scientific the of part As assump­ the summarily, only if here, underline to useful be might It h fcs f hs hpe’ aayi i t caiy h efrs f these of efforts the clarify to is analysis chapter’s this of focus The strengthen to women of quest this within role important an plays ICT ih h msie rpin f oe it te oua eooy in economy popular the into women of eruption massive the With

108 - eeaig ciiis Through activities. generating women women 1 This Mobile phones in a time of modernity sidered belonging (central fish market). 2 109 Marché central au poisson In increasing our understanding of the women fishmongers and fish Our investigations were difficult because they took place during the A total of sixty people were interviewed in Wolof, the main national After preliminary discussions with the women entrepreneurs at these The second step in preparatory information collection was a series women’s sociocultural environment, social relationships between impact and working the (husband–wife–relatives), relationships family sexes, of groups on the promotion of women and EIGs, use of mobile phones, practised participant also recorded life stories and and training needs. We observation. processors of Dakar who tried to strengthen their entrepreneurial success by using mobile phones, we refused to consider ourselves as ‘tourists’ on to different economic interest groupings (EIGs). These groups con­ to different economic interest groupings sites it was possible to secure their develop involvement with in them our the study, terms and and to conditions also of useful this to explain research. our It research was project to of the women that heads we of met. the groups winter, and flooding had displaced the population, who moved to other centres and temporary lodgings. The survey that we carried out allowed us to address two groups of people: women members of the Groupement de Promotion Féminine – Group for the Promotion of who Women own and (GPW), make effective use of mobile phones as part of their com­ mercial transactions, and those who do not have them or use them only occasionally. From this, we were able to get a we sense needed of to question the in population order to obtain a credible sample which saturation met principles. language in Senegal, addressing economic living conditions of Senegalese women, women’s entrepreneurship and use of mobile of different ages and ­ focus groups were set up involving women phones. Three of meetings with women involved in the fisheries­ Pen Dakar region: Soumbédioune, Hann Yarakh, ­fish-landing sites in the sector at main the thium Thiaroye and the research, ­research, a series of meetings was held with heads of the main national structures responsible for the fisheries sector:graphic the Service Regional and Oceano­ the Maritime Fisheries Division. are involved in the These realm of halieutics agencies (fish) production, which is mostly dominated by economic operators such as fishing companies,fishmongers, women women micro-fishmongers and fish processors and (men women). We also had to seek permission from authorities to and be the able help to meet of women these at the determine sites with of them our a study, discussion framework. and to Sane and Traore | 10 biases and extrapolation. and biases of avoidingcompletely, suchasdistortionof thecollecteddata,emotional tancing, weareawareofthemultiple biasesthatanyresearchis incapable 1980s. the in programmes adjustment structural of imposition since affect­ citizens Senegalese crisis most economic ing the of effects harsh the by faced of families, well-being their the ensure to determination strong their by amazed also Weequipment. basic appropriate of were lack and crime, organized from aggression safety, of lack a was norm the where areas in day a hours two atthe fishlandings twenty- to hours four from anywhere work may orders, incoming or wharf on depending who, processors, fish and mongers regular the by 1998). (Zaoual provided rationale’ economic one the than models complex more requires a of help the with operates latter The science. ordinary of reductionism a such against preferred We standards. quasi-static maintains times other at and calculating; and selfish rational, totally times supposedly is who at individual an favour economicus, to tend These methods. investigation classic of of biases and ambushes usual the avoid position to tried we understanding, growing a to study under facts the a of knowledge from limited gradually of position proceeding By actions. players entrepreneurial these that their sense to and give meaning the of grasp better a get to and presence, our by skewed less were that trade) their of realities hard the as study. our with proceeded we as them to invisible virtually became gradually presence our that extent an such to – processors fish and fishmongers women with relationships close build conviviality to able meaningful were we of conditions creating By sexes). the between considered taboo (since it concerned, for instance, the social relationships information provide to reluctance women’s the of because perhaps trust, of lack to related be usually would Obstacles from environment. coming this outside observers by faced generally barriers the overcome enabled to interests), us common sharing and participation (i.e. anthropologically speaking environment, this in immersion full only rites), and traditions its for known (well sector fisheries the of complexity the given stay amongthewomeninoursampleto‘objectifyobjectification’.Infact, our throughout strove we distancing, and engagement of principle the the outsideofphenomenatobestudied.Positioning ourselveswithin ept or eerh tiue f lentn eggmn ad dis­ and engagement alternating of attitude research our Despite fish­ women of conditions working harsh the to sensitive were We (such phenomena witness to us allowed methodology of choice This cmoie n stae rtoaiy woe descrambling whose rationality, situated and ‘composite a idvda who individual an sociologicus, Homo 110 wo rebels who situs, Homo Homo Mobile phones in a time of modernity 111 We We tried to identify the main factors that form the basis of the in­ It is in such a context, profoundly marked by the pervasive influence In order to redress the deteriorated economic situation and make a For Ndiaye and Tidjani (1995) the substance of structural adjustment Overall, everything indicates that structural adjustment programmes In analysing Senegalese society in terms of gender relationships, two main trends of thinking can be discerned. The first underscoresibility invis­ of the essential activities of women and the in environment, their managing absence in the labour statistics, in economy economic or food production; their marginalization and the lack of consideration of these activities, regardless of their significance atand the the economic devaluation of level; their status and roles in an in economy the grounded concept of monetary income. The second insists on the take need into account to these roles that women play (Sow 2004: 50). equality between the sexes in Senegal. A reveals that study the most of visible characteristic Senegalese of the society gender relationship is the hierarchical organization of social relationships, which subordinates women to men. In traditional Senegalese society authority is manifested ns, activitiesThis translates into a separation of domai as a male attribute. and characteristics between the sexes (Diop 1981). of ancient structures for managing men and women, that the state national of Senegal has tried to build since 1960 dence) (the an endogenous year modernity which of remains its illusory to indepen­ this day. In fact, economic and social development policies undertaken – based on models estranged from the realities in this country – have shown limits, their if not their failure. new start, the state has been forced since the 1980s to national appeal financial institutions to such inter­ as theWorld Bank and the Interna­ tional Monetary Fund. This meant that the implementation of structural adjustment programmes was based on the condition of borrowing from overseas; in other words, confiscation of the the state. economic sovereignty of programmes relies mainly on the search for a -political socio order dom­ inated by market logic and withdrawal of the state from the sectors important of the national economy (water, electricity, agriculture, industry, These programmes have acceler­ etc.) (see also Duruflé 1988; Diouf 1992). conditions, and have resultedated the deterioration of living and working in multiple consequences: lay-offs, business closures, restructuring of the economy along purely liberal lines, wage reductions, less buying power for the workers, and flexible staff management. Socio-economic and political context of the research the research of context and political Socio-economic Sane and Traore | 10 credit conditions that offer very little advantage. little very offer that conditions credit and funding to access difficult discrimination, including journey, sional profes­ their throughout challenges different face Womenentrepreneurs freedom. and self-sufficiency more towards forces creative women’s of liberation the for movement the of expansion full back holding obstacles and constraints sociocultural from themselves free surely but slowly to entrepreneurs female more and more allow EIG, the by incarnated tion emancipation. for open desire more their to are that spaces new within and through individuality their express to opportunity the members women their give groups the nut­ shell, a In relatives. of circle domestic the outside links socio-economic groups these women, build to them allowing by of members their of mobility the status strengthen also and role the to linked constraints lessen the that structures As desires. or problems personal certain resolve and families their for provide better to opportunities them affording by women these of self-sufficiency financial the facilitate they other the on structures and crisis, material organizational the of effects psychological and material the mitigate such hand one the on lifeof fact, In totheaffective women. these linked strongly groups or trade uni­ community networks: fied associative active through initiatives for capacity real a sexes. the between disparities of end) the (even reduction the for strategy sound a promoting approach gender current the with perspective, in change the in resides approach this of agroup advantage as significant The individually. than funding find and activities easier common is develop it to that women idea for the on based is them motivating philosophy The expansion. Women,and development continuous undergone have GPWs solidarity and economy. popular the in massively invest they this do To families. on heavily weigh that constraints social and economic the alleviating to view a with women mobilizing in roles significant play GPWs and ations associ­ women’s context, this In families. many of precariousness the to contributed and men of position dominant the weakened has Senegal in as inurbanareas.Asaconsequence,thedisastrousemploymentsituation rural in much as men, and women of number great a of marginalization and pauperization the increased have and counterproductive been have The actual dynamics of these structures, through the material produc­ material the through structures, these of dynamics actual The demonstrate to needs Senegal in entrepreneurship female Emerging for Decade UN the of proclamation 1975 the since years the Over 112 Mobile phones in a time of modernity ­announce 113 selves, they cannot solve social problems (Mottin-Sylla et al. them­ Before, when I left home I did not feel fully at ease until I got back. Now, with my cellular, I can be reached fairly Once quickly. I’m at the market, I have better dealings with my clients. I don’t have to travel or to A thirty-nine-year-old divorcee and mother of two agrees: that I have the merchandise requested. In addition, it sometimes happens that the Association informs us at a moment’s notice about a meeting to be held; in such a case, in order not to worry my family, I use By necessity, I bought a portable. Sometimes, I have clients who call me to get news about the market … very often, the one who supplies me with fresh fish may call me very late at night. It also happens that I have to stay at the fishing port until it’s very late, and it is with my portable that I call my husband to let him Also, know. sometimes, I have urgent needs and I solve them with my portable. I am more mobile with my portable and I’m not afraid that my family might not know where to reach me if they have to. I dial my number and I answer my calls. However, I don’t know how to read, nor how to send an SMS [text message]. 2004: 140) In the struggle for development, the Senegalese state views the tele­ For the women who contributed to our research, the use of a mobile This point of view is shared by another married respondent, who is ICTs are only tools, means of information and communications. By communications communications sector as a strategic element in economic and political modes of intervention. The communications variable plays a significant role in the direction and optimization of and resources in the to coordination be of mobilized, activities undertaken. Subsequently, undergoing ICT rapid is development and expansion – and this is happening practically all over Africa. The mobile phone is by far the most ICT, and this utilized corresponds with the importance given to speech in orally based African societies. phone allows them to save time and significantly increase business vol­ umes. They say that the mobile phone erases the problem of Said distance. one respondent, who is forty-four years it was for my activities. Sometimes,children: ‘When I bought my portable, old and a mother of six my clients need me, but are not able to reach me. Now don’t that have I to have travel it, to I solve my problems. The portable is a necessity.’ forty-one, and a mother of nine children: Results Results Sane and Traore | 10 an introduction to accounting and financial management. financial and accounting to introduction an and needs, particular their also to adapted they literacy them, functional better among a language want French the in illiteracy the of Given level borders. high their on countries the beyond exports for them for in theInternet.Theysaidthatlatterwouldopenupnew opportunities as well as phone, mobile the tool, working main their regards as urgent particularly is training for need The 2008). Traoré and (Sané of trade their execution efficient for necessary skills the acquire to them allowing • • • • phones: mobile of use to linked tages be research. to in-depth more needs through this understood better that sense a clearly however, is, not anepi­ There is phenomenon. this that shows clearly fisherfolk, to management upper from Senegal, in players social of categories all by phone mobile the Use of together. these of fashion both a doubt no it is Is It tool? men. working and a or women statement of number great a of life daily the in world’. the around men and women of number great a by not or to expressed needs needed the meet have to order certainly in it would invent we exist, not did phone mobile the ‘if of form that say to interviewee one leading new benefits, many offers communication this of development of speed popular the the economy solidarity In and clients. and suppliers with relationships of quality improves the also and transactions commercial in increase the con­ to tributes greatly It entrepreneurs. female by undertaken work the possible make that modalities the of part integral an now is tool this clearly that shows 1996 since Senegal in phone mobile the of use the in explosion phenomenal The effects. positive many had has phone mobile the that The women also indicated their need for training in various subjects, various in training for need their indicated also women The loyalty.client increased and contacts; quick for opportunity an time; of factoring new a travel; in reduction great a advan­ several show results our sector marketing fish -products the In tool necessary a become has phone mobile the obvious: is thing One Testimonies gatheredfromthewomeninourresearchmadeitobvious SMSs. send and read to how know I addition, In more. any family my about worry don’t I and free more am I cellular the With them. inform to phone portable my 114 Mobile phones in a time of modernity al 115 In order to better understand the current dynamism of Senegalese It is such a social model (currently reconstituted) which to varying These days women are assuming new roles with the reconstitution of As previously indicated, the crisis of the imported development model, The proliferation of urban areas from 1960 to the 1980s is explained byexplained is 1980s the to 1960 from areas urban of proliferation The ­ linked to implementa in Senegal was of urban zones The development economy traditionally marked by peanut crops, an influx of rural men and men rural of influx an crops, peanut by marked traditionally economy activ­ income-generating of search in centres urban the to headed women ities. One should recall that the migration of rural populations towards moral and cultural social, of rupturing gradual the of dimension a is cities values caught in the tension between tradition and social changes. women, it should be noted that in traditional Sahel societies hierarchical links than upon the conjugal­ organization is founded more upon lineage ity that is a trait of the present modernity. As already mentioned, tradi­ of the functions of production,tional organization favours the separation consumption and residence. In such a context men access to and distinct resources women and have also assume different responsibilities. degrees is a source of self-sufficiency for women. In the Sahel countries owner­ individual maintain spouses particular, in Senegal in and generally ship of property. They rarely hold common goods and capital, and they in terms of expenses. The feel­ assume different roles and responsibilities is another reason for theing of self-sufficiency that this creates for women development of female entrepreneurship. This wise custom throws into stark contrast the current pervasive power of patriarchal standards. the traditional family model, the ongoing nuclearization of the family, changes in value systems and the questioning of the predominance relationships. This march towardslineage and its underlying hierarchical of the ‘liberation’ of women has had the side effect of increasing the divorce rate and the emergence of women as heads of country family, as in as the much cities. in the tion of the colonial administration and economy, and accelerated after the country’s independence in 1960. Looking to promote economic and social development, the new state undertook a series of reforms, ing ­ seek to break away from the colonial model institutional at levels. The new political, structures of economic production were addressed and in the Land Reform Act (1964), the Local and Territorial Administration Act (1972) and the Family Code (1973). that cities of­ opportunities (jobs, trade, industries) the emergence of new rur­ the of erosion the to response In area. Dakar the in particularly fered, Changes in socio-economic relationships within society and and within society relationships in socio-economic Changes environments in urban families Sane and Traore | 10 in y oe t gt u o te oetc pee Mo 20) while 2005), (Mbow sphere domestic the of out get to women by tion determina ­ growing This an advancement. social of means become a and aspiration training and education them patriarchal For the structures. outside sociocultural emancipation political and social to for women many search pushing economy, world capitalist the deeper their in of immersion virtue by areas urban in obvious more doubt no is tion evolu­ This themselves. among solidarity support and lucrative both are that activities fostering at aimed etc.) tontines, EIGs, (GPWs, structures multi-faceted up set have They skills. adaptation great demonstrated and have self-organization women areas), urban in as rural in much conditions (as living difficult increasingly and with popular the Faced economy. in involved solidarity women the of power social the to tribute retire. to had have they because or unemployed were husbands their because either family, the women interviewedwereforcedtoassumeanessentialrole insupporting the of all Practically affairs. household of management the in ­superiority tradi­ the of tional family. Thisunexpected situationprofoundlychallengesmasculine architecture the upsets and farther progresses tendency this areas urban In breadwinners. families’ their become have they that as i.e. simul­ roles, incompatible traditionally and hold popular they the economy, in solidarity involved women other Like life. professional and familylife between aninteraction are processors fish and fishmongers necessity. vital a becomes their family of outside women of work the on, point this From opportunities. income-generating new of search in universe get economic the to in universe involved domestic which their of past out recent coming fairly are women the why with explains rupture of situation al. this et is (Antoine It themselves 1995). by household their of needs essential the for provide fully to (men) families of heads of incapacity increasing the observe we particular, in people young and women and general in ilies popularand the within economy. solidarity aliving of making and ways insecurity find to from try escape and to poverty try women and men of number why great explains a This force. labour abundant the absorb to jobs available of volume insignificant the and market labour ‘official’ the of saturation situ­ absurd current the in results the underdeveloped, are forces to productive where ation alternatives credible produce to inability its and cnmc hne ta poonl afc scey con ­ society affect profoundly that changes socio-economic Hence, women of lives daily the that indicate recorded we stories life The In thecurrentsocio-economiccrisisseverelyaffectingSenegalesefam­ taneously spouses and substitutes for their husbands in the sense the in husbands their for substitutes and spouses taneously 116 Mobile phones in a time of modernity 117 mendations: There is an urgent need to achieve – on their behalf and that of many Considering everything mentioned above, we make the following the development of femaleThat in addition to ongoing efforts to foster entrepreneurship and organizations that support the promotion women, of the state of Senegal should contribute more as a to facilitator ensure that female entrepreneurship becomes a true structure for promotion and emancipation. That the social advancement of women undeniably requires a multi­ dimensional policy of public powers that act simultaneously on the school system, on employment and on the social and cultural environ­ ment. In investigating an economic, social and societal change process, we The traditional ideology of women’s dependence on and submissio n to dependence ideology of women’s The traditional

wanted to show how some Senegalese women in the fishing sector seek to lessen the obstacles and constraints that curb their full self-realization through entrepreneurship. How did they use a working tool such as the mobile phone to maximize their commercial transactions? How did fac­ and material difficulties curbtors such as illiteracy, poverty and technical their keen desire to break with a model of society that belongs to another historicity (tradition), and whose structuring principles (discrimination, marginalization, etc.) do not correspond with the present aspirations of women (self-sufficiency, equal rights, accountability, etc.)? other women involved in the popular and solidarity economy – economic and social policies able to appreciably improve their living and working a decisive influence on their futureconditions. Such initiatives could have behaviours and attitudes, and thus allow them to fully participate in the present endogenous modernization process in Senegal. recom­ • • Conclusion and recommendations men (in particular to their husbands), as prescribed by Islam, the religion as prescribed to their husbands), men (in particular of the majority in Senegal, is often evoked the emancipation of women. to Objections are generally framed limit as follows: the movement for activities outside the home distance women from educational responsibilities, their give them freedom and, domestic by the same token, and can lead to infidelity. Beyond such male resistance, however, evolution towards a real redistribution of the roles of men and women still man­ ages to follow its logical course. seeking a new equilibrium between the sexes within a society undergoing undergoing within a society the sexes between equilibrium a new seeking a transformation, is sometimes a source of tension. Sane and Traore | 10 • Loquay, A. (2001) A. Chéneau-Loquay, (1995) al. P.et Antoine, References ditions. con­ appropriate under place take could them with meetings that so authorities the inform to ­important therefore was It services. public 2005.) non the and non the market, the poles: three combines economy solidarity and popular The workers. active the of most together brings sector new this official, i.e. ‘modern’, as known ­econ underground or informal as tions Notes Flichy, P.(1991) Flichy, (1988) G. Duruflé, (1992) M. Diouf, Diop, A. B. (1981) B. A. Diop, (1991) Plan au général Commissariat s o mbl poe t cnur pc fr nrae fedm and freedom increased achievement. for space conquer to phones mobile of use the including – modernity of values new with imbued increasingly is which society, Senegalese of direction present the with line in more women of image the of revaluation a for call will process a Such sity. neces­ unavoidable an be will roles female and male of Redefinition ACL_mobile.PDF africanti.org/resultats/documents/ at online available Afrique, en mobile téléphonie la de toires IFAN-ORSTOM. Dakar: crise, la à face dakaroises 2 1 communication moderne. Espace moderne. communication Karthala. Paris: Afrique, ment’, Karthala. Paris: domination, de et d’inégalité tèmes sys­ Les changement. et Tradition , Paris. économiques , performances et l’information de Technologies omy. Contrary to the sector the to omy.Contrary The women are assisted by assisted are women The designa­ such challenge We , 45. Africaine, Politique - monetary. (See Ndiaye Ndiaye (See monetary. Une Histoire de la de Histoire Une ‘La crise et l’ajuste­ et crise ‘La La Société wolof. Société La L’Ajustement en . Les Familles Les - merchant merchant Les Terri­ Les www. 118 Sané, I. and M. B. Traoré (2008) (2008) Traoré B. M. and I. Sané, Ndiaye, S. (2005) S. Ndiaye, (1995) Tidjani B. and I. A. Ndiaye, Mottin et ‘Hommes (2005) P. (ed.) Mbow, Sow, F. (2004) ‘L’analyse de genre et et genre de ‘L’analyse F. (2004) Sow, Zaoual, H. (1998) ‘Le besoin de able at: able avail­ Report Senegal’, Dakar, de mareyeuses et poisson de trices transforma­ des Cas Sénégal. au communications des et formation ‘­ Montreal. Quebec, of University thesis, PhD (Senegal), Saint-Louis de ville la dans communautaire L’entreprenariatprécarité. de contexte en local développement et monographs], pp. 3–95. pp. monographs], of [Series monographies de Série CODESRIA, Dakar: économique’, crise et ouvriers ‘Mouvements ENDA. Dakar: l’information, de société la de africaines ­Citoyennes CODESRIA. Dakar: 5, no. Series] [Gender genre Série privées’, et publiques sphères entre femmes Découverte. La Paris: privée, vie et publique F. and Mama A. Ayesha, I. M. in Afrique’, en sociales sciences les Brussels. [Culture and Development], 33, ment’, sciences sociales du développe­ une nouvelle énigme pour les 50. p. CODESRIA/Karthala, Paris: society], and gender, [Sex, Femmes et technologies de l’in­ de technologies et Femmes Sow (eds), Sow - Sylla, M. H. et al. (2004) (2004) al. et H. M. Sylla, Culture et Développement www.GRACE-Network.net Sexe, genre et société et genre Sexe, Economie populaire Economie croire: ­croire:

. 11 | Women entrepreneurs in Nairobi: examining and contextualizing women’s choices

Alice Wanjira Munyua

Throughout the world billions of people are purchasing mobile phones. A 2007 International Telecommunication Union report estimated that 3.305 billion mobile phones were in use. Rapid adoption of this technology raised hopes that people in the developing world would benefit from it (Gamos 2003). In Kenya the demand for mobile phones is huge and continues to expand; many mobile users do not own a landline at home or at work. A 2005/06 Communications Commission of Kenya annual report showed that landline subscriptions had continued to decline, remaining below 300,000 subscribers, whereas mobile telephone usage had risen from 4.6 million to 6.4 million subscribers during 2005/06. ‘A substantial proportion of small businesses use mobile phones as their only means of communication’ (Vodafone 2005: 51). This confirms that in Africa the mobile phone is used as a substitute for rather than to complement a landline (Donner 2007). A mobile phone is seen to offer advantages over fixed lines. A study of Kenyan women entrepreneurs revealed that the mobile phone had indeed affected the effectiveness and efficiency of women- owned businesses (Wanjira Munyua and Mureithi 2008). Has the applica­ tion and use of the cell phone to enhance entrepreneurial success also contributed, however, to women entrepreneurs’ empowerment? This chapter discusses the business choices made by the women entrepreneurs who fall into different categories of capacity and size,1 and explores how the use of mobile phones has facilitated their efficiency in managing micro-enterprises and their domestic responsibilities, and the implica­ tions for women’s empowerment.

The research context Most of the Kenyan women entrepreneurs whom we spoke to indi­ cated that their main reasons for going into business ventures included the need for achievement, autonomy and flexibility, along with pro­ viding for and educating their children (Wanjira Munyua and Mureithi 2008). Our 2008 study in Nairobi with thirty-three women revealed that Wanjira Munyua | 11 owned enterprises – women earned women – enterprises female-owned than income more cent 75 per had MSEs Male-owned theenterprises. of profitability the define to seemed also sector of choice The men). cent per (91.2 construction and men) cent per women) (65.7 manufacturing cent in women per outnumbered men (55.7 while services in men outnumbered women almost are equal, enterprises men-owned and women- of numbers the while that reveals Survey Baseline 1999) Kenya of (Republic Statistics of Bureau Central Kenya The making. garment and processing food as gender such roles, traditional their to conformed that micro-enterprises in trated segment. this in operate to required equipment and capital skills, new of terms in demands low the of to owing types businesses these for opted have may women that suggest to seems survey This 2000). 1999, 1998, Kenya of (Republic businesses service personal and social community, in concentrated are Women businesses. the by the generated incomes in the and however, choose, women and noted, men businesses of is type disparity great A women. to by compared owned men by 612,848 owned enterprises 670,727 Kenya at in equal, micro-enterprises almost owning was women and men of 1999, number in conducted the Survey Baseline (CBS) Statistics of and Bureau Programme Central Enterprise Rural Kenya the to in According force country. labour the female the of employer important an become also has (ibid.). sector private the of aspect dynamic most the as MSEs of dominance the reflects also landscape economic Kenya’s Kenya in product. domestic gross the of cent that per 12–14 generate enterprises small estimates study The cent population. per income-earning 50 the than of more to employment provide MSEs that notes zania economy. the of liberalization the to led have that reforms of increased poverty and unemployment, as well as the advent of economic offering an alternative route to economic growth, especially in the context ing to Ikiara (2001), and a World Bank report (2001), MSEs are regarded as Kenya.Accord­ in role important increasingly an played has sector formal lives. their in flexibility greater for need a or pay, and workplace current their re­ with frustration including dundancies, situations, external to response in the chose route women entrepreneurial the of most independent, be to need their on based businesses start individuals some while that found We Kenyans. many for choice career popular increasingly an becoming is ­entrepreneurship Gakure (2004) found that women’s productive activities were concen­ were activities productive women’s that found (2004) Gakure it grown, has it as that is sector the of characteristic significant One Tan ­ and Kenya Africa, South in (2001) Wolf by conducted survey A in­ the of part (MSEs) Enterprises Small and Micro the years recent In 120 Women entrepreneurs in Nairobi 121 butes for femininity and masculinity. Socialization in schools touches butes for femininity and masculinity. As Gakure (2004) notes, most women entrepreneurs in Kenya tend A review by the Kenya CBS in the same period indicated that more to draw upon their domestic skills in their micro-enterprises. She sub­ sequently concludes that as the skill base seems to determine the choice entered into is largely genderedof the business, the choice of the business in the first place. This is a reflection choices. Connell (2002) indicatesbias in education and training on career of the impact of Kenya’s cultural that much of the gender construction in notions schools of creates what very it distinct means to be attri­ a man and a woman, with on polarized the informal (hidden) curriculum, which is a schooling critical through dimension of which educational settings may introduce in social changes perceptions, but which generally continues to reproduce tradi­ tional values and attitudes. This socialization is achieved through a wide ­array of practices, ranging from administrators’ and teachers’ attitudes and expectations, textbook messages, peer interactions and classroom ­dynamics. There are also expectations in terms of the roles that students are supposed to play in the future, and these influenceas theirwell attitudes, as behaviours practised in and outside the classroom. Women’s business choices business choices Women’s female-owned enterprises (5,585) than male (4,045) closed down (Kibas and K’Aol 2004). Of those businesses that closed was common down, to both lack - women and of men-owned MSEs; lack funds of customers and too much competition accounted for 26.8 per cent of women’s ­ busi ness closures against 12.5 per cent of men’s closures. Women also cited personal reasons, for example having to take care of children, where became it increasingly difficult to balancework with familyities. Taking care of responsibil­ a sick family member accounted for 33.1 per cent of women’s business closures, while for men it accounted for 20.3 per cent are gener­ (1981), women Mincer (1978) and Polachek (ibid.). According to ally at a disadvantage when competing with men for enterprises and job for market labour the leave to women expect societies Most opportunities. respon­ childcare and the accompanying domestic purposes of childbirth, sibilities, skills that are undervalued and perceived as incompatible with enterprise and labour market opportunities. While government statistics indicate that, in recent years, the number of women-owned firmsemployees with has increased, even with this growth women remain under- represented in terms of their proportion of the high-growth firms. 4,344 4,344 Kenya shillings (Ksh) for every Ksh 7,627 men earned -enterprises. micro from their Wanjira Munyua | 11 operated enterprises. female-operated of development and growth influenced that people. ten than more ownbusi­ employing women’s never small, stayed of and small started majority growth large a nesses, the despite that notion this confirmed creates perspective also This study Our potential.’ not. and capabilities regarding biases or unconscious growth high for is it whether isation, organ­ new resultant and process organising the influences founder the of perspective gendered ‘the that notes (1997) Brush creation. business a afc ter self their affect may cess andgrowth(BrushHisrich1999).Further,women’s socialization business, their ­affec to on entrepreneurs women regarding myths societal roles. culine mas­ into venturing be build to perceived are who careers or businesses those successful Therefore, woman. Kenyan a of embodiment perfect the are norms societal to gendered According to conform norms. who women social (2003), Chege of context the in aspirations and dreams their themselves, recognize to inability an creating them, devalue which choice. real no is there real because a option not is dreams own their fulfilling that fact, actual in and and, dreams wishes personal their than valuable more and important more is valued either,itmayleadtotheperceptionthatmeetingsocietaldemands their in valuable not own rightandthatassuchtheirpotentialprofessionalcontributionisnot are they that belief the internalized have if Furthermore, women stereotypes. and roles gender their to relate that skills acquire and attributes job prefer women and men Consequently, types. women assumetheroleofhomemakerandidentifywithfemininestereo­ whereas stereotypes, masculine with identify and provider income of role Kenyan most households. in low-income to especially lower-middle case the is This income. the household supplement family to activities income-generating in even engage are to and required childcare, and housework as have such to likely responsibilities more other are girls where and lower, are education mothers’ and prospects especially employment as is such This factors where school. areas in in pronounced enrol girls never of eleven cent and per six 40 between and aged boys of cent per 10 approximately countries, Gakure’s study (2004) in Kenya sought to determine the social factors social the determine to sought Kenya in (2004) study Gakure’s oe wt ti ‘tog eae mg’ a sil od n transfer and hold still may image’ female ‘strong this with Women values gender constructed socially adopting up end women Many the assume men socialization through (2002), Connell to According developing all for that noted study Council Population 2005 A ting their attitude and the ways in which they pursue business suc­ business pursue they which in ways the and attitude their ting - seset bu big rprd ih ead to regard with prepared being about assessment 122 Women entrepreneurs in Nairobi winner. winner. 123 and friends (13.1 per cent) (ibid.). For the women who For For most Kenyans the choice of owning a mobile phone rather than a The motivation to go into business, as well as the type of business Computers are still a relatively expensive investment for MSEs (Wolf landline is affected by many factors, ranging from the failure of Kenya’s telephone corporation to deliver on its universal access more liberal obligations, regulation environment, a and increased competition in the telecommunication sector (Mureithi 2005), to the users’ perception convenience of and affordability of the mobile phone. Penetration of cell the phone is high among MSEs in Kenya; Mureithi (ibid.) industrial found in cluster an in Nairobi that 93.8 per owned cell cent phones, of in the contrast entrepreneurs to 29.7 per Factors cent that who affected used decisions fixed to lines. own a landline mobile included the phone ability rather to communicate than anywhere, a any time, and subsequent faster sales of products, among other perceived benefits. The Is the mobile phone contributing to businesswomen’s businesswomen’s Is the mobile phone contributing to empowerment? This study found that the majority performed poorly. Could the control of choice to go into a particular sort of business or to go into business at all affect their efficiency and effectiveness?For most of the women (68.6 other people by determined was business into go to decision the cent) per than themselves. These included their husbands (24.6 per cent), parents (27.4 per cent) participated in the Wanjira Munyua and Mureithi study (2008), going intoMureithi study (2008), Munyua and in the Wanjira participated business was a way of contributing additional income to support bread­ it was necessary as they were the sole families, and for some their For the women who chose their enterprise, their need to combine doing business with their domestic responsibilities was a significant factor in business choice. chosen, influences the choice of information and communication­ tech and enablethat can be used to enhance their business nology (ICT) or tool them to manage their homes at the same time (ibid.). Most women chose businesses that allowed them the flexibility needed to raise a family, and the communication tool – the cell phone – that facilitated meeting the demands of their double roles. 2001). The Wolf study further noted that MSEs usually face a compara­ tively uncertain environment and entrepreneurs often have a short-term time horizon. Therefore the decision to implement and appropriate ICTs depends on the intuition of the entrepreneur, which is subject to training their and experience. This could explain why not all potential users introduce the different ICTs, despite their advantages. Wanjira Munyua | 11 oeie wehr hy r alwd o otne o w ad s the use and own phone. to mobile continue to and allowed phone, are the they use whether wives sometimes and partners their how control to wanting partners and husbands with spouses, between household the in conflict to contribute to seem they mobile women, for impacts positive had while have phones that found 2007) (Wakunuma Zambia in phones of mobile use and women of study use Another Internet. spouse’s and phone their mobile monitored the of men cases the of most marital In their relationship. destabilizing was phones free­ mobile new have the to that women of felt dom frequently men that found (2003) Sikoska Huyer and relations. gender unequal can in this tension of and source spaces, another private become of boundaries the blur to that itcan user the is tempt however, phone, mobile the of flipside The information. it. with world the brings potentially it sphere the domestic the like into technology comes phone When mobile privacy. mobile their the on of intrusion benefit to conditional owing a phone was there that felt women the Some phone. of the on conducted conversations the of some the of out contents find to sought partners male and spouses where instances ing high regard­ concerns as well the as Kenya, in cited phone cellular a entrepreneurs operating of costs women the phone, mobile were the challenges using the in what Asked friends. and mothers spouses, ners, part­ male their from encouragement of spoke respondents the of most through called service money new transfer the to ability the providing as well as clients, and from theirbusinesspremises,anditimprovednetworkswithfriends away when even control, of sense a have to them allowed phone mobile The reminders. phone and calendar women’s the as such features through groups, with those as such meetings, social organize also could They performance throughtheirabilitytointegratebusinessandfamilyissues. business’s their improved had phone mobile the of use the that felt study grown. have to business the perceive they once only phone mobile the besides tools communication other consider owners business that noted study Tandon’s challenges licensing. and reporting the taxation, of avoid to informal remain to but option no have usually businesses small (2002), Tandon to According use. to tools ICT the and needs information determine to seems also business the of status legal Most studies seem to point out the clear advantages of mobile phones mobile of advantages clear the out point to seem studies Most sharing and networking for vehicle great a be indeed can phone The place, first the in phone mobile a purchased they why asked When (2008) Mureithi and Munyua Wanjira the in respondents the of Most credit (sharing of airtime). of (sharing credit sambaza 124 Women entrepreneurs in Nairobi 125 empowerment in a real-life context. standing of and continue investigating the dynamics of ICTs Lillian, one of the women entrepreneurs who participated in the When Lillian made the choice to return home to help her mother Lillian’s actions seem to be at odds with her beliefs about herself and Lillian had chosen a medical career and had embarked on it, com­ 2008 Wanjira Munyua and Mureithi field studyphones among on Kenyan the women use entrepreneurs, mobile of manages a and beauty salon employing nine employees. Her family business and situation hair entrepreneurs found in two categories of women corresponds with factors (see note 1), and her story provided an opportunity to explore, increase our under­ pleting the first year of a medical degree in that Canada. she She had felt, however, to abandon her medical career to help the her financial difficulties family they survive were encountering. Her mother called her back home to help set up her continued with their educationwhile Lillian’s older and younger brothers beauty and hair business as a partner, abroad. Lillian decided to give up her needs for those of her family, even though this meant giving up on her dreams. She believed that as the only girl in the family it was expected of her to help her mother educate brothers. her She said: ‘I did not have my daughter Wanjiku then and being the only girl in the family, it was and expected that of is the me way to things are.’ come back home set up and manage the business, she was excited to be of assistance her to family. She felt, however, that she had lost an opportunity she felt she could have linked medicine, which was her dream, and which to study into the hair and beauty business, therefore living her dream and helping her family at the same time. This is indicative of the many ways in which fear of disappointing their families and not living up to their expectations, mothers’ following habitual patterns of thought and action as well characterize many women’sas their own low expectations for themselves, choices and limit their dreams for their own lives (Blau et al. 1998). her capabilities, but they are in line with societal expectations. Neverthe­ less, Lillian is quite happy with her choices. Despite beauty findingbusiness does thatnot cover their all her financial and professional needs, she does not consider what happened to her wrong in any way. She has and women’s In this context, what is empowerment? The case of Lillian The what is empowerment? In this context, for women entrepreneurs, but the questions can be asked whether gender gender whether asked be can questions the but entrepreneurs, women for inequality is being perpetuated in relation to use women’s of mobile access phones, to and whether and the use of cell to phones women contributes entrepreneurs’ empowerment. Wanjira Munyua | 11 economic development. economic and political social, women’s to obstacles substantial the address they do neither women, for become empowerment guarantee not to do entrepreneur an opportunity the and innovation technological that fact the re-emphasizing business, of choice and technology new the of use the in reproduced and perpetuated being are whether socialization however, gender of raised, patterns be to has question The evident. seem domestic needs her for and business beauty and hair her for phone mobile a family. her of members other and friends with touch in keeping and movements and activities daily daughter’s her monitoring as such activities social arranging with along salon, the in activities coordinates activ­ first her given was business her conduct to it uses and present Christmas a as phone mobile She 2008). Mureithi and Munyua (Wanjira sibility respon­ of of areas dual sense her manage a to needed both her flexibility, and gives control This time. any or at day household the her of monitor time or any night at business her conduct can she therefore and anywhere, reached be can one that were landline) a to opposed (as phone translate this empowerment? does into But family. her of good the and good own her for is what of understanding her reflects analysis her and situation gendered her to adapted have to seems She preferences. socialized in based been have to seems which situation, her of evaluation her on depended time time same the the at at well-being Lillian’s daughter. her and educate to money little family a getting her out helping of option the accepted Empowerment orgenderrole entrenchment? back home to help her mother with the family hair and beauty business beauty and hair family the come with mother to her help to choice home back Lillian’s lives. own their for wishes their and interests own woman’s a serve woman necessarily not a do choices as many one therefore girl; of or expected is what and norms usually social are by these determined role, critical a play choices although circumstances, only toasmallminorityofwomen. Italsoignoresthenotionthatinmany expectations, racismandxenophobia, andthataccesscanbeempowering and traditions social labour, of divisions traditional classism, poverty, by mediated often is access women’s that fact the ignores It meaningfully. society extension, by and, them transform would ICTs and educa ­ wealth like tion, resources to access women’s in increases that assumption For Lillian the social and economic advantages of accessing and using and accessing of advantages economic and social Forthe Lillian amobile owning of the advantages of some that confirmed Lillian h cneprr cnet f moemn i Kna et o the on rests Kenya in empowerment of concept contemporary The ities. She keeps in touch with clients, organizes debt collection and collection debt organizes clients, with touch in keeps She ities. 126 Women entrepreneurs in Nairobi based based divisions of - 127 market, unpaid work. Second, most jobs are either ‘male or - Nussbaum’s approach to adaptive preferences challenges the view Most of the women in the Wanjira Munyua and Mureithi study seem From a feminist perspective this gender-based division of labour is Nussbaum Nussbaum (2000) suggests that many preferences are constructed as adaptations adaptations within a context of traditions of privilege and subordination. Seen from this perspective, a -based preference approach would tend to reinforce inequalities. When Lillian made the choice to return home she lost her opportunity to fulfil her dream. She choseexpectations of to her fulfil traditional as a woman and norms of daughter, her rather context and than pursue her resist own goals. the that a culture/context of what empowerment means-based understanding to women would suffice when one strivesempowerment. Rather, having the capability to towardsdo the things that people social justice and have reason to value is identified as a crucialsimply evaluating the concept. equality of and access to resources such as income rather So, than and wealth, the analysis should ideally focus on people’s take action (Sen 2000). capability According to Sen, ‘individuals have to varying needs for resources according to their social and physical circumstances, and the special obstacles they face, among other when people may factors. have the same basic Therefore, resources, they may end even up being unequal in their ability to perform valuable human functions.’ to have adapted to managing a combination and of busy households. business Men endeavours in business generally can focus on more ensuring time the success of their businesses. Harkim (2006) most notes of that the men in her study are have married the with advantage children of and physically seem to and mentally because their working wives are at longer home with hours the children. So even with women increasingly engaging in enterprises, they continue to be responsible for the domestic, unpaid, work. hierarchical and patriarchal and therefore an issue of justice (Knobloch 2002). Knobloch identifies three aspects of gender was in response to her mother’s request for her to come back and help rejuvenate a dwindling family income. labour. labour. The first is that men do paid work while women are responsible for non female’ and paid jobs done by women are often lower paid than the male ones. The third aspect is that women are most (by often social held and responsible cultural norms and unequal gender relations) for caring activities around a household, even when they are employed outside the house or have businesses that depend on them. Women therefore work twice as much as men, combining both the non-market economy and Wanjira Munyua | 11 being maintained and enhanced by women themselves. women by enhanced and maintained being are norms the when even norms, gender accepted beyond move can that actions and thoughts require to seems arena ICT the in empowerment double roleeffectively. The strivingtowardsgenderequalityandwomen’s gender-specific this manage to efforts her into ICT an of integration her and sector, female traditionally a in responsibilities income-generation and domestic combining of role a to home return to willingness her and choices Lillian’s by illustrated as desires, and dreams women’s into crept have to as strongly so internalized those especially inequalities, reinforce to tends approach preference-based This society’. the for good extension by is individual the for good is ‘what that justification the on desires, and the unexamined and decontextualized acceptance of women’s preferences and caregivers universal as women of notion the 1997) (Fraser examine critically to need a is There functions. these within needs their examine and about, care they functions which state to women allowing variability, responsibilities. domestic and work to paid them balance allow that occupations choose women result, a As (ibid.). ‘double day’ a as to refers she what managing often work, economy market Conclusion cie ua priiain n mdain Sm o te oe i the in women the of Some mediation. and participation human active through roles social towards harnessed specially be to needs technology factors. economic and sociocultural by affected use, is use actual actual capture since necessarily not does connected being or structure infra­ physical of availability the Further, revolution. phone mobile the by tee empowerment. A vast majority of Kenya’s population is still untouched norms. gender ging challen­ for avenue an providing time same the at while behave, should men and women how of ideas traditional reinforce that ways be in utilized can example, for phone, mobile the how into insights provided study has Mureithi and Munyua Wanjira The ways. multidimensional and reproduced. being still are segregation and socialization gender of patterns Instead, relations. gender of issues fundamental changed have to appear however, not, does phone cell The women. by owned enterprises micro- of efficiency and effectiveness the on impact huge a had have to appears particular in phone mobile the and Kenya, in entrepreneurship To define women’sempowerment,wemayneedtodealwithindividual Undoubtedly, ICTs can contribute immensely to development, but but development, to immensely contribute can ICTs Undoubtedly, guaran­ not does invention technological that confirms also study The complex in relations gender redefine to continue and been have ICTs ICTs haveplayedapositiveroleinpromotingdevelopmentofwomen’s 128 Women entrepreneurs in Nairobi The second category comprises The second category The third category is made up of the cheapest tariff available (Wanjira (Wanjira the cheapest tariff available 2008). Munyua and Mureithi (usually six to women with very small who have ten employees) businesses, (to secondary minimum education as level), with previous experience or private an employee in a public businesses sector enterprise. These operate from would be registered and legitimate business premises. These ­women are likely to have access to some level of training and micro- finance to advance their business, but are still constrained by access to financing. Commercial banks in still prefer to lend to large Kenya depositors, and these women are unlikely to have title deeds to meet collateral security requirements. They probably own a mobile phone and use it to manage the business. This cat­ egory of businesswoman would have growth potential and perhaps even access to international markets. women who may have some level of university education; they may also come from an entrepreneurial family with experience in managerial posi­ tions. They are likely to have small, medium-sized or larger enterprises with growth potential and an op­ portunity to engage in export. They would keep a mobile phone as well as a fixed line to conduct business and would also most probably own and use a computer and the Internet. 129 An International Labour An International Labour eurial and business know-how, 1 access to credit, and awareness of markets and market opportunities. They are most likely to employ a few family members, operate from a home-based shed (or jua kali – a Swahili term for ‘hot sun’, referring to the open-air working conditions) with ob­ limited potential for growth. To tain credit, they are likely to be part of a women’s ‘merry-go-round’, a group of five or six women who combine their savings over a six-month period of time and then start lending, on a very short-term basis, to members communication from the pool. For needs they are likely to rely on word of mouth and a mobile phone using Organization study on women Organization study on (Stevenson entrepreneurs in Kenya anecdotal and St-Onge 2005) provides of such women. evidence of a profile women Kenyan The study found that homogeneous, entrepreneurs are not categories, but fall into three distinct each with its own demographic business profile, extent of previous experience, capacity, needs, access to resources (credit, premises) as well as orientation towards growth. The first category is labelled the These micro-enterpriser. ‘Jua Kali’ women own their business, which is often not registered and is in the They have little informal economy. education (less than secondary level) and are constrained by lack of entre­ pren­ Note Wanjira Wanjira Munyua and Mureithi study reported increased efficiencyand indeed confidence when using a mobile phone for business, their this and seems to be almost universally true for different sociocultural con­ texts (Hafkin 2002; Gurumurthy 2004). Does this increased efficiency and traditional gender roles, while fulfilling the women experience confidence however, have the potential to change existing gender relations? Wanjira Munyua | 11 Brush, C. (1997) ‘Women (1997) C. Brush, Blau, F. et al. (1998) al. F.et Blau, References Gakure, R. (2004) ‘Factors affecting ‘Factors (2004) R. Gakure, (1997) N. Fraser, mobile of use ‘The (2007) J. Donner, Connell, R. W. (2002) ‘The globaliza­ of Commission Communications Chege, R. (2003) R. Chege, (1999) Hisrich R. and C. Brush, Entrepreneurs, Development of Journal tunities’, oppor­ and obstacles businesses: Hall. Prentice NJ: Cliffs, Englewood edn, 3rd Work, and Men Women, global/What_we_do/Publications/ November, ­Geneva, (ILO), Organization Labour Inter­ the for prepared Paper Kenya’, in prospects growth entrepreneurs’ women Routledge. York: New Condition, Socialist Post the on Reflections Critical 3–19. 3(2): Development, International and Technologies Information Technology of tute paper, Research networks’, business and social to changes Rwanda: Kigali, in entrepreneurs micro by phones Bielefeld: Kleine Verlag, pp. 87–98. Geschlechterforschung als Kritik, in E. Breitenbach et al. (eds), struggle for gender democracy’, tion of gender relations and the www.cck.go.ke (2006) Kenya (FEMNET). Network munication Com­ and Development Women’s African Nairobi: Mainstreaming, Gender in Trainers of Training Academic Publishers. Academic Kluwer MA: Norwell, Impact, and Role Their Important? Firms Small (ed.), Acs Z. in matter?’, they Do businesses. ‘Women-owned The Massachusetts Insti­ Massachusetts The Annual Report 2006, Report Annual A Curriculum of the of Curriculum A Justice Interruptus: Justice

. 2(1): 1–25. 2(1): The Economics of Economics The www.ilo.org/ national - owned owned Are

130 Gamos (2003) ‘Innovative demand demand ‘Innovative (2003) Gamos Ikiara, G. K. (2001) ‘Economic gloom gloom ‘Economic (2001) K. G. Ikiara, (2003). T.Sikoska and S. Huyer, (1998) Peters M. and D. R. Hisrich, careers, ‘Women, (2006) C. Harkim, gender- ‘AreICTs (2002) J. N. Hafkin, (2004) A. Gurumurthy, of impact ‘The (2004) al. et Gamos services’, telecommunications for models 2008. lang–en/index.htm tations due to mismanagement’, to due tations expec­ unfulfilled with grappling continue to Kenyans persists: still Women). of Advancement the for Institute Training and Research International Nations (United INSTRAW UN to presented paper Synthesis women’, of ment empower­ the for potential their and ICTs understanding divide: digital gender the ‘Overcoming Irwin. York: New Enterprise, New a Managing and Developing, Starting, Entrepreneurship: 279–94. 34: Counselling, & Guidance of Journal preferences’, work-life and ict/Hafkin.pdf uninstraw.org/docs/­ Neutral?, Gender ICTs Are One: Seminar ICTs, and Gender on Series Seminar projects’, multi of studies case 6 of analysis gender a – neutral? UNIFEM. Delhi: New Empowerment, nomic Eco­ Women’s for ICT on Insights and Issues Divide: Gender Digital 2008. April 29 accessed scott_et_al_background.pdf org/english/report/background/ Africa, for Commission the for prepared Report Africa’, in phones mobile www.commissionforafrica. www.telafrica.org UN/INSTRAWVirtual . 1–12 July, 1–12 , accessed April accessed , Bridging the Bridging gender_and_ - donor ICT ICT donor . British British www. , ­ Women entrepreneurs in Nairobi . , . Accelera­ Economic Economic , accessed Onge (2005) - oriented Mobiles Re­ www.vodafone. - Vodafone Vodafone Policy

www.popcouncil. Africa: The Impact www.id21.org/insights/ Development as Free­ -Network.net/ www.GRACE Poverty Poverty and Social In­ Economic Survey, Nairobi: Second Report on , Poverty Harnessing the Power of the the of Power the Harnessing April 2008. (2008) Entrepre­ Women by Phone Cell Gender the in Frontiers New neurs: for report Final , Kenya in Equation into Africa in Research Gender the (GRACE) Empowerment for ICTs Project, 28 Paper Paper Series no. 2, com/etc/medialib/attachments/ ­accessed February 2008. inforce Unequal Gender Relations in Zambia, insights69/insights69 Women Women Entrepreneurs in , Kenya International Labour Organiza­ tion (ILO). ing with -scale Small Entrepreneurs in Developing Countries: Some Findings, Paper presented at the DfID meeting: Poverty Elimina­ tion and the Empowerment of Women: Strategies for achieving the international development targets, London: DfID. of Mobile Phones: Moving the Debate , Forward ting Girls’ Education: A Priority for , Governments l org/gfd/girlseducation.htm Survey, Nairobi: Government Printers. (1999) Government Printers. (2000) vol. II: dicators, Nairobi: Government ­Printers. dom, New Delhi: Anchor Books. Support for Growth Wanjira Munyua, A. and M. Mureithi Mureithi M. and A. Munyua, Wanjira Wakunuma, Wakunuma, K. (2007) Tandon, Tandon, N. (2002) E-commerce ­ Train Vodafone (2005) Population Population Council (2005) Republic Republic of Kenya (1998) ­— — Sen, A. (2000) Stevenson, L. and A. St 131 , , Review Review Adaptive Adaptive , accessed Key Key Global Promoting Promoting Sunday Sunday , Nation Factors Factors Affecting www.tespok.co.ke/ Journal of Political selection: a human capital - Union (ITU) (2007) decisions’, Economy, 86(5): 749–73. Internet Use Among Micro- Enterprises: An Empirical Study in Kariobangi Light Industries in Nairobi, , Kenya 30 December, Nairobi: Nation Press. Telecom Indicators for the World Telecommunication Service Sector, -D/ict/statistics/ www.itu.int/ITU l at_glance/KeyTelecom99.htm Women’s Capabilities: Examining Nussbaum’s Capabilities Approach, Conference paper prepared for Von Hugel Institute, St Edmund’s College, University of Cambridge, September. t test/Tespok_Presentation.pp approach to sex differences in the occupational structure’, Special Special report in ‘The Kenyan entrepreneur: typologies and characteristics’, Paper prepared for Frontiers of Entrepreneurship Research 2004: Twenty-Fourth Annual Entrepre­ neurship Research Conference, / www.kauffman.org human development: the capa­ bilities approach’, in self accessed 10 September 2008. March 2008. accessed 12 April 2008. Preferences and Women’s Options, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 111–66. of Economics and Statistics, 63(1): 60–69. Mureithi, M. (2005) International International Telecommunications Mincer, J. (1978) ‘Family migration Kibas, P. Kibas, B. P. and G. O. (2004)K’Aol Knobloch, U. (2002) Nussbaum, M. (2000) ‘Women and Polachek, S. (1981) ‘Occupational Wanjira Munyua | 11 Wolf, S. (2001) S.Wolf, accessed April 2008. April ­accessed Research/ZEF, Development for Centre Bonn: Africa, South Rural for Implications SMEs, African for Use ICT of Impact Determinants and Determinants www.zef.de/ , 132 World Bank (2001) Bank World Press. University Oxford Oxford: Report, Research Policy Bank WorldVoice , and Resources, Rights, in Equality Gender Through Development: Engendering 12 | Internet use among women entrepreneurs in the textile sector in Douala, Cameroon: self- taught and independent Gisele Yitamben and Elise Tchinda

According to a 2005/06 estimate of the African Development Bank (2005), women entrepreneurs own approximately 38 per cent of the 7,100 small and medium-sized private enterprises (SMEs) registered in Cameroon. A large number of these SMEs in the region of Douala and a few in Yaounde have ten to fifteen employees. These women SME entrepreneurs are mostly engaged in the ready- made clothing sector and dressmaking; this sector creates the most jobs in Cameroon. Three modes of production coexist in this sector: industrial uniform production; ready-to-wear; and traditional (independent tailors and garments made to measure). The women who participated in our study were involved in ready-to-wear clothing manufacture. This chapter explores whether women heads of enterprises use the Internet access services provided through the multimedia centres of the Chamber of Commerce, why some do not, and if they do use the Internet, for which purposes do they use it? To enable enterprises to take advantage of the multiple opportuni­ ties in the field – the liberalization of world trade in the textile sector, strategies put in place to attain the Millennium Development Goals, the African Growth Opportunity Act (AGOA), and programmes of the Tokyo International Conference for African Development, the Cameroon Chamber of Commerce, Industry, Mines and Crafts (CCIMA) started a multimedia centre with funding from several partners in development. Apart from providing economic operators with services including training, counselling, useful information on the socio-economic environment, and facilitating access to foreign markets, this centre places at their disposal an Internet access space with a capacity of thirty machines and a bandwidth of 128 megabytes (MB). It is in this centre that a support programme for women entrepreneurs in the textile sector and clothing arena is being developed with a view to preparing them to conquer the North American market within the framework of AGOA. Yitamben and Tchinda | 12 Background • • • which countries, developing include: of sector clothing the in for entrepreneurs Internet the of advantages the highlighted have (Knappe 2005) Centre Hirsch 2005; Trade International the from publications of series A transaction costsandthusopenedupentryintotheinternation al market. is nolongerreservedforlargecompanies.ICTshavesignificant ly reduced 2003). al. et (Biggs sector clothing the in exporters a African is for niche billion, promising US$270 very and US$200 between potentially worth as 2003 in Bank World the by estimated market, This heritage. ethnic their express Afro that shown have studies Market Africa. from supplies obtain to seek retailers American women. by managed or The potentialisenormous.Africandesignsareattractive,andcertain owned companies for place programmes special a these is In there market. US the penetrate better to themselves organize sector clothing the in entrepreneurs help and entrepreneurs of year. previous the to compared cent per 55 by grew Cameroon, including countries, seven imports 2003, in Also 2003. in billion $1.5 to 1999 in million $600 from rose USA the to exports textile of AGOAvalue Postthrough the , continue tobeexemptfromcustomsduties.AccordingtheWashington will agreement this by affected countries in production Textile exist. do inworld or remaining markets. entering difficulty more and more have would clothing, of quantities large export usually not do which Cameroon, as such countries developing that meant 2005 in agreement this of ending The clothing. and textiles in trade international governing system quota

iesos cnieal rdcn css f eerh n develop ment; and research of costs reducing considerably three or dimensions, two in model new a of adjustment and appearance the late simu­ can which time real in ‘tests’ and to clothing of prototypes access virtual through products of development and design integrating services; improving and costs reducing delivery, up speeding pro­ of ducers; competitiveness the improve could that goods monitoring export that means (ICT) technology communication and Information capacity the strengthen to developed be to are programmes Several opportunities however, 2001, of AGOA the of renewal the to Thanks a it with brought Clothing and Textiles on Agreement WTO 1995 The - Americans are more sensitive to products that that products to sensitive more are Americans 134 from thirty- from ­ Internet use in Douala density from 0.7 per cent - commerce commerce (envisaged in the - Our study was essentially quali­

line tele - 135 Thus, according to these authors, although the use of e-applications ‘internal security’ and other customs protection; almost instantaneous on outlets in an manufacturers of data receipt by way – they may start production and ship replacement stock without waiting for orders from the retailer; and short delivery times and reduced inventory costs. developing developing solutions in collaboration with buyers or their system simply (Knappe using 2005); The Internet seems to be unknown, however, to the large majority Internet the of use the encourage to actions government Cameroonian Another meeting, organized under the auspices of the CCIMA,

Methodology Process and techniques for data gathering is is not in itself a guarantee of success, e • • • • broadest sense and not as a synonym business efficiency for while reducing online costs sales) and delays. can enhance of women entrepreneurs in Cameroon. Like (Chéneau-Loquay other 2002), African Cameroon countries is characterized by limited to and access use of the Internet (Tankeu 2005). A report by the Telecommunication International Union (ITU) in 2006 underlined the infrastructure in lack Cameroon and the of high cost ICT of bandwidth and lack of adequate local content, making participation of women in in e-commerce difficult. Cameroon are embryonic and barely visible. The Internet is used by only cent 0.16 of the per population. Objectives in telecommunications and ICT have either not been achieved or are experiencing considerable delays. These objectives include increasing fixed in 2005 to 30 per cent in 2015, and were intended to make the available public to an offer of access to 2 MBs in all before cities the with end a of digital 2007. centre tative and exploratory. When developing an understanding of the situationthe of understanding an developing When exploratory. and tative for women clothing entrepreneurs we used individual interviews, group discussions and life stories. We started with a series women and entrepreneurship, andmembers of organizations supporting of meetings with with fashion designers and women entrepreneurs. This was followed by a meeting ­gathered forty fashion designers together. with women entrepreneurs (including the designers), in which we asked whether and how they used the Internet. We also carried out thirty-four limited We semi-structured interviews with women in the clothing sector. Yitamben and Tchinda | 12 ence in relation to usage; and their needs for training. for needs their and usage; to relation in ence experi they obstacles Internet; the of use their Internet; the of knowledge their CCIMA; the of centre multimedia the of use their about asked We Cameroon. in trade international of hub the town this makes an by near of airport existence international the and Ocean Atlantic the ready to and proximity Its design industries. fashion, the including place, take activities diverse where Cameroon, of capital economic the Douala, to ourselves f omre w fud ht hr ws o rgam o hw o use to how on Internet. programme the no was there that found we Commerce, of • • • CCIMA the of centre multimedia the of Use Findings • given: were reasons following the centre, the Internetatthiscentre.Whenaskedwhytheydidnotusethisresource used the occasionally have of two only but knew centre, multimedia the Six of existence CCIMA. the of members were seventeen interviewed, niiul neves ee are ot t h rsodns jb sites. job respondents’ the at out carried were interviews Individual oevr i loig no h tann porme f h Chamber the of programme training the into looking in Moreover, Internet. the of uses the on women for activities sensitization organized never has it that fact The hours: schooling and working traditional to cor­ respond hours These it. frequent to not wish are who those Friday for to even convenient Monday from p.m.) a.m.–4 (8 hours opening The is but institution, access. difficult the with quarter of residential site a in the situated at not is centre this that fact The xsec o ti rsuc cnr (hc ws u i pae n 2001). in place Edith, in to put According was (which the centre of resource members, this its of to existence CCIMA the from even information, of Lack fashion designer) fashion a (Claudia, convenience. my to not are centre the of times closing and opening the Moreover, research. my out carry me help to there nobody was There there. students mostly found I twice. there been have I CCIMA. of centre multimedia the of existence the of learnt I that luck by is It there. go will I time, have I if now, it of know I As see. to once it visited least at have would I institution. this of hall meeting the in meetings regular hold we and centre, this of existence the of informed even not am I reality, In 1 136

or women thirty-four the Of - to - wear wear ­ Internet use in Douala Thirty-two of the thirty-four

137 Most of the women we spoke to acknowledged

The world of fashion changes often. Trends, colours, and styles change from one season to the next, from one country to the other. In my case, I have a varied clientele, in Cameroon, but also outside the So, country. in order to be up to date, I dip into the Internet, I find out what’s changed, and even about emerging trends. This allows me to be in phase with my clients. (Nicole, a fashion designer who exports her products to the USA) This centre, created at the behest of the development partners, is Despite the fact that this centre is not useful to them, they have taken The women entrepreneurs acknowledged that the Internet could be women interviewed and using the Internet did so for sional reasons, social as or outlined profes­ below. an example of the many expensive projects decided on abroad, without dialogue with the actual beneficiaries. the personal initiative to learn about using the Internet and essentially are taught, self- using the Internet as a support tool neurship for initiatives. their entrepre­ Professional Professional reasons 1) To communicate. Women used the Internet to communicate in real time with others and for rapid access abound to in this the medium. For immense two of resources the that thirty-two, the Internet enables them to become informed on current fashion and to improve their crea­ tivity and competitiveness: Use of the Internet by women entrepreneurs Knowledge of the Internet that they knew about the Internet. As Jeanine said, ‘I know the Internet very well, for at least five years very often, Internet in his office. When I went there, private company] had my uncle senior [a staff memberI in a found him busy reading or sending mails. I profitedmy frommailbox.’ consulting of great use to them in the search for customers, correspondence family with and partners, and access to sites mation communicating for useful their infor­ market studies. Three greater womenvisibility for their used activities by means the of virtual boutiques. Internet Seven for others thought it could improve their creativity and capacity to innovate. The women knew of the Internet as a communication and information search tool. Certain services, however, such as discussion forums, and the capacity to undertake collaborative work via the Internet, were known not to them. Yitamben and Tchinda | 12 hlrn Hr aso fr h Itre ws on uig h cus of course the during training: born her was Internet the for passion Her three children. has and married is She baccalauréat. a holds Françoise training. training. For 2) hi sples Rce, h hs n xot n ipr bsns, uses business, way: import this and it export an has who Rachel, suppliers. their t ainl s el s nentoa lvl, n hs o svrl prizes. several us: won told has Rose and levels, international as well as national at dress­ her opened Cameroon, fairs to fashion in participating been has she return then Since workshop. making on later, year a and Paris to went She talent. her appreciated who colleagues, her for dresses sewed and mother, seamstress her from sew to how learnt past the in had She dressmaking. learn to decided she benefits severance her With jobless. number ofyearslaterthisenterprisewentbankruptandshefoundherself A enterprise. private local a in member staff senior a be to university after clients. their with communicate to Internet the used interviewed women thirty-two the of buy you if sure merchandise.’ good-quality always get will not you that are Internet the you through because spot the on right deal to the Internet is here. is Internet the that glad I’m well. goes usually everything other, each know we and while a quite for him with working been I’ve Since me. sent he what with fied satis­ completely not was I that times few a happened has It want. I what specify I and supplier my to e-mail an send I send, to order an have I if So, travelling. of possibility the have always don’t I sometimes know, You with communicate to Internet the use they that said women Two Internet some sites of foreign dressmakers and their designs … I got I … designs their and dressmakers foreign of sites some Internet the on find to surprised pleasantly was I designer, fashion a as training started I When student. a still was I when Internet the know to got I country.the of out even and Douala, of out customers other of lot a have I customers. my with communicate to me enables Internet The me. contacting difficulties had long for had that clients American great my of one by found was I imagine, can you site, this to fair.Thanks and parade fashion a in participated I Canada; in sojourn a during partners, adian Can­ my of one by me for created was It website. a of proprietor a am I recruited was two, of mother married and designer fashion a Rose, four visible; enterprises their make to them enables also Internet The On the other hand, Florence, another entrepreneur, specified: ‘I prefer Three women declared having used the Internet for for Internet the used having declared women Three 138 Internet use in Douala 139 The women used the Internet to access viding me with so much fame in my trade. Competences and knowledges declared to have been developed by

Diane, who holds a First School Leaving Certificate, is married and a Through the Internet, I have learnt to search for information on sup­ pliers of sewing equipment; on the trends of fashion. I needed an over- sewing machine. As I could not find the brand on the market, I launched a search on the Internet that enabled me to locate some suppliers abroad that were selling them. I contacted them at the same time that my sister stayed in that location. She put me in contact with the one in her location, and I negotiated and was able to acquire my machine. It is pro­ inspired ­inspired by them during my training, and I have designs that are very much appreciated by my customers, that I created, with inspiration from these sites. I do not frequently visit them, but when I do visit I am prepared to give up some hours of my time. I get a lot of ideas. All that I regret is not being able to have Internet in the house. 1) Communication and training. 2) Information. Seeing the Internet as a source of information, women respondents use it for searching for information (on prices and brands of dressmaking equipment, fashion sites, fashion trends), information with sharing foreign partners and colleagues, of and watching fashion parades. Claire declared: the participants through the use of the Internet covered the domains of communication, training and information. their accounts, write, edit and send messages, chat, and scan and send photos of family events to friends and parents abroad. mother of five, is a member of an association affiliated to the Chamber of Commerce. She took several training courses there in entrepreneurship, pour Association the by provided training computer in part took then and le Soutien et à l’Appui la Femme Entrepreneur (ASAFE) based in Douala. It is thanks to her son, who always accompanies that she her learnt to to use the Internet: the ‘In the cybercafé, beginning, the Internet was a real curiosity to me. But so long as I go there, I learn speed a with lot which from I it. work with The the Internet is increasing. I know how open my to mailbox. I can download documents. I would not have believed it two years ago.’ 3) Other uses. Some other ways in which the Internet was found to be Contribution Contribution to competence and knowledge level at the professional Yitamben and Tchinda | 12 quality of her products and on their originality, and said: and originality, their on and products her of quality fashion renowned the on reputation her which built she that confessed She in participate. designers parade fashion a organizes she years two Every abroad. and Cameroon in parades fashion and fairs numerous in participated has She countries. European some of opened airports has the at she shops Douala, in Based ago. years obtained Dressmaking in sites. relevant from downloading and courses cutting to useful includedthecreationofdesigns,improvementcreativity,access oil reasons Social entrepreneurs who are creating their own businesses. own their creating are who entrepreneurs women for particularly and general in women for suitable therefore is It self-motivation. and attitudes media competencies, computer and tion communica­ reinforce indeed can E-learning enterprises. their themselves for for and knowledge acquire to of them few enabling a respondents, quite our of competence dynamic the enhancing has Internet to the contributed through Learning women. these for tool business ful use it to communicate with their relatives: their with communicate to it use Olga, one of the women we spoke to, holds a Higher National Diploma National Higher a holds to, spoke we women the of one Olga, or oe eternus e pk t used to spoke we entrepreneurs women thirty-four the of Seventeen (Yveline) mails. my send or consult I that cybercafé the in is It through. go not does telephone the and call they me, tell to things have they when times At Net. the to used get to me obliged have they home, their at Internet have they as and abroad, family have I mails. send and receive to Internet the use only I power­ a be to out turning is Internet the that is clear becomes What hope. have I course. on and way under are to-wear.Negotiations ready- in dealing trader American an by contacted recently was I designs. our expose we where website a disposal our at placed that abroad partner a have We association. dynamic a to belonging of luck the have I Europe. in and Cameroon of provinces the all in customers have I Today awards. me earned have that designs original with out come to adapted I that patterns found have I Often customers. other win or retain to order in date to up be always must ready-towear.One in therefore design, fashion European make I eclipse. others while appear designs new frequently, change trends These mutations. of lot a witnesses that those of one is sector Our ideas. of lot a me gives that and fashion, of domain the in news with versed always myself get I sites fashion visit I When me. for inspiration of source a is It me. to much so brought has Internet The

l o te oe wo s te nent ad ht they that said Internet the use who women the of All 140 Internet use in Douala ‘De l’entrepreneuriat féminin au Cameroun’, Financing project, Cameroon: Stean and Associates. References African Development Bank (2005) 141 We We are not using the real 1 The multimedia centre of the CCIMA dispenses important resources Hence, it is important that a vigorous information campaign is under­ The activities of this centre ought to be redirected, starting with a As for the state, it is desirable that it puts in place a coherent training For programmes to be useful to women entrepreneurs in Douala, it that are unfortunately not used by its project members. renders its The access location very of difficult, the and its openingpermit the women hours entrepreneurs who were interviewed did not to go there. The multimedia centre appears to have been conceived under the and recommendation put of donors. in The beneficiaries place of this project were never consulted, either during formulation or implementation. In other words, its objectives, strategies and basic principles did not take into account the specific situation of nor the localtheir particular needs. entrepreneurs, women taken by the CCIMA to inform its members of the resources, availability if the of situation these regarding their use is to change. dialogue with women that takes into account their needs situations. The and authorities specific of the organization need to be aware issues of associated the with the intended users of the centre. and incentive policy and creates programmes for women entrepreneurs to access ICTs. The state must also put in place a framework for making the acquisition of computers and the cost of access to the Internet more must bandwidth the of capacity The entrepreneurs. women for affordable also be improved in order to facilitate efficient use. is recommended that the programme designers learn women have from put what in place the already, taking note of the emerging Internet knowledges and practices. Only when women are consulted about their needs and realities pertaining to Internet use will Internet support pro­ women entrepreneurs to enhancegrammes be developed that will enable their lives and their contributions to the Cameroon economy. names of the women entrepreneurs with whom we spoke. Note Conclusions and recommendations Conclusions the Internet for professional reasons. Thirty -two of the -four thirty used it for social reasons. Those who use the Internet for professional reasons were self-trained. Yitamben and Tchinda | 12 Hirsch, S. (2005) ‘E-management (2005) S. Hirsch, ‘Modes (2002) A. Chéneau-Loquay, and Otto C. Miller, T., M. Biggs, Act Opportunity Growth African news/fullstory.php/aid/924/ 3, Forum, partners’, closer become suppliers – December.41, dossier, divide’ digital the ‘Africaand ranean, dances’, ten­ grandes les Afrique: en d’Internet d’utilisation et d’accès Bank. WorldPapers, Discussion Bank World market’, European the in products home and garments for challenges and opportunities Export compete! G. 2008. September 30 accessed (n.d.) (AGOA)

Tyler (2003) ‘Africa can (2003) Tyler Africa and the Mediter­ the and Africa www.tradeforum.org/ International Trade International www.agoa.gov/ ­ , 142 Washington PostWashington for Conference International Tokyo numér­ ‘Fracture (2005) R. Tankeu, connected’, ‘Get (2005) M. Knappe, Connected.html September 2008. September article7424.html américains’, sénateurs les par adopté été a III l’Agoa2015: jusqu’en prolongé 2008. September 30 ­accessed YokohamaDeclaration-fr.pd f ticad.net/fra/dossier2008/2008 (n.d.), Development African ENDA/ANAÎS.ampleur?’, quelle Cameroun: au genre de ique news/­ ITC, 3, Forum, Trade International Become_Closer_Partners.html E - management_ fullstory.php/aid/925/Get_ www.tradeforum.org/ www.afrik.com/ (n.d.) ‘L’Agoa est (n.d.) . - , accessed 30 accessed , ­ _Suppliers_ www. , . ­ 13 | ICTs as agents of change: a case of grass- roots women entrepreneurs in Uganda Susan Bakesha, Angela Nakafeero and Dorothy Okello

Current literature emphasizes the active role of information and com­ munication technologies (ICTs) in the development process. It has been widely argued that ICTs have enormous potential for reaching rural popu­ lations to provide them with education and training, job opportunities, access to markets and information important for their economic activ­ ities, as well as facilitating their participation in political processes. The poor, however, especially women, have limited access to and utilization of ICTs in their daily activities. This is primarily due to limited infrastructure and near to total absence of ICT access points in rural areas (Hafkin and Taggart 2001). The Uganda Participatory Poverty Assessment Pro­ cess (MFPAED 2002) revealed that women are still regarded as property by their husbands owing to dowry payments and, as such, men have control over women’s lives, including their time, access to information and participation in politics, social groupings and training. Our research team set out to explore the factors that facilitated the up­ take and utilization of information provided on a CD-ROM entitled Rural Women of Africa: Ideas for Earning Money by women entrepreneurs. The CD was intended to improve their businesses in particular and lives in gen­ eral.1 The CD-ROM project was proposed by the International Women’s Tribune Centre (IWTC) in partnership with the International Develop­ ment Research Centre/Eastern and Southern Africa Office (IDRC/ESAO), Nairobi, and implemented in Uganda by the Uganda National Council of Science and Technology (UNCST) in partnership with non-governmental organizations including the Council for Economic Empower­ment of Women in Africa – Uganda Chapter (CEEWA-U), Media One and Uganda Development Services (UDS). The CD-ROM was pioneered in 2001 at three telecentres in the rural areas of Nakaseke and Buwama, and Nabweru in the peri-urban area. In order to access the information, women would meet at their res­ pective telecentres at scheduled times and together with a facilitator browse the CD-ROM. At the end of each session, the facilitator would guide them in a discussion relating to what they had learned and how it applied or could be applied to their daily activities. Bakesha et al. | 13 Data collectionandprocessing Sampling ofrespondents s o rl mdl i pooig r idrn acs ad s o ICTs of use and explored. also access was hindering or promoting in models role of use The wanted. and appreciated at feel they aimed where networks spaces own social their creating form to quick are women given opportunity, that the however, clearly, out came It location. and attributes vidual indi­ status, marital one’s to according varied and challenge a remained this of information into knowledge and applying it to achieve the desired impact translation expansion, and enhancement business of under­ standing fair a had and CD-ROM the on provided information the ciated ROM to improve their improve to CD-ROM the on information the used they how about stories shared Respondents businesses. their of state the with pondent the by given information the the compare and observe enabled to team ­research This undertaken. were businesses their run respondents comprehensiveness. and accuracy ensure to taped were interviews the project beneficiaries and with the telecentre management committees. All the focus with telecentres, respective the and at each held, Interviews were discussions group subject. the of dimensions in-depth the explore con­ international project’s the also was who (IWTC), (UNESCO) and Anne Walker of the OrganizationInternational Women’s Tribune Centre Cultural and Scientific Educational, Nations United of the Nsubuga Martin (CEEWA -U), Chapter Uganda – Africa Empowerment in Women Economic of for Council the at managers project former Semakula, Daniel and Baguma Rehema Amuria, Zavuga Gorretti sultant, con­ local project the Epodoi, Mijumbi Rachael included These project. the implemented who officials the with held were interviews addition, In parti­ cipate through word of mouth. A total of sixteen women were interviewed. to invited were communities local the within respondents other women, lead the identifying After telecentres. three the at sessions ROM CD- the attended had who entrepreneurs women of leaders the targeting selection, of stages initial the during used was sampling Purposive 2006. February and 2005 September between interviewed were Respondents study. the of respondents the identifying in instrumental were managers the study to the project managers at the respective telecentres. The project Field findings revealed that although most of the respondents appre­ respondents the of most although that revealed findings Field il vst t te eeete, oe ad lcs f ok where work of places and homes telecentres, the to visits Field to order in employed were collection data of methods Qualitative introduce to order in visits pre-research undertook team research Our 144 sultant. res­ the ICTs as agents of change Prior Prior to

Empowerment Empowerment of

145 With the advent of the -ROM CD project, women accessed new in ­ I was keeping poultry on a small scale; I had only twenty chickens. I had a feeling that big businesses were for the rich. By then, there was an increase in the number of poultry farmers, which increased competition. Eventually I lost some of my customers to the new suppliers. My income drastically reduced and I was miserable, almost giving up. But yet I did not know what to do for my survival. My income was low as well because of the low quality of products. I could not invest the little income that I earned from the products back into the business to ensure continuity and profitability. women was conceptualized in our research as a process through which women’s enterprises and their personal lives progressed to better levels of performance, and the question was raised as to whether and in what way formation and ideas on how to improve business opportunities their and businesses, discovering their identifying potential. Those who had land started using it for commercial purposes cash such crops. as Others diversified cultivation their of businesses and venturedbusiness areas. As into new a result, they developed new identities, from house­ keepers to entrepreneurs, with others taking up skills training courses such as tailoring. Subsequently, most women moved away from personal or family subsistence to marketing their goods. confident citizens They and one, developed who was into widowed, won an electivepolitical position within her community. Thus, at the end of the project, women had another story to tell. Economic Economic empowerment: liberating or otherwise? Field findings Uptake of the information on the CD-ROM and self-discovery businesses. businesses. To analyse the data and sort them into thematic areas and identify the factors that affect women’s access to and use of information on the CD-ROM, the Nvivo qualitative software program was used. the CD-ROM project, most women included in our research themselves identified as poor, timid and lacking confidence to speak volved and in get in­ public affairs. For those who enhancing were their in business business, for the better issue returns of was They not were much found embraced. to be resigned to the small little businesses, money which they they got spent from the on buying with household limited necessities, focus on business expansion and reflected in other the investments, quotations below. as Bakesha et al. | 13 shared their experiences based on information they acquired: they information on based experiences their shared respondents the business, to relation In CD-ROM. the of use the through accessed information the of use the to attributed be could empowerment You cannot sacrifice life in favour of business of favour in You life sacrifice cannot information on entrepreneurship development. entrepreneurship on information the received had she that fact the despite profits considerable any made expectations. and roles gender conflicting economic to personal owing enhancement into translated been not had acquired knowledge business The collapsing. of verge the on or stagnation of state a in either were businesses their of most result, a As bills. medical and paying fees and school food, buying including families, their of needs the meet to capital the of part sometimes and profits the all used they as businesses their in progress meaningful any make not could women most sibilities, a a iprat atr n anann a od eainhp ih their husbands. with relationship good a maintaining in factor important an was this that noted some and welfare, family on it of amount considerable a spend to tended they income, more earned they as that, true also was It income asaresultofimprovingthequalitytheirproductsndservices. welfare, including school fees, healthcare and food. and healthcare fees, school including welfare, Florence shared her experience when asked why her business had not had business her why asked when experience her shared Florence packaging and now the sales have gone high. gone have sales the now and packaging few very and them cleaning first without trays the in eggs chicken the pack to used I before instance, significantly. For improved hygiene My lot. a me helped products of storage and packaging about information The them. attract to order in well them to talk to needed I and bosses my were customers my that realized I changed. customers my towards attitude my care, customer about learning After interviewer respondent interviewer respondent interviewer business in terms of space and capital? and space of terms in business correct? this Is their in increase an experienced women these that evident was It fees. school paying including needs family the for cater to afford can I improved. people would buy them. But now I carefully clean one by one before one by one clean carefully I now But them. buy would ­people : Uh, yes, see, I use all the profits to take care of my family’s my of care take to profits the all use I see, yes, Uh, : : Yes. : : Isn’t your husband supportive? husband your Isn’t : your expand to able been not have you that it is Why : 1999. since business this operated have you that said You : 146

Owing to increased respon­ increased to Owing The income levels have levels income The ICTs as agents of change

139). In139). ­responsibilities, relationship ­relationship with their ­family 147 : He is, but he cannot do everything. And besides, there are The above case demonstrates the complicated nature of economic This corresponds with the theory of adaptive preferences by Amartya respondent things things that affect our children and it is easy for the father to ignore but not the mother. For instance, my second daughter got pregnant last year before completing school; unfortunately, the man responsible for the pregnancy abandoned Of her. course, her father (my husband) was not impressed. I had to meet all the health costs during her pregnancy and delivery, which was difficult. She had a Caesarean and almost died. I used almost 300,000 shillings (Can$180) to save her life. That meant that all my profits and obviously part of the capital [were] spent on the medical bill. You cannot sacrifice life in favour of business. A human being lives once, but a business can collapse and revitalize again. And now I have decided to take her back to school. Her father refused to pay her school fees because he is still angry with But her. as a mother, I don’t want her to drop out of school; I want her to continue with her education. She made a mistake and I hope she learned a lesson. If I refuse to take her back to school, she will become a much bigger problem in future. empowerment among women. The main purpose of the CD-ROM project was to enhance women’s entrepreneurial skills, and their thereby incomes increase and hence their economic status. respondents had either started Indeed, other income-generating activities (IGAs) most of the or improved the existing businesses. For many of them, however, their business returns did not correspond with the efforts invested. This was partly because most of the profits werethan spent being reinvested into on family the needs business. rather There was among a respondents general that concern their husbands abdicated their family obliga­ tions upon realizing that their wives were expanding their Such women, however, were not ready to confront their husbands because businesses. of their desire to preserve their marriages. Besides, being care of able their children’s needs to was more fulfilling take than demanding equal responsibility from their husbands. and Human Development: The Capabilities Approach Sen quoted in Women (2000) by Nussbaum, who observed that ‘women long been have they because good human basic some desire and not do ­people other deprived (p. them’ as such for not is it that told or absence its to habituated this case, several of the respondents in the study did not take any offence when their husbands suddenly abandoned their some when they realized that their wives were now capable of earning an income. To some women, improvement in their Bakesha et al. | 13 pue pse aa, hs wmn a n oe o un o o support. for to Luckily, turn to one no had women these away, passed their spouses When widowhood. of situation their unfortunate on the dependent before fully husbands were they cases, both In them. between tern widowed two the for different seemed to improve their businesses and life in general. Juliet explained: Juliet general. in life and businesses their improve to to thestudyteamhowtheyusedinformationprovidedon theCD-ROM described Buwama their of Juliet and Nabweru than of Lydia counterparts. ­married progressive and active more how them decide make to to seemed ability it use the to having and income their investments. of more charge make in and ­Being save as well or as start businesses to their knowledge expand the used They for. looking were they support of kind the of example one became telecentres the at sessions CD -ROM the Attending support. for initiatives development entrepreneurial different CD-ROM. the through accessed information the started by motivated they and inspired children, activities income-generating their in engaging of that and survival their secure to means right direction. right the in step positive a made had they that convinced and contented were they expenditures, household to owing investments tangible not any thus made had respondents the of most although Yet spouses. their by appreciated they were homes their outside activities income-generating nomic value: only when these women earned an income and ventured into eco­ an have not did it because recognized not still was repro­ work household women’s that seemed It said. woman one husband,’ my with relationship my improved has this and expenses household to ute s­ personal making to preferred was husband hn oil ragmns eat rm tnad practice standard from depart arrangements social When Being independent enhanced their mobility and they were free to join to free were they and mobility their enhanced independent Being a acquired and building commercial four-roomed a construct to managed have I business, my from profits the Using month. per (Can$120) lings shil­ Uganda 200,000 than more earning am I least At died. husband my though even well family my manage can tremendously.I increased income my telecentre, Buwama at sessions CD-ROM the joined I Since cycle, livestock and milk, piggery and rental income from the house the from income rental and piggery milk, and livestock cycle, a Kampala, in one including shops, two to cattle local and shop retail a from expanded has business of line My them. sell and day every juice fruit passion of jerricans four make easy.I business the bodaboda 2 oh oe hd neie te rpry icuig ad A a As land. including property, the inherited had women both 3 that has made transport for my commodities required in required commodities my for transport made has that 148 women. There was a shared pat­ shared a was There women. avings. ‘Now I can contrib­ can I ‘Now avings. motor­ bodaboda

h story The ductive ICTs as agents of change could ­thirties, ­independent 149 ­housing. ‘Lydia, we are looking after you and your children as long At the time of the research, Lydia had been elected to chair one of I realized I had plenty of space. I decided to use the garage to raise chickens as well as sell water to earn an income. I am able to pay for the water bills and use the profits generated for domestic requirements like buying food, paying school fees and paying for transport for my children to school. I also realized that I could make use of the extra land on my plot to put up some rental The case of Lydia Nabagala is quite revealing. Lydia was in her in Jalamba. My life has changed for the better; I have identified other -generating income opportunities, and can currently cater for the ­ require ments of my family, including paying school fees for the children. I pay tuition fees for my son at the university. One day, one of her sisters made a comment that became a turning Lydia said that the comment caused a lot of pain to her but marked a the community-based organizations providing support to widows orphans. and This was because the community recognized her as an enter­ This corresponds with Mageo prising, confident and responsible woman. and Knauft’s (2002) assertion that ‘one’s identity is determined process by of self-experience’ the – in other words, what one experiences as an individual in turn determines how s/he identifies herself or himself within a given environment. Lydia’s desire to be self-reliant and a widow with two daughters. Before she was widowed, Lydia was a ­ house wife who depended on her husband members Lydia continued to depend on her family husband died in 2002, as the sole provider. When (mother, her father and siblings) for survival. Her husband’s not family provide any support for her. She thought had she would no die soon. hope for the future and s they usually In the middle of one of the conversation point in Lydia’s life. had, she said, as you are alive; when you die, we will not continue doing the same …’ defining moment in her life. She was compelled to think critically about herself and the plight of her children, At which around she the called same ‘awakening’. time, her friends classes invited that her were taking to place attend at computer Nabweru telecentre. The classes taking were place in the afternoons and this was a convenient to improve her condition and stopEventually, she developed ideas on how time for her. depending on She her decided family. to drop the identity of dependency and create her own survival. She shared with us how she had progressed since taking the decision to fend for herself and her family. Bakesha et al. | 13 had some resources, however, such as land, at their disposal. Using the Using disposal. their at land, as such however, resources, some had They accounts. bank in money no with left widows both were Juliet and Lydia case, this In potential. one’s enhance to capabilities of deprivation communities. their and families their of affairs, development the their to contributions useful make to ability manage the have women to freedom and information right the given that new in engaged successfully and shows This children. their and themselves for fend to initiatives business lives their of control took also they status, victim the of out grow to them enabling consciousness, their raise widowhood of state the did only not situation: Juliet’s and Lydia’s with economic initiativewithmuchsuccess’(1999:201).Thiscorres ponds well and business seize can women ownership, male of practice standard the status. social and economic and their potential improve their exploit can women land, like resources productive control and access to opportunity and information right the given that revealed cases Juliet’s and Lydia’s skills. business hus­ limited had and bands their on depended fully women the welfare then, Before the families. as their well of as status economic their improve to disposal their at resources the of use the regarding decisions take and potential their explore to ability their increased widows Being land. to access acquired had and widows were they that was different situation their made What process. socialization the the through them in by inculcated values influenced patriarchal largely been had experiences their that in pondents public. in herself express to how learn and women other with relate to her enabled telecentres the at classes joining addition, In available opportunity toimproveherconditionusingtheresourcesatdisposal. the about consciousness her business raised about which information entrepreneurship access to able was she telecentres, the at By world. own her re-creating thus control environment, and her of charge take to power personal her exploring by identity and position her reshape and dependent be longer no to change, to chose take onthe and position her she point, this At children. her and herself of care taking of responsibility toredefine compelled into was children she her infinity, of care take not would they that indicated members family her and however, died, husband her When chores. domestic ­doing housewife a as position her with comfortable con­ was and home been the in fined had she death, husband’s her Before husband. the her after of death family her on dependant a as experience her from developed includes They alsoprovedthatpoverty isnotsolelyincomerelated,butincludes from depart arrangements social ‘whenever that notes Sen Amartya res­ the of most of those to similar were cases Juliet’s and Lydia’s 150 tedn classes ­attending ICTs as agents of change Nnigina literally means Nnigina groups were an initiative of 151 As women gathered at the telecentres, they

The issue of role models emerged as an important factor

ing access to and use of information. Respondents from Nabweru From the telecentres, some women learned of and eventually joined and Buwama revealed that they ­lessons were at the prompted telecentres after observing to other women attend perceived to computer be of high repute in society doing the same. In Nakaseke, the main ­ attrac tion in the telecentre was an elderly lady called popularly Anastasia referred Namisango, to as Nasta. Nasta, over seventy-five years old and affect­ Role Role models Women Women and networking entrepreneur their enhanced CD-ROM by the provided information right ship skills, which in turn expanded their productive abilities activities to to earn an engage income. in more formed new relationships with each other and became more acquainted with the trainers with whom they shared Before experiences then, and all challenges. these women had led on individual their immediate lives and mainly extended families. centred In areas like Nakaseke Buwama and (which are rural), households are as far as 5 kilometres apart. With the introduction of the CD-ROM project, the telecentres became a meeting place not only for the training sessions, but also for interaction among the trainees. Before and after the training sessions, women could Consequently, themselves. among experiences share and chat to time find new groups (both formal and informal) were for example, at the telecentres. These included, relationships established formed to continue the the Nabweru Revolving Fund, the Twekembe Women’s Group and Nakaseke Women’s the Development Association (NAWODA). These groups were based on self-help principles whereby a pool be collected of to raise resources money for start-up would capital and to boost the existing businesses. other existing informal groups, such as the ‘Nnigina groups’, after real­ izing the benefits of group formation. The word ‘be happy and feel appreciated’. of creating a forum where women,women in the capital city, with the aim especially those in the informal sector, would meet, share experiences, appreciate each other and exchange gifts. The gifts were not necessarily intended to provide business capital for the recipient but were a way of showing appreciation and value for the individual in the community. It was noted as an empowering process; Nnigina enables women to organize themselves, share experiences and provide an environment in which to enjoy themselves without external support. Bakesha et al. | 13 of the respondents shared their experience in this regard: this in experience their shared respondents the of Some sessions. training them offer to Nasta invite and locations different in groups into themselves organize would women some centres, the to distance long the of Because lessons. computer attend and telecentres the to come to wanted community the in everybody Suddenly, Nakaseke. in many to model role a became she return, her Upon conference. the at community her in women represent to selected was she when surprised everyone Nasta level, illiteracy and age old her of Because livelihoods. women’s improving in ICT of role the showcase to York New in ference inter­ an attend to selected was she when dreams wildest her surpassed beyond and Nakaseke within popularity Her computer. a use to how learn to determination and enthusiasm unwavering had illiterate, Conclusion n te eooial. h suy eeld ht lhuh h women the although that revealed study The economically. them ing CD-ROM projectaimedatenhancing theirenterprises,therebyempower­ respondents. Nakaseke the followers, her all in reflected was a role model, however, this was counterproductive, since her this shortcoming to attributed be For project. the partly of purpose the comprehend to failure could and age, advanced This her. around those and empower to herself knowledge into it translated never had and others to on it passing and information the interpreting of level the at stopped had She in relationtoentrepreneurship.Shewaslivingabjectpover ty asbefore. show to nothing had home her to visit a and place in enterprise business no had Nasta study, the of time the this, At example. her In following were success. they business improved for information this apply to able ad­ her of many computer, a use to how learn to desire many to community her inspired in she Although Nasta. with case the was This well. as tive ROM, were not were CD-ROM, the on information access to able though mirers, By providing grassroots women entrepreneurs with information, the information, with entrepreneurs women grassroots providing By counterproduc­ be can models role of use the that noted be should It Jaja When computer could help out. help could computer the how see to lessons the attend to me challenged this computer, the use could years, eighty of woman old an Anastasia, that learned I When name. my type to how learn to wanted I because joined also I teaching. and talking start would computer the and mouse the move to how us teach would she and students her of one became and joined then I woman. young a me, about how teach, and learn can illiterate, and old as Nasta, Jaja if myself, asked computer.I a use to how learn to anyone 4 Nasta was taken abroad, I realized that it is possible for possible is it that realized I abroad, taken was Nasta 152 national con­ ICTs as agents of change ­widowed Uganda Women Women and Development Development cipatory Poverty Assessment . ict.aed.org/infocenter/gender. Literally translated, grand­ 4 ‘Gender, information technology, and developing countries: an analytic study’, Academy for Edu­ cational Development, available at htm Power and the Self, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ­Planning and Economic De­ velopment) (2002) ­ Parti Process: Second Participatory Poverty Assessment Process Report 2): (UPAP Deepening the Under­ standing of . Poverty as Freedom, New York: Anchor Books. ­Human Development: The Cap­ abilities Approach, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. social change’, in women are not allowed to ride motorcycles, they hire young men to undertake the business on their behalf. parent or elderly person. References Hafkin, N. and N. Taggart (2001) Mageo, M. J. and B. M. Knauft (2002) (Ministry MFPAED of Finance, Nussbaum, C. (2000) Sen, A. (1999) ‘Women’s agency and 153 turally turally ROM ROM required use features and - - to bodabodas is used to - ROM ROM used a simple - The CD The word In most Ugandan cultures, ­erty if their husbands die. The

powered individuals. They used the acquired information to make 1 3 2 Notes remaining 85 per cent is shared between the children and any de­ pendants under their husband’s care. browser navigating system with graphic interface and spoken text. With its simple refer to motorcycles used for com­ mercial purposes. Since cul­ spoken text in the local language (Luganda), the CD minimal technical know-how to operate. It offered direct access to entrepreneurship-related informa­ tion for grassroots women. The topics covered included: using what you have to create a business, quality of the product or service, customer care, quantity of the product or ser­ vice, market research for the services or product, pricing for the product or service, storage of the product, packaging and working capital. when a man dies, his relatives have a right to share his property without consent from the widow. In the worst cases, the widow is chased away from her marital home or asked to return to her parents’ family. The Succession Act also allows women to share only 15 per cent of the family prop used used the information to improve and expand their businesses, most of them could not make significant progress proceeds on household as theyneeds and their children’s welfare. spent The much of the women, however, illustrated a situation of -discovery, self moving from the status of dependency to that em­ of independent and economically significant improvements in their businesses, made profits to take care of their families and also contributed positively to the development their communities. of 14 | The mobile payphone business: a vehicle for rural women’s empowerment in Uganda Grace Bantebya Kyomuhendo

The introduction and proliferation of mobile telephones in Uganda in the past decade has sparked an information revolution that is especially ap­ parent in the rural areas. The level and intensity of women’s participation in this revolution are quite amazing. My attention was drawn to the mobile payphone, particularly to the women who have exploited this novel tech­ nology to become self-employed, freelance payphone operators. It is these innovative, resilient women who became my research participants. The engagement of the women in a new and unique business venture quite naturally presented a multitude of complexities. My focus, however, is not on these complexities per se, but on the internal factors that the women experience within themselves which might be the result of internalized cultural images of proper womanhood1 and the implica­ tions of holding these value systems for the women’s empowerment and gender equality. In striving to address this question, and within the broad focus on gender and empowerment which informed the wider GRACE project, my analysis draws on the responses and experiences of eight women who prior to engaging in the mobile phone business were living ordinary lives. Through close observation of the women I became aware that commercial telework, its numerous benefits notwithstanding, may have created new and unique tensions, especially in the women’s domestic lives. I became concerned about the effects of socially and culturally constructed gender roles and relationships on the capacity of the women to operate their phone business effectively and derive empowerment. When I reflected on the phone business, and the women’s daily ­realities, words, responses, perceptions and meanings vis-à-vis their life and telework experiences, my own thinking and conceptualization of empowerment and gender, especially in a rural Ugandan ICT context, was reshaped. I realized that although empowerment is mainly about increased ability to make strategic life choices as a result of increased access to and control of resources, not much is known about the nature of the choices women make and how their choices affect or are affected by the entrenched gender inequalities in their communities. Mobile payphones in Uganda were ­being 155 conducted in a multistage manner. Whereas the formal interview dialogues encouraged the women to transcriptsinterview the of analysis our chapter, this of purpose the For The multistage nature of the interviews yielded a number of advan­ The research was conducted in Hoima district, mid-western Uganda. This qualitative study involved extended semi-structured interviews This situation raised the question of whether the introduction of the in in the form of a dialogue were between the researchers and the women, tages. For instance, the breaks in ­researchers to accord structured the respondents respectful and genuine interviews attention, allowed the which turned out to be not only a novel experience for the women, also an empowering but one, in which they lost all inhibitions about sharing personal intimate gender- and work -related experiences with us. express, elucidate and disclose their teleworking experiences, formal the dialogues in­ during the breaks in the interviews unfold and express their ideas, thoughts, feelings and impressions freely. allowed them to All the eight women told their respective stories and, by the end interviews, of we were not the only friends with our respondents, but also their close confidantes. sought to identify the tensions between the women’s need or desire work to and the restrictive social pressures they face. The focus brought to light the meanings they make of this combination of forces in relation to their sense of empowerment. Located 200 kilometres from Kampala, Uganda’s capital city, Hoima is known to be predominantly rural, and although exactly known, it is well its served by various mobile telephone networks. As ICT status is not a result of the latter, mobile payphone businesses have been established, and these are mostly operated by women. with eight purposively selected women teleworkers. Owing to interrup­ tions from the teleworkers’ clients, the individual interviews, which yment opportunities/emplo business associated and the payphone mobile gains for the women can translate into meaningful empowerment and gender equality in a setting where gender-based inequalities are reproduced and perpetuated. I became curious about the degree to which gender discrimination undermines women’s gains and potential for real­ izing empowerment in the existing rural Ugandan ICT context, this as a central question seeing in contemporary debates focusing on women’s empowerment and ICTs. Methodology Bantebya Kyomuhendo | 14 Findings irrespective of their enhanced incomes: enhanced their of irrespective of their profession,areincapable ofcommandingrespectinthecommunity virtue by teleworkers, women that however, strongly, felt She home. do.’ I what appreciates husband my am, as I long family what so with to contented am contribute I case. I any in what modest is with which do – upkeep to nothing has this and know, I community the by esteem much in held am ‘I telework: her of approves but becauseofherstablemarriageinwhichhusbandappreci ates and com­ the and contributions, financial domestic increased her of result a as not munity, home the within both status high of woman a as herself jeopardizing hermarriageandstatusinthecommunity. Monicaregarded cannot exploitherfinancialsuccesstomakeempoweringchoiceswithout exceed acertainthreshold.Shelabouredtoexplainthatmarriedwoman cannot community the and home the both within power and status her contribution, other or financial woman’s a of irrespective that asserted view.different emphatically a She had women, interviewed the of rest the I’m that life.’ happy own my I’m managing of sente]. capable was [mukazi woman stable financially a seeme as andrelatives friends ‘my position; a financial better as her elevated of been result has status her that feels Zaituni community, wider the In before.’ as loudly as quarrel doesn’t and me beating stopped He it. show openly not does he though me respects husband my feel ‘I her: verbally and battering stopped had husband abusive her ness, financial contributionstoherfamily’supkeep,courtesyofphonebusi­ community and their inner feelings about their self-worth. their and about home feelings inner the their and within community status and power their on impact the especially considers how the women interviewed responded to this financial success, chapter This business. the in profits the reinvesting and saving expenditures, also but other and personal domestic, meeting to contributions of increasedincome,allthewomenreportednotonlymakingsubstantial result a As business. payphone the in participation through success cial Case 3, Oliver, who lives alone, could not talk about her status in the in status her about talk not could alone, lives who Oliver, 3, Case with compared poor relatively but senior most the Monica, 2, Case ae , Zaituni, 1, Case finan­ impressive registered women eight the all start, rocky a Despite disguised sex workers. However, I am comfortable with what I am doing am I what with comfortable am I However, workers. sex disguised as us see people Some life. in failures for work as seen is business phone way.The any in respect me earn not does work my that sure am I ever, comfortably.How­ relatively living and money more making am I know I 2 ad ht vr ic se tre mkn substantial making started she since ever that said 156 ­abusing Mobile payphones in Uganda 157 Case 8, Melanie, was of the view that the success of her phone busi­ I am free, making and controlling whatever I earn from my phone busi­ ness. However, all this is meaningless without my husband. How can you talk about [being] or feel empowered when you have been deserted? Does freedom to do what you want have any meaning when you are living alone? Empowerment starts with having a husband – someone to exer­ cise your power over at least. Case 6, Phionah, felt that when she opted out of paid employment, Case 7, Eva, sadly noted that prior to engaging in the phone business, The phone business was a good idea and it has boosted our grocery shop and general welfare. My husband’s attitude towards me, however, has not changed. He still makes all major decisions, monitors the phone business closely, and dominates me to the extent that he has refused [to allow] me to own a personal cell phone, though I can comfortably afford it. Case 5, Florence, said that ever since starting her now successful phonesuccessful now her starting since ever that said Florence, 5, Case Case 4, Sylvia, had similar sentiments to Oliver’s. She felt ­ uncomfort so long as my survival is assured. Status and power cannot feed and pay rent for you. ness has elevated her position at all levels. Her acquisition of a husband, which she attributes to her improved financial circumstances, she noted, has increased her self-confidence and given her inner power as a married and engaged in freelance telework, her social status declined. Supporting and engaged in freelance telework, her Oliver’s sentiments, she acknowledged that the moral conduct of some phone business women leaves much to be desired, not augur a well factor for their that status does and power at any level. when she was poor and married, people respected business succeeded she lost her; the marriage and but all the associated respect. when her Though she continued working and had more freedom, she did not feel motivated to utilize her phone business to make empowering Demoralized choices. by her estrangement from her husband, which apparently resulted from tensions over her phone business, about her Eva situation: had this to say able and declined to talk about power and status since she did herself not as see capable of acquiring any currently or in the future. business, she had not experienced any changes in her status or domestic power relations. Like Monica, she was of the view that a wife’s financial contribution does not matter and is not commensurate with her power either in the home or the wider community. She remarked: Bantebya Kyomuhendo | 14 to viable phone business operations. She remarked: She operations. business phone viable to forempower­ point ment. She acknowledged, however, that gender tensions are not conducive thestarting is not marriage and stability financial of acquisition that feels Melanie colleagues, her of most Unlike woman. equality or mere economic getting by? getting gender economic mere or and equality empowerment women’s for vehicle a payphone: mobile The internal strength and a strong sense of resilience and self-determination, and resilience of sense strong a and strength internal exuded business, phone the their of of future the Several about talking well-being. when women, families’ their and own their improving to substantially contributed money, their control and generate to business, their with freely clientele. interact real or to potential and presentable, and to dressed them smartly required be business the Further, isolation. physical and hitherto social their reducing of effect the had which address, digital and cal physi­ a with operators women the provided it benefits, monetary direct the from Apart business. other any like not unique, being as women the families. their and themselves for both standards living in improvements reported women the and time record in realized standards were local by gains monetary Substantial flourished. businesses nascent the experience, business of lack and approval husband’s their obtaining premises, working suitable securing set, to phone capital the purchase enough raising including difficulties, start-up business the Despite women. cash-strapped poor, the for time opportune most the at breadwinners. family as expectations and ities financially were husbands responsibil­ roles, traditional their meet barely could and disadvantaged, the wives, their Like support husbands. other their or from financial adequate receiving not were relationships, them marital of in many were women the of most Although telework. commercial in engaging to prior stable financially as described be could circumstances, economic and social their in variations despite women, yphone The abilityofthewomentoset upandprofitablyoperatethepayphone by appreciated and acknowledged was business phone mobile The Against this background, the launch of the mobile ‘village’ phone came working against such odds makes me feel empowered. feel me makes odds such against working am I that fact The women. married for especially work, such condone not does which faith, Islamic my despite work such with continue to resilience and confidence, and strength inner me gives alone This public. the to exposure and home from absence prolonged my about complain not does and business phone my of value the knows husband My 158

None of the eight phone business phone eight the of None Mobile payphones in Uganda 159 bodabodas (motorbikes commonly used distance transport), livestock and retail shops, among other - None of the eight women mentioned being motivated by their new When asked what the effects of their businesses were, some of the One might assume that as a result of increased access to and control Some people are saying that this type of business is for failures, that we will moreover soon compete ourselves out of business. Of course this cannot happen since the demand for our phone services is increasing Soon daily. we shall spread out even to the remote trading centres. (Oliver) For For the few women who chose to fully enjoy the unique and liberating for short of financial resources, courtesy of their booming businesses,the women had the potential to reverse the disempowerment imposed on them by the prevailing patriarchal system, and the social and economic ­ subjuga tion they experience both in the domestic and the community domains. The findings, however, indicate the contrary. It is evident that although the women’s participation in commercial mobile telephony created new choices which they could exploit meaningfully to empower themselves by challenging the social structures that disempower them, at especially household level, hardly any of the women decision-makerskey as themselves assert to choices expanded their utilize seem to even attempt to within their respective families. positions as financial contributors in their households, for instance, to effect or initiate changes in gender roles identities and or responsibilities, even gender the routine gender activity potentially increased choices profiles.and power Evenat their withdisposal, any the action or behaviour seen as diverting from the existing gender status quo of male domination in households was undertaken only surreptitiously. women’s responses included being battered or verbally abused less often by their husbands, feelings/assumptions of increased respect on the part of their husbands, deliberate under-declaring of business profits to their profits in business ventureshusbands, making secret savings, reinvesting such as buying plots of land, implying implying that they were in a better position tinies: to control their own des­ effects. Some of the women talked of assisting their relatives and being able to utilize hitherto financially inaccessible contraception methods (to regulate their fertility), secretly. effects of the mobile phone business, such as evading domestic drudgery and staying at their work premises for long periods of dusk, time, even dressing after smartly and interacting freely with real and potential Bantebya Kyomuhendo | 14 collapse altogether’ (Oliver). Echoing Oliver’s view, Eva had this to say: to this had Eva view, Oliver’s Echoing (Oliver). altogether’ collapse or level mediocre a at operate either and marriage your prioritize you or business, phone the in succeed and money: marriage your more sacrifice you make ‘Either subsequently and freely operate to able therefore and obligations domestic by restrained less being reported they status, a and economic an both marital (single) new their of result a As mechanism. coping psychological as businesses their with continue Several to activities. opted business phone their of cost opportunity inevitable the as situation their saw betrayed, and bitter feeling despite break-ups, route. this womenwho took few the of case the in common became conflicts business ensued. phone gender-related unresolved, of violence out arising divorces and psychological Separation and physical not than often more and spouses, between increased Tensions undermined. irreversibly and ingly ­ increas became heads family facto de as identities husbands’ the choices, increased wives’ their of out arising threats imagined or real of result a As dire. be to tended consequences the home, the in decision-makers key become to attempting all above and profits their controlling customers, Analysisofthefindings addressed, the marginalization of women will continue (Sharma 2001). (Sharma continue will women of marginalization the ­addressed, cap the shaping in part cross-cutting a play cultur­ which and roles gender socially constructed the ally if in, participate actively can women area an development is ICT although that raised being is concern settings, rural in especially ICTs of proliferation the With empowerment. women’s and Florence. articulated and Monica as Eva, is, by marriage that is stable status how social and marriage that from is derived women the all among thinking dominant The community. wider the and home the in both status of social of expense sense their the at was this that however, acknowledged, women These money. more generate subsequently and freely businesses their transact ae voec ado marital and/or violence gender-based experienced who women The There are many conflicting views to date about the development of ICTs to able therefore and obligations domestic by restrained less felt They boomed. lifeline, only my now business, my and ones; new and customers old my back attracted which kiosk, my at time more spent I boost. much-needed a instability, estic estrange­ my preceded which home, from husband my of absence long The ct o wmn n mn o atcpt o eul em ae not are terms equal on participate to men and women of ­acity ment, gave my business, which had deteriorated due to my dom­ my to due deteriorated had which business, my gave ment, 160 Mobile payphones in Uganda For For

effects ­effects ­ment. 161 are seen as giving them economic power, Other Other authors similarly observe that where women have used ICTs for It is thus apparent that the impact of ICTs on women’s empowerment Zaituni, for instance, feels not only economically liberated (mukazi wa esteem: this -esteem: self and knowledge increased report they purposes, own their This cultural contexts. in different social and universally true is apparently empowering process, however, has the potential to destabilize existing gender relations (Hafkin 2000; Gurumurthy 2004). Hafkin that envisioned women in Africa will take advantage of into their the economic, social and cultural medium context to empower and themselves. bring it She noted, however, that the new technologies are not gender and neutral, if women do not grasp the opportunities, then societal prevail forces and they will will be left farther behind. requires a broad consensus on the understanding of the of construction the sense of empowerment, which varies in Swedish different contexts. organization The Kvinnoforum, for instance, empowerment has no is set definitions; that focus should be of on­ empower the view that ment not given by someone else, but and starting Heinston within 2005: (cited 41). in In Alsopa the male-dominated society concepts of of women’s empowerment and Hoima gender equality the are recent and not well defined. Consequently there was no the women interviewed on teleworkers the broad consensusconcept of empower among autonomy and the rare chance to break free of the constraints imposed on them by the prevailing behaviour norms in the community. ­ Irrespec tive of the gender tension and husbands, subsequent which some estrangement of these women from experienced as their a result of their phone businesses, they remained resilient and against all odds continued to work. sente), but also in an empowered position owing to her increased respect in the community and, overall, her ability to manage her own life. Oliver, their marital circumstances, alsoPhionah and Sylvia, despite variations in feel the same way (empowered) in the sense that they are not bothered with the acquisition of power or status, which is associated with women They are not bothered community. in stable marital relationships in their with conforming to the expected norms of respectably married behaviour, and not venturing such out to work, as whereby their fellow being community women derive social status. What bothers these women economic is survival, and not social status, which can neither nor feed them pay their rent. An interesting case is marriage Melanie, to who her attributed improved her financial circumstances. She links fact the women like Zaituni, Oliver, Phionah and Sylvia, of the the phone liberating business per se Bantebya Kyomuhendo | 14 ing power imbalances – can be seen in a similar vein as an attempt attempt an as vein similar a in seen be can – imbalances exist­ power the challenge ing and least, at homes their in themselves assert to – success business phone their utilize to women these of reluctance The work. such in participation their tolerate not does which general, in ing rebelling not are they think­ that domestic -virtue or particular, in show authority husband’s their against to level, interpersonal an at least at strategy, a as seen be can This business. phone the in engaging to prior cooperation and/or approval husband sought them of all instance, For framework. cultural existing the within operating as seen be to striving operations. business their with continued aggres­ and latter the chose apparently Monica, except women, The well financial and dignity, with poverty acute com­ ok n te nrnhd hnig eadn dmsi virtue domestic regarding thinking entrenched the and work their of nature the since status social their forfeit inevitably would they despite earning much-neededmoneythroughoperatingtheirpayphonebusiness, that, knew women the words other In themselves. teleworkers women the by even women, not for especially way, business any in dignifying a as seen operators, payphone roadside as environments particularly domestic work, their to of out venturing of costs social the with aware of this dominant thinking in the community. They were conversant potential a as seen indictment. even actually is values, social prevailing the of text con­ the in marriage, stable a outside success Business marriage. from derived is which status, social their to related closely is empowerment of sense Their relations. gender domestic existing on impact significant a have not do gains economic resulting the and modern telephony) of (mobile use ICTs commercial the that view the of were Eva and Monica, Florence domain. family the in power of balance the shifting to related least at economically. by were getting and businesses phone their operating continued long so they irrelevant as remained view, of point religious or moral the from especially society, by a perceived were they How empowerment. of position as seen was patriarchy prevailing the by them on imposed structures empowerment. with woman married a as behaviour her regarding expectations religious and social the against’ ‘work to able is husband, her by supported she, that This category of women teleworkers, nevertheless, are to a large extent large a to are nevertheless, teleworkers, women of category This This category of women, prior to engaging in the phone business, was business, phone the in engaging to prior women, of category This not is empowerment however, women, business phone other For and inhibitions the from freedom of sense the women, these For munity areincompatible.Thetoughbutrationalchoicewas between 162 - en dvi o virtue. of devoid being 3 n the in sively Mobile payphones in Uganda 163 The study has shown that understanding the impact of the use of The behaviour of this category of women can be seen as a rational Despite operating within the confines of domestic-virtue thinking The teleworking women whose sense of status was derived from their operate ­operate as good women within the prevailing sociocultural context. modern ICTs such as mobile telephony on women’s empowerment re­ of the sense of empowerment,quires a deep insight into the construction which appears to vary among individuals in similar empowerment is understood as the ability of individuals to make strategic contexts. Broadly, life choices in a context in which they did not have this ability previously. The ability to choose, in other words, is regarded as central to the cept con­ of power. Prior to engaging in the payphone business, the women Conclusions marriage made it clear that, despite being able to establish and operate successful phone businesses, and potentially increase their choices, they were aware of their limits. Going beyond the ‘limits’ – that and challenge to redefine their positions or goals, their expanded choices is, utilizing existing gendered power relations – posed formidable social costs. Thus deciding not to utilize their new opportunities to transform existing gen­ der relations and promote gender equality was not a matter of choosing to devalue their -worth self by perpetuating themselves as hapless victims of existing gender inequalities. attempt to operate successfully in the prevailing ICT context and at the same time retain their marriages, from which they and derive respect their as status women. In a nutshell, what avoiding rather these than enduring women the are social costs doing that are is inevitable when rural women in Uganda strive to empower themselves. and sustaining their marriages and social status, that the the new overall choices effect resulting from is these women’s phone by businesses, remaining unutilized, serve to bring to the fore the glaring, hitherto latent gender-based inequalities that keep women subjugated in society. These women, however, can be seen as pursuing empowerment, which for them means working and gaining economic independence while at the same time being respected by their husbands, families and society, in the existing ICT context in rural Ugandan settings. to Melanie, attributing her marriage to her phone her business inner success strength and to ‘working against the with odds’ her husband’s of support, has her obviously created Islamic a different faith, domestic situation grounded in a different type of the other gender women relationship have. to what Bantebya Kyomuhendo | 14 making power, also felt a existing gender inequalities,includingdecision -making power, alsofelta question or resources, household key of control increased for negotiate or bargain goals, own their define to gains economic gained newly their of advantage take to declining by marriages their jeopardize to not chose strong positionofempowerment. Andthosephonebusinesswomenwho a in themselves saw also attitudes, societal negative of face the in nesses societal existing busi­ their operate to odds all against continued and behaviour, of norms the of inhibitions the from themselves liberated who women The empowerment. of position a in as themselves viewed fully, success­ businesses their operate to continued resiliently and control, or expectations. social these against stand to strength the husband her with relationship her in found had hand, other the with on Melanie, relationship parameters. these her within husband framed her and woman married a as behaviour her to pertaining expectations social the women internalized had two Monica these that was between difference The husbands. their relation ­ with their ship by supported completely felt Melanie and Monica both women thebattlefieldincludeddomesticandsocialenvironment, respective their with cope to most for Whereas empowerment. of sense their defined tried which situations is or coped It women levels. which crisis in attained way these the women the of some for and ensued, tensions gender Inevitably men. these with well down go not did home from absences long their and enjoyed they exposure social and physical the money, their control suc­ and generate their to women of the of ability realities The cess. the with cope of not could approved businesses, tacitly wives’ or their directly had who those including husbands, of selves indifferent,hithertounexpecteddomesticsituations.Themajority operate. they which in context their including factors, social of the and aspirations needs, realities, multiplicity and circumstances individual a by shaped or determined is empowerment of sense not women’s the was that implying case, however, the necessarily This, it. understand the we for as way empowerment the women’s pave and factors disempowering the businesses phone eliminate their would of operation the through women the by made destinies. or lives their control to and families their in ances imbal­ power gender existing the question to ability the and resources, of control and to access their limited it that sense the in disempowering presumably was that situation a strapped, cash severely were interviewed The estranged women who coped well without husband support and/ support husband without well coped who women estranged The them­ found women the success, business phone their of result a As gains economic substantial the that be would assumption rational A 164 Mobile payphones in Uganda Gender and Gender and the Bantebya, G. and - ICTs Overview , Report Bridge Institute of Development Studies. concepts; gender and ICTs in Africa’, in E. M. Rathgeber and E. O. Adera (eds), Information Revolution in Africa, Ottawa: IDRC. (2004) ‘Globalization and the ­economic empowerment of women; defining and buildinga gender responsive information society in the ESCAP region’, UNESCAP. M. Keniston McIntosh (2006) Women, Work and Domestic Virtue in Uganda , (1900–2003) Oxford/ Kampala: James Currey/ Fountain Publishers. create opportunities for marginal­ ized women and men; the private sector and community working together’, Paper presented at the World Bank, Washington, DC. Hafkin, N. (2000) ‘Convergence of Gurumurthy, A. (2004) — Kyomuhendo Sharma, C. (2001) ‘Using ICTs to 165 virtue virtue - Bantebya and Keniston - A proper woman should marry, The names being used are the Regarding the domestic the Regarding

Keniston McIntosh (2006: 65–85). (2006: McIntosh ­Keniston (2005) ‘Measuring empowerment in practice; structuring analysis and framing indicators’, World Bank Policy Working Paper 3510. 1 2 3 Whereas Whereas it is indisputable that all these categories of the phone model, see Kyomuhendo-Bantebya see model, and References Alsopa, R. and N. Heinston (eds) provide services for her husband, including sex, be a mother and provide and care for her children. She should fulfil practical duties within the household, grow food for the family and do other necessary care work. She should be submissive and deferential to her husband, his male relatives and other men in the She community. is not a decision- maker in the family. For details, see Kyomuhendo Notes McIntosh (2006: 79). real names of the research partici­ pants. business women experienced a sense of empowerment, this was individual at level, an without necessarily transforming the restricting social structures of patriarchy and gender inequality, which remained intact in the communities. This is definitelycontrary to my understanding of the sense of empowerment, and I feel there is a need for inquiry a comprehensive into the extent to which the empowerment experienced the is sustainable. phone women strong strong sense of empowerment derived from their enhanced social status as respectably married women in spite of their telework, which does not fit with-virtue domestic thinking. This page intentionally left blank four | Creating new realities This page intentionally left blank 15 | Professional women empowered to succeed in Kenya’s ICT sector Okwach Abagi, Olive Sifuna and Salome Awuor Omamo

This chapter is based on a study that investigated how professional women in the information and communication technology (ICT) sector in Kenya have accessed and are appropriating ICT. The open-ended, in-depth and interactive interview approach gave researchers and key informants the opportunity to discuss issues of gender and ICT in Kenya. Focus group discussions and in-depth interviews were used to capture the respondents’ ‘voices’, experiences and interpretations of their experi­ ences. This was supplemented by a review of existing literature. The study is based on the premise that ICTs have become a potent force in transforming social, economic and political life globally (Hudson 2001; Thioune 2003: 1). Even with this potential, issues of social inclusion and exclusion have emerged as a dimension of the range of critical issues that need more research and debate as we progress into the twenty-first century. In particular, there is a need for practical interventions that will shed more light on the linkage between ICT utilization and the concept of human development in general, and on the interface between ICTs and women’s empowerment in particular (UNDP 2002; Rathgeber 2000; Adeya 2001). This chapter and the research it is based on set out to increase our understanding of this latter interface. The study relied on purposively selected professional women in ICT careers, either as owners, CEOs or technical persons, working in various organizations and companies in Nairobi, Kenya. Table 15.1 indicates the educational background, training and current positions of these respondents. As shown in Table 15.1, our respondents are well educated, trained and occupy high positions in their respective organizations/institutions. In terms of education, eight are graduates with bachelor degrees and four hold diplomas in ICT-related courses, including computer science, information systems, information technology and web designing. All of them except two studied at Kenyan universities (Moi University and the Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology) and the Kenya National Polytechnic. One holds a BCom. Engineering from a table 15.1 Key informants in the study

KI* Education Professional training Current position

1 Bachelor of Arts degree in Sociology Marketing course Managing director 2 Certificates in Computer Science (marketing bias) Corporate Governance, Collective Index, customer CEO service and marketing courses 3 Degree in Management Information Systems Computer Programming, Management, Systems Territory partner Analysis and design, Java, computer packages manager 4 Degree in Information Science (IT option) Computer packages Systems administrator 5 Bachelor of Commerce degree (Management Science Systems and Database Administration and Assistant manager option) Accounting 6 Bachelor of Commerce degree and diploma in Computer packages Assistant manager Computer Studies 7 Bachelor of Science degree Networking, Systems Administration and Systems administrator Information Technology 8 Diploma in Information Systems Secretarial IT support officer 9 Bachelor of Commerce degree (Accounting option) E-link, MS Office, Visual basics and certificate Application support courses in Accounting assistant 10 Marketing degree – Technology in Management Studies Computer packages and programming Managing director 11 Diploma in Information Technology Computer programming and systems Technician/support management officer 12 Diploma in Web Designing Computer Science and programming Web designer/developer

* Key informants Professional women empowered to succeed 171 Nothing is more revealing to those committed to gender equity in In the same period the NER at secondary school level by gender has The imbalance in access to education is attributed to the cultural fac­ ns positio technical and management women hold senior These career development in general and in education in message particular conveyed than in the available clear education statistics for the time since period Kenya’s independence in 1963. The gender gap in education has been consistent and appears in every sub-sector and Sifuna of 2006; education Abagi 1997; (Chege Abdi and Cleghorn 2005; UNESCO 2006). In the last decade, although nationally the Net Enrolment Ratio (NER) at the primary school level has been about 51 per cent for boys and 49 per cent for girls, the regional statistics show gender disparity in each of the eight provinces in the country. For example, in North Eastern Province the NER between 1990 and 2001 has been 9.8 16.5 per per cent for cent girls. for In boys Nairobi Province, and the NER is boys 43.3 and 42.2 per per cent cent for for girls. been 52 per cent for boys and 47 per cent for girls. It is estimated that at the secondary school level there are 118 enrolled boys for every 100 girls enrolled. The gender gaps are even wider in North and Eastern, Coast Rift provinces, where Valley incidences of poverty are high and - cultural religious factors work against the schooling of girls. For example, even after the declaration of fee-free primary education in 2003, the primary school Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) in North Eastern Province has mained re­ at 31 per cent and 16.9 per cent for boys and girls In Kenya, respectively. women are also under-represented in higher education. Since eight public students in Kenya’s 1981, only about 30 per cent of university universities have been female. tors and socialization patterns in various communities in Kenya. Among various groups, especially in the rural areas, where over 80 per cent of the population lives, men are still regarded as the owners and controllers of resources and the breadwinners, while women are seen as homemakers The gender gap in education in Kenya The gender gap in in their organizations. Some of them are national and board international organizations, members for example of the Internet various Cor­ poration of Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), an Internet policy- formulating body, and the Institute of Directors of Kenya (IODK). university university in the United States, where she studied ICT and for also some time. worked All four in career women with diplomas have enrolled at the University of Nairobi for a degree course and – business mainly management. in marketing Abagi et al. | 15 dominated field, including ICTs. including field, male-dominated any in succeeding women of core the at is conditioning social as recognized levels. tertiary and secondary at especially substantial, being education in gap gender the in resulted has this Kenya, In organized. and shaped are lives private public and our which in ways the to generally and other, and each with educated, interact and socialized are we which in ways the understanding females. in rewarded of are compliance those and males, passivity dependence, in rewarded and with associated are competitiveness and aggressiveness independence, as attributes such While learning institutions. in and home at females and males for patterns behaviour ent differ­ and perceptions programmes socialization Such in Kenya. differentials intensive rural in result of parts important many as in regarded households not many generally by is boys, the as of girls, that the to of compared Education men. on dependent and caregivers) (wives, Socialized beyondgenderstereotypingintoICTcareers wle aer oe w hd icsin wt hd aet wo were who parents had middle with discussions had we women career twelve The norms. gender discriminatory to adhere not did socialized and up factors. interrelated two of because careers ICT-related in succeed and access to managed they that however, strated, demon­ study our in informants key twelve The 2006). al. et (Abagi roles careers, andwhentheyarerepresented,primarilyinstereotypical working in the ICT industry. ICT the in working a or father relative woman or a mother a had None sector. had ICT the in working women relative two only women, twelve the of Out settings. teachers, as working – urban in sectors private and public both in managers and administrators middle-class were who parents by raised were career women ICT the all these that fact the of include attributes success important Other the women. behind factor major a and were parents The mentors careers. and training education, their in role major a and trainingfollow-ups)fromtheirparentscloserelativesplayed education higher to seek support financial advice, appropriate careers, choose to freedom (encouragement, received The respondents our education. support daughters’ their and daughters their regarding typing The extent to which this ‘gendered prophecy’ is tackled by women and women by tackled is prophecy’ ‘gendered this which to extent The to fundamental is principle organizing an as gender Recognizing First, the social environment in which our respondents were brought were respondents our which in environment social the First, ICT in under-represented are women that indicated has study Our oiie aetl tiue twrs il eald h rsodns to respondents the enabled girls towards attitudes parental Positive - class professionals. Their parents did not adhere to gender stereo­ gender to adhere not did parents Their professionals. class 172 Professional women empowered to succeed 173 The The respondents identify parental support, positive attitudes and The second factor in why the respondents managed to access and Some of the respondents’ personal motivation was evident as they Another participant had this to say: My dad was selfless in the sense that he never ever made a decision for me. My decisions were mine to make and the consequences were mine to deal with. That was very clear. … And I think that was the beginning of my self-actualization, to deal with myself in terms of making my own decisions and the best decisions for me. And I think that for me this is the most successful thing in my life. (Internet support provider CEO 2, 2005) My parents were gender sensitive in practice and socialized us in the family as their children and not as boys and girls. They did not discrim­ inate against girls. According to them all children needed the same ­ treat ment, thus girls were given full support to realize our potential, just like boys. I was encouraged all the They way. are my role models [and] I owe them a lot for my success in life. (Internet support provider CEO 1, 2005) The respondents were very conscious of the roles their parents played exposure and access to the world of hanced their confidence and made them independently search for useful schooling and work as what en­ information and career openings. The specific nature of their upbring­ ings was considered the basis for their self-actualization empowerment. and sense of -motivation. Our respondents’succeed in ICT-related careers was their self major a played work at and training during focus and motivation personal part in helping them to venture into male-dominated subjects. talked about the challenges they face as women in the ICT sector: in their success, as indicated by the following research participant: grow grow as individuals with ‘confidence and vision in life that goes beyond just marriage and offering care and support ­society at services large’ at (respondent, ICT home CEO). It and was found in that parental atti­ tudes towards these women empowered them from hard and excel in school, daughters to work encouraged their parents thus an early age. The yet they did not push them towards any particular academic discipline or career. They were ‘liberal’ parents, who exposed their children career and to education where many environment empowering an provided things, development were highly valued, and supported the development pursuit and of the girls’ own interests. Abagi et al. | 15 • • • • • • • • • • • • • following: the include These work. their in use they guidelines and principles the with empowerment of sense their and sector ICT the in success their connect They male-dominated careers. into ventured thus and society roles in the men and regarding women stereotyping of gender the ‘break’ to particular. able in were sector They ICT the in participation regarding and general in society in women of role the of transform perceptions and practice to thinking, their able were respondents our empowerment, individual of understanding above the With empowerment. of sense their and sector ICT the in success their to connect they that characteristics and factors of wise. (Internet support provider CEO 1, 2005) 1, CEO provider support (Internet career-wise. now right doing am I what doing me mind not do friends and parents My professionals. as tor sec­ ICT the joining in interested are who women Kenyan many to model role a am I and it about good company.feel provision I service Internet an manage to Kenya in here settling before America North and Europe in countries different in courses many did I why explains This me. fies satis­ and interests what do to and life in succeed to myself committed I 2005) 2, CEO provider support (Internet path. another create you and it from away step you or it break either you so jump, can’t you it break can’t you if Actually it. avoid or it break to decide either you moving, from you stopping is that you above something is there if that is belief My different. is belief My moving. from you stops that there up something is there believe they saying are they ceiling the about talking are they when and ceiling, the about talking people hear I wise without being inhibited by inhibited being without career -wise wants one what for going career; a building of expense the at marriage about thinking with down bogged becoming not skills; and knowledge more seeking continuously opportunity; an as but barrier a as not gender seeing risk-taking; work; hard dynamic; being right; a as space career for fighting succeed; to and work to commitment a having confident; being skills; right the having dream; your following and focused being dream; professional a – vision a having number a revealed respondents the discussions, group focus Through 174 Professional women empowered to succeed 175 Studies in many countries in sub-Saharan Africa have indicated that Our respondents indicated that they know bright young women According to our respondents, development entails empowering in­ Our Our respondents indicated confidently that they are able make to gender gender stereotyping (i.e. challenging the existing gender stereotyping and discrimination in society in general and the ICT environments in particular). situation where a girl or woman is able to challenge gender-biased women are under-represented and stereotyped in formal education and even in school textbooks, particularly those in mathematics, science and engineering subjects (Obura 1991; KNEC 2003, 2004, 2005; Abagi 2005). Our study of career women in ICT only indicates making that women hesitant stereotyping to is access not the sub-sector, who but access and even are those trained in ICTs find themselves stereotyped and/or discriminated against. The consequence is that some find themselves, despite their ICT knowledge and skills, placed in ‘female’-oriented ser­ vice jobs. For example, instead of providing technical support, a trained woman technician ends up working in an ICT firm as a public relations or marketing officer. informed decisions in their careers and workplaces because they the have above characteristics (they feel empowered). They professional women believe in ICT that they use as their knowledge, skills and experi­ ence to fulfil their assignments efficiently and effectively. dividuals (in this case women) to develop confidence in themselves over time, and to become informed and knowledgeable in society. According to them, empowerment means ‘being able to make informed decisions in life and positioning oneself strategically to acquire and responsively apply knowledge and skills learned at home, in school, in society and in the world of work’ (Internet support provider CEO 1, 2005). It comprises ‘a stereotypes and discrimination, and pursue any career of out choice with­ being forced by her parents, friends, environment’ (Internet support the provider CEO 2, government 2005). Empowerment is or working associated with acquisition of the right knowledge, skills and attitudes to enhance one’s chances of excelling in chosen careers and healthy leading and comfortable a life – being able to access basic needs and life services, including food, shelter, education, healthcare and clothing. It is also related to being able to fight discrimination of any kind, including that based on sex or gender. Stereotyping within ICT careers Abagi et al. | 15 h etr h IT etr Gnrly sc wmn r se a big in profession. being ‘wrong’ as the seen are women such Generally, sector. ICT the enter who careers. technological-oriented math ­ from in away shy poorly and subjects perform science and will ematics girls that expected be a to As seems domains. it male ­result, be to supposed are technology and mathematics that perceptions societal from emanates experience gendered women their of most see friends andrelativesin.TheprofessionalwomeninICTareclearthatthis they which areas, ‘soft’ prefer women most ­development, amongothers.MenenrolfortechnicalaspectsofICT, while programme and design web maintenance, computer – ICT in work tech­ nical doing be will courses, processing word for going hand, most from apart men the other On management. office and word-processing in those as such courses care secretarial/customer for enrol to tend women ing it. avoid should and carry­ apron an Wearing them. in progressing and careers their with ing to tends time for pressure public that view the hold with talked we ICT in women sional ICT in skills and because theyaredoingirrelevantthings’(respondents,2005).Theprofes­ knowledge their wasting are and environment work male-dominated the in firmsin ‘swallowed completely been theprivate have of They Nairobi. just insome are secretaries and or programmers officers relations or public technicians as firms ICT with working quit who Technology Information or Science Computer in degrees with isd ecpin ad tiue ae rnmte t women to transmitted are attitudes and perceptions Gender-biased offer­ towns Kenyan in colleges of mushrooming a is there Currently, who has come to deal with the problem, it is unlikely to be sorted out! In out! sorted be to unlikely is it problem, the with deal to come has who lady a is it since that, is impression general the there, get you her.When him/ for out it sort and go to asked am I then and somewhere problem a has client a say us Let areas. technical in working women in believe never people most aware be might you as … something you tell me Let 2005) 4, (Informant end! the in work really will ­machine a such if wonders somebody machine, a open to try you As it. with doing am I what wondering begins and screwdriver a carrying me sees Somebody thing. this doing be to ones the are men that believe people where line a is this and lady, a am I that fact the is face I challenge The oe t b se saty rse, ecmn ad mln al the all smiling and welcoming dressed, smartly seen be to women eae cuss Or epnet rpre, oee, ht most that however, reported, respondents Our courses. ICT-related ing screwdrivers and spanners is seen as a man’s thing, and women and thing, man’s a as seen is spanners and screwdrivers ing icuae on wmn ehiin i IT rm stay­ from ICT in technicians women young ­discourage 176 ­science, Professional women empowered to succeed 177 2005) If [a woman] is not focused, strong and does not have confidence in what [she wants] to do and where [she wants] to go, definitely she will give in to unnecessary male-motivated pressure. In my case, I knew what I wanted in life and I went for it. I face many challenges as a professional person, not just as a woman. But I do not allow women/men issues that are based on stereotypes and in most cases just mere men’s arrogance to put me down or derail me from my work. (Internet service provider CEO, Gender discrimination in job mobility for professional women in ICT Since the sociocultural environment is highly male dominated and During discussions our respondents pointed out that some ICT owners pointed out our respondents During discussions some some cases, clients are daring enough to ask, what do you know about this problem? (Informant 9, 2005) and operators, who are men, are also biased against women as they see them as ‘intruders’ into the sector. Women’s entry into ICT is hampered right from the interview stage in most organizations dominated by men. Some of our respondents reported that there are many male chauvinists within organizations who do not hide their feelings right from the time a woman is invited for an interview tion. in During interviews, an women ICT-related tend job to be or asked promo­ questions to that their family relate lives – for example, ‘If and when you take your maternity leave, how will the IT department function in your absence?’ There are also questions relating to being away from duty because of other family engagements, such as ‘What will happen to your work when your child is sick?’, ‘Is your husband going to Generally, allow men are you not to asked work such late questions. Their or questions be travel?’ focused on tend their professional skills to and experiences in ICT as related to the job at hand. was raised by a good number of women that it in is more the difficult for study. women than It men to was get promoted reported in an ICT profession. This is largely because the sector is dominated by men and -technical jobs (support services).the few women who are there are in non Besides, some bosses have very little regard for women and that makes it difficult to be promoted. discriminatory, our respondents indicated that if a build woman her own does confidence not and competence, and doesrights, not even if demand her she has a master’s degree in ICT, she will still be pushed out of the sector or be relegated to pursuing a ally career considered that is to tradition­ be a woman’s. Women discrimination. must be focused and fight Abagi et al. | 15 women inICT Discussing theimplicationsofexperiencesprofessional in particular, would like to believe. to like would particular, in men people, many as sector/ only, men of no preserve a is is that Kenya in there profession that practically show to stand a took women profes­ sional these Besides, women. against discrimination perpetuate that ceed. Thisisbecausetheywere socializedtodisregardgenderstereo­ suc­ to determination or spirit the their dampened not have women as sector of out and in face they challenges the field, male-dominated a into ven­ their Despite sector. ICT the in excel to determined were who way. sustainable and systematic a in dismantled not are Kenyansocieties in practices and systems value patriarchal the if sector ICT the in careers professional develop to women for difficult be to continue will It domination. male by shaped ‘norms’ apparent the counter to careers and world the of knowledge and perspectives their change boys/men and girls/women which to extent the is women’s careers ICT of selection and promoting to access in factor determining A communities. Kenyan in entrenched are that attitudes and perceptions gendered the shed and/or ‘disregard’ themselves women which to extent the and self-motivation, daughters’ their of terms in stereotyping gender against stands sup­ and port parental to attributable is sector the in progress their and careers practice. or culture existing the against going are who ‘strangers’ as seen are them into venture to dare who Those tasks. such from stay away to parents their and society by by socialized performed been have be Women to men. have ICT, in those including tasks, technical that assumption an is There it. fix and come to upon called is figure female a not and boy) young or (man figure male a changed, be to are batteries radio’s a or blows bulb a when example, for where, houses, people’s in public the in widespread sphere, private the in prevalent also just is but workplaces, in as such notsphere is thinking of kind This man’s a business. is this technical, and/or electronic anything to comes it when negatively. affected be will economy the sectors of various in participation active their and continue will Kenya in development in marginalization their then sector, of professional out ICT left the are women and girls If careers. ICT pursue to them courage en­ that opportunities to exposed are women few high, is development country’s the in role sub-sector’s the about awareness and sector, every men The respondentsinourstudyarebold,focusedandcommitted women ICT professional to access women’s that indicated has study Our that perception strong a still is there Kenya in communities most In in fast very increasing is growth ICT of pace the as that, ironic is It 178 turing types types Professional women empowered to succeed powering 179 who are still struggling and undecided about what kind of career In a country full of gendered expectations and perceptions, our res­ Based on what we discussed with and observed from the professional Indeed, socializing the young (both boys and girls) to challenge the The above findings have implications for what ‘education for develop­ Socialization and education for development start with reconceptual­ pondents pondents are striving to be good role women models to the girls and young they should pursue. The message they send to girls and young women is that one has to decide what s/he wants to be and do in the future - career wise. Apart from being socialized positively to argue that girls excel, need to be focused and the passionate about what they respondents want to do. With the mainstreaming of ICT in various in the development country, sectors if one – a girl or boy – is sector committed nothing to can excel prevent in them the from doing ICT so. women in ICT, it seems apparent that from an early socialized age girls by must their be family members and institutions existing to social take and charge of political their destiny by gender challenging gaps the and existing stereotypes. This is an empowering process which, in the final analysis, would result in girls being informed, brave and ready to venture into a career of their responsive choice -modelling. mentoring/role based on personal interest or existing gender stereotypes and biases is crucial to breaking the current stereotypes in careers and workplaces in Kenya. all agreed that the foundation thatreflected on their own experiences and Our key respondents was laid by their parents and the exposure to various social environments made them confident and able to succeed in the ICT sector. Their own motivation, however, was the engine that drove them to succeed in the male-dominated ICT sector. They see themselves as professionals, who can compete with other professionals – men or women anywhere in the world. The confidence, pride and vision these women have is what makes them effective in running and/or working in ICT companies. The experience of our respondents ment’ should be put in place in Kenya. means that if the rest of the people (men afforded opportunities situation and the age, are exposed to from an early and women) in the country, to the respondents in this study – gender-sensitive parents, socialization that challenges gender stereotypes, a financially advantaged upbringing and freedom to excel in their areas of choice would – be able both to women excel in and any men sector of the economy, ICT included. em­ on focus to ‘development’ of concept the redefining and izing people – women and men. This is a process of creating an enabling en­ vironment for enhancing women’s participation in all sectors of society, Abagi et al. | 15 family, in the school system, in workplaces and in places of worship. worship. of places in and workplaces in system, school the in family, the in perpetuated currently are that stereotypes and perceptions myths, girls and boys need to be socialized and empowered to challenge gendered age, early an from direction, this In 1981). Oruko 1962; Nyerere 1991; tey Ayit­ 1999; Makgoba 2005; Abagi and (Anyango professions ICT including Conclusion • • • • following: the targeting developed (and operationalized), tobe need frameworks and legal policy relevant fically Kenya.in women against discrimination gender of elimination the Speci­ country. the of development the towards working sectors all in participate and discrimination determination gender counter their to and motivation their families, their upon position draw a to in be will women of minority a only em­ this and Without careers ployment. about mindset their change young to empower age will early an that from frameworks girls legal and policy place in put to need communication, and finance planning, youth, gender, education, enhanced. be to is workplace the in equity if dismantled and challenged be to need general in women gender that indicated have stereotypes, gender bias, sex role socialization They and discrimination against workplaces. their in effective be and careers their build to need who youth and girls Kenyan role young to be models can women these experiences, own their on Based technology. ventured intothefast-growingsectorofinformationandcommunication stereotypes. to and gaps learn gender existing women challenging and by destiny girls their of whereby charge take process a for need the of tions institu­ political and social educational, existing in awareness Raising stereotyping. gender perpetuating by women against discriminate directly or indirectly not do general in environment the and policies workplace that Ensuring careers. and about education their decisions informed making in them assist will that skills life and knowledge appropriate acquire to women and girls Empowering other. the to level one from transition and ment achieve­ access, of terms in education in gap gender the (eliminating) reducing thus levels, all at education in participation girls’ Enhancing target to needs environment policy gender-sensitive a nutshell, a In of those as such ministries relevant and government, Kenyan The have who Kenya in women career by inspired been has chapter This 180 Professional women empowered to succeed

­ KNEC KNEC Girls’ Girls’ Econom­ Sex Equity An Intro­ Indigenous Indigenous The Potential Gender and the Economic Surveys, Africa, Nairobi: Romix Services. African , Institutions New York: Transnational Publishers. education’, in M. Sadker P. and David M. Sadker (eds), Handbook for Schools, New York: Longman. and Women’s Education in Kenya: Gender Perspectives and Trends, Nairobi: UNESCO. International Social Science Jour­ nal, XXIX(4): 628–50. ­facstaff/Hudson/. Council) (2003, 2004, 2005) Newsletters, Nairobi: KNEC. Nairobi: Government Printer. concepts: gender and ICTs in Africa’, in E. M. Rathgeber and E. O. Adera (eds), Information Revolution in Africa, Ottawa: International Develop­ ment Research Centre (IDRC). ic Recovery Strategy for Wealth and Employment Creation 2003–2007, Nairobi: Government Printer. (2005, 2006) of ICTs for Development: Oppor­ tunities and , Obstacles ­ Telecom munications Management and Policy Program, University of San Francisco, www.usfca.edu/ duction to Positive Economics, 5th edn, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. Ayittey, G. B. N. (1991) Bornstein, R. (1982) ‘Sexism in Chege, and F. N. Sifuna (2006) Furtado, C. (1977) ‘Development’, Government of Kenya (2003) KNEC (Kenya National Examination Lipsey, R. G. et al. (1979) Hafkin, N. (2000) ‘Convergence of Hudson, H. E. (2001) — 181 How How Issues in Information and oriented Education in - Basic Education , Forum 6: Career Women into ICT in ICTs and Poverty: A Litera­ Status of Education in (2006) Issues in African Education: Socio­ logical , Perspectives New York: Palgrave Macmillan. sity Women (AAUW) (1995) Schooling, Education and Under­ development: The Paradox of Western African Education: Sociological , Perspectives New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Kenya: Progression, Challenges and Opportunities, Research report of the GRACE Project funded by the International Development Research Centre (IDRC), www. -Network.net. GRACE Communication Technologies in Africa: A Review and Selected Anno­ tated Bibliography, www.inasp. org.uk/pubs/ict/index.html. (2003) ture , Review Ottawa: IDRC. Schools Short-change Girls. The AAUW , Report New York: Marlowe. 35–42. 35–42. (1997) Kenya: Indicators for Planning and , Policy Formulation Nairobi: IPAR. (2005) ‘The role of school in Africa in the 21st century: coping with forces of change’, in A. Abdi and A. Cleghorn (eds), challenge for implementing EFA: recounting gender issues in the provision of education for all in Kenya’, Enhancing Enhancing access and equity in the appropriation and use of ICT for personal and the country’s development. Adeya, C. N. (2001) Abagi, O., N. Sifuna and S. Omamo Abdi, A. and A. Cleghorn (eds) (2005) — American Association of Univer­ Anyango, O. and O. Abagi (2005) — — References Abagi, O. (1995) ‘Gender equity as a • Abagi et al. | 15 Oruko, H. O. (1981) O. H. Oruko, (1994) I. Ocitti, (1991) A. Obura, — — (1962) J. Nyerere, (1999) W.M. Makgoba, Publishers. Africa East Nairobi: Minimum, Ethical an of Search In sophy: Development. and Education Adult to Supplement IZ/DVV East in Education digenous Press. ACTS Nairobi: Press. University Oxford London: (1974) Press. University Oxford London: 1965–67, Speeches, and Writings from Selection A (1968) Press. Government ­Salaam: es Dar Socialism, African of Basis Tafelberg. Mafube Town: Cape Struggle, New The aissance: Man and Development, and Man Socialism: and Freedom An Introduction to In­ to Introduction An Changing Images, Changing Ujamaa: The Ujamaa: Practical Philo­ Practical African Ren­ African ­Africa, 182 Ward, H. (1989) H. Ward, (2006) UNESCO — (2002) UNDP ‘Opportu­ (2003) (ed.) M. R. Thioune, ‘Women, (2000) M. E. Rathgeber, Stoke Institute. Phelps-Stoke York: New Continent, the from Perspectives New Reconsidered: , Paris: UNESCO.Paris: 2006, Report ing UNDP.DC: Washington,Report , 2006) (2003, UNDP/GOK. Nairobi: Report , ment IDRC. Ottawa: 1, vol. Africa’, in Development for Technologies Communication and in development’, nity commu­ for challenges and nities IDRC. Ottawa: Africa, in Revolution Information the and der (eds), Adera O. E. and geber Rath­ M. E. in issue’, an is gender why Africa: in ICTs and men Kenya Human Develop­ Human Kenya Human Development Human EFA Global Monitor­ EFAGlobal African Development African Information Gen­ 16 | Reflections on the mentoring experiences of ICT career women in Nairobi, Kenya: looking in the mirror

Salome Awuor Omamo1

Two interesting issues that continue to be raised and discussed in ­research and articles on the low participation of women in information and communication technology (ICT) are those of mentoring and IT expert portrayal. In the past, it has been shown that girls had very few female ICT experts to look up to or to desire to be like. Looking into the field and seeing a male-dominated arena did not attract girls in the least. Despite the success of various education initiatives in the past several years, however, there is little doubt that the shortage of women in technology begins in the playground, where gender stereotyping is already under way. As such, many industry leaders and experts believe the long-term solution to the gender imbalance in IT lies in women technologists going back to school – way back, to high schools and even elementary schools, to mentor young girls, who too often give up on maths and science at an early age (Nobel 2007). Education, training and skills development are critical for women who want to enhance their career potential through the use of ICTs within as well as outside the ICT sector. Learning practices (learning through practice from the classroom to the workplace to the high-technology office and other forms of learning through remembering and activity) should be extended to girls (and women), made gender sensitive (women-specific training, ongoing user support, and mentoring in the communities where women live) and deepened for women as not only users but technicians, programmers, ICT policy-makers and advocates. A recent study in Kenya came up with findings that indicate that women are highly optimistic, embracing ICT as a practical mechanism for achieving entry into the labour market (Mbarika et al. 2007). They perceive significant structural barriers, however, such as public policies that fail to facilitate the development of the ICT sector, gender discrimin­ ation by employers, and training that provides them with insufficient technical skills to enable them to effectively perform in the workplace. These findings are largely confirmed by similar studies conducted in other countries (AAUW 2000). Omamo | 16 xoe te t te elt ta IT xet ae o ncsaiy male necessarily not are experts 2000). (AAUW ICT that reality the to them exposes suc­ domain ICT the actually of nature the about awareness More have field. this in ceeded who aspirations, and dreams similar with women, with connect and see can girls that so mentoring of use the courage en­ to trying been have agencies development and (NGOs) organizations Women mentoringandbeingmentoredintheICTsector and women. and girls for opportunities providing and capacities building by occupations, stereotypical in women leave currently that inequalities gender the inate • • • ICTs: career ICT haveaccessedandareappropriatingICTs,been empowered n spot n eain o hi IT aer mroe m on experi ­ own my mirrored careers ICT their to relation in support and myself. to regard with as well as respondents my to regard I with aspect process, this include to mentoring decided the from gaining are include themselves knowledge, mentors my what to not, do articles mentoring Therefore, other others. although to mentors being from gained had they what about also speaking started spontaneously they mentored, being from had gained they what sharing were research the in involved women the While Nairobi. in interviewed women career ICT twelve the of lives the in tors It is for the above reasons that recently numerous non-­ numerous recently that reasons above the for is It and elim­ women to field ICT the open to need a therefore is There 1999). al. et (Springer students female among, networks support lack of and between, interaction of lack – groups support peer of Lack 2001). Crump 2001; gender- (Cohoon of teaching sensitive support institutional of lack lecturers; the of part the on feel them comfortable around computers; lack of encouragement and mentoring help and jargon computer learn to females enable would that programmes special of lack – support institutional Inadequate 2002). Teague 2001; al. et Crombie 2001; Cohoon 1997; (Camp career a as computing information about of lack a and impressions career stereotypical career women, successful ‘invisible’ students, fellow female few tutors, and lecturers female few are there – advice career and models role of Lack in progression career women’s down slow factors following The This chapter arises from an investigation into how career women in women career how into investigation an from arises chapter This hi eprecs n togt o te oe f etrn, learning mentoring, of role the on thoughts and experiences Their - wise. 2 A significant theme that emerged was the role of men of role the was emerged that theme significant A 184 governmental other ­ Reflections on mentoring experiences 185 I took a computer course and started a computer beginners’ class. The professor in that class became my mentor because I enjoyed the course and asked him which career it led to. He sat me down and told me that My mother was a role model to me and was very powerful. When I talk about power I don’t talk about it in the context that most people understand it. I talk about power in the context of capacity and ability to survive. Observing her power has helped me in the sense that I don’t take any challenge for granted; I also don’t take a challenge as a bottleneck. I take a challenge as something that I analyse, identify what it is and then I come up with a critical mission of overcoming it and move on. (ISP manager, 2005) Develop technical and professional skills, knowledge and under­ standing. My manager is a great mentor to me. He advises me on several issues including which courses I should take so that I can advance my career in You know, IT. like he tells me, you see, if you concentrate on this you won’t go far, so why don’t you try this. … So he always gives me informa­ tion from the perspective of a manager and somehow I get prepared in advance. (Systems administrator, 2005) Through mentorship, learning and support experiences, women have Gain greater understanding of career options. Develop self-esteem, self-confidence, and-reliance, self a questioning of discriminatory assumptions, and a sense of determination. From the experiences described below, mentoring to the respondents • been able to: • • ICT career women’s experiences of being mentored experiences of ICT career women’s and to me is a relationship in which a mentor fessional gives personal support and and pro­ in turn gains from mentoring mentored. others This and support being comes in the form of lessons tions, and observations, demonstra­ feedback and consultations that are facilitated books, Internet by interaction and face-to-face meetings, all of which provided are by the mentor. The mentor is model, to an adviser, those a guide s/he and a mentors counsellor. a role ences ences of being mentored and of being a mentor to others as a qualitative reflexive researcher in the ICT field. This chapter thus explores what being mentored, and being a mentor to others, has meant in relation to the career paths we have followed and the barriers we have overcome. Omamo | 16 • • women in the ICT field experience: field which ICT stereotyping, the in and women discrimination gender of context the in even and bosses. organizations forums, ICT friends, networks, teachers, members, Gain support systems. support Gain perspectives. different and feedback valuable Gain agement training for the members of the club. (IT support officer, 2005) officer, support (IT club. the of members the for training agement man­ organized and us to talked IT.She learn and go to us encouraged and came club, the in women us of many to mentor a is who club, the of president The club. Soroptimists the to, belong I club this is There 2005) manager, company (IT systems. information and management as major my declared I there from So interest. took I and take would each path career what exactly me to explained and do could I that careers of range whole a me gave He analyst. systems a be could I support me. And they really do! (Systems administrator, 2005) administrator, (Systems do! really they And me. support to there always are they that me assure and far, this come have I when now right down go to want I why question They different? am I that think me tell always they else something to IT from switch just should I that feel and down feel I time Every with. work we programmer the and department of head the department, this in colleagues two are there Normally determination of sense a instilled has colleagues from Mentorship The sourcesofthismentorship,learningandsupporthave beenfamily 2005) person, support (ICT support. that me gave he So me. assisting also was he assignments my doing was I when – together worked we so (USIU), University International States United at IT in degree first his doing also was son my time that At school. to back went I So secretary? old an wants who myself, asked I old years forty-eight to getting was I when so old years fifty now am I 2005) administrator, (Systems sort. the of something or nearer is which office, Ugandan the support I that ensure to me advise to try and that with OK very be will he business, doing busy is husband my and here children have I because simply Zambia to go cannot I him tell I When problems. my to listen actually can He problems. my with out me sort can he do, to want I whatever of irrespective that is him about like really I What Central). (Africa Manager A/C my is important most the but mentors, many very got have I Yah, that there are ladies out there who have done it, what makes me makes what it, done have who there out ladies are there that 186 Reflections on mentoring experiences 187 I am the coordinator for international goodwill and understanding for the Soroptimists club. Just being a member of this club exposes you to a lot. We deal with a lot of problem areas, including education. We normally invite girls to come and stay with us during school holidays and expose them to our daily lifestyle, including work environment. We also cover human rights and the status of women. There are also What I do is usually talk to the students, especially the ladies. We [the lecturers and personnel in the IT department] recently launched a club for our students where at least we hope that in the future they will help us in some of the things we are doing. Unfortunately in that club, out of the six officials there is only one That lady. really mademe a little bit mad and I was telling them, come on, ladies, you can do it, why is it that we only have one person in the list of officials who is a lady and we have a group of ladies, why do you want to sit at the back? So at the end of it all they were asking me why out of all the people who are interested in the club I am the only I lady. told them that there is always a starting point and if they can see me there, they can also be there. And then also when I get to the labs to fix some of the machines I always call the ladies to come and see how I am doing it just to know that they can actually fix these machines. (Network administrator/lecturer, 2005) We We have talked to girls about careers and all of us talk about what we are doing. We went to Nairobi Primary and we talked to Class Eight children about what to expect. We are actually planning to go and see girls in the rural areas, so that we can tell them that there is more to look forward to in future. Then we have another project called ‘Take my daughter to work’. We take girls from the rural areas and stay with them for two weeks, bring them to our offices andshow them what we are doing. That is part of the programme that we have. (IT support officer, 2005) Gaining a great sense of satisfaction, giving back and seeing the one you are mentoring grow and develop. Most Most of the women interviewed have been mentors to several young Building interpersonal skills (effective questioning, active listening, reflecting and communication). Building key skills in providing effective feedback and basic coaching skills which are useful in preparation for leadership positions. people and women moving up in the ICT field. They described the benefits the described They field. ICT the in up moving women and people of being mentors. • • • ICT career women as mentors women ICT career Omamo | 16 confidence and given me a sense of freedom in terms of findingand terms in of freedom asense me given and confidence esteem and self -worth and self-esteem in Improvement My experiencesofbeingmentored contributed to my professional development. professional my to contributed collectively have these and self -knowledge, and self-discovery self-worth, and self-esteem my in improvement to led therefore have mentorship of sources These transformation. awakening an and self-growth to led have that experiences of array an with me provided have these All relationship. mentoring the facilitated have mentors my with interaction Internet and takas 1990), journals and newsletters on ICTs and women’s empowerment 1996) andHeuristicResearch: Design,MethodologyandApplications(Mous­ (Cameron Heart Creative Your to Journey a Gold, the of Vein The as such tions, demonstrations and observations from face-to meetings, books recommenda ­ References, research. our during interviewed women the leader with interacting by gained have I importantly most and team mentor), my (also research my and mentors my are who coordinators the by encouragement and e-learning been has There research. ICT and gender in assist that learning of methods other and writing to sharing facilitate that workshops yearly the from ranging forms different have portunities op­ These opportunities. mentorship with me providing is still and been development. women’s to aid fundamental a as mentoring viewed to dis­ gender spoke we women the of despite proportion large A stereotyping. and crimination careers ICT in succeed to with work to wishes one mentors the attract and seek to order in characteristics these possess to has has also mentors One passion. and vision determination, of sense their supported their as regard they those from received mentorship that courses. (IT support officer, 2005) officer, support (IT courses. do to women for sponsorship and programmes exchange have also We friendship. and understanding and goodwill international peace, and development all, to equal rights human standards, ethical high women, six Gender Research in Africa into ICTs for Empowerment (GRACE) has (GRACE) Empowerment for ICTs into Africa in Research Gender 2005) manager, company follow.(IT to want you path the to reference with do should you what you tell they route; the you show really They through. following and mentor a identifying mentors, seeking through been has career my of development whole the think I and mentors, sought I organization the within mentors, for look You interviewed women the with discussions our from clear became It programme areas which deal with the advancement of the status of status the of advancement the with deal which areas ­programme 188

etrhp a botd my boosted has Mentorship Reflections on mentoring experiences I have come to realize that, as a

189 Yesterday Yesterday we visited Moi Girls High School, Isinya, and talked to the girls on the choice of subjects and careers. We encouraged them to develop a positive attitude towards science subjects and not limit themselves and their abilities. They were elated since they saw us as examples of women who had succeeded in science subjects while in school and pursued careers in (My ICT. journal, 2008) A motivational speaker, especially to young girls who shy away from the field of ICTs and other science-related courses: Through the transformation I have undergone in the areas of self- As an individual and as an ICT researcher, I am learning to find my These areas of self-growth are benefiting both my research journey 1. esteem and self-worth, self-discovery and knowledge, and what this has meant for my professional development, especially in the field of gender and ICT research and the use of ICT knowledge and tools, I have gained in the following fields and become: My experiences as a mentor Self-discovery and -knowledge self own subjective truth in relation to my research process, findings and and have learnt research to allow that truth, even formulated yet, when to enter into dialogue it with other voices. I is trust in my self not finely and my truth. I have also found the joy and of other writing and forms exploring of ideas communication from a position of writing. I have my moved beyond a strength sense of being in limited in my technologi­ cal knowledge to integrating the training offered to increase as an my ICT skills researcher. expressing myself. expressing I myself. have learnt to handle my inner critic, thereby freeing the inner processes of recognizing, opening, questioning and integrating ideas, information and knowledge. ­researcher, I am the most important instrument therefore I in have learnt to acknowledge personal my perspectives and experi­ research, and ences in so far as this has a bearing on my research experiences. I work to accept my unique subjectivity. positively and consciously with who I am I have also undergone a process of internal search in which I have been discovering the essential meanings of my experiences, and I feel that am I actively awakening and transforming my own self, thereby enabling me to gain more focus in life and in my career. and the experience of my respondents. Omamo | 16 • • • • • 5. 4. 3. 2. ICTcareerwomenandresearchers:reflectionsin themirror confidence and self- and of the self-confidence Raising because we experience. field ICT obstacles the in significant career a create to wanting women for life. professional and career entire one’s throughout dimensions important very remain, will and are, these And satisfaction. self self-discovery, self-esteem, one’s increase They alike. women and career ICT researchers ICT for capacities important are which for creativity, and opportunities are there place: reflec­ taking critical learning also is mentor­ there providing in ship Furthermore, itself. in gift a is desires same and focus same the shares from who someone to learned has derived one what on passing self-satisfaction The receiving. and giving both involved and ICT research. ICT and gender in development professional and career for opportunities New domains. male as sciences the other and see ICTs often of field who girls young to especially speaking, through motivational self-esteem increased and research ICT in satisfaction Job career ICT in professionals fields. other with network to Opportunities of field the in research ICT. further and gender for avenue an and tools ICT of use the in skills professional and personal developing for opportunity An andICT gender asa researcher. own practice my upon reflection for catalyst A provided: has mentoring mentor, a As pages, morning 2007). (my themselves’ limit thus careers and ICT men and for mainly subjects are science that think who young girls to and back women giving in self-satisfaction gaining am ‘I achiever: An (my 2007). respect’ pages, and morning trust their gained have I say. to have I what atten­ to pay tion to ready always are and me to up look ‘they model: role A path. career ICT the take to want who girls and women young to adviser An careers. science-related and subjects science from away steer who those especially friends, and family to counsellor and guide career A needed support. This is particularly pertinent particularly is This support. much-needed provide Mentors me for and women career ICT the for mentoring of processes The - nweg ad rfsinl eeomn, n tu la t self to lead thus and development, professional and knowledge in idpnet hnig evsoig f e realities new of envisioning thinking, independent tion, 190 - Reflections on mentoring experiences www. cing cing The Information Heuristic Heuristic Education Proceedings of the Fremantle, Australia,

, accessed July 2003. education and workforce

Anderson (2001) ‘Getting girls Kvasny and A. Amadi (2007) ­ C. ­ into tech classes’, Digest, 66(5): 42–8. tertiary programming learning environment’, Australian Association for Research in Education Conference (AARE 2001), aare.edu.au/01pap/cru01022. html Social Affairs (2006) ‘Enhan­ ­women’s global leadership through information technology’, Parallel event at the 50th session of CSW. L. ‘IT participation: a new era for women in Kenya’, Society, 23(1). Research: Design, Methodology and Applications, Newbury Park/ London/New Delhi: Sage. Crombie, G., AbarbanelT. and Crump, B. J. (2001) ‘Equity in the Department of Economic and Cobb Mbarika, F. Payton, V., Moustakas, C. (1990) Nobel, C. (2007) ‘Back to school: 191

. and the Communica­ The Vein of the . www.aauw.org/research/ I would like to acknowledge The research report is available

improving female retention in the Computer Science major’, Communications of the , ACM 44(5): 108–14. shrinking pipeline’, tions of the , ACM 40(10): 103–10, www.mines.edu/fs_home/tcamp/ l new-study/new-study.htm m tech_savvy.cf Gold, a Journey to Creative Your Heart, New York: Putnam. girls in the new computer age’, Washington, DC: American Association of University Women, 1 2 The experiences shared in this chapter emphasize the importance of -Network.net www.GRACE Cohoon, J. M. (2001) ‘Toward Camp, T. Camp, (1997) T. ‘The incredible Cameron, J. (1996) References AAUW (2000) -savvy: ‘Tech educating Notes Okwach Abagi, research team leader, and Olive Sifuna, research team member. at results of this study are discussed in Chapter 15, this volume. mentoring mentoring for both ICT researchers and ICT career women as receivers and as givers. These experiences aim to inspire others to explore capacities these in themselves and give themselves these experiences. And in developing new knowledge and insight, new confidence and self-esteem, both givers and receivers of mentoring will be encouraged to maintain their position within the ICT field andwithin this strengthen field. their Thus not relationships only those individuals experiencingmentor­ ship will benefit from the mentoring processes, but the ICTwill field itself be enriched. esteem esteem is important to both ICT researchers We need motivation and and support ICT through the processes career of learning and women. career progression, and this is where mentorship proves to be benefit. of great Omamo | 16 Springer, L., M. L. Stanne and and Stanne L. M. L., Springer, undergraduates in science, science, in undergraduates on learning small-group of ‘Effects (1999) Donovan S. techteen_1.html article/07/01/29/05FEwomen 29 IT’, into girls getting January, www.infoworld.com/ . InfoWorld, ­

192 Teague, J. (2002) ‘Women in comput­ in ‘Women (2002) J. Teague, , 34(2): 147–58. 34(2): letin, it?’, in them keeps what it, to them brings what ing: 21–51. 69(1): of Review meta-analysis’, a technology: mathematics, Educational Research, ­Educational engineering and and ­engineering SIGCSE Bul­ SIGCSE 17 | Our journey to empowerment: the role of ICT Ruth Meena and Mary Rusimbi

‘Our research journey’ Through recording and exploring life histories we became aware of the opportunities and constraints women entrepreneurs in Tanzania identify regarding use of mobile phones and/or the Internet in pro­moting their business enterprises. Nine women, including ourselves, were part of this research journey, coming from diverse backgrounds, having dif­ ferent levels of education, and diverse life visions and passions. We all have dreams and internal strength and have faced different challenges, but none of us seems to have given up. This chapter focuses on this inner strength and sense of empowerment. Space does not allow us to tell the story of each respondent, so we have chosen to include just five of us. We do not claim to represent all nine, since we each had unique experiences such that we cannot generalize.1 Bahati avoided poverty by becoming a freelance hairdresser; her main sources of capital are her nimble fingers and a mobile phone. Rose Lyimo started her journey as a typist and now co-owns a school, owns a clearing and forwarding business, and engages in various business enterprises. Mary Rusimbi’s passion for social work was greatly influenced by her grandmother when she lived with her for four years. Demere started questioning masculinity and stereotyping during her childhood, and now co-owns a publishing house with a feminist touch. Ruth Meena reacted against a father who did not believe in women’s education. She pushed herself to the level of professor in political science, and is an activist in women’s rights. We start by exploring the varied ways in which the five women define power. This is followed by an exploration of the factors that influenced their journey to empowerment. In the context of this journey and its chal­ lenges, we explore the impact two information tools, the mobile phone and the Internet, have had on aspects of the women’s chosen path.

What is power? Each of the women in this study has her own definition of what power is. In this chapter we do not provide a functional definition of power as Meena and Rusimbi | 17 to look for customers, but she receives calls from them. from calls receives she but customers, for look to telephone the use not to does She long customers. new and her old of take number a not get did It own. her on work to going was she that and quitting, of intention her at them to customers whispering started regular she her job, salon of her some nimble of hair her the and doing phone was she mobile As the hands. was herself for work to began she would not have done. they have whatotherwise not to do would controlling others for or forcing force others a influencing as others, power considers definitions women the the of of none aspect that common is only The dare. to courage the one gives which inside energy an as seen also is It meander. although might road B, the to A point from one moves which process step-by a is it others, to Yet voice. inner one’s to listening including first, oneself care of taking into one pushes also which self-love, is it others for things; doing into us pushes which within force a represents it some For within. power the conceptualizing of way unique a has us of each definitions, our all through running threads power common the some particularly are there it, Although of within. experience different a had has us of each Putting a mobile phone towork Putting amobilephone Bahati o ucae pee f ad n po sbr ae ad ul a house a build and hairdressing. area freelance suburb with continues poor she while a in land of piece a purchase to able been subsequently has She independently. work could she that so clients for search to hard worked She phone. mobile a purchase to able was she years, two for minimum absolute keeping an to By expenditures her. other sustained her hardly and that exploitative was found salon She a in hairdressing. work tried Bahati being children, was her who by aunt, unemployed supported her of support the with com­ so highly petitive, was dressmaking that realized She opportunities. seek area to urban an to moving by poverty rural training escaped months’ she dressmaking, few in a and education primary only freelance With a hairdresser. currently is Bahati advancement.’ personal your for things to verify with my customer the type of extensions she wants to match to wants she extensions of type the customer my with verify to want I when is call I time only The appointment. an make to calls person the and number my gives her.She get I do how and hair her did who her ask would friends her of some customer, any for style good a do I whenever that so job, good a doing through work my advertise I think I ‘Power’, saysBahati,‘isaforcewithinyouwhichpushesintodoing

up capital Bahati had when The onlystart-upcapitalBahatihadwhen 194 Our journey to empowerment per day. day. 195 Basically, there was something which was driving me out of formal em­ ployment. I just found myself not satisfied however high I moved in my profession. As a child I had dreamt of being a doctor but I did not make ‘Power ‘Power is the ability to break through barriers to reach your life vision When asked what had encouraged her to start her businesses, parti­ Bahati cannot use her telephone to communicate with her family When Bahati was interviewed she had just moved into her new house. With ownership of the telephone Bahati has been able to break through break to able been has Bahati telephone the of ownership With with the style she has chosen. I therefore hardly spend more than 10,000 [Tanzanian] shillings [US$10] per month on this telephone. step process,’ according to Rose Lyimo, who is currently through a step-by-step process,’ according to Rose a co-owner of a rural school known as Break Through, of and a sole clearing owner and forwarding company known as Te Te ‘I (‘step by never step’). give up,’ she says, ‘but I uncovering believe my in potential. a This is step-by-step what approach power is in all about.’ cularly since she had previously been climbing the professional ladder, Rose said, a number of barriers. First, she left exploitative work. This decision quired re­ a very strong will since it can be her quite own, as risky. her aunt, She with whom was she was living previously staying, on had passed away. When she started to work on her own, she recalls working day and night. even if she could afford to do so. Her family lives in rural Ujiji, which is not connected to landlines or mobile phones. Since her arrival in Dar es Salaam she has not been able to go home, and for the two years the before interview was conducted she had received welfare no of her information family. on This is the one hurdle that Bahati and cannot reflects overcome, the rural/urban digital divide. While developments boundaries, have created one ‘global village’, opening technology industry in the some boundaries are widening divides. She was planning to rent out one of income and the minimize small the rooms risks to of increase living her by relaxed herself. now that She she is does a not have bit to more work day and basic needs. night She to is meet capable of her earning a non-taxable income of 300,000 Tshs (Tanzanian shillings) per month, which is equivalent to US$300 month, lifting her well above the poverty line of less than a dollar per Certainly combining her ‘force within’ with her mobile phone has facili­ tated her economic mobility. Rose Lyimo Meena and Rusimbi | 17 tion with potential clients, individuals in the same business and her her and business same the co-director. in individuals clients, potential with tion communica­ extensive requires This students. school primary include to their immediateattention.Rose alsohasadreamofexpandingtheschool municates with her business partner on progress and any matters needing com ­ regularly She management. day-to the in responsibility more the business. affect the would this and school, the chosen have not would parents some telephone the Without children. their of progress the on check to then and now call parents Alternatively parents. the with communicate to has manager school the or she either problem, a have children such When underrated. be cannot parents with communicate to need The onwards. thirteen of age the from children young some admits which school, ing board­ a is school The school. the from and to the running and in involved bill time telephone the of cost the reducing hence e-mail, and chat Internet via manager school the with communicating been have could she problem, a been not connectivity Had office. city the in out carried school doesnothaveelectricity. Photocopyingandsecretarialservicesare the because activities school-related many for city the in office company field’. this in competition big also is there as clients solicit to difficult it find will you otherwise toes, your on be to have ‘you profit, a make to business this for Rose, to According business. a wreck potentially can and habour, the at storage for money of amount substantial a client the cost will flow information the in breakdown Any agencies. importing and shipping and exporters from information need you instance, for business, forwarding and clearing of a In communication. level high a demand activities civic multiple in involvement her and What was the influence of ICTs in this process? this in ICTs of influence the was What and a member of the Rotary Club. Rotary the of member a and Tourism, and Travel African All of chapter Tanzanian the of chairperson bank, national a for director board a is she engagement: civic current her Business requires resources, both financial and material. One needs One material. and financial both resources, requires Business directed with Rose with co-directed and co-owned is school the Additionally, her use to has She premises. two from school the manages Rose which has been pushing me to go for business. for go to me pushing been has which me within power a is There satisfied. not was I secretary, administrative an as UN the joined I when secretary.Even and typist, a being up ended I So medicine. in degree a for required are which subjects those in well it Rose’s journey took her through some major steps, the final one being one final the steps, major some through her Rose’stook journey 196

Rose’sbusinesses current ­taking Our journey to empowerment ologies, master’s 197 has not yet tracked the costs of the other items. She finds the mobile ‘Power ‘Power is about being able to make choices and interrogate choices Mary attributes her commitment to equality, her desire to work with The childhood network and support systems that existed in her grand­ Her road to education was smooth because her father wanted her to including participatory approaches. She continued her studies to ­ level. She has been inspired by two great thinkers, J. K. Nyerere, the made on your behalf,’ says Mary Rusimbi, feminist activist, trainer with participatory and group animation skills, adult educator, gender speci­ alist, and single parent with two sons was also and executive director a of a very deceased powerful activist daughter. feminist organiza­ She tion, the Tanzania Gender Networking Programme (TGNP), when research this was being conducted. Born into a supportive parents, middle-class Mary was family, exposed with to opportunities and was able to make ‘choices’. people, her pro-poor ideology and her commitment and to human rights empowerment to experience gained from early childhood when she spent four years living with her grandmother. great ‘The influence village on has had my life a and towards people, the my understanding of waypoverty and I my belief lookin issues of at things.social attitude My justice and equity are very grounded in the years I stayed with my grandmother,’ says Mary. mother’s community instilled in Mary a sense of respect for all regardless people of class. ‘Above all, it has given me a deep understanding what of material poverty is and the wealth in the citizens hearts in of our communities. poor My ordinary urban-raised siblings missed this, and this is what distinguishes me from them in many things.’ girls who experienced patriarchyget a good education, unlike many other as an obstacle to their schooling. Mary entered university majored in adult education, history and languages, subjects that gave her in 1973 and a grounding in analysis, language and adult education method­ Mary Rusimbi telephone is very expensive, but necessary for her businesses. information information on available credit facilities. Belonging to a number of busi­ ness networks has given Rose some comparative advantages in relation to sourcing funds for expansion and diversification of her and financial institutions -sharing with requires information But this also enterprises. other business partners. It is not easy to compute the actual amount that it costs Rose to maintain communications with her various partners. She allows a budget of 400,000 Tshs per month She for the school telephone. Meena and Rusimbi | 17 and her immediate family, as well as the TGNP. the as well as family, life immediate her personal and her of management facilitated have Internet which the tools and working telephone the these both considers without She survived says. have she would gadgets,’ I how know not do ‘I extensively. Internet the and telephones both uses Mary identities, and roles many hs s ht ae e lae h ebsy o fr ii scey engage­ society civil for job ment. embassy the leave her made what is This resources.’ national of distribution in equality and fairness justice, for fighting organizations society civil with more work to want me made that disillusionment this was ‘It inequalities: gender and poverty overcome to strategy major a as support became external of idea she whole the with however, disillusioned while, a After ICTs. ways of new use including to working, Mary of exposed embassies the with Working director. tive empowerment.’ people’s in belief a and ideology my shaped have texts These writings. Angelou’s Maya adore I scholarship, feminist on book Rodney’s as such texts, other with together life my on effect empowering an had has Oppressed ‘The consciousness-raising. and empowerment for tion politician andeducationist,Paulo Freireandhisphilosophyofeduca­ Use of the telephone and Internet and their effects on Mary’s life Mary’s on effects their and Internet and telephone the of Use including network members. network including friends, her with contact in keeping to addition in is This daily. matters, family regarding sisters, her with communicates also She understands. mother Her job. her of nature the of because sisters other her as often as Mary worked in several embassies before joining TGNP as an execu­ an as TGNP joining before embassies several in worked Mary Mary calls her mother on a daily basis, as she is not able to visit her visit to able not is she as basis, daily a on mother her calls Mary friendships. lasting build and sons, two my with bonds establish to me enabled distance, a from role mothering the do to me enabled has telephone the level, personal a at Indeed, conversation. long a have we week every least at and support, my needs he if me texts He telephone. a him bought I e- mails. later and conversations, telephone through bonded we far, was He myself. for as well as son my for therapy of kind a was this calls, telephone on earnings my of portion good a spent I Although life. of fear probably and had, he parent only the me, losing of fear death, of fear fear, some developed son my family, the in deaths many of trauma the through gone Having him. with touch in get to month per dollars 150 spend would I Australia, in was son my When My youngest son is now studying in Swaziland, and I do the same. the do I and Swaziland, in studying now is son youngest My In Africa. Underdeveloped Europe How 198 Pedagogy of the of Pedagogy

In her In Our journey to empowerment 199 From my mother, I learnt to defy stereotypes and challenge gendered constructions of roles and From sexuality. my grandmother, I learnt to love folklore, and admire cultural heritage and storytelling. Travelling with my father from one rural site to another exposed me to a variety of languages and dialects, and enhanced my understanding of diversities of cultural heritage. The primary school and national service challenged my sexual identity, as the institutions attempted to instil [in me] and teach me patriotism within the context of patriarchy and hierarchy, hence fail­ ing to distinguish between nationalism and personal identity at a time when I was [on] a dire quest for self-worthiness. ‘Power ‘Power is the energy within oneself which enables one to reflect on Mary Mary says Internet websites have been a good source of information zation, a feminist networking and advocacy organi As chief executive of one’s one’s own life, and question the social says construction Demere of Kitunga. our Demere identity,’ is a dynamo the – first women a co-owners publisher of and a publishing one house, of an activist artist, and a a feminist mother of three. Working with determination, passion, a sound financial plan and in aconducive business environment,she was able to counter stereotypes and be successful. Having been exposed to various cultural traditions and expressions has had a tremendous impact on her life journey. ‘I was raised by two strong women who tremendous have impact had a on my life,’ she says, referring grandmother. to her mother and and knowledge for self-development. Although a full-time employee of she TGNP, also does consultancy work on the organization’s behalf, and work. As a trainer, in private consultancy holidays she engages during her web through skills gender-training and resources training her updates she searches and texts available on the Web. The Department Information within Generation TGNP has been very instrumental in providing necessary the technical support in searching for this type of knowledge. survival. Within internal communication vital for its Mary finds enhanced the organization they have established an electronic system that communication enables employees to exchange notes and memos, carry on discussions and clarify many issues that otherwise would have entailed do their work. This has transformed the way they moving between offices. ‘Although this communication strategy has not replaced staff meetings, it enables us to be more focused in strategic says matters Mary. of organization,’ Demere Kitunga Meena and Rusimbi | 17 Demere: to According others. lot and staff a printers, have with communications and e-mail orders, of produce clients, of database a keep They work. tronic communication is central to their - day Demere’s ICT connections ICT Demere’s lifelong assets in her career and business life. business and career her in been assets have lifelong These actualized. were skills language and writing reading, in her that interest level this at was an It culture. and languages had arts, for passion a who and girls met also She clubs. writing and debating culture. and music traditional of admirer passionate very a is and lyrics, popular and poetry of composes she particularly books, writer, children’s prolific a is She life. Demere’s a on had impact have lasting must experience and knowledge of wealth This initi­ rites. and lyrics ation folklore, local to her expose would and grandmother her, to Her stories childhood. narrate her of part spent she whom with her worthiness. and sexuality her self-esteem, own her towards attitudes Demere’s rural, concerning have to She certainlyinfluenced consciousness. womenandfeminist uneducated tend we that gift.’ perception God-given the a are counters talents This as talents them have use and you ahead ‘If go her, areas to these said in mother her trees, climb or whistle to her for inappropriate considered was When it why girls. mother her for asked ­­Demere behaviour inappropriate as constructed were which trees, climbing and whistling stereotypical loved She childhood. early her the from norms to conform to refused and questioned Demere roles, gender-specific into boys and girls socialized that norms and traditions Secondary education enhanced Demere’s talents. She joined reading, joined She talents. Demere’s enhanced education Secondary grandmother, her was life Demere’s influenced who woman other The Demere hadanexcitingchildhood.Althoughraisedinaruralareawith a publishing industry today without ICT gadgets. ICT without today industry publishing a of think to possible not is It mutual. is which support for them, with cate communi­ to need you adults, young of mother a as And e-mails. through times at others, with engage and networks, of part be to need also you activist, an as industry.But publishing the in knowledge and information access as well as yourself, advertise to need you Additionally, markets. for search to need also you and printers, contact to need you edit, you which articles or books of authors with communicate to have You business. a such for lifeline vital a is communication your industry, publishing the In

director, Elieshi, elec­ Elieshi, co-director, her and Demere For 200 to day -day editing and publishing Our journey to empowerment Ruth 201 During her A-level studies, Ruth started enjoying learning. ‘This is I was actually motivated by my father in a negative My way. father never wanted to have his daughters go beyond Primary Four, while he was determined to support the two boys up to whatever level they wanted. This made me very Had angry. it not been for the pressure from my father, I could have ended up at Class 8 and gone for a teaching career or nursing [like] my two other sisters, but I was just determined to prove my father wrong, and as long as he said no more to further education, I just went on without a certain focus or ambition for a career or university education. ‘Empowerment ‘Empowerment is self-confidence, self-determination which pushes Ruth was born into a polygamous family with twelve children, ten girls As Ruth combined her domestic roles with schooling, she did not Asked what had motivated her to pursue her education up to this you to move with your life against all hurdles,’ says Ruth Meena. is a political scientist, feminist, human rights activist, mother When this research was being of many. of four, and a friend grandmother of four, conducted she was preparing herself for retirement from her university career, and planning to set up a centre of learning, which she will man­ age. Her new centre has a highshort-term learning school activities targeting as young a people. The core high business school, which and is a other preparatory stage for university education, is going to utilize ICT tools extensively. and two boys. When her eldest sister got married, Ruth (then aged five) was ‘given’ to her sister to support her. She was raised as a first daughter estic chores, lots of responsibilities, including dom of her own sister, with such as taking care of her sister’s children, cleaning fetching the water animal and shed, firewood, and cooking, as her sisterfarm work. Ruth wasfeels busy with her father sent her away to her elder socialized into sister being a to hard-working woman be performing tasks that were constructed as women’s work. brother a had she her, for Luckily examination. 4 Class her in well perform with a greater vision for girls’ education, who decided to take her from away her sister and put her back in school, where she repeated Primary 4. She passed with flying colours and was onewho were ofselected two for a girlsboarding school. This in her class is what opened doors for her further schooling, up to university level, without a break. level, Ruth says: Ruth Meena Ruth Meena and Rusimbi | 17 exposure to theories of feminism. of theories to self-exposure through enhanced Herfeminist and learning experiential shesays. through gained was in me!’ consciousness spirit fighting a instilled and activism, my for foundation a ‘created it Nevertheless, consciousness. and ledge know­ feminist to her expose not did knowledge revolutionary very this ironically empowering’, and inspiring was education university says ‘the that she While underdevelopment. and oppression of theories of ness conscious­ political her enhanced further neocolonialism and perialism im­ engaged which square’ ‘revolutionary the in scholars these of some ­ organ lectures public The Marxism. and ‘Ujamaa’ of philosophy the and debates socialist the to her exposed Cliffe Lionel and Saul John underdevelopment. and imperialism colonialism, of history political the to her exposed who scholar distinguished very a was Rodney Walter late professors, andleadingintellectualsinpoliticaleconomyhistory. The transformative powerful very to her exposed combination This history. regretted. have she to not which seems career, teaching her to door the opened probably and path, career one closed information of Lack education. to field her change to decided Ruth models, career as teachers had she Since paths. career information on relevant for search to computers no were there 1960s, the in Back informed! be to ought level this to up journey educational their andatthe completed had who students the that assumption school an was there university insecondary this counselling in nocareer is career was a There demanding field!’ how know did just I to as scared economics was in I major ‘Honestly, education. her with do she to what wanted regarding then searching’ ‘soul started she she When university graduated. the she joined where Salaam, es Dar of transformed University 1971was the in into which Africa, East of College University then learning.’ of love a but resistance, patriarchy of vation moti­ negative through longer no was learning higher for push the when On ICT connections ICT On materials on gender. All her children except one are living abroad with abroad living are one except children her All gender. on training materials as well as teaching, for texts order to vari­ gateways accesses knowledge She ous knowledge. and information of source been useful has very Internet a the then, Since education. secondary pursue to her life. her in enabled impact mouth of word critical through scholarships on very information Accessing a had of has lack information or access vital reveals, to story access life her As time. long very a for ICTs of h teeoe a tre aos pltcl cec, dcto and education science, political – majors three had therefore She the join to selected women few very the among was Ruth 1968 In

uh ecie href s aig en consumer a been having as herself describes Ruth 202 zd by ized Our journey to empowerment 203 that made Rose Lyimo leave formal employment for self- Power within has not only helped individuals make choices, but Equally important in the process of empowerment is the ability to This This is the force and energy that has enabled each individual to From the five cases presented above, it can be seen that power is transform obstacles into challenges, and enabled them to discover the opportunities within a very constrained business environment. In context, this power is something that is not to always quantify, tangible: but it is is actualized difficult by tangible environment of aspects the individual. within This inner the strength is in external each one of us, but most of us (women) do not recognize it, or if we do we it. tend Most to women fear have this inner strength, which allows all of under us extreme forms of survive deprivation and oppression, as we suffer silently with smiles on our faces. has pushed some to examine choices made for them in patriarchal the norms context and of practices. All the women profiled madechoices certain which moved them one step forward on the road profiles the All practices. and norms accepted the questioning while ment, to empower­ demonstrate self-love, -worth self and self -pride, which push the women into challenging marginalization, social exclusion and low positioning. It is this self-love which pushed Bahati into refusing to to subject exploitation herself and drove her to purchase a tool that has facilitated her business growth. listen to your inner voice, that voice which tells you to pay attention employment with very little capital. It is the driving force that made Ruth search for a scholarship fund after primary education, and a force that enables Mary Rusimbi to lead a very dynamic organization at the same time as she balances her triple roles. Demere Kitunga It to is venture into the a male-dominated inspiration business. that drove perceived as an inner strength, an inner push, something which is tangible but which not is then facilitated by the external environment. Power within is that inner strength which made to Bahati Dar move es Salaam from to Kigoma explore opportunities, and decisions further that made her freed take her from perpetual dependence It and is deprivation. a force General observationsinformation on power and their their own families. Ruth connects with them through e-mail messages on a weekly basis. She is connected to and a broadband service and SMS chats with This her has family. reduced the cost of telephone calls, which she says are unbearable. But she also uses the mobile phone extensively in communicating with her friends and fellow activists. Meena and Rusimbi | 17 shaped and sometimes defined by the environment in which we live. we which also in environment are the dreams, by defined our sometimes and actualize shaped and choices make voices, inner our to listen and appreciate recognize, fully can we which to extent the choices, marginalization. and dependency perpetuate that activities in engage hence inner and teacher, this to attention pay to refuse women without times Many them consent. for their made choices question to them enables what is this as voice, inner develop­ their to skills listen to and learn to education need Women herself. of for ment type right the choosing of terms in prestigious voice inner her less to responded Demere organization. for activist an with work job embassy better-paying a quit to which Mary voice directed inner this is It talents. and creativity your passion, your to Our externalenvironment cation has had a powerful influence on the road to ourempowerment. to road the on influence powerful a had has cation world. the of rest the in counterparts their than revolution technological the for price higher a paying are Africa in Women underdevelopment. its to owing costs higher bearing are tech­ nology information to access with few in privileged or the Even course, development. feminist a furthering for technology in information spent using have would one time quality the reduces times at and energy, the our face of lot a and consumes This water, forth. so and and deaths, maternal food of challenges as such basics of the deprivation share of to bound agony are you activist, an are you If forth. so and friends, ing elements.You areboundtosharepovertywithsisters,nieces,cousins, disempower­ of lots to subjected be to bound are you particular, in Africa Africa. South or North either in located are whom of majority the phones, mobile accessing of privilege the having tools, citizens million 816 ICT its of the million 21 mere of estimated an some with accessing of terms in inequalities global greatly from suffered has that continent a is It world. the of regions other to compared development of stage early very a at still is readiness network where and extreme, is divide’ ‘digital the where continent a also is It face. woman’s a and face rural a both carries poverty This poverty. and vation is the road the only one which entered this century with increasing levels of depri­ of levels increasing with century this entered which one only the oe n te blt t make to ability the and self-love our have, we strength the Despite political dimensions of our environment, edu­ environment, our of dimensions socio -political the to addition In sub-Saharan in and continent, African the on located woman a Being the and power define we way the shapes environment external Our es fo te nomto tcnlg rvlto, cniet that continent a revolution, technology information the from least t ae u o. e r lctd n cniet ht a benefited has that continent a in located are We on. us takes it 204 Our journey to empowerment www. . -Network.net GRACE Our Journey to Empowerment: The Role of ICT, Research report, Reference Meena, R. and M. Rusimbi (2008) 205 www. . The full research report shares 1 From the experiences of the women presented in this chapter, as we Our journey to empowerment has been like climbing a thorny, rocky Mary’s training in adult education and her exposure to gender studies and rugged hill. While a few of us individually feel consider to that be we an apex have or reached breakthrough, the what majority of we us are still staggering to reach what each journey. considers Regardless the of our terminus varied of backgrounds, our some of able us to conquer have some been hills, some need extra effort and pushing. But others all are of us still have been on a journey to ‘empowerment’. There are multiple complex factors which have contributed to the varied levels of empowerment that we have attained, as discussed here. These include but are not limited to: our geographical positioning, of access information to and or its lack cost implications, level of education and, all, above the individual will to recognize and listen push to us to the explore opportunities, inner transform constraints voices into challenges that and move on with life. understand them, it becomes evident that ICT tools have the capacity to facilitate economic well-being, provided they are harnessed by women who are grounded in ‘their power within’. the wealth of knowledge generated in the course of the research, at -Network.net GRACE Note Being grounded in one’s power within in one’s Being grounded have given her a high level of understanding of the dynamics of oppressive level of understanding of the dynamics have given her a high social systems, which she is working to transform collectively with other women in the movement. Similarly, Demere’s education enabled and her training to further advance her career path and self-esteem, and confidence her enhanced has It business. dominated in an otherwise male- she has achieved a great capacity to examine mainstream processes. With With limited education, Bahati has had very limited life choices. She first tried the dressmaking industry, but realized that for her to make a living out of this industry, it required more investment She could in not afford this during that self-development. particular period so decided to join the hairdressing industry, which was equally saturated by semi-skilled young women and a few men. This page intentionally left blank Epilogue Ineke Buskens and Anne Webb

The relationship between women, their empowerment and the use of ICTs in Africa is complex; there are no simple summaries or solutions. Women’s access to and use of ICTs cannot be understood in isolation from their gender positions and identities and how these positions and identities interact with their political-economic situation. Even women’s struggles to overcome the limitations of their positions and identities through the use of ICTs have to be understood from within this con­ text, and likewise their victories in overcoming such. Certain issues have ­become very clear:

• That we have to realize ICTs in and of themselves do not empower, that it is the use of them which can be empowering or not. For there to be sustainable change and ‘real empowerment’, women have to be the agents of their own processes, in charge of and in control of their environment, and in charge of and in control of their process of change and empowerment. That is why women’s agency is key, and it is the key. • That a woman using ICTs is not only performing an individual act, but is engaged in a process that involves all the contexts that are affected by this act. As women are participating in various contexts simultaneously, and many of these contexts are grounded in gender inequality, women’s processes of change and empowerment will ­affect these contexts directly and immediately and may evoke ten­ sions, disruptions and even lead to chaos. Sometimes the dynamics within these contexts are not apparent; the effects become clear only when somebody changes something. Hence women themselves will be best able to decide to what degree they can push their existing ceilings; they have to be the agents of their own development and empowerment. This is not to say that women cannot be challenged on their preferences when these preferences are an expression of having adapted to limitations, injustices and untenable situations. Even then, a woman’s choices, albeit not consciously made, have to be understood first. • That women contribute immediately to their environment and share Buskens and Webb key variable of empowerment and disempowerment in the ICT sector. ICT the in disempowerment and empowerment of variable key a is sphere domestic the in and market labour the in women of role the and societies African shaped has that perspective male The domination. male by particularly, more and, inequality gender by shaped that been world have the of knowledge and mindsets people’s of transformation disparities. North–South and regional reduce to efforts by accompanied be to and a society, of non-discriminatory development the pursuing of interests the in regulated be to technologies need these of pervasiveness and spread rapid the occur to this for Yet tremendous. is society equitable an in lives human our enhance unequal to ICTs of them potential The (2005). ICTs’ to gives including resources all to ­access society the in status inferior women’s rationale: old age same the is ‘it Mitter, by described society As overestimated. information be cannot the in inequality gender im­ confronting the of patriarchy, portance by constrained to cases many shown in are and ‘access’ varied highly of be relevance and meaning the as But settings. most the even in women ICTs of that lives the apparent influencing and very touching are also is It layer. after to layer relation clear in becomes accomplished ICTs have Africa in women what of marvel the empowerment. towards journey their on at are they where exactly reveals often ICTs use women way the And priorities. own their and responsibilities triple women’s of context in the understood when rational immensely but line in priorities, always economic not with choices their obvious, most the always not is power make to women’s how accomplish: show to and understandable, and to visible choices women’s tried have book this to contributed have who immense innerstrengththeyaredrawingon.Andthatiswhattheauthors the recognizing without and images, gender pervasive the and economy market global the of power the from isolation in understood and seen be to ICTs using define, cannot journeys Their love. they those of lives the and can lives their enhance they only that self-determination want a Africa have, in to women that self-determination of type the to freedom, nacn wmns ces o n ue f Cs eurs hrfr a therefore requires ICTs of use and to access women’s Enhancing that adversities of web complex this of background the against is It to walk long a be still women, African of majority the for may, It change 1999). economic (Sen and social of mediators major the of one is ment empower­ women’s that predictions general with coherent is This finding electricity). as (such necessities basic of deprivation general of their gains, even at the level where they have the fewest options because 208 ­rural Epilogue . Development as gender.developmentgateway. Freedom, New York and Toronto: Anchor Books. to Threats Current of Atlas Peril: and the Environment, UNEP. People at org/Content-item-view.10976+M5 47c1b5fa07.0.html?&L=0 and environmental concerns, but and environmental 1 Sen, A. (1999) in -Arendal (2006) Planet UNEP/GRID Mitter, S. (2005) Interview, available 209 brain- . ­­ www. There are a number of studies and brain tumours – a public health concern’, f surgery.us/mobph.pd 1 With With the rapid changes in technologies, the question of sustainability As ICTs increase the sense of being globally interconnected as a species a as interconnected globally being of sense the increase ICTs As want to recognize We the challenge engaged by the authors. Maintain­ Hence the crucial importance of those willing to take on such a jour­ also arises in relation to the type of society now that with is the being assistance perpetuated, of these new digital divide with means its North–South dimension and of its gender dimension communication. The reflects the skewedness of our economic model. Crucial contributions by people from the South and by women globally are rendered invisible and thus unrewarded and unacknowledged. Furthermore, not only are raising health technologies themselves the References Khurana, G. (2008) ‘Mobile phones linking health concerns to the use of mobile phones, for instance. For a recent example, see Khurana (2008). Note we are realizing more and more that our planet is under threat because of our short-sighted attachment to an unsustainable economy GRID-Arendal (UNEP/ 2006). inhabiting this planet together, perhaps this recognition will enable us to make a stand to prevent ICTs from creating new spaces of exclusion, and thus poverty and isolation, within countries and between countries. And that is actually what the authors contributing their to diversity, stand this for. book, in all ing a reflexive attitude can be very demanding and anxiety-provoking for -directed critical awareness thatresearchers because of the element of self is part of all reflection. Furthermore, reflection of this nature inevitably stimulates change in the researchers which, even when welcomed, can become stressful in itself. ney: in the quest for defining the parameters of the knowledge­ construc tion processes that define Africa, its ICT future and the empowerment of its women, not only are women’s truths at stake but also to the create potential new realities. Notes on contributors

Okwach Abagi holds a PhD in Sociology of Education from McGill University and is a director of the RESEARCHWEB Centre based in Nairobi. Okwach is a monitoring and evaluation/institutional develop­ ment specialist, with vast professional experience in the social sector (education and health). He is a gender-responsive researcher and policy analyst and has offered technical assistance to governments and various organizations in the eastern and southern Africa regions.

Kiss Brian Abraham is a Zambian civil society social change activist. He is actively involved in the development of the Zambia Social Forum pro­cess (the goal of the forum is to create a space for meaningful debate and alternative thinking). He is a member of the Media Institute of Southern Africa and sits on the Africa Social Forum Council.

Susan Bakesha currently works as a consultant with Development Alternatives Consult (DAC). She is a gender specialist with wide experi­ ence in gender research and training, policy analysis and advocacy. She has participated in mainstreaming gender in government policies as well as a number of development projects aimed at improving the status of women. She is affiliated with a number of women’s organizations in which she has been actively engaged on various projects, including the National Women Candidates’ Training, Gender Budget Training, Gender and ICT, and Leadership Skills Training.

Kazanka Comfort is the general secretary of the Fantsuam Foundation. The organization facilitates access to microfinance, ICT and volunteer­ ing as tools for the alleviation of poverty among rural women in Nigeria. She works closely with the programme director to monitor and provide professional and logistical support for the various programmes. She teaches basic computer skills to girls and women at the Bayanloco Community Learning Centre, as well as integrating ICTs into the various programmes at Fantsuam. One of her initiatives was awarded the first Hafkin Africa Prize (www.apc.org/english/hafkin/2001/2001/).

John Dada has been a volunteer with the Fantsuam Foundation since its inception in 1996. He has responsibility for the development of programmes that complement the gender- and youth-focused ICT Contributors 211 Le Monde, CNN and the BBC World holds a PhD in Sociology and Social has a PhD in Public Administration and twenty years’ is a lecturer in information systems technology at the is head of ICTs for Development at the Eduardo Mondlane bican team that pioneered telecentres in rural districts in 1999, Grace has done extensive research in reproductive health, in particu­ Anthropology and a MPhil in Grace Social is Anthropology. currently a professor in the Department of and Women Gender Studies of Makerere University, Kampala. She is a distinguished social anthropologist and an experienced trainer/lecturer, researcher and advocate for gender equal­ ity and social transformation. lar maternal health, and in in HIV/AIDS conflict situations. She has also researched women and ICTs. She has published widely, most recently experience in socio-economic development and institutional capacity- building. Dr Hassanin served as information officer for UNDP’s Sustainable Development Networking Programme (SDNP) in New York and has been a national officer for UNICEF and WHO in Egypt. Hassanin is founder of ArabDev, which since 1999 has focused on ICT for develop­ ment and has spearheaded grassroots ICT initiatives in Egypt in close cooperation with the Ministry of Education, local and regional NGOs and the Ministry of Communication and Information Technology. Grace Bantebya Kyomuhendo Leila Hassanin Lucia Ginger Polly Gaster Polly initiatives, initiatives, rural connectivity and microfinance services of the­ organiza tion. Some of the programmes of the have Foundation Fantsuam been featured in the Nigerian press, Service and have been selected as finalists for the Stockholm Challenge 2008 award for ICT for Development projects and for the Bank’s World Development Marketplace for African Diaspora in Europe competition for funding for entrepreneurial projects. University Informatics Centre (CIUEM). She was a member of the Mozam­ and more recently she coordinated the Community Multimedia Centre Scale-Up Initiative in Mozambique for Her UNESCO. interest in local development, communications and community media has led her towards a combination of practical work and research activities around ICT for Development issues, and she acted as adviser to the ­ Mozam bique GRACE researchers. University of St Thomas in Mozambique. Her research interests include computer networking, geographical information systems and open source solutions. She participated in the data collection and analysis for the Mozambique GRACE Project. Contributors people to ‘Be the Best They Can Be’. Of her publications the one she one the publications her Of Be’. Can They Best the ‘Be to people young support to is mission whose centre learning multidisciplinary a running now patriarchy.is including She systems, oppressive against force transformative potential a are they as people, young with working for passion a has She Canada. and USA the in universities several at scholar visiting a being as well as competitions, research IDRC and FordFoundationUSA, the in Stanford of University the Fellowshipat Fulbright Senior a including awards, several won university.has and She colleges teachers’ school, secondary including levels, various at years Science. Information in DPhil ICT.a and holds women She and literacy mation African with involvement her through Africa in environment ICT the of knowledge extensive has She Harare. in Zimbabwe of University the at librarian university was she 2006/07, in research the of time the At Africa. South of University Esselina Macome Esselina 2007. in Association Studies African the from award an received which entitled book a completing Ruth Meena Ruth Mbambo-Thata Buhle Judite Mandlate Macueve Gertrudes since 2000 and was lead author for the Mozambique study.Mozambique the for author lead was and 2000 since activities research telecentre in involved been particular.has in She gender and e-government and general, in development for ICTs include interests research Her Systems. Information of field the in studies toral doc­ her doing currently is She Mozambique. in University Mondlane GRACE researchers. GRACE Mozambique the to adviser as acted has and Mozambique in telecentres of progress the following studies of number a led has She organizations. in IS of management and development the and gender, e-government, development, for ICT include interests research Her Bank. Central Mozambique’s at director executive and board the of member a and time, part teaching is she where University, Mondlane Eduardo at research team,workinginparticularondatacollectionandanalysis. open sourcesolutions.ShewasamemberoftheMozambiqueGRACE main researchinterestisindatacommunicationsandnetworking the Science Faculty at Eduardo Mondlane University in Mozambique. Her is a feminist activist and educator who taught for thirty-five for taught who educator and activist feminist a is is a lecturer at the Math and Informatics Department of isalecturerattheMathandInformaticsDepartmentof is assistant professor in Information Systems (IS) Systems Information in professor assistant is is a lecturer in computer sciences at Eduardo at sciences computer in lecturer a is is the executive director of Library Services at the at Services Library of director executive the is libraries. Her research interests are in infor­ in are interests research Her ­libraries. Women, Work and Domestic Virtue in Uganda, in Virtue Women,Domestic Workand 212 Contributors 213 Activist Voices: Feminist Struggles Activist Feminist for Voices: an Alternative is the Faculty of Arts librarian at the University of is currently the deputy librarian at the University of is a Ugandan gender activist. She spearheaded is working towards completing her MPhil in Development completing her MPhil in Development is working towards Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe. She is the coordinator of the Information Literacy Skills programme, a course designed for undergraduates and postgraduates. Previously she was the Head Librarian of the Institute of Development Studies. She sits on various committees at the University of Zimbabwe and is the current vice-chairperson of the Action Women’s Group (WAG) Board, a governmental non- organization responsible for the outright promotion and advancement of women’s human rights. Angela Nakafeero Precious Mwatsiya Jocelyn Muller Elizabeth Mlambo treasures most is ‘A treasures conversation most with is Bibi ‘A Titi’ in Marjori Mbilinyi and Mary Rusimbi (2003), . She World is the current chairperson of the Gender Tanzania Network­ ing Programme. the formation of the and NGO Development Alternatives (DELTA) the Uganda Caucus Women’s on ICTs (UWCI). She is currently the executive a director member of of of Women DELTA, Uganda Network (WOUGNET) and of the for Forum in Women Democracy (FOWODE). Angela is a trainer in gender analysis, gender budgeting, policy advocacy and strategic planning. She has extensive experience in gender audits/ assessments, policy analysis/research She and has advocacy. undertaken several gender mainstreaming initiatives for the African Union and for national organizations. Zimbabwe. She is responsible for liaising with the faculty for purchases of library material and coordinating and teaching Information Literacy Skills, a course that equips students with skills needed to access electronic resources. She is currently studying for her master’s in Library and Information Science. Her research interests lie in ICTs and their usage in learning, information literacy and digital libraries. Studies at the University of Cape Town. She works as a research officer She works as a research of Cape Town. Studies at the University Her current research interests Centre at UCT. at the Energy Research the com­ capacity of emerging winegrowers and include the adaptive and poverty alleviation munities living on farms in the wine industry, access and use of in low-income urban households through improving Her particular interest is in gender energy services in the community. on developing, designing and development issues, specifically centred as a capacity-building tool so that and introducing participatory methods needs to policy-makers. women are able to articulate their development Contributors issues. development and gender on chapters book and articles numerous lished pub­ has She organizations. society civil of development organizational and research facilitation, and training participatory budgeting, gender analysis, policy and gender in specialist development and gender a as working currently is Tanzania.Mary in Commission High Canadian the and Embassy Netherlands Royal the for officer programme gender a as worked previously She world. the and region the country, the in tion transforma­ social and equity equality, gender promoting years, many for movement women’s the in roles leadership key playing been has she organizations, several of member board and founder a As 2007. March until years ten for (TGNP) Programme Networking TanzaniaGender the at Dakar Sheikh Anta Diop University and Gaston Berger de Saint Louis Saint de Berger Gaston and University Diop Anta Sheikh Dakar at Dorothy Okello Ibou Sane Ibou Rusimbi Mary Omamo Awuor Salome the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. and Communications Technology and Development (GAID), hosted by member of the Strategy Council for the Global Alliance for Information programme implementation, monitoring and evaluation. Dr tion society for development via gender and ICT policy advocacy and via small-scale enterprises and rural communities engaged in the informa­ organizations in Uganda. She has been active in getting more women, information and communication technologies by women and women’s (­ Education-UNICEF,Kenya. of Ministry USAID-APACand India, WorldIndia, Vision Programme ILO-INDIA, including organizations, several with worked and trained has She workshops/seminars. of facilitation and organizing undertakes also She (PRA). appraisal rural participatory HIV/AIDSand mobilization, community sanitation, and water of fields the in capacity-building and advocacy, and lobbying research, quantitative and qualitative both conducting sector, social the in analysis policy and research streaming, main­ and analysis gender with works She Kenya. Nairobi, in based NGOs are which of both Frontiers, without Plumbers with manager development community a and Development and Research for Centre Associates and Own with associate research a currently sociology.is She and research in consultant a is and Management and Organizations WOUGNET), whose mission is to promote and support the use of is a researcher and lecturer at the departments of sociology of departments the at lecturer and researcher a is is a founding member and was the executive director of director executive the was and member founding a is is coordinator of Women of Uganda Network holds a Master of Studies in Non-governmental in Studies of Master a holds 214 Okello is a Contributors 215 , a sociology major, taught philosophy at a secondary with a master’s in Information Sciences. She has graduated from the Information Sciences School in holds a master’s degree in Management Sciences and holds a bachelor’s degree in Communication and Com­ Amina has been head and director of the Nejma Centre for Informa­ Technology ­Technology (Cameroon). Elise is in charge of studies at Douala’s Rabat, ­Rabat, Morocco, worked in the National Documentation Centre of the Ministry of Plan­ ning and is currently a project manager with the Social Development She is Agency. a member of the Association Démocratique des Femmes du Maroc (ADFM) and is responsible for communications within the Réseau Africain des Centres et Cliniques Juridiques des Femmes dans l’Espace Francophone. tion and Legal Assistance for Survivors Women of Violence, the national coordinator of the National Network of Legal Centres for Women Survivors of Violence (ANARUZ), the project coordinator of Mashreq Maghreb Gender Linking Information Project (Mac-Mag GLIP), and was a member of the Preparatory and Organizing Committee of the African NGOs Forum for the assessment of the implementation of Beijing platform 2004/05. munity Development from Daystar University, Nairobi, Kenya. She is a research associate at the RESEARCHWEB Centre. Currently, she is working at Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and as Technology an She is administrator. also pursuing her master’s degree in Business Administration. Association for the Support of Entrepreneurs Women (ASAFE). She has conducted several studies for ASAFE, both internally and with the public authorities of Cameroon. is now undertaking a PhD in Entrepreneurship at Strasbourg Louis Pasteur University, France. She is teaching at Douala University Institute of school in Rabat before joining the Committee on Human Rights and Aatifa Timjerdine Elise Tchinda Amina Tafnout Olive Sifuna University, University, Senegal, and holds a PhD in sociology from the University of Lumière (Lyon 2), France. He teaches urban sociology, political socio­ logy, development sociology, informal sector sociology, sociology of the associations’ movement, social science research methods, assessment projects methods and sociological theories. His work focuses on the Senegalese commercial informal sector, on development and historical demography, and presently he is looking into gender, ICT and develop­ ment. Contributors ests are information communication policy and regulation. and policy communication information are ests inter­ Her organization. (ccTLD) domain top-level code country Kenya’s a and (CCK) Kenya of Commission Communications the with commissioner a is coordinator.national She its as (KICTANet)acts Network and Action magazine the of editor chief (GIRARDEL)and Development Local and Planning Regional to Support for Group Research Interdisciplinary the of Cahiers the of editor an is He change. social and development of anthropology socio- the on focuses work present His (Senegal). University Saint-Louis rights and leadership. and rights human equality, gender violence, gender-based to related issues with ing deal­ activities international and national many in participated has She 1997. to 1993 from Philosophy Teachersof of Association Moroccan the of bureau the of member a also was She (Anarouz). Violence of Victims Womenof Network National the of coordinator and (ADFM) Maroc du l’AssociationFemmes association des women’s Démocratique the of member a is She Education. National of Ministry the within Citizenship Gisele YitambenGisele WanjiraMunyua Alice Traore Balla Mamadou South Africa. South Town,Cape in WorldCup Homeless 2006 the at represented countries forty-eight of out sixth ranked team Her 2004. in Cameroon in football street initiated She etc.). jobs, high-added -value and training finance, (alternative services technical and resources productive to access for searching through her around those of welfare the ameliorating on targeted been always have actions her and youths, and women notably (UNIFEM). Initiative Digital Diaspora of board the of vice-president the also was She enterprise. non-profit a (ASAFE), WomenEntrepreneurs of Support the for ation Associ­ the of president and founder the gender.is and She ICT ment, develop­ entrepreneurship of questions on known well consultant expert She is an ardent defender of the rights of underprivileged persons, underprivileged of rights the of defender ardent an is She Afrique, Sociétés, RechercheSociétés, . Afrique, board member of the Kenya Information Network (KENIC), Network Information Kenya the of member board ,

an economist by training, is a senior international senior a is training, by economist an founder and convener of the Kenya ICT Kenya the of convener and co-founder the is lecturer at the Gaston Berger de Berger Gaston the at researcher-lecturer a is 216 In­dex

adaptive preference, 147; concept clothing manufacture, in Cameroon, of, 13 133–42 Africa Virtual University, 72 commons, 77 African Growth Opportunity Act Community Development and (AGOA), 133, 134 Environmental Protection androcratic society, 9, 12 Association (Egypt), 78–9 Angelou, Maya, 198 community radio stations, 22–3, 29; ArabDev, 56 as tool of empowerment, 24–5 Association for the Protection of the computer labs: male monopoly of Environment (APE) (Egypt), 58, usage of, 68; women’s access to, 82 10–12 Association pour le Soutien et l’Appui computers, 21, 42, 62; classes, 149, à la Femme Entrepreneur (ASAFE) 152, 185; expensiveness of, 123; (Cameroon), 139 ownership of, 27, 68, 80 connectivity infrastructure, 30 Bahati (Tanzania), 194–5, 203, 205 Consumer Affairs Movement of Bangladesh, 45 Nigeria (CAMON), 53 bodaboda motorcycles, 148, 159 contexts of ICT, 207 Break Through school (Tanzania), contraception, 159 195–7 Cooperation for Development of Emerging Countries (COSPE), 58, call centres, 51 59, 78 Cameron, J., The Vein of the Gold …, counselling capacity, 10 188 credit, access to, 197 Cameroon, women’s Internet use in, critical emancipatory research, 2 133–42 Cameroon Chamber of Commerce, deviant case, use of term, 69 Industry, Mines and Crafts digital divide, 204; North–South, 209 (CCIMA), 133; Multimedia Centre, division of labour, gendered, 6, 33 136–7, 141 divorce, 101, 115 career guidance, 190, 202 cashless society, 51 e-commerce: in Cameroon, 135; in CD-ROM project, Uganda, 143–53 Egypt, 56, 60–1 ceilings, 6, 174, 207 e-learning, 140 cell phones see mobile phones e-mail, 21, 23, 27, 28, 92, 137, 138, centring of oneself, 1, 2 139, 140, 196, 198, 200, 203 Chesler, P., 14 education, 117, 119, 140, 169, 179, Chibomba, Kelvin, 100 195–7, 201, 202, 205; gender childcare, 149–50 stereotypes in, 175; ICT-related Chipata District Women’s courses, 176; in Kenya, gender Association (Zambia), 98 gap in, 171–2; of girls and women, Cliffe, Lionel, 202 84, 85, 121–2, 125, 126, 172, 180, Index feminism, 14, 193 14, feminism, 72, 6, 5, of, creation spaces, female 10 9, self-image, female 82 circumcision, genital female 193 173, of, role fathers, in, Internet of use industry, fashion 51 46, Foundation,Fantsuam 115 of, nuclearization family, 115–17; within, changes families: 138; 54, communication, face-to 162 160, 157, (Uganda), Eva of 56; of, models entrepreneurship: renewable, 37; of, definition energy: of, definition 126; 15, empowerment, 24, 7, 5, to, access electricity: 80 58, cooperative, Bashayer El for, (demand 78 in, crafts Egypt: 75 137–40 153 146, 121, 110, for, support 200; 198, 186, 177, 127–8, 70, women, of responsibilities 140–1; 139, with, relations 49–50 for, preference 150) 148, 146, of, (promotion 155 142–53, 137, 134, 119–32, 117, 112, women, 33–43 Africa, South in of, sources 35; 34, 198–9 123–5, 98, 54, phones, mobile through 140; Internet, through 154–65); Uganda, in 193–205; Tanzania, in 169–81; Kenya, (in 207 145–6, 128, 108, 102, 92, 89, 75, 70, 44, 21–32, 6–7, ICT,1, through 208; change, social of mediator as women, of 13; disempowerment, 125–8; 22, 33 in, investment 41; cooking, for 208; 45, 33–43, 56–63 in, artisans women 77–87; in, ICT 62); extinction, of brink on 59; of, export 57; 201–2 169–71, university-level, 171; secondary, 147; 146, fees, school 199; 171, primary, 189); 183, sciences, (in 197 193, 187, 218 husbands: monitoring of women’s of monitoring husbands: 110 situs, homo 155 Uganda, district, Hoima 47 24, HIV/AIDS, 52 language, Hausa 205 125, business, beauty and hair 77 Jürgen, Habermas, Féminine Promotion de Groupement 200 199, 197, of, role grandmothers, 53 Index, Gap Gender Global 161 technologies, of nature gendered 154, 122, 70, stereotypes, gender families, in 183; sensitivity, gender 126–8 of, entrenchment roles, gender ICTs into Africa in Research Gender in education, in 14; 1, gap, gender 4 1, discrimination, gender 81–3 of, collecting garbage, 67 R., Gaidzanwa, in, illiteracy 108; language, French Paulo, Freire, 69 interviews, attitude free 174 discussions, group focus 162 157, (Uganda), Florence use phone Senegal, in fishmongers, 10–11, rule, served’ first come, ‘first to women of contribution financial 156–8, 160, 162, 164 162, 160, 156–8, 146–8, with, relations 158; of, approval obtaining 157; phones, 116 112, 109, (Senegal), 175–7 careers, ICT within 172–5; beyond, going 200; 193, 186, 179, 177, 164, 173 188 154, 15, 4, 2, (GRACE), Empowerment for labour of division also 44 phones, mobile of use in 209; 115, 96, 90, 67–76, 41, 34, 30, 22, 5–6, ICT,2, in 171–2; Kenya, 114 198 Oppressed, 107–18 among, 75 74, 71–3, 68, 159 156, 149, 147–8, households, The Pedagogy of the of Pedagogy The see Index see also in, 119–32; professional

of women in, 183–92; mobile phones women in, 169–81; women entrepreneurs in, 119–32 120–1 199–200, 203, 204, 205 119, 123, 195; costs of, 45, 60, 196–7 114; Nigerian, digitization of, 46 59; classes, 79, 82; key to empowerment, 30–1 illiteracy responsibilities, 147–8; as controllers of resources, 171; as repositories of authority, 111; dominance of, 74; entrepreneurship of, 127; role in technical aspects of 178 ICT, mentors, 184–5; experiences of women in 183–92; ICT, fundamental to women’s development, 188 90–1, 97, 108–10, 119–21, 135–6, 144–52, 155 Kenya, 120–1 Kenya: Kenya: mentoring experiences Kenya Central Board of Statistics, Kitunga, Demere (Tanzania), Kvinnoforum, 161 landline phones, 23, 26, 51, 52, 98, languages: choice of, 54; French, 108, life histories, recording of, 193 Lillian (Kenya), 125–6 literacy, 21, 23, 25, 29, 51, 54, Lucingweni village (South Africa), 35 Lyimo, Rose (Tanzania), 195–7 Manhiça (Mozambique), 21–32 Marxism, 202 maternity leave, 177 Meena, Ruth (Tanzania), 201–3 Melanie (Uganda), 157 men: abandon household mentoring: as experienced by mentors, ICT career women as, 187–8 methodology, 2, 9–10, 68–9, 88, micro enterprises, 56, 120–1; in 219 literacy popular and see also see see websites see also usage in, 45 in, 177 58, 59, 60, 62, 79, 92, 93, 94, 107, 193–205; as research resource, 139; in Cameroon, 133–42; knowledge of, 137; lack of training in, 95; men’s control of access to, 124; reasons for use of, 137–41 (social, 140–1); sensitization to, 136 accepted in, 90 Centre (IWTC), 143 Centre (IDRC), 143 Development Agency (ITIDA) (Egypt), 56 technology (ICT): access to, variability of, 208; allows self- expression, 92; and gender violence, 88–96; as alternative public space for women, 77–87; benefits restricted to towns, 53; definition of, 37; developmentalist view of, 107; ICT careers, women under-represented in, 172; obstacles to, 95; passive involvement in, 5; socially constructed, 4 solidarity economy 108, 114, 117, 152; digital, 89; digital, 152; 117, 114, 108, 96 of, feminization Kafanchan (Nigeria), mobile phone job mobility, gender discrimination Islam, 117, 163 isolation of women, 158 Internet, 21, 23, 28, 29, 41, 56, 57, Internet cafes, 140; women not International Monetary Fund, 111 International Women’s Tribune inner voice, listening to, 203–4 International Development Research Information Technology Industry income generation, 78, 143 informal economy information and communication ideal worker, image of, 84 95, 89, 82, 52, 28, 27, 5, illiteracy, Index Moroccan Counselling and Legal Aid Aid Legal and Counselling Moroccan 162 156, (Uganda), Monica 92, 62, 41–2, 23, 6, phones, mobile Uganda, in payphones, mobile 100, 99, 98, (Zambia), Leah Mitaba, energy of systems mini-hybrid 33, Goals, Development Millennium 115 rural, 33; men, of migration: 172–5 women, middle-class 46 programmes, microfinance Centres, 88 Centres, 97–104 advocacy, in used 52; 49, needs, household of expense at used 50–1); remittances, as (used 47 top-ups, 114; 113, distance, of problem pre 114; of, effects positive 49; 47–8, service, of quality poor 195; 157, 124, of, ownership 47; of, blessings mixed 124; 94, of, control men’s 124; privacy, on intrudes 97–104; Zambia, in 154–65; Uganda, in 107–18; Senegal, in 44–55; Nigeria, in 119–32; Kenya, in 58; Egypt, in 49; control, of sense give 100–1; conflict, gender-based 124; 52, 47–9, of, expensiveness 198–9; 123–5, 52, through, empowerment 54; 50, of, effect destabilizing emotionally 99–100; of, economics 26–7; others, for dialling 164; 157, 124, 54, families, on effect destabilizing 102; poverty, to add of, costs 42; 40, of, charging 25–7; empowerment, of tool as 101; property, private as 124; money, transferring for means as 114; statement, fashion as 53; burden, as 93; need’, in friend ‘a as 97–104; networking, women’s and 126; of, advantages 101–4; books, address 193–205; 154–65 101 40 35–6, 33, supply, 133 - paid credit, 26; reduce reduce 26; credit, paid 220 popular and solidarity economy, 108, economy, solidarity and popular 27 of, phoning police, 38–9 of, use journals, photo 161 (Uganda), Phionah 95 phallo-technology, 36 research, participatory 173 of, role attitudes, parental 99–100 paging, 36 mapping, outcome 91–2 ourselves, 113 culture, oral 100 99, Africa, Oneworld 161 156–7, (Uganda), Oliver 197 K., J. Nyerere, 27 numeracy, Organizations Non-Governmental organizations non-governmental 151 groups, Nnigina 44–55 in, use phone mobile Nigeria, 24 programmes, news 61 57, Fair, Gift York New 144, 97–104, women, of networking 67 S., Ndlovu, 15 3, anthropologists, native (Nasta) Anastasia Namisango, Development Women’s Nakaseke 151 Fund, Revolving Nabweru Centres Community Multi-Purpose 98 (Zambia), Priscilla Mpundu, in, ICT of use women’s Mozambique, Moustakas, C., Moustakas, (from 200 199, 185, of, role mothers, women 88–96; in, ICT Morocco: 114, 116 114, 100 98, 97, (Zambia), (NGOCC) Council Coordinating 85 (NGOs), 151 151–2 (Uganda), (NAWODA),151 Association 35 (MPCCs), 21–32 188 a distance, 198) distance, a 60 in, weavers Heuristic Research …, Research Heuristic Index gender stereotypes see text messaging see 203 Development as Freedom, 102 107–18 in Cameroon, 133 102 150, 159, 160, 162, 171, 172–5, 179–80, 201 36 access of, 67–76 187 Programme (TGNP), 197–9 in, 175–7 143, 144, 148, 149, 151, 152 sector, 113 esteem, self-esteem, of women, 190–1, 203 self-identity of women, 149 self-love, 14–15, 204 self-worth of women, 188–9, 199, 200, Sen, Amartya, 7, 147, 150; Senegal, women’s phone use in, sexism, female, 14 Sharma, U., 21 Shell Solar, 35, 41 sisterhood, practice of, 14 Siwa (Egypt), 78–80 small and -size medium enterprises, SMS social capital, created by phone calls, socialization, 121, 122, 125, 126, 128, solar energy, 35; panels vandalized, Soroptimists, 186, 187 South Africa, ICT in, 33–43 sovereignty, of women, 13 Stephen, A., 21 stereotyping structural adjustment, 111–12 students, female, in Zimbabwe, ICT Sussundenga, Mozambique, 21–32 sustainability, 208–9 Sylvia (Uganda), 157, 161 ‘Take my daughter to work’ project, Tanzania, ICT in, 193–205 Tanzania Gender Networking Te Te company (Tanzania), 195 technical work in women’sICT, role telecentres, 21, 22–3, 25, 27, 28, 30, telecommunications, strategic 221 How Europe Is Multiculturalism 189 Bad for , Women? 102–3 203, 204, 205 in Nigeria, 44–55; in South Africa, 33–43; in Uganda, 154–65; use of ICTs, 23–7 (Bangladesh), 45 202; in 184; ICT, possibly counterproductive, 152 Underdeveloped Africa, 198 ownership of, 40 women, 77–87; women’s status in, 90 175–6 115 169–81 nature of, 193–4 158, 162, 193, 197, 204; as capability deprivation, 102, 150; feminization of, 96; of energy, 34; of women, 100; reduction of, 33, 56 Saul, John, 202 school attendance of girls, 23, 25 self-determination, of women, 208 self-discovery, of women, 145, 153, sambaza (airtime) credit, 124 Sassen, Saskia, rural–urban digital divide, 195 Rusimbi, Mary (Tanzania), 197–9, rural women, 21, 143, 151, 187, 200; Rural Information Helpline role models, 151–2, 185, 189, reflexivity, 3, 13–15 roadside phone kiosks, 51 Rodney, Walter, 202; radios: as status symbols for men, 45; publishing industry, 200 public sphere, 77; alternative, for public relations work of women, promotion of women, 177 property, individual ownership of, power within, of women, 205, 208 professional women, in Kenya, power: and information, 203–4; poverty, poverty, 4, 23, 44, 112, 117, 152, Index Wanjira Munyua, A., with with A., Munyua, Wanjira 80–1, 6, women, against violence 197 of, influence villages, 10–12 Zimbabwe, of University 202 Salaam, es Dar of University 112 Women, for Decade UN 202 Ujamaa, PovertyParticipatory Uganda payphone mobile Uganda: 151 Group, Women’s Twekembe interview, attitude transformational IT,78–80 and traditionalism, 117 115, 103, tradition, 51–2, 46, 42, (SMS), messaging text 154–65 teleworking, 40 of, ownership television, waste collectors (Zabaleen) (Cairo), (Zabaleen) collectors waste M. 160 159, 156, 101, 88–96, 143 Process, Assessment 143–53 in, entrepreneurship women’s 154–65; in, business 36–7 3–4, 203 114, 99, 54, 57, 81–3 57, 123–9 Phone, Cell the of Mureithi, Harnessing the Power the Harnessing 222 Zimbabwe: female students access students female Zimbabwe: 97–104 in, use phone mobile Zambia, 161 156, (Uganda), Zaituni (WTO), Organization Trade World 120 111, Bank, World Virginia, Woolf, of, use women’s fires, for wood, 28 organizations, women’s 60 Online, WeaversWomen as 207; of, agency women: 150 148, widowhood, 138 61, 60, of, creation websites, 39–40 to, access water, (Zambia), 99 (Zambia), Brenda Zulu, 10–12; in, women with research 67–76; in, ICT to 134 Clothing, and Textiles on Agreement 77 39–40 127–8 of, work unpaid 103; restrictions, cultural to resistance 10–12; with, research 7; of, participation 10; of, meta-statements 12; to, listening 117; 115, of, liberation 116; 111, of, activities economic 128; of, day double 12–13; respondents, female self-image female also see A Room of One’s Own, One’s of Room A