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Women in Africa assert their rights

Battling for equality on all fronts Taking on violence against women Does financing benefit African women? Contents 2012 Special Edition on Women Formerly ‘Africa Recovery’

Introduction 3 African women: asserting their rights

Struggle for rights, equality 4 ‘Renewed energy for women’s empowerment’ 7 African women’s long walk to freedom 9 Battling for equality on all fronts 12 NEPAD embraces women’s rights

Political empowerment 14 African women are ready to lead 16 Women storm onto Rwanda’s political stage 17 Three women laureates African women themselves are at the 18 North African women on the barricades forefront of the march towards equality.

Combating violence UN Photo / Christopher Herwig 21 Taking on violence against women 24 Security reform key to protecting women

Improving health 27 Investing in the health of Africa’s mothers In Africa, AIDS often has a woman’s face 30 This special edition of Africa Renewal was 33 Gender violence hampers AIDS fight produced in collaboration with, and the generous support of, UN Women. Economic empowerment 34 Does financing benefit African women? Editor-in-Chief Masimba Tafirenyika 37 Women struggle to secure land rights 41 Tapping women’s entrepreneurship in Ghana Managing Editor Ernest Harsch Resources 43 Resources on women Writers André-Michel Essoungou Kingsley Ighobor Note on original sources In this special edition, all but two of the articles (on pages 17 and 30) were previously published in Africa Research and Media Liaison Renewal, although most have been revised and updated with more recent information. Rebecca Moudio Aissata Haidara Cover photo: Design & Production A polling station worker waits for voters in Monrovia, Liberia. UNMIL Photo / Staton Winter John Gillespie

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Subscribe to Africa Renewal www.un.org/africarenewal Correspondence Africa Renewal offers free subscriptions to should be addressed to: individual readers. Please send your request The Editor, Africa Renewal to Circulation at the address to the left or by facebook.com/africarenewal Room M-16031 e-mail to [email protected]. Institutional United Nations, NY 10017-2513, USA, subscriptions are available for thirty-five twitter.com/africarenewal Tel: (212) 963-6857, Fax: (212) 963-4556 US dollars, payable by international money order or a cheque in US dollars drawn on a E-mail: US bank, to the “United Nations” and sent to Africa Renewal is printed at the United Nations, [email protected] Circulation at the address to the left. New York, on recycled paper. African women: asserting their rights As elsewhere in the world, women in Africa are struggling for their fair share of political power and economic opportunity. In recent decades — thanks in great measure to their own organization and energetic efforts — they have made important strides. As Africa shakes off its legacies of autocratic rule, social marginalization and economic disarray, women are staking their claim to participate fully in their continent’s promising future.

But progress has been halting and uneven, and each step forward has been won against difficult obstacles and stubborn resistance. As in many parts of the world, gender inequalities remain deeply entrenched. Women suffer violence and discrimination across the continent. They lack access to decent work and face occupational segregation and wage gaps. They are still too often denied access to education and health care. Few women are represented in key political and economic decision- making positions.

Michelle Bachelet, executive director of UN Accelerating women’s empowerment generous support of UN Women — brings Women, the world body’s new agency on is obviously critical for women them- together a number of those articles, most gender equality issues. selves. But as the UN’s global agency of them with new and updated material. for women, UN Women, emphasizes, UN Photo / Paulo Filgueiras gender equality is more than just The Africa Renewal articles highlight a basic human right: “Its achieve- important developments at the summit as boys are now enrolled. But comple- ment has enormous socio-economic of political power, such as the adoption tion rates remain low, and many girls ramifications. Empowering women by the African Union (AU) of a legally still are unable to go on to secondary or fuels thriving economies, spurring binding protocol to the African tertiary education. Meanwhile, health productivity and growth.” When UN Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights care for women and girls has scarcely Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon on the rights of women. The AU has improved, while HIV/AIDS continues to launched UN Women in 2010, he also declared the current decade, exact a deadly toll on Africa’s women. observed: “Where women are educated 2010-2020, as the “African Women’s and empowered, economies are more Decade.” A few countries, such as Repeatedly, the articles in Africa productive and strong. Where women Angola, Mozambique and South Africa Renewal have noted that it is the hard are fully represented, societies are more have exceeded the 30 per cent bench- work and commitment of women at the peaceful and stable.” mark for women legislators, while grassroots that can make the difference: Rwanda has the highest percentage in the women farmers, traders, entrepre- Over the years, Africa Renewal has the world. But in all African countries neurs and activists who struggle day-in frequently reported on and analyzed women still have a long way to go. and day-out to better their lives and many different aspects of the struggles improve the prospects for their families, of African women for political, economic In some areas gender gaps have communities and nations. If Africa is to and social advancement. This special narrowed noticeably, as in primary have a brighter future, gender equality edition of the magazine – with the schools, where nearly as many girls must be achieved. Special Edition 2012 3 struggle for rights, equality ‘Renewed energy for women’s empowerment’ Interview with head of UN Women in Southern Africa

omcebo Manzini is a busy N woman. As the regional director for Southern Africa and the Indian Ocean islands of the UN’s recently created Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women — officially known as UN Women — she is constantly on the road from one country to another, addressing public gatherings, attending conferences and strategizing with government officials and women’s activists alike. Africa Renewal’s managing editor, Ernest Harsch, was fortunate to catch Ms. Manzini at her home in Johannesburg, South Africa, in late March 2011, during a brief stopover in her travels. “Women’s political representation is are seeing a lot of change at the local absolutely important,” says Nomcebo level. Most countries seem to be doing Manzini, head of UN Women for Southern Africa Renewal In South Africa much better in terms of representation Africa. Africa Renewal / Ernest Harsch and Mozambique, women have in local governments. This might be reached the benchmark of 30 per cent because women work in the commu- women’s representation in parlia- nity and are better known at that level. transformative leadership, so that they ment. What’s the picture across can engage from a perspective of basic Southern Africa? Women’s political representation is human rights and understand broader absolutely important because partici- governance issues and democracy in Nomcebo Manzini As a sub-region we pation is a basic human right. Women general. Some countries are in deep certainly have a long way to go. A few bring their experiences, knowledge conflict. Our position is to support countries have been doing well, but and capacities, which are different women to participate in negotiations, there are others that have regressed. from those that men bring. in mediation, but also in prevention. In In terms of women in political leader- Comoros, for instance, we are working ship positions, the average is only 18 AR Beyond getting into office, how within the context of the UN country per cent. It is way below the 30 per can women better engage with broader team on a peacebuilding project. Our cent we have been calling for, and far governance issues, including political contribution is to build the skills of below the 50 per cent that the heads conflicts? women to understand the issues of of state and government agreed to in gender relations in peace, in peace- signing the Gender and Development NM One of the things that UN Women building, even in conflicts and how Protocol [of the Southern African is doing is building capacities for conflicts happen. Even if they under- Development Community, SADC]. We women to participate in leadership, but stand that, they need to build allies 4 Special Edition 2012 within the traditional leaderships, amongst men, with their partners, etc. We try to engage a more holistic approach to dealing with such issues.

AR UN Women coordinates the Africa Unite campaign, which targets violence against women and girls. What is the main challenge?

NM The problem is the resources. We are not getting enough funds from national budgets or from the donor community. African heads of state launched the campaign in Africa in January 2010. We are now doing advocacy with the different heads of state to ensure that their ministries of planning and finance allocate funds for implementing the national action plans.

We have safer cities programmes that we will be rolling out in several countries, working with UNICEF. Research shows that rape of young girls is normally of school children in the early morning when they are going to school, and in the evening when they are going back home, Students at the University of Dar es often through thick bushes and other clearly shows that when women expe- Salaam, Tanzania: In many countries, there unsafe pathways. But when we talk to rience abuse or violence in the home is now gender parity in the primary schools, governments about this, they hardly they are not going to the police as a but economic and social constraints hinder have the resources to provide sanita- first port of call. They go either to more girls from moving up to secondary tion and water to communities. They their families or to traditional leader- and tertiary education. don’t see it as a priority. ship. Panos / Mikkel Ostergaard

AR And the judicial and security AR There has been real progress in to have the babies. Girls also tend to systems? narrowing the gap between boys and have more work to do in the home, so girls entering primary school. But do they have less time to study and there- NM We work with the police, military the girls stay in school? fore tend to have a lower passing rate and other entities in the security than the boys. sector to make sure they understand NM That is a fundamental point. the gender dimensions of policing and Looking at many countries, we find AR Southern Africa has the highest security, also gender-based violence. that there is parity in terms of entry. HIV prevalence rates in the world. We had a conference to talk about In some countries girls are even How are women affected? how we can support the SADC gender surpassing boys in entering basic unit to mainstream gender in the education. But as you move further NM So much money has come through SADC Organ on Politics, Defence into the school years and you get into for programmes against HIV and AIDS. and Security. We talked about grade seven and eight there are fewer But the work has not taken into account ensuring that the officers who go girls continuing in school. Parents are the clear connection between gender on peacekeeping missions have more likely to withdraw the girls from inequality and the spread of HIV/AIDS. some gender training. school if they are cash-strapped — or In some Southern African countries the girls are going to get married. The there are 5 per cent of men with HIV, We look also at the informal justice other problem is that pregnancy in but you find 20 to 22 per cent of young sector. In Southern Africa research schools is very high and girls will drop women of the same age group with HIV.

Special Edition 2012 5 When you do the research, it is very much: "I didn’t want to sleep with Even our governments have now him, but he forced me." And then there acknowledged that development is the whole issue of "survival sex" in Southern Africa, where young girls is not going to happen without will sleep with older men so that they are able to go to school. the full involvement and

AR And women are also more likely participation of women.” than men to be in poverty… It is absolutely fundamental to deal development plans. And govern- NM It seems as though even our with the economic empowerment of ments must be able to desist from governments have now acknowledged women, because we know that when corruption. It is not that the national that development is not going to women have that economic indepen- resources are not there, but they happen without the full involvement dence they are more likely to be able are misused. and participation of women in the to make decisions about their dignity, economy. But they have not just all their security and their welfare. AR UN Women has just been created, of a sudden become benevolent. It is merging four different UN entities because of the advocacy that has been AR Does UN Women work with rural that dealt with women. For women coming from the women’s movements women? here in Southern Africa, what differ- and from the ministries responsible ence can UN Women make? for women and gender. NM We have a $33 million project that we are currently fund-raising NM What I see already is just an At UN Women we are working with for as UN Women to do exactly that, amazing amount of renewed energy five governments in the sub-region in to work with rural women, particu- for women’s empowerment in the a pilot programme to see exactly what larly rural women farmers. It is a various areas of work, since the women are doing to get out of poverty. major challenge. At least 70 per creation of UN Women. Renewed Most of these women are in what is cent of the labour in agriculture is hope indeed that UN Women will do called the informal sector, and their women. When we seek $33 million, things better and faster in promoting work is not recognized. The women that’s a drop in the ocean really, it’s women’s rights globally. It is a very who kept the Zimbabwe economy nothing in terms of the need. And tough call for us in UN Women to going at the lowest point in its history what happens when the $33 million deliver on that. are not recognized even today. Yet is finished? We need to be able to they ensured the survival of their define programmes that govern- I was privileged to be part of the first families and the economy. ments include in their own national strategic meeting for UN Women in January this year [2011], when all the different entities came together. You could feel it in the room, the energy. Madam [Michelle] Bachelet is using her diplomatic skills to bring us together. We have been holding consultations with different partners, including the donor community, governments and civil society organizations, to define what should be in our strategic plan. So we continue to be hopeful, and totally energized.

International Women’s Day rally in Cape Town, South Africa: More funding is needed for national programmes to combat violence against women and girls.

Panos / Eric Miller

6 Special Edition 2012 struggle for rights, equality African women’s long walk to freedom Some gains, but an uphill climb still looms

By L. Muthoni Wanyeki

frica’s political indepen- dence was accompanied by A a clarion call to eradicate poverty, illiteracy and disease. Fifty years after the end of colonialism, the question is: To what extent has the promise of that call been realized for African women? There is no doubt that African women’s long walk to freedom has yielded some results, however painfully and slowly.

The African Union (AU) now has a legally binding protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the rights of women. The protocol spells out clearly women’s rights to equality and non-discrim- ination in a number of areas. It has Across Africa, women’s movements been ratified by a growing number the last two decades have seen the are now putting more emphasis on of African states, can be used in emergence of legislation to address decision-making power. civil law proceedings and is being violence against women, including Reuters / Mowliid Ibdi codified into domestic common law. sexual violence. The AU has also issued a Declaration benchmark for their legislatures. on Gender Equality in Africa, under Political representation Rwanda made history in 2008 when which member states are supposed to These developments have been 56 per cent of legislators elected regularly report on progress. accompanied by improvements in to parliament were women, the African women’s political repre- highest in the world. A few countries, The protocol and declaration both sentation. The AU adopted, from its including Nigeria, have seen women reflect and reinforce developments inception, a 50 per cent quota for assume non-traditional ministerial at the national level. Many African women’s representation, which is portfolios, in defence and finance, states have moved to enhance consti- reflected in the composition of the AU for example. And Liberia also made tutional protections for African Commission. history (“herstory”) by becoming the women — particularly in the area first African country to elect into of women’s rights and equality. And Again, this standard reflects and office a female head of state, Ellen reinforces efforts to enhance women’s Johnson-Sirleaf. representation at the national level. L. Muthoni Wanyeki is a former executive director of the Kenya Human Angola, Mozambique and South Progress is evident, particularly in Rights Commission. Africa have exceeded the 30 per cent countries that have electoral systems

Special Edition 2012 7 based on or incorporating propor- those of their families. Since African rights. And given recent retreats in tional representation. However, women have proved that they are Africa (such as the rise of the consti- enhanced women’s representation has good lending risks, micro-credit is tutional coup and “negotiated democ- been harder to achieve in first-past- now being offered not just by devel- racy”), the women’s movement will the-post electoral systems. opment and micro-finance institu- also be focusing on democracy, peace tions, but also by commercial finan- and security more broadly — that is, Even where there has been progress, cial institutions. on the nature of the political system the question is whether increased itself and not just on the means of representation of women is catalyzing Yet there was a critique of such getting into that system. action by the executives and legis- investments, especially in the decade latures in favour of gender equality. of the 1980s when governments Economically, women will continue That question arises because the withdrew from social service delivery to focus on the macro-level, but in a battle for women’s representation is as a result of structural adjustment deeper sense. What has emerged from not only demographic (with political programmes. Under those circum- gender budgeting efforts is the need representation as an end) but also for stances, such investments essentially to actually track budgetary expen- gender equality (with political repre- enabled redistribution among the ditures, not just getting information sentation as a means). impoverished, rather than at a larger about allocations. level from the rich to the poor. Put another way, there has been a It is also necessary to concentrate shift in the focus and strategy of the The end of that era thus saw a new on the macro-economic framework African women’s movement over focus on gender budgeting: looking for fiscal and monetary policies, the last two decades, from empha- at where national budget allocations especially in the context of stabiliza- sizing capacity-building to improve and expenditures could enhance tion programmes in response to the African women’s access to resources women’s status in the economy. recent economic shocks. Previously to emphasizing decision making to Unsurprisingly, this approach has led that framework was assumed to be enhance African women’s control African governments back towards gender-neutral, but it clearly can have over resources. This shift was made public investments in social services. gendered consequences. This problem possible by real gains resulting from must be addressed to ensure that the capacity-building approach. It is now agreed, for example, Africa’s growth will enhance women’s that the benchmark for public livelihoods. Education, poverty, health investments in health in Africa is These gains are most evident in 15 per cent. The African women’s Finally, the women’s movement will African women’s education. Girls movement has called in particular be focusing on reproductive and and boys are now at par with respect for more to be directed towards sexual health and rights. The battle to primary school enrolment. Efforts reproductive and sexual health and over choice (including over gender to get girls into school have been rights. These areas are of critical identity and sexual orientation) is accompanied by efforts to keep them concern to women, given the impact now an open one in many African in school and to promote role models of HIV/AIDS, maternal mortality countries. It is no longer couched by developing gender-responsive and violence against women, politely in demographic or health curricula. Gender gaps are also particularly in conflict areas. They terms. narrowing in secondary educa- are also of concern since African tion. The real challenge now lies women’s continued lack of autonomy The upsurge of conservative identity at the university level, both in the and choice over reproduction and politics (in both ethnic and religious enrolment figures and in curricula sexuality lie at the heart of so much terms) is fuelling conflict on the to benefit young women. So much suffering. So much for the “disease” continent. It constrains and danger- for the “illiteracy” element of the element of the independence call. ously limits women’s human rights, African independence clarion call. including reproductive and sexual Where next? rights. Such notions are not harmless Gains for women are harder to see Where to over the next 50 years, then? — they have grave consequences for in that call’s “poverty” element, In light of the experience so far, the women’s autonomy, choice and bodily however. It is true that since inde- African women’s movement will be integrity. They therefore must be pendence investments in micro- focusing not just on political repre- challenged. credit and micro-enterprises for sentation, but also on the meaning women have improved their indi- of that representation for advancing African women’s long walk to freedom vidual livelihoods — and therefore gender equality and women’s human has only just begun. 8 Special Edition 2012 struggle for rights, equality Battling for equality on all fronts Some progress In 2005, Rachel Mayanja, then currently agitating for ratification of special adviser to the UN Secretary- CEDAW. since Beijing, but General on gender and the advance- hurdles persist ment of women, announced progress While briefing the Women’s in the implementation of the Committee of the European Convention on the Elimination of Parliament in early 2011, the execu- All Forms of Discrimination against tive director of UN Women, Michelle By Gumisai Mutume Women (CEDAW), a UN protocol, Bachelet, lauded the efforts of as well as the development of new Egyptian women in pushing for decade-and-a-half ago, after policies and guidelines and creation democracy. She cautioned, however: a ground-breaking 1995 of networks of gender experts. “Don't let that presence, that partici- A conference in Beijing that set pation, that perspective disappear. ambitious targets to transform the lives Currently, only South Sudan, Sudan Democracy is not only about voting, of women worldwide, African women and Somalia among African countries had reason to expect change. Like have not ratified CEDAW, adopted Classroom in Liberia: Half of all their counterparts elsewhere, African in 1979 by the UN General Assembly African countries have made moderate women are asking why progress has and often described as the interna- improvements in reducing the gender been limited and are seeking ways to tional bill of rights for women. South gap in education. overcome the obstacles. Sudanese women’s rights activists are Panos / Aubrey Wade

Special Edition 2012 9 it is also about inclusion, pluralism, governments have ratified enshrine to be denied an education, often the diversity ... and I think now there is a property and inheritance rights, in only ticket out of poverty. Disparities tremendous opportunity for women, most countries women are denied between girls and boys start in even if lots of help is needed.” those very rights. primary school and the differences widen through the entire educational Poverty has Compounding the situation are system. Although Africa, of all regions, a woman’s face setbacks such as the HIV/AIDS registered the highest relative increase Out of the 1995 conference emerged pandemic that is destroying the in primary school enrolment during a plan, the Beijing Platform of health of more women than men in the last decade, it is still far from Action, which laid out areas that Africa and eroding some of the devel- attaining parity. The good news is need improvement if the position opment gains women had attained. that by 2011, sub-Saharan Africa had of women was to be advanced. The As a result, poverty in Africa significant girls’ enrolment. Together areas include reducing poverty among continues to wear a woman’s face, with South Asia, primary education women, stopping violence, providing notes Ms. Gladys Mutukwa of the level enrolment in sub-Saharan Africa access to education and health care Zimbabwe-based non-governmental rose to 23 million, up from 20 million a and reducing economic and political organization Women in Law and decade earlier. inequality. Barring some notable Development in Africa (WILDAF). exceptions, progress in these areas She finds it disturbing that since the Policies specifically targeting girls were has been slow. Beijing conference, African women responsible for notable improvements are much poorer. in countries such as Benin, Botswana, For many African women, the the Gambia, Guinea, Lesotho, Beijing platform and the various A UN Food and Agricultural Mauritania, Namibia and Liberia. In international instruments their Organization study on Benin, Benin, for instance, the gender gap has governments have signed have yet Burkina Faso, Congo, Mauritania, narrowed, thanks to policies such as to translate into positive changes Morocco, Namibia, Sudan, Tanzania sensitizing parents through the media in their daily lives. They remain at and Zimbabwe shows that women and reducing school fees for girls in the bottom of the social hierarchy, rarely own land. When they do, their public primary schools in rural areas. with poor access to land, credit, holdings tend to be smaller and less health and education. While some fertile than those of men. Studies also Yet various hurdles hamper the of the agreements that African show that if women farmers had the expansion of education in Africa. same access to inputs and training as Households that became poorer often

Because of pressure from women, males, overall yields could be raised face the stark choice of deciding who by between 10 and 20 per cent. to send to school — and often it is the a number of African countries introduced girl who stays home. Costly tuition, affirmative action policies that have Getting girls into school mandatory school uniforms, long increased the number of women in Perhaps the most inhibiting factor is distances between home and school, decision-making positions. that many women in Africa continue and inadequate water and sanitation, Africa Media Online / George Philipas

10 Special Edition 2012 all help to restrict girls’ access to education.

Citing 2008 data, the UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) reports that more men than women are literate in Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Niger, Nigeria and Uganda, with a gender gap ranging from 12 per cent to 26 per cent. Nevertheless, about half of sub-Saharan African countries have registered moderate increases towards gender parity in this area, UNESCO reports.

Channelling money to women Many now acknowledge that to enable women to escape poverty, develop- ment policies should place more emphasis on their contributions to the economy. Even though women make up a significant proportion of the economically active population, their contribution is not fully recorded because they are mainly engaged in family farming or in the informal sector. In other cases, what they do, such as household work, is not consid- ered an economic activity. For women and girls, education is often the Influencing policy only ticket out of poverty. In agriculture, sub-Saharan Africa’s Almost all countries in Southern Africa Panos / Giacomo Pirozzi most vital economic sector, women have a national government body that contribute 60–80 per cent of labour deals with gender issues. However, of legislation, such as those legalizing in food production, both for house- these units, departments or minis- abortion, countering domestic violence hold consumption and for sale. But tries “have become weak and unable and ensuring child support. while they do most of the work, they to be responsive to the challenges lack access to markets and credit. In presented by the struggle for gender In Uganda, women parliamentarians Uganda, women make up 53 per cent justice,” NGOs declared at an African helped to adopt legislation making rape of the labour force, but sell only 11 per Social Forum in Lusaka, Zambia. “Poor a capital offence. In 2003, following a cent of the cash crops. resource bases, few staff and no power long delay, Mozambique passed a family or authority within governments to law considered pivotal for the eman- To redress the bias in macroeconomic advance equality and justice for women cipation of women in that country. In policies that favour men and boys at the are just a few of the constraints.” Liberia, where a woman was elected expense of women and girls, a number president in 2005, a law making rape a of African countries have adopted In some countries, the presence of serious crime has been passed. a tool known as gender budgeting. women in parliament has made a differ- This involves analyzing government ence in the adoption of gender-sensitive Efforts by gender activists to protect spending choices and their impact on policies. Because of pressure from the rights of women paid off when in women and men, boys and girls, with women, some countries now have affir- 2005 the African Union decided that the the aim of better identifying dispari- mative action policies, such as quotas, African Charter on Human and People’s ties. Kenya, Rwanda, South Africa, to increase the number of women in Rights should become operational. The Tanzania and Uganda are among the decision-making positions. In South AU Executive Council in 2006 elected countries currently assessing their Africa, women parliamentarians judges to the African Court on Human budgets along gender lines. succeeded in passing various pieces and People’s Rights.

Special Edition 2012 11 struggle for rights, equality NEPAD embraces women’s rights

NEPAD acknowledges that women play the predominant role in food production.

UN Photo / Christopher Herwig

one said that empowering women was a priority. I got excited. Then I flipped the pages to find a plan of action that said concretely what NEPAD would do — one, two and three — for women. There was nothing there.”

The once skeptical activist later joined NEPAD’s management struc- ture, heading the Gender and Civil Society Organizations Unit formed in 2004 to bring women’s issues into policies, programmes and activities related to the initiative. The unit was created in direct response to recom- mendations by women’s groups, civil society organizations and other stakeholders.

“Our attitude in protesting was: If you see something missing, help add to it,” Ms. Musyimi-Ogana reflects. “Don’t just complain. While the NEPAD declaration was far from perfect, I saw a commitment, I saw a After slow in 2001, women’s organizations spirit in it. It is the first time heads banded together to protest the initia- of state are committing to Africa start, continental tive’s seeming lack of sensitivity voluntarily. This is historic. I said to gender issues. They demanded to myself: ‘I am going to support initiative advances that NEPAD’s proponents ensure this vision and change things from gender equity that women were not frozen out of within if necessary’.” the social and economic benefits promised by the initiative. Monitoring rights By Itai Madamombe In one of NEPAD’s most innovative Ms. Litha Musyimi-Ogana, an initiatives, the African Peer Review advocate for women’s rights, was Mechanism (APRM), African hen African heads of among those in the forefront asking governments carry out periodic state originally launched for change. “I got the NEPAD foun- reviews of the policies and practices W their continental devel- dation document into my hands,” of participating countries to assess opment plan, the New Partnership recalls Ms. Musyimi-Ogana. “I progress in promoting democracy, for Africa’s Development (NEPAD), rushed to the goals and the second good governance and economic 12 Special Edition 2012 management. Among other indica- you have women in public office — dominant role in food security, tors, countries participating in the though not always the case — they contemporary laws and traditional peer review are required to demon- tend to be more sensitive to the customs make it difficult for them to strate the measures they have taken needs of female citizens.” The ability own land or acquire credit. Women to promote and protect women’s of women deputies to bring about also get only a tiny fraction of the rights, as well as the laws adopted real change, however, depends on professional training provided by and other steps taken to enhance the the stance of their parties and the agricultural institutions. participation of women in society. calibre of the representatives them- They are expected to back up their selves. Occupying top government Networks and think tanks claims with figures on the percent- posts does not necessarily translate To ensure that issues affecting ages of women in decision-making to influence. It is disappointing, women are better reflected in positions, parliament and so on. the IPU reports, that women are policies and programmes, NEPAD still less likely than men to hold personnel consult with pools Rwanda has been a leader in the an economic portfolio or to be of experts across all sectors. In number of women elected to parlia- a country’s top foreign affairs 2005, for example, at a meeting ment, notes Ms. Anne Marie Goetz, representative. organized by the Kenya-based an expert on peace and security African Women’s Development issues with UN Women, the world “The question of women keeps Communication Network body’s agency on gender equity. coming back,” notes Augustin (FEMNET), representatives from The constitution mandates that at Wambo, a NEPAD agriculture policy over 40 countries called for a mecha- least 30 per cent of parliamentary expert. He argues that noble goals nism to respond to gender and civil deputies be women, but the strong will be meaningless unless those in society matters. push to support women candidates positions of power are made aware during elections resulted in women of women’s needs. “No matter how As a result of further consultations, holding 56 per cent of seats. many pledges are made,” Mr. Wambo the Civil Society Organizations stresses, “unless we empower Think Tank, comprising 60 gender NEPAD’s peer review report on lawmakers to unblock resources experts from all regions of Africa, Rwanda, released in 2006, found that from national budgets and put in was created that same year. Its in addition to constitutional provi- place the necessary means and members are experts in NEPAD’s sions, “Rwanda has created a plethora policies to support women, the initia- various priority themes, such as of institutions and development tive is not going to fly.” agriculture, education, transporta- programmes to enhance the status tion and health. These experts work and welfare of women in all walks NEPAD’s Comprehensive Africa with women on the ground, and thus of life.” Despite the huge strides, Agriculture Development have a good understanding of what the APRM’s country review team Programme (CAADP), launched in ordinary women most need. reported that women still face many 2003, argues that “special atten- hurdles. Similar reviews, accompa- tion must be given to the vital food- Such willingness to consult gender nied by proposals to improve women’s producing and entrepreneurial experts, notes Roselynn Musa, status and opportunities, as well as roles of women in rural and urban a programme officer at FEMNET, other recommendations, have also African communities.” The CAADP a member of the think tank, shows been carried out in more than a dozen adds, “African women account for that African leaders now realize that other African countries. substantial amounts of production NEPAD’s goals cannot be achieved in both the informal and formal unless women and girls are able Hands on the purse strings sectors,” while women entrepre- to participate to the best of their Overall in sub-Saharan Africa, an neurs “not only invest in their abilities. average 19.4 per cent of parliamentary business but also place high value seats are held by women, in line with on social investments in their “The think tank shows that the the world average of 19.3 per cent, communities.” NEPAD leaders are aware there was according to estimates by the Inter- a gap in how they initially planned to Parliamentary Union (IPU), an inter- It is estimated that women produce do business,” Ms. Musa told Africa national body that serves as a forum more than half the food crops in Renewal. “They are now trying to for dialogue among legislators. most African countries. Studies fill that gap.” By having a positive by the UN Food and Agriculture impact on daily lives, Ms. Musa adds, “Getting women into key positions Organization (FAO) have found, NEPAD will become more credible is critical,” Ms. Goetz points out. “If however, that despite women’s and relevant to African women.

Special Edition 2012 13 Political Empowerment African women are ready to lead

Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf taking the presidential But social beliefs has served in parliament and in 2001 oath in Liberia, after her election: Partly became the first woman to run for because of the social traumas of war, several and attitudes president in Zambia. She is currently post-conflict countries have seen new hinder their quest Zambia’s ambassador to Belgium, the openings for women’s advancement. Netherlands and the European Union. Reuters / Jason Reed

Ms. Mbikusita-Lewanika grew up with By Gumisai Mutume parents who supported her dreams and a 50–50 gender balance among officers who were always available. “We spent in its highest ranks. She also lobbied for hen the young Inonge a lot of time with our parents,” she says. the adoption in 2000 of UN Resolution Mbikusita-Lewanika “My parents created an enabling envi- 1325, which promotes equal participa- W was sent off to an all-girls ronment, and sent all of us [both boys tion by women in conflict prevention boarding school in Zambia renowned and girls] to school.” and resolution, peacekeeping and for its academic excellence and sporting peacebuilding. discipline, she was laying the founda- Ms. Mbikusita-Lewanika has been tion for a career in leadership. She had taking part in the women’s lobby that But she represents the exception rather plenty of time to concentrate on her pushed the continental political orga- than the rule. By 2008 only seven studies. Since then, she has represented nization, the African Union, to adopt countries in Africa (Rwanda, South her country as ambassador to the US, groundbreaking rules in 2004 requiring Africa, Mozambique, Angola, Tanzania, 14 Special Edition 2012 Uganda and Burundi) had attained the goal of having at least 30 per cent of the seats in national parliaments filled by women, in line with the UN target for women in decision-making bodies. Rwanda holds the current record for the highest level of female representation in a national parliament.

Multiple roles Getting into and staying in posi- tions of power is difficult because of the roles traditionally expected of women, Ms. Mbikusita-Lewanika told Africa Renewal. If one wants to be a commission has the task of advancing A polling station in Nigeria: From voting parliamentarian as well as a wife and women’s interests. to holding elective office, Africa women a mother, and the husband does not are pressing for a bigger voice in political support her, then it is hard to continue. When the CSW was first established, affairs. Reuters / Akintunde Akinleye “When you have young children, you women could vote in only 30 of the have to rush home while your male original 51 UN member states. Now, notes Ms. Pumla Mncayi, director of the counterparts carry on with discus- across the globe, women have secured Gender Advocacy Programme, a South sions in the bars or in the chambers” of the right to vote and, in most coun- African lobby group. parliament, she said. tries, to stand for election. The front- lines of the battle have now shifted. Because historically women have had Activists note that because women fewer opportunities and exposure to are often viewed as out of place in “Progress has been slow and uneven,” leadership positions than men, women professional environments, they are said then CSW Vice-Chairperson often feel intimidated by the political subjected to more scrutiny at work Adekunbi Abibat Sonaike, from Nigeria. system and are hesitant to partici- than are men of the same rank, which The UN Economic Commission for pate, says Ms. Mncayi. Deliberate slows women’s advancement into Africa concurs, observing that women programmes to train and equip women management positions. lack adequate access to productive when they enter the corridors of power resources, such as land, water, energy, are therefore needed. To gain positions of authority, women credit, means of communication, frequently have to be overqualified education and training, health and work Enhancing participation just to be noticed, says Ms. Mbikusita- with decent pay. Some of Africa’s women politicians Lewanika. That, she says, is a direct also have to deal with political systems reflection of how societies view The Fourth World Conference on that promote patronage. Under such women — as not as good as men. And Women, held in Beijing, China, in systems, politicians are beholden to when women do get appointed, “you 1994 was a critical turning point in the party hierarchy rather than to their hear people say, ‘She is just like a man.’ the struggle for gender equality. In constituents, which renders elected In other words they relate to you as a Beijing, governments set an inter- officials less effective in policymaking. man if you are an achiever.” national benchmark for women’s participation — 30 per cent of posts in Shireen Hassim and Sheila Meintjes, Turning point decision-making positions. in a paper commissioned by the UN Since the First World Conference Office of the Special Adviser on Africa, on Women in 1975, the women’s Breaking into leadership note that proportional representation, movement has taken significant Despite the challenges, a growing propor- an electoral system widely assumed to strides. In February 2006, gender tion of women are breaking through be more favourable to women, carries activists and policymakers convened the glass ceiling. The world average for costs that are not often cited, allowing in New York on the 50th anniversary women in parliament rose from 11.7 per “political parties to establish mecha- of the UN’s Commission on the Status cent in 1995 to 19.3 per cent by July 2011. nisms of control over women.” of Women (CSW) to take stock of But the advancement of women into posi- progress. Established in 1946 by the tions of power does not, by itself, resolve In Zimbabwe, write Catherine Makoni Economic and Social Council (one the need to create an environment that and Tsitsi Matekaire, the women’s of the five organs of the UN), the allows them to make a real difference, lobby was at a loss about whether or not

Special Edition 2012 15 to celebrate the appointment in 2004 in South Africa and Zimbabwe, women implemented worldwide … are gender of the country’s first woman deputy fought alongside men, asserting their blind, resulting in serious economic president, Joyce Mujuru. Her appoint- equality and winning some bargaining costs to society as a whole,” reports ment was seen in some quarters “as one power in post-conflict settlements. WEDO. of the games that political parties play,” they note in a study for the Women’s UN Women, a UN agency on gender One of the outcomes of the 2006 meeting Environment and Development issues, has been very active in training of the Commission on the Status of Organization (WEDO), an international women for leadership in many African Women, said Ms. Mpomou, was that women’s lobby group. countries, including Rwanda, Sierra “activists have managed to push for the Leone, Liberia and the Democratic inclusion of the international financial Post-conflict Republic of the Congo (DRC). institutions and academia in the 30 per countries do well Independent organizations such as cent quota target.” Although armed conflict has been the London-based International Alert, very disruptive in Africa, says established in 1985, have also played At the Bank and IMF, female representa- Doris Mpomou, a New York-based important roles. The group works with tion among leadership staff is around researcher for WEDO, it is also para- women’s networks and has facilitated 20 per cent, and fewer than 10 per cent doxically “opening up opportunities the participation of women in the peace of the members of the organizations’ for women to change gender relations processes in Liberia and the DRC. boards of governors are women. While and to enter positions of leadership.” those institutions have the authority Women in to alter the gender composition of their During the previous decade, more international agencies staffs, they have little control over the than a third of armed conflicts Gender activists want more women boards. Governors are appointed by indi- worldwide were in Africa. The wars in high office in international finan- vidual member countries. In June 2011, destroyed infrastructure, stalled cial institutions, such as the World Christine Lagarde of France became the development and exposed women in Bank and the International Monetary first woman to head the IMF. particular to rape and abuse. Fund (IMF). Out of all policymaking areas, women are least represented in The African Women’s Caucus at the But conflict created occasions for economics and finance, notes WEDO. CSW has charged that even the UN is women to transform their lives and Over the last few decades, the World still lagging behind. In its more than 60 redefine their gender roles. Conflict Bank and IMF have been designing years of existence, “no woman has ever often results in significant demographic economic reform programmes in poor been Secretary-General of the UN,” they changes, as men go to war and are killed countries. The absence of women in the noted in a statement, urging the UN to in combat. In some conflicts, such as formulation of those policies has meant promote the rise of women to the top the Eritrean war for independence “that the majority of the monetary, post, especially at a time when the orga- from Ethiopia and the liberation wars financial and trade policies being nization is undertaking reforms.

Women storm onto Rwanda’s political stage

omen in Rwanda now top the world rankings of women “It will be interesting to see what the entry of so many W in national parliaments, with 56 per cent representation women in the national assembly will do for politics in in the lower house compared to a world average of about 19 per Rwanda,” says the Inter-Parliamentary Union, a Geneva- cent. Rwandese women not only head about a third of all house- based organization representing 138 parliaments world- holds, but have also taken up many jobs that were formerly the wide. IPU President Anders Johnsson observes that the preserve of men, as in construction and mechanics. European Nordic countries have an established history of women’s participation in decision-making, but that Rwanda However, their most notable achievement has been in now overtakes the long-time leader, Sweden, where women politics. Thanks to a new constitution, 24 out of 80 seats in constitute 45 per cent of parliamentarians. the lower house of parliament are reserved for women. In the upper house, 6 out of 20 seats are reserved for women. To Rwanda’s success in bringing women to the political attain this, Rwandan women lobbied heavily, helped to draft table mirrors that of a small, but growing number of the new constitution and developed voting guidelines that countries in sub-Saharan Africa. In South Africa, Angola guaranteed seats for women candidates. They were also able and Mozambique, for example, women hold at least to push for the creation of a government ministry of women’s 30 per cent of the seats in parliament — matching the affairs to promote policies in favour of women’s interests. international target.

16 Special Edition 2012 Political Empowerment Three women laureates

hen the Nobel committee Ms. Maathai linked social change announced in October with political action. In 1992, while W 2011 that year’s recipi- protesting corrupt land allocations, she ents of its Peace Prize, it raised to was beaten by thugs and state police. three the number of African women Later, after a change in regime, she won to receive the internationally distin- a parliamentary election and became guished award. Two of the three new assistant minister of the environment. recipients were from Liberia, Ellen Following her death, UN Secretary- Johnson-Sirleaf and Leymah Gbowee. General Ban Ki-moon called Ms. They thereby joined Wangari Maathai Maathai “a pioneer in articulating the of Kenya, the first African woman to links between human rights, poverty, receive the prize in 2004. While Ms. environmental protection and security.” Maathai had been honoured for her Wangari Maathai, the late environmental work in defence of the environment Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf and human rights activist. and human rights, Ms. Johnson- Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf was awarded the Sirleaf and Ms. Gbowee — together Nobel Peace Prize six years after she Associated Press / Khalil Senosi with Tawakkul Karman of Yemen became Africa's first elected female — were cited “for their non-violent head of state. With a background as a overcoming the economic devastation struggle for the safety of women and development economist, she had previ- and social tensions left by the war. In for women’s rights to full participa- ously served as a finance minister in November 2011 she was re-elected to tion in peace-building work.” Liberia and as the Africa director of the a second term. UN Development Programme. In the Wangari Muta Maathai 1980s she was prominent in opposing Leymah Gbowee Wangari Muta Maathai, who died the repressive military regime, which Leymah Gbowee, born in a central of cancer less than two weeks before forced her into exile. She later returned Liberian village in 1972, played a central her Liberian sisters were similarly during a pause in the civil war that role in mobilizing Liberian women to honoured, launched the non-govern- began in 1989, ran against Charles oppose the civil war and work for recon- mental Green Belt Movement in 1977 Taylor in the 1997 presidential election, ciliation. At the height of the fighting in to plant trees, alleviate poverty and and was briefly forced abroad again early 2003, she led women in picketing, end conflict. She mobilized Kenyans, when Taylor won. fasting and praying. Excluded from particularly women, to plant more internationally-sponsored peace nego- than 30 million trees, and inspired After a peace agreement installed tiations, the women nevertheless pres- the UN to launch a campaign that has an interim government in 2003, sured the leaders of the warring factions led to the planting of 11 billion trees Ms. Johnson-Sirleaf headed the and helped keep the talks going until an worldwide. Governance Reform Commission. agreement was signed. She then ran for president in 2005,

Liberian peace activist Leymah Gbowee. in the first election after 14 years of Trained as a trauma counsellor, Ms. war, and won. Her tenure focused on Gbowee has worked with girls and UN Photo/Emma Simmons women who were raped during war, including in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. She heads the Ghana-based Women Peace and Security Network. The reception of the Peace Prize by three women in 2011, Ms. Gbowee said, was “a victory for women’s rights everywhere in the world,” as well as “a great tribute” to the pioneering work of Wangari Maathai.

Special Edition 2012 17 Political Empowerment North African women on the barricades

Egyptians in Cairo’s Tahrir Square Activists press for were active in labour strikes in recent celebrate the fall of the Mubarak years, in some cases even pressuring government, but activists acknowledge freedom, dignity men to join the strikes. the need to continue pressing for human and rights rights and democratic reform. “The women contributed equally to Associated Press / SIPA / Alfred the revolution, like the men,” affirms Emna Ben Jemaa, a Tunisian lecturer By Fatma Naib Cairo and journalist. “We took part in Tunisian women developed an aware- protests in the street, without any ness of their deprivation and began rab women have shown discrimination against us.” fighting to advance their role in society. once again that women can A often play important roles Women’s activism is not a recent With independence, President Habib in revolutionary events. In Egypt development, notes Ms. Jemaa. “For Bourguiba played a pivotal part in and Tunisia they participated in the Tunisian women, independence is not advancing the role of women. popular uprisings for democracy — and something that came with the revolu- are continuing to press for progressive tion, it has been there.” Before national A “personal status code,” adopted in changes in their societies — just as they independence in 1955, Tunisian women 1956, gave women rights that were faced severe discrimination. They were unprecedented in the Middle East and often taken out of school, forbidden the Muslim world. These included the Fatma Naib, a reporter for the Al Jazeera news network, contributed this to see male doctors and limited in the right to vote and to be elected to parlia- article to Africa Renewal. political sphere. Yet during this period ment, to receive wages equal to those 18 Special Edition 2012 of men, to have access to mixed-gender education and to be granted divorces. In 1993 “honour crimes” — in which women were harmed, even killed, by family members for transgressing cultural norms — were criminalized.

As a result, the women’s movement in Tunisia is relatively advanced compared to those in other Middle Eastern coun- tries, notes Ms. Jemaa. This paved the way for Tunisian women’s visible involvement in the revolution that toppled President Zine el-Abidine Ben Ali on 14 January 2011 and forced him “Long live freedom!” declares graffiti in into exile in Saudi Arabia. is no guarantee they will keep their word Tunis: Tunisian men and women mobilized on anything after they come into power. “Prior to the revolution, women’s issues This is the case with all politicians.” side-by-side against the authoritarian were not key,” she observes. “Freedom regime. Reuters / Louafi Larbi and democracy for all is what pushed So Tunisians need to be on guard, she us to revolt against the regime, as concludes. “In terms of the future, stones, I did. When we had to shout Tunisian men and women, side by side.” we need a revolution in the way of slogans, I did. We did whatever was thinking and in the mentality. Change necessary to achieve our freedom.” ‘We are still at will not come overnight. In my the beginning’ opinion, we are still at the beginning On 28 January, dubbed the “day of rage,” After the ouster of the president, of the revolution.” she and other women helped mobilize members of the previously banned the resistance. “When the police Islamist Ennahda Party returned to Side by side clashes intensified and the shooting the country. The party won the largest in Tahrir Square escalated, some of the guys would bloc of seats in the October 2011 The revolution in Tunisia inspired retreat. At that point all the women parliamentary elections. Its leader people in neighbouring Egypt to take would push to the front. When our became prime minister, although to the streets on 25 January 2011 to male fellow revolutionaries would see a secular opposition politician was demand freedom and dignity. But even us do that, they would return immedi- named president. before the uprising, female factory ately and push to the front with us and workers had staged major strikes in overcome their fear. I was on the bridge “People assume that Islamism would 2007 in the city of Mahallah. when the severe fighting took place on interfere with women’s rights and that day. I was surrounded by women. freedom. But this is not necessarily When 2011’s protests began in Cairo’s We went forward to the front line and correct,” says Ms. Jemaa. “When Tahrir Square, women accounted for seeing us pushed everyone to come.” Islam came to mankind, women used 40 to 50 per cent of the demonstrators to work and played an active role in during the 18 days that led to the fall That day also brought Ms. Najm’s society. So I don’t understand why of President Hosni Mubarak. Women worst memory of the revolution, when people assume that the presence of of all ages, with and without veils, set a person died next to her. “We were on an Islamist political party will lead to up barricades, led debates, shouted the bridge by the Nile. What upset me the exclusion of women.” slogans and, together with the men, was that his death was preventable, but risked their lives. we couldn’t call an ambulance. I tried However, Ms. Jemaa admits there are to use my phone, but the lines were cut. fears of a possible backlash for women’s The idea that men and women should Then he shut his eyes. I asked if he was freedom if the country is ever ruled by behave differently was set aside asleep, but another person told me that a religious party. “People look at the during the revolution. Nawara Najm, he had passed away.” examples of Algeria and Iran. History an Egyptian journalist, blogger and has proven that there is no guarantee human rights activist, recalls how she But she focuses on the positive that an Islamic party such as Ennahda along with other women fought side memories. “The 25th of January was will secure women’s rights. Even if they by side with the men. “When we had the best day, because everyone went to say they are for women’s freedom, there to fight, I fought. When we had to hurl the streets thinking that they would

Special Edition 2012 19 important role in the battle for Algerian independence. They planted bombs and acted as informants who would relay information to the fighters. But history didn’t give them the place they deserve in society, with an equal status to the men after the war.”

Ms. Ramdani believes that religion, culture and law have all contrib- uted to the state of affairs in Algeria today, with certain interpretations of religion posing particular problems for women. In post-revolution Tunisia, Ms. Ramdani adds, the voice of women is louder than in Algeria because it is a secular society, with a Women in Cairo calling for equal rights. Weeks after Hosni Mubarak stepped distinction between religion and the Fatma Naib down as president and power was rule of law. transferred to the military, the youth be alone. But I was filled with joy movement continued to gather in She is very optimistic about the future, when I realized that I was not alone. It Tahrir Square to protest the slow because women are finally speaking was a very emotional moment for me.” pace of reforms. Ms. Tarzi says there up. She notes that this is evident else- was a sense among protesters that the where in the Arab world, including in ‘No one can stand army had betrayed them. countries such as Saudi Arabia and in the way’ Yemen. In Saudi Arabia, where women For Ms. Najm, the revolution is still She speaks in agitated terms about are banned from driving, several ongoing. “We managed to topple the what happened when soldiers cleared women drivers have posted videos head of the regime, but the entire Tahrir Square on 9 March: “They online showing themselves defying the regime is not gone yet and our key violently dispersed the crowd and ban. “It was previously unthinkable demands have not been met.” arrested several activists, including that women there would defy the king women who had to undergo forced by getting into their cars and driving,” “I am not too worried about the virginity tests. Those who failed the comments Ms. Ramdani. The king Muslim Brotherhood having political tests and were not married were later has since promised that women will power in Egypt,” Ms. Najm adds. charged with prostitution. The police be allowed to vote and run in Saudi “They are a political organization and army used the virginity test as a Arabia’s 2015 municipal elections. that has the same right as everyone form of humiliation. The men suffered else to participate in the political from different sorts of humiliation. It “I am positive about the future for arena. There is room for everyone is just that they did not find means to women in the Middle East,” she says. in Egypt. All are welcome, and all humiliate men that are as harsh as the “The fear barrier has been broken. different voices are allowed. No one tests for the women. I’m sure if they Fear was a major hindrance and it is can stand in the way of the will of had found something they would.” gone forever.” The wind of revolt that is the people anymore. The people have sweeping across the Arab countries has spoken and we have decided to fear Ms. Tarzi, like other women, continues led people to realize that change no more. No one can silence our will to protest against the injustices that is possible. for freedom.” prevail in post-Mubarak Egypt. Women in different parts of the Salma El Tarzi, an Egyptian film- From Algeria region face different challenges. maker, was also active in the revolu- to Saudi Arabia While some countries have accom- tion and echoes Ms. Najm’s fighting Nabila Ramdani, a French political plished more, it seems that what spirit. “I am not into any political analyst of Algerian origin, compares women across the Arab world want parties. I prefer to remain neutral for the role of women during the revolu- is for their voices to be heard. They now. I know I will always be in the tions in Tunisia and Egypt with that want their basic human rights to be ‘opposition,’ so I am there ready to of women in the 1954–62 Algerian respected in societies that are free demonstrate, or fight.” independence war. “Women played an and fair for all. 20 Special Edition 2012 Combating violence Taking on violence against women in Africa International meat for his dinner. There was none According to the World Health in the house. Enraged, he beat his Organization (WHO), domestic violence norms and local wife, Betty Kavata. Paralyzed and is a global problem affecting millions activism start brain-damaged, Ms. Kavata died five of women. In a 2005 study on women’s months later, on her 28th birthday. health and domestic violence, the WHO to alter laws, found that 56 per cent of women in attitudes But unlike many such cases, Ms. Tanzania and 71 per cent of women in Kavata’s death did not pass in silence. Ethiopia’s rural areas reported beatings The Kenyan media covered the story or other forms of violence by husbands or extensively. Images of the fatally other intimate partners. By Mary Kimani injured woman and news of her death generated nationwide debate on Violence against women goes beyond enya’s current law against domestic violence. There followed five beatings. It includes forced marriage, wife-beating was prompted years of protests, demonstrations and dowry-related violence, marital rape, K some years ago by a particu- lobbying by non-governmental organi- sexual harassment, intimidation at larly dramatic incident of a common zations (NGOs), as well as by outraged work and in educational institutions, problem—one that is not unusual men and parliamentarians. Finally, the across Africa. In December 1998 a government passed a family protection Slogan on a wall in Kibera, a slum in Kenyan police officer, Felix Nthiwa bill criminalizing wife-beating and Nairobi: Kenya has a law against domestic Munayo, got home late and demanded other forms of domestic violence. violence, but implementation is difficult.

Reuters / Zohra Bensemra

Special Edition 2012 21 forced pregnancy, forced abortion, women in worse conditions. Their institute counselling and rehabilitation forced sterilization, trafficking and plight is so severe, noted a study programmes for victims, sensitize law- forced prostitution. by the WHO and the Joint UN enforcement officials and draft relevant Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS), laws to protect women against all kinds Such practices cause trauma, injuries that many women see no option but to of violence. and death. Female genital cutting, for remain with husbands who routinely example, is a common cultural practice batter them. The women stay because Unfortunately, few countries have met in parts of Africa. Yet it can cause men “serve as vital opportunities for those obligations. Many countries do not “bleeding and infection, urinary incon- financial and social security, or for collect information on violence against tinence, difficulties with childbirth satisfying material aspirations.” women, so there is little data available and even death,” reports the WHO. The to assess whether measures are having organization estimates that 130 million The WHO found that women with any impact. Worse, few countries have girls have undergone the procedure at least a secondary education enacted laws to prevent abuse. A 2011 globally and 2 million are at risk each were more able to negotiate greater report on Progress of the World’s Women year, despite international agreements autonomy and control of resources by UN Women, the UN body responsible banning the practice. within marriage, have a wider range for gender rights, reported that only 21 of choices in partners and are more sub-Saharan countries had specific Rooted in culture able to choose whether and when to laws against domestic violence. Perpetrators of violence against women marry. Such capacities have often typically have a history of violent been associated with lower levels of Many countries that are party to the behaviour, grew up in violent homes violence in the home. convention still have no laws specifi- and often abuse alcohol and drugs. cally outlawing domestic violence Women’s activism and sexual harassment. The sexual In a report by the UN Population Women, however, are not just victims. violence bill in Kenya, for example, Fund (UNFPA) in 2000, the agency They have been working actively to gain passed only after certain sections, noted that in interviews in Africa and better mechanisms to protect them- such as one that would have outlawed Asia, “the right of a husband to beat or selves. This has included successfully marital rape, were removed. physically intimidate his wife” came pushing for adoption of international out as “a deeply held conviction.” treaties and instruments, such as Enforcement Even societies where women appear the 1979 United Nations Convention Putting new laws on the books is not to enjoy better status “condone or on the Elimination of All Forms of enough. Law enforcement and court at least tolerate a certain amount of Discrimination Against Women. That mechanisms also have to be made violence against women.” convention commits governments to friendly and accessible to women, says change discriminatory practices and Ms. Mary Wandia, a leading Kenyan A study on domestic violence in Uganda laws, including those that permit early gender advocate. “The police force is by the US-based Human Rights Watch marriage, bar women from inher- often uninterested in domestic violence,” (HRW) found that families justified iting property or relegate them to a she observes. “Unless a woman can show forcing widows to be inherited by other secondary status. physical evidence of the violence she has males in the family with arguments suffered, police and law-enforcement that the family had “all contributed to The convention entered into force in authorities are often unwilling to believe the bride price” and that therefore the 1981, and as a result the Committee and assist her.” Moreover, Ms. Wandia woman was “family property.” Once on the Elimination of Discrimination adds, “many communities are complicit inherited, a widow lost her husband’s against Women (CEDAW) was officially in excusing or condoning violence property, which went to the new established. In 1992, the committee against women, and in so doing, tacitly husband. And if a woman sought sepa- affirmed that violence against women approve of the abuse.” ration or divorce, the dowry had to be was a “violation of their internationally reimbursed. Often, the study found, “a recognized human rights” and “a form According to Ms. Thoraya Ahmed woman’s family is unable or unwilling” of discrimination” that “nullified their Obaid, the former executive director to refund the dowry, and her brothers right to freedom, security and life.” of the UNFPA, there is a need “to may beat her to force her back to her ensure that all those who respond to husband or in-laws “because they don’t The committee asked governments violence against women — whether want to give back cows.” to identify and end customs and prac- they are police officers, judges, tices that perpetuate violence against lawyers, immigration officials, Africa’s economic decline over the women. It urged them to conduct medical personnel or social workers — past three decades has left many public education, create safe havens, are sensitized and trained to provide 22 Special Edition 2012 a response that is compassionate and comprehensive.”

In Rwanda, gender desks have been established at police stations, staffed mostly by trained women who help victims of sexual and other violence. They investigate cases and ensure that evidence is available for court proceed- ings. The gender desks have “improved reporting and response to these crimes,” Ms. Josephine Odera, UN Women’s director for West Africa, told Africa Renewal. “What we need now is to expand this approach to more countries.”

When the government of Burkina Faso passed a law prohibiting female genital cutting in 1996, it launched a public education campaign to make the law effective. It added the topic to the school curriculum and opened a telephone help line for girls at risk. As a result, reports Plan International, the number of convic- tions has gone up and public support for female genital cutting has fallen.

However, even good laws can fail if the legal process is too expensive. In Kenya, for instance, some women Women's Day rally in South Africa. have had cases pending before the when women are afforded better courts for years because they rely on protection,” she argues. Redux / eyevine / Xinhua / Li Qihua free public defenders who handle too many cases. Educating both men and women on The Africa-UNiTE campaign domestic violence is critical. It sends urges governments to consult with “There have to be free legal services,” a message that such violence is not an civil society to identify areas to be argues Ms. Saran Daraba Kaba, issue just for women, but a problem strengthened in current national a former government minister in affecting the whole community. legislations. Civil society groups Guinea and founder and president have organized workshops for local of the Mano River Women’s Peace Regional efforts journalists on gender violence. Network, which works in Guinea, To extend the frontiers of outreach Private companies have introduced Sierra Leone and Liberia. “There is a in Africa, UN Secretary-General “zero tolerance” policies against need for lawyers who are well trained Ban Ki-moon and African Union gender discrimination and sexual in helping the victim to make an Commission Chairperson Jean Ping harassment. And schools and informed decision.” launched the Africa UNiTE campaign universities have included in January 2010. It is part of the awareness-raising activities in Changing social attitudes Secretary-General’s global campaign their curriculums. To Ms. Kaba, the biggest challenge to end all violence against women and is changing the social attitudes and girls. The African campaign seeks to UN Women, in partnership with the beliefs that confine women to an involve African governments, civil Kilimanjaro Initiative, is organizing inferior status. “We have to get more society, the private sector and schools an Africa UNiTE Mount Kilimanjaro women to know their legal rights. and colleges, and to “empower women Climb in March 2012. Commitments We have to teach our people why it and their communities in stopping from all African governments to is important to protect women and gender-based violence and demanding end gender violence by 2015 will be how it benefits the entire community accountability.” carried to the mountain top.

Special Edition 2012 23 Combating violence Security reform key to protecting women

Graduates of the police academy in Training, are commonly raped, beaten and Liberia: Under President Ellen Johnson- victimized in other ways. Only Sirleaf, the country has set quotas recruitment and rarely do police or prosecutors take for recruiting more women into both prosecutions can such crimes seriously. Even worse, its police force and army. policemen and soldiers — whose job is UN Photo / Christopher Herwig reduce violence to protect citizens — have all too often been among the abusers. (WIPSEN–Africa), headquartered in Accra, Ghana. Frequently, Ms. Alaga By Ernest Harsch Here and there steps are being points out, the security sector in taken to reform Africa’s security Africa “finds itself falling short in its institutions to increase their ability responsibility” to protect women. exual and other violence — and willingness — to safeguard against women has been a women. But such improvements ‘Twin approach’ S feature of conflicts across remain limited, notes Ecoma Alaga, While it is imperative to overhaul Africa, from Sierra Leone and Liberia an expert on gender and security Africa’s security sectors generally, to Burundi and the Democratic sector reform and a former director to make them more effective and Republic of the Congo (DRC). Even at the non-governmental Women responsive to citizens’ concerns, in countries not at war, women Peace and Security Network–Africa it is especially important for such 24 Special Edition 2012 reforms to put more emphasis on Cleaning out the ranks Training and staffing overcoming gender discrimination In countries where armies have been Training is important for changing and on protecting women, she argues. especially notorious for brutalizing the outlook and conduct of military For that to happen, Ms. Alaga main- civilians, one of the most obvious and police personnel, and instructors tains, a “twin approach” is required. reforms is to rid them of personnel from the UN peacekeeping mission First, those engaged in security guilty of serious abuses. in the DRC and the European Union reforms need to pay more attention to teach courses on human rights and gender and to actively involve women After more than a decade of civil gender issues to Congolese army and in all phases of reform programmes. war, Liberia began building a new police units. Similarly, in Burundi, Second, women’s groups must them- army in 2006. Although members Liberia, Sierra Leone and South selves stop viewing security as “men’s of the old government armed forces Africa, questions of women’s rights business.” and of demobilized rebel groups and gender-based violence have been were permitted to apply, the selec- integrated into military and police The key to making security forces tion criteria were rigorous. “Vetting” curricula and training programmes. more gender-sensitive is similar panels assessed the qualifications of to the essential ingredient in each applicant, turning away anyone Training on its own can have only a combating violence against women known for abuses. The names and limited impact. Changes in staffing and girls more generally, argues photos of applicants were published are also vital, advocates for women’s Letty Chiwara, chief of the Africa and circulated in local communities, rights argue, both to alter the overall Division of UN Women, the UN’s and the public was invited to provide culture of security forces and to carry gender agency: breaking the silence any information that would disqualify out particular tasks to help protect that surrounds such violence. “What a candidate. In the end, three quarters women. One of the recommendations is fueling the most atrocious types were rejected. of the October 2010 Kigali conference of violence against women is the was to “recruit and promote more silence,” she said at an international In the DRC a peace agreement in women officers at all echelons of the conference on “the role of security 2002 also set the creation of a new security organs.” organs in ending violence against army. But the vetting process was women and girls,” held in October much more limited than in Liberia. Liberia — which produced Africa’s 2010 in Kigali, Rwanda. Often entire units from the previous first democratically elected female factions were incorporated into the president, Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf Reforming security forces will not new Forces armées de la République — has made especially pronounced be easy, notes Adedeji Ebo, chair démocratique du Congo (FARDC), efforts to change the gender composi- of the UN’s inter-agency task force with only a few of the most notorious tion of security forces. When recruit- on security sector reform. Africa’s officers excluded. ment for the new national army armies and police forces were origi- commenced, President Johnson- nally set up under colonial rule, “were Despite the peace accord, insecurity Sirleaf announced a goal of achieving never created to protect Africans” and has persisted in the DRC’s eastern a military that would be 20 per cent were instead viewed as instruments provinces, with women often brutalized female. But it proved difficult to find for extracting taxes and for “keeping and raped. Monitors from the UN and enough women willing to enlist who the natives in check.” After indepen- human rights organizations ascribe could also meet the minimum quali- dence, adds Mr. Ebo, many African much of the abuse to the remnants fication of a high school education. governments perpetuated or recre- of anti-government groups. But they The actual proportion of female army ated similar security structures. frequently cite evidence that undisci- recruits is still only around 7 per cent. plined soldiers from the FARDC have But as more African countries seek also raped, pillaged and killed. Greater progress has been made in the to rebuild after debilitating wars or Liberian National Police, for which to democratize repressive political In recent years, some FARDC soldiers the target was also 20 per cent. With systems, more are also trying to and officers have been tried by the help of female instructors from the professionalize their armies, police military tribunals and found guilty of UN peacekeeping mission, the first all- forces, intelligence services and rape and other crimes. During 2010 female class of police cadets graduated court systems. The ultimate aim is alone, 79 cases were heard, including in 2009. By May 2010, the force’s total to bring their security sectors under of a mass rape in South Kivu. But the proportion of women had risen to about the control of elected civilian leaders Congolese army as a whole still has a 16 per cent. Progress was enhanced with and to make them more attentive to long way to go before it respects the an “accelerated learning” programme in popular aspirations. rights of women and other citizens. which young women applicants who had

Special Edition 2012 25 take more energetic action. In South Africa in the late 1990s, women’s organizations exposed sexual harass- ment of women by army personnel, helping to spur reform.

Violence against women is a broader societal problem and cannot be curbed by security institutions alone, notes Anne Marie Goetz, a gover- nance and security adviser to UN Women. Much violence takes place in the family and other “private spaces,” and is therefore difficult to police. Moreover, the “wide tolerance of abuses” prevalent in many societies in turn makes it harder to transform the security institutions.

A South African peacekeeper in Darfur, Another hurdle is women’s generally Sudan: More women need to be recruited reasons include the weakness of the subordinate position in society. In or promoted to the officer corps in African courts (which scarcely exist outside the Sierra Leone, according to a study security forces. larger towns), high court fees, corrup- by WIPSEN–Africa, some women UN Photo / Albert Gonzalez Farran tion and ignorance of the law by poten- who met all the selection qualifica- tial plaintiffs, lawyers and even judges. tions for the police or army were not completed a secondary education ultimately “ordered” by their obtained their certificates from a local In a number of countries, including husbands to not join. polytechnic school. Rwanda, laws on rape and sexual violence have been strengthened in Getting Africa’s security institu- South Africa, which has been recruiting recent years. Liberia, Sierra Leone tions to better protect women and female troops and police since it started and South Africa now have special- advancing women’s overall social and restructuring its security forces in the ized police units to investigate such political status thus go hand-in-hand, mid-1990s, has recently increased its crimes, and Liberia has a special emphasizes Kristin Valasek of the quota for both institutions to 40 per court to hear cases of sexual violence. Geneva Centre for the Democratic cent in an effort to speed the process. Guinea-Bissau has introduced gender Control of Armed Forces. After a “gender mainstreaming” training programmes for magistrates. audit highlighted shortcomings at Grassroots action is especially vital, the command levels of the army, New legal aid clinics have emerged in argues Joséphine Pumbulu of the eight female brigadier generals were the Congolese province of North Kivu. Association africaine de défense appointed in 2007. “Each month, we record about 30 des droits de l’homme in the DRC. cases of rape,” reports Eugène Buzake, Her group promotes women’s rights Legal action a lawyer with the non-governmental in schools, churches, marketplaces While African conflicts hold particular Synergie pour l’assistance juridique, and other public venues and presses dangers for women, abuse is also “and we direct the victims to the the government, army and police common in countries at “peace.” Even courts.” The group provides free to safeguard women from violence. in the DRC, only an estimated 3 per legal advice, arranges protection for She urges Congolese women to more cent of all rapes and other sexual witnesses and helps transport them to vocally “denounce the rapists.” assaults nationwide are perpetrated by court appearances. members of armed groups. To counter To enable Congolese and other the broader scourge of such violence, Breaking the silence African women to do that, concludes the police and courts must become As this example illustrates, greater Ms. Chiwara of UN Women, it is more effective in pursuing such crimes. involvement by civil society groups, essential to create “a safe space for women’s organizations and others women and communities to speak out. But across Africa, women’s access is vital. They can pressure security At the heart of impunity is the silence to justice remains very limited. The forces to correct shortcomings and that needs to be broken!” 26 Special Edition 2012 Improving Health Investing in the health of Africa’s mothers Lacking care, Despite scarce resources, some coun- enormous. Of the 536,000 women tries have been able to find ways to worldwide who die each year from too many women expand access to maternal health complications of pregnancy or do not survive care. In Senegal, the Ministry of delivery, 99 per cent are in developing Health and the UN Population Fund countries. Of those, half are in sub- childbirth (UNFPA) jointly fund community Saharan Africa. health workers who bicycle to visit women in their villages. They are Dr. Luc De Bernis, UNFPA’s senior By Mary Kimani trained to monitor the health of advisor on maternal health in Africa, pregnant women, refer the women says the problem is the poor state of to local health centres for prenatal Africa’s health systems. “We know ot far from Mathare and checkups and ensure that they get to that 15 per cent of pregnant women Korogocho, two of the biggest a centre where skilled attendants can develop complications that require N slums in Nairobi, Kenya’s assist with delivery. Similar efforts obstetric care, and up to 5 per cent capital, lies the Pumwani Maternity are under way in Rwanda. will require some type of surgery. We Hospital. Some 27,000 women give

birth there each year. Most are poor Preventable deaths Checking the blood pressure of an and young. Yet the government-run Across Africa, the challenge of expectant mother in Rwanda. hospital, the largest maternal health preventing maternal deaths is Redux / eyevine / Kate Holt centre in East and Central Africa, lacks resources. Patients have to buy their own syringes, needles, cotton wool and maternity pads.

The case of Pumwani exemplifies the state of health institutions in Africa. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), high service costs, lack of trained staff and supplies, poor transport and patients’ insuffi- cient knowledge mean that 60 per cent of mothers in sub-Saharan Africa do not have a health worker present during childbirth. That heightens the risks of complications, contributing to greater maternal and child death and disability.

WHO estimates that in Nigeria, 800,000 women are living with fistula, a disabling condition often caused by problems in childbirth; the number grows by 20,000 each year. In Tanzania, 9,000 women die annually of complications related to pregnancy. The country’s maternal health facili- ties are often too far away and the women lack adequate transport.

Special Edition 2012 27 “We have never seen any country aside 15 per cent of their annual budgets at the urging of the International developing without a minimal health to improve health access. Monetary Fund and the World system,” says Dr. Luc De Bernis, Bank. To counter the continent’s a UN maternal health expert. One problem, says Dr. De Bernis, is burgeoning debt, corruption and Redux / eyevine / Kate Holt that governments and donor agencies misuse of resources, these insti- tend to focus on specific themes, tutions prescribed a regimen of have to invest in the infrastructure such as HIV infection, malaria reduced domestic spending by necessary to do it.” and tuberculosis, while failing to African governments that was improve the general state of Africa’s intended to improve fiscal balances According to Dr. Yves Bergevin, health care systems. “Strengthening and ensure continued debt payments. a senior adviser on reproductive health services to address maternal health at UNFPA, women need to mortality would be very important for However, Dr. Bergevin argues, such be near health centres so they can all these programmes,” he says. austerity also had the negative effect get advice about nutrition. Facilities of reducing funding for health care. for emergency surgery or lifesaving “A surgery room,” he adds, “will not Health centres became dilapidated blood transfusions must be available. only serve the mothers. It will serve and there was limited hiring of new “Even if it is three in the morning an the needs of the community. A road health workers, especially doctors. In obstetric emergency is not something which goes to a health centre will an effort to overcome the decline in for which you can tell the mother to serve the community in other ways. government financing, many hospi- come back tomorrow,” he told Africa This is a development issue and tals and clinics began asking patients Renewal. economists should recognize this. to pay more for services. In Kenya, We have never seen any country the government introduced “user The international community has developing without a minimal health fees” at public health facilities. agreed that bringing down maternal system. What we need is long-term mortality is a priority. The Millennium investment, which is not what is being In the face of the negative impact Development Goals (MDGs), agreed done at present.” on health care systems, the World to by world leaders in 2000, include Bank has backed away from a target for reducing the number of User fees promoting user fees. It now supports women dying during pregnancy and The poor state of Africa’s health the provision of less expensive basic childbirth by three quarters by 2015. sector is partly a legacy of policies health care, including maternal In 2001 African leaders pledged to put pursued in the 1980s and 1990s health services. 28 Special Edition 2012 But since enough financing is not Affairs. In Chad and Niger, the gap is launch of the Deliver Now campaign, available to provide free care, many 14 times or more. Norway announced that it would African health facilities remain give $1 billion over the next decade locked into “cost sharing” practices. “We cannot accept systems which do towards improving maternal health Such a “pay-for-service” model, notes not provide access to everybody,” says worldwide. Dr. Bergevin, has had a catastrophic Dr. De Bernis. “If the poor have no impact on the poor, who cannot access, we will never reduce maternal Dr. De Bernis warns that efforts to afford to pay fees. mortality in a meaningful way.” introduce free health care should not depend entirely on donor assistance. The situation at Pumwani Maternity Concerned that high costs were Given the uncertainties of external Hospital is typical. Up until May impeding access to maternal health aid, “this is not sustainable.” But there 2007, patients wishing to receive care, Kenya’s Health Ministry abol- are other options, he adds. “In West maternal care had to deposit ished maternity fees in public hospi- Africa, we have seen examples of 1,200 Kenya shillings (US$17). tals such as Pumwani in May 2007. useful cost sharing,” so that the burden Women without the money were But the money still has to come from is not placed solely on the patients. “A turned away. It costs Ksh3,000 for somewhere. calculation is made of the health cost, a normal delivery and Ksh6,000 how much the government can afford for a caesarean. Daily bed charges ‘Unacceptable’ to provide and the rest of the financial of Ksh400 accrue throughout a Across Africa, spending on health burden is shared with the community,” woman’s stay at the hospital. The remains limited. “Currently sub- he explains. However, even in such hospital’s fees are low compared to Saharan countries are spending schemes, the really poor should still be those charged at private facilities, less than $2 per person for maternal exempted from paying, he argues. but significant for the 60 per cent health,” Dr. Bergevin notes. “Most of Kenyans who live on less than experts agree that you need to spend Despite the challenges, his compa- Ksh140 ($2) a day. at least $8. To see a fully functioning triot, Dr. Bergevin, is optimistic. “We health system, you need to spend know that maternal mortality can In Ethiopia, which has a similar $40–50 dollars per person, excluding be reduced. We know what to do, and model, a rich woman is 28 times anti-retroviral drugs.” how to do it. Other countries are on more likely than a poor mother track.” The biggest challenge lies to have a doctor available during Some donors are seeking to bridge with 66 countries in the developing delivery, according to the UN’s the financing gap for maternal world, including 45 in sub-Saharan Department of Economic and Social health. In October 2007, at the Africa. “We know it can be done.”

Social hurdles to better maternal health

ven when maternal health facilities are available, expectant pregnancies. Women who have undergone infibulation, a E mothers in Africa do not always get timely care. A study form of genital mutilation where the external genitalia are by the Africa regional office of the World Health Organization stitched, are more likely to suffer from obstructed labour. (WHO), Reducing Mortality Rates, reports that sometimes UNFPA data show that girls who give birth between the ages women or birth attendants “fail to recognize danger signals of 15 and 20 are twice as likely to die in childbirth as those in and are not prepared to deal with them.” One answer, argues Dr. their twenties, while girls under 15 are more than five times Yves Bergevin, senior adviser on reproductive health for the UN as likely to die. Population Fund (UNFPA), is to improve the skills of birth atten- dants and the knowledge and capacity of women, their families “Adolescent girls face the highest risk of premature delivery,” and their communities. says Dr. Grace Kodindo, former chief of maternity at the Ndjamena general hospital in Chad. “Because their bodies Involving men is important, says Lucy Idoko, UNFPA’s former are not yet fully mature, they risk obstructed labour. assistant representative in Nigeria. Most men, she says, do This is why we encourage young women to postpone their not know the risks of going through labour. “Maternal health first pregnancy.” is not only a woman’s issue but also a man’s issue, and important to society as a whole.” Dr. Kodindo argues that both young age and the low status of women in society often leave them with little power to deter- Cultural practices can also affect women’s health risks. mine if, when and with whom to become pregnant. They also WHO cites genital mutilation, early marriage and multiple have little choice in the number and timing of their children.

Special Edition 2012 29 Improving Health In Africa, AIDS often has a woman’s face

Testing a patient at an HIV clinic in Knowledge, power have an older boyfriend, he can buy Soweto, South Africa. you things and it is nice to show your Africa Media Online / South Photographs / John Robinson and resources friends that you have things,” says needed to combat Nomasonto. The most prized items are cell phones, jewelry and fashion- high. In Nomasonto’s village, the scourge able clothes. But they can also be as for example, over half the young humble as school stationery, food and women aged between 20 and 24 cold drinks. are already living with HIV, while By Kerry Cullinan less than a third of men the same Durban, South Africa Nomasonto appears oblivious to the age have HIV. danger she faces from older men with cash. She is six times more Worldwide, a quarter of all new choolgirl Nomasonto Masango likely to become infected with HIV HIV infections are of women giggles as she lists all the from a man over the age of 24 than aged between 15 and 24. The vast S things she and her friends from a boy her own age, according to majority of these young women live want boyfriends to buy them. “If you research conducted in Vulindlela, her in sub-Saharan Africa, where six out semi-rural village in South Africa. of every 10 people living with HIV are women. AIDS is still the biggest Kerry Cullinan is managing editor of the Health-e News Service, based In Southern Africa, the HIV statis- killer of women of child-bearing in South Africa. tics for young women are shockingly age in Africa. 30 Special Edition 2012 Southern African countries carry large body of evidence pointing to the been displaced by war, women are a very high burden of HIV (in fact that many women are simply unable extremely vulnerable to sexual Swaziland, a quarter of adults have to abstain from sex, guarantee that their violence and “transactional sex,” the virus), while the risk moderates partners will be faithful or insist on the or exchanging sex for goods. Even in East and Central Africa and is use of condoms — the famous “ABC” in countries where there is no war, relatively small in West Africa. mantra of AIDS educators. such as South Africa, the common notion that masculinity means sexual More vulnerable The Global Campaign for dominance has led to high levels of The odds are stacked against women Microbicides (GCM), a civil society coercive sex. In one survey, 40 per in the fight against HIV, with biology group headquartered in the US and cent of young South African women as well as social, cultural and active in several African countries, reported being sexually abused before economic factors conspiring to make bluntly describes the HIV prevention they reached the age of 19. women much more vulnerable to the messages “encouraging abstinence, virus than are men. mutual monogamy and male condom ‘It was meaningless’ use” as having “little relevance for the But many African women get Physiologically, women are up to four majority of women at risk; even less infected within stable relationships times more vulnerable to HIV infec- for those in resource poor settings.” and marriages. A study in Kenya and tion than men. There are several Zambia found that young, married reasons. Infected semen remains in “In spite of our best efforts, there women under the age of 20 had a the cervix for some time, there is a are still millions of women who are higher HIV rate than did unmarried large surface area in the vagina and simply unable to implement any of women — mostly because they had cervix exposed to the virus, and the the current prevention strategies,” married older men. vagina is more susceptible to small says the GCM. “As a result, infec- tears during sex. Young women’s tions among women and young girls But this problem does not only affect cervixes are even more vulnerable, are rising.” The group advocates the young women. For many African particularly when they first start development of a vaginal gel (microbi- women, their only risk factor for HIV having sex. cide), which women could control, to was that they were married. prevent HIV infection. But perhaps the most compelling risk factor is women’s lack of power to In many African countries, A lab worker tests blood for HIV in the ensure they have safe sex. There is a particularly where people have Democratic Republic of the Congo. Panos / Sven Torfinn

Special Edition 2012 31 Ugandan AIDS activist Beatrice positive women are far more suscep- against the virus is being increas- Were was a virgin when she married, tible to being infected with HPV. ingly threatened by a lack of funds. but she discovered shortly after Donor funding in Africa peaked her husband died that she had been There are dozens of AIDS activist in 2008, but donations are now infected with HIV by him. “I had organizations in Africa, most led by declining as the global economic abstained and remained faithful, people living with HIV. But many are recession takes its toll. but ultimately it was meaningless,” facing severe budget restraints as she explains. “And so I was left at 22, donor funding dries up. The US President’s Emergency Plan widowed with two baby daughters, for AIDS Relief (Pepfar) has been and enveloped by a cloud of bitter- Rwanda’s first lady, Jeanette reducing funding allocations since ness that took years to disperse.” Kagame, has ensured that the 2008. It is trying to transfer responsi- Organization of African First Ladies bility for treatment to governments in Activist lobbying is active in lobbying and fundraising the countries where it donates funds. Ms. Were became one of the first for HIV programmes, including for As a result, Uganda reported that since women in Uganda to publicly declare women living with HIV. last year it has had to ration ARVs for her HIV status. She started the new patients because of a lack of funds. National Community of Women Not just knowledge, Many other countries are slowing Living with AIDS (NACWOLA) but power down on treatment, prevention and in 1993, one of the first organiza- It has taken some time for policy- care, while shortages of ARVs are tions on the African continent makers to realize that women need becoming common in many clinics aimed specifically at supporting not only knowledge about how to and hospitals on the continent. women with HIV and lobbying for protect themselves from HIV. In their rights. many cases, they also need the power The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, to insist that men use condoms. Tuberculosis and Malaria announced Ms. Were’s NACWOLA was one of after its September 2011 board the most successful lobby groups for At a High Level Meeting of the UN meeting that it is facing “resource HIV positive women, campaigning General Assembly on AIDS in June constraints,” and is “revising down” for mother-to-child treatment and 2011, member states pledged to: the grant money it has to disperse access to anti-retroviral medications to countries in need. Some of its (ARVs) as well as giving support and ■■ eliminate gender inequalities and grant money may only be available comfort to some 40,000 women. gender-based abuse and violence, in late 2013. ■■ increase the capacity of women South Africa’s Treatment Action and adolescent girls to protect As it stands, only four out of ten Campaign (TAC) is arguably one themselves from the risk of HIV Africans who need anti-retroviral of the world’s most successful HIV infection through the provision of medication are able to get it. Only activist organizations. Although not health care and services, half of African HIV-positive mothers exclusively for women, the TAC has ■■ ensure that women can exercise receive ARV treatment to prevent led a number of campaigns aimed at their right to have control over, their babies from getting the virus improving women’s access to treat- and decide freely and responsibly during pregnancy and birth. ment. In 2001, the TAC success- on, matters related to their fully used the courts to force the sexuality in order to increase their Rather than seeing funding reduced, South African government to roll ability to protect themselves from the global effort to combat HIV/AIDS out a national campaign for the HIV infection, free of coercion, “needs increased support,” argues prevention of mother-to-child HIV discrimination and violence, and Dr. Peter Mugyenyi, director of the infection. It has also campaigned ■■ take all necessary measures to Joint Clinical Research Centre in tirelessly for access to anti-retro- create an enabling environment Kampala, the largest ARV treatment viral medicines, including cheaper for the empowerment of women facility in Uganda. UN Women, the and strengthen their economic generic ARVs. world body’s agency on gender issues, independence. agrees, emphasizing that “more More recently, the TAC has turned resources are needed, and strategies its attention to lobbying the public Lack of funds and programmes must be targeted to health system in South Africa to However, at the very moment when women in particular.” start vaccinating women against attention is finally being paid to the the human papilloma virus (HPV), role of gender inequality as a major For women in Africa, it is literally a which causes cervical cancer. HIV trigger in the spread of HIV, the fight matter of life or death. 32 Special Edition 2012 Improving Health Gender violence hampers AIDS fight Activists in UN’s gender agency, young females Mrs. Matrine Chuulu, the chapter’s aged 15–24 are up to six times more national coordinator. Zambia counter likely to be HIV-positive than males of a deadly link the same age. The Zambian chapter of the Young Women’s Christian Association “Sexual violence,” notes UN Women, (YWCA), with funding from the is not only “a widespread and brutal European Union, runs a crisis centre By Reginald Ntomba Lusaka violation of women’s rights.” It also for battered women and provides such “exacerbates the risk of transmission” services as psychotherapy and legal aria is living with HIV, the of HIV. In Africa and other regions, advice. According to data collected by virus that causes AIDS. UN Women coordinates the UN the YWCA, in cases of gender violence M Anti-retroviral medicines Secretary-General’s campaign “Unite reported since 2006, nearly half of the (ARVs) are now more widely avail- to End Violence Against Women,” women were found to be HIV-positive. able and are supposed to make her life first launched in 2008. better. But her continued therapy is NGOs have lobbied the government under threat because she fears that if Activists in Southern Africa are now to strengthen legislation. In 2005 it her husband discovers her HIV status drawing attention to the contribution amended the penal code to prohibit he will become verbally abusive or of gender violence to other ills, such indecent assault, sexual harass- even divorce her. As a result, Maria as the AIDS pandemic. The Zambian ment and trafficking of women and says, she has had to hide her life- chapter of Women and the Law in children, and in April 2011 enacted prolonging ARV drugs and only takes Southern Africa (WLSA), a research a new law to combat gender-based them when her husband is not around. and advocacy group, argues that violence. unless such violence is addressed, Maria’s tale was one of the many combating HIV/AIDS will be an even Holding anti-retroviral medicines in cases documented by Human Rights more arduous task. “Violence against Zambia: Fear of violence has prompted Watch (HRW) in Zambia. The inter- women has affected treatment of some women to hide or forgo using them.

national non-governmental organiza- HIV/AIDS and this is worrying,” says UNICEF / NYHQ2009-0327 / Christine Nesbitt tion (NGO), headquartered in New York, warns that if gender violence is not addressed, the government’s comprehensive programme to provide free ARVs through the public health system will be frustrated. “Gender- based abuses will continue to shatter the lives of countless Zambian women in acute need of anti-retroviral treat- ments and contribute to avoidable losses of health and lives,” notes HRW researcher Nada Ali.

According to the Joint UN Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS), there are 33.3 million people worldwide living with HIV. Of those, slightly over half (52 per cent) are women. In Africa, however, women account for 60 per cent of all adults living with HIV. In parts of Africa, adds UN Women, the

Special Edition 2012 33 Economic empowerment Does financing benefit African women? New initiatives to track the gender impact of development funds

By Michael Fleshman

ecades after the world offi- cially recognized a human D right to gender equality, women remain largely excluded from the upper ranks of government and business, earn less than their male co-workers and face an array of customs, traditions and attitudes that limit their opportunities. Are govern- ments, businesses and the interna- tional community putting money behind their resolutions calling for women’s advancement? Are interna- tional aid budgets, government funds and private sector resources being spent in ways that narrow economic, social and political inequalities between men and women?

The answer, notes Jacinta Muteshi, the former chair of the Kenyan government’s Commission on Gender and Development, is generally “no.” Few women in Africa work in regular, formal While there has been some progress In UN Women’s 2010-11 annual sector jobs, and even those generally earn in women’s political representation, report, Executive Director Michelle too little to escape from poverty. advances have been limited in the Bachelet expressed concerns with Panos / Sven Torfinn economic realm, for poor women in the pace of progress: “It is not accept- particular. That is because disadvan- able for young girls to be taken parliamentarians and other elected tages “are often anchored in social out of school, or for women to die and appointed officials. institutions, macro-economic policies from childbirth complications that and development strategies that have could be prevented, but these things Poverty’s female face not adequately recognized that women continue to happen every day.” In Economic parity seems very are important agents of economic a few countries, including Rwanda distant. In employment, a 2008 development and poverty reduction,” and South Africa, there has been an report asserted, gender bias has Ms. Muteshi told Africa Renewal. increase in the number of female meant that “women have been more 34 Special Edition 2012 concentrated than men in informal, A stacked economic deck Following the money subsistence and ‘vulnerable’ employ- The UN Development Programme In the 1980s, women’s rights advocates ment,” that is, self-employment and and others estimate that as many as began to scrutinize public budgets to jobs without salaries in family- 70 per cent of the world’s poor are understand how financial flows affected owned businesses. According to the women. In almost every respect, Ms. women. Activists initially focused on International Labour Organization Muteshi argues, the economic deck the area of most importance to women, (ILO), more than 67 per cent of is stacked against women. Citing government spending. By analysing African women work in agriculture, UN estimates, she notes that women public finance through a process known mostly as smallholder subsistence worldwide account for two thirds as “gender budgeting” (see Africa farmers. Fewer than one in five of all working hours and produce Renewal, April 2002), they hoped to working women in sub-Saharan half the food, but earn just 10 per ensure that women benefited fairly Africa receive regular wages or cent of the world’s income and own from national spending decisions and to salaries, compared to a third of less than 1 per cent of the world’s improve the budget-making process itself. employed African men and almost property. 93 per cent of women in the In a December 2007 report to the UN developed North. First and foremost, she says, this Commission on the Status of Women on gap reflects “the absence of women financing for gender equality, Secretary- The extra obstacles faced by women in economic leadership.” African General Ban Ki-moon noted that 50 struggling to work their way out of women are only rarely present governments around the world, including poverty are suggested by the World among senior officials at central several in Africa, used gender budgeting Bank. Its 2010 Enterprise Survey banks or ministries of finance, methods to help set spending priori- found that in both the public and planning or trade. “The same can be ties. Morocco has established gender private sectors, only 1 in 26 salaried said of women’s representation in budgeting methods as part of a broader African women was employed in the private sector.” reform of its budgetary spending process. a senior management position, compared to 1 in every 6 men. Employers in labour-intensive busi- There have been efforts to put a price tag That lack of opportunity at nesses often prefer women as they on gender inequality. Mr. Ban’s report home contributes to a far higher are seen to have fewer economic percentage of college-educated options than men and are therefore Recipients of loans from Buusaa Gonofaa, African women, nearly 28 per cent, willing to accept poorer wages and a non-governmental organization: Even going overseas in search of employ- working conditions. Women workers a little cash can help poor women expand ment, compared to 17 per cent of are also less likely to be members of their economic activities. educated men. trade unions than men. Andualem Sisay

Special Edition 2012 35 estimated that the equivalent of between equality as a development issue, as are to Asia. Meanwhile, European Union 0.1 and 0.3 per cent of gross domestic many staff on the donor side.” barriers to African farm produce, the product (GDP) is lost every year from export sector most important to women, failure to “promote gender equality Liberalization policies remain formidable. and empower women.” That goal is the Ms. Muteshi thinks the problem goes third of eight internationally agreed even deeper. “Current neoliberal More broadly, trade liberalization development objectives known as the economic structures are disadvanta- has not succeeded in dramatically Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). geous to women in general,” she asserts. expanding opportunities for women. That is because a narrow emphasis African exports remain heavily concen- The goal includes a specific commitment on GDP growth fails to recognize “the trated in commodities, particularly to eliminate gender disparities in educa- gendered nature of our economic lives.” energy and minerals, and in a few tion by 2015. Achieving this in poor The liberalization theories that influence commercial agricultural products such countries, the report estimated, would many development strategies, she notes, as coffee and tea. These are sectors in require an increase in annual spending tend to push women into “precarious, which women are poorly represented. on gender equality programmes from exploitive, unregulated and temporary an estimated $8.6 billion in 2006 to forms of work” in the informal sector. African women’s efforts to include gender nearly $24 billion by 2015. The World equality and poverty reduction rules in Bank estimates the cost of achieving full There has been some good news, Ms. global trade agreements have been largely economic and social equality between Muteshi acknowledges. Women have frustrated by the refusal of many major the sexes at $83 billion per year by 2015. benefited from microfinance loans, trading countries to consider human and which are now available in most social rights in trade negotiations. African Aid and accountability African countries. However, she adds, women have had some success in working Between 2002 and 2010, reports the “the amounts remain small and have with Northern civil society “fair trade” industrialized countries’ Organization rarely been scaled up in ways that truly groups to counter specific injustices. for Economic Cooperation and strengthen women’s economic power. Development (OECD), aid for It is time to provide women with credit Agenda for action programmes designed at least in part to that moves beyond ‘micro.’” In the struggle for economic equality, UN promote gender equality rose from $2.5 Women, the UN’s gender agency, asserts, billion to $15.2 billion, and the amount of Ms. Muteshi argues that the greatest there is mounting evidence that African aid screened for its impact on gender rose problem with donor programmes in and other poor women remain “at the from $15 billion to $45.7 billion. But the Africa is that they generally do not margins of formal economies.” Securing group also reports, “A high percentage of invest in sectors especially important the resources women need for equality, gender equality focused aid alone does to women. In agriculture, she observes, the organization says, is “mission critical” not mean that aid is well aligned with the “African women provide approximately to Africa’s development plans. It will gender equality policy objective.” It noted 70 per cent of the workforce and grow require fundamental changes in the way in an earlier report that such “gendered” about 90 per cent of the food, yet it is a power and wealth are distributed. Such aid was overwhelmingly concentrated sector that has seen little real invest- changes include using quotas for elected in social services. Only $1 out of every ment directed towards women.” and appointed offices, making sure $4 in aid for infrastructure and directly women participate in setting economic productive activities like mining, manu- Trading for equality? priorities and accelerating progress facturing and farming was spent on Trade is another potentially important towards the MDGs’ gender equality and projects that included greater gender source of finance for gender equality, health and education targets. Markets equality as a goal. but efforts to assess its impact have also need to be regulated to ensure that been hampered by inadequate infor- women can participate fully and fairly in Governments that receive aid must also mation and research. The overall economic life. do better. In recent years donors have effect, however, appears to be no better begun to channel a greater percentage than mixed. Access to the US market Current initiatives for women’s empow- of aid to poor countries through general through that country’s Africa Growth erment and gender equality are too budgetary support, instead of allotting and Opportunity Act helped create narrowly focused, Ms. Muteshi argues. aid for individual projects. A recent jobs for women in the African textile “They do not adequately address the study by the OECD’s Network on Gender industry in the 1990s. root conditions that produce inequality.” Equality found that such “programme” Until the world learns how to value funding leaves decision-making with But following liberalization of the textile the work women actually do, “we leave recipients’ finance ministries. “These trade at the World Trade Organization women vulnerable to poverty, violence ministries often are unaware of … gender in 2005, many textile plants relocated and powerlessness.” 36 Special Edition 2012 Economic empowerment Women struggle to secure land rights

Maize field in Malawi: Women account for depended on the small piece of land 70 per cent of Africa’s food production, but Hard fight she and her husband had farmed often do not have secure access to land. together. But just months after for access and Redux / Hollandse Hoogte / Arie Kievit his funeral, her in-laws sold her decision-making husband’s land without her knowl- power edge. “We only realized this when the Many never regain access or rights to buyer came to evict us,” Ms. Kures matrimonial land lost after divorce explains. She was able to regain use or the death of a spouse. of the land after she got legal assis- By Mary Kimani tance with the help of the Uganda Experts report that women in Land Alliance, a civil society group Africa contribute 70 per cent of food elitus Kures is a widow living that campaigns for land rights. production. They also account for in Kapchorwa, northeastern nearly half of all farm labour, and F Uganda. Her husband’s death Ms. Kures’s plight is a common one 80–90 per cent of food processing, left her solely responsible for their in Africa, although she was more storage and transport, as well as children. To meet their needs, she fortunate than most other women. hoeing and weeding.

Special Edition 2012 37 Cassava farming in Liberia: Women’s rights that leaves many African women note that the marginal nature of to land must be legally recognized, and vulnerable,” Ms. Kagwanja told women’s land rights is an historical institutions are needed to enforce those laws. Africa Renewal. problem in Africa. Before colonial UNMIL / Christopher Herwig rule, land ownership and access took The spread of HIV/AIDS and the diverse forms but were largely vested Yet women often lack rights to land, stigma associated with the disease in lineages, clans and families, with notes Joan Kagwanja, a food security have only made women’s land rights male leaders exercising day-to-day specialist with the Alliance for a more precarious. Widows of men who control. Members of a particular Green Revolution in Africa, an NGO die from the disease have often been lineage or clan would seek rights to that works with small-scale farmers accused of bringing the malady into use land from those community or to promote agricultural productivity. the family, possibly leading to the family leaders. Land rights tend to be held by men confiscation of their land and or kinship groups controlled by men, other property. Except in a few communities where and women have access mainly inheritance passed through the through a male relative, usually a In response, activists are fighting mother, land rights were typically father or husband. Even then, women to introduce or strengthen laws only inherited by sons. Women are routinely obliged to hand over the intended to give women more secure rarely had full rights to land. They proceeds of any farm sales to a male access to land and are combating were seen as secondary claimants, and have little say over how those social norms and practices that through male relatives. earnings are used. stand in their way. Despite many obstacles, they are making headway Benjamin Cousins, an agrarian Moreover, such limited access is very here and there. specialist who teaches at South tenuous and can be quickly lost. One Africa’s University of the Western study showed that in Zambia more Historical legacy Cape, points out that historically than one third of widows lost access Researchers with the International women had traditional protections to family land when their husbands Food Policy Research Institute that ensured continued access died. “It is this dependency on men (IFPRI), based in Washington, DC, even after separation, divorce or 38 Special Edition 2012 Widows lucky enough to get land Land rights activists suggest were allocated the smallest lots. that one way to give women Land rights activists suggest that one way to give women guaranteed guaranteed access to land is to access to land is to separate formal ownership of land from the ability separate formal ownership of to use it. Thus, while the land may be registered in the name of a man, land from the ability to use it.” he would be barred from selling it without the consent of his wife or widowhood. There also were tradi- today there are many situations, such wives or other heirs. Ghana has a tional means of arbitration to which as cohabitation without marriage, to “head of family accountability law” women could appeal if access which traditional norms do not apply. that is intended to ensure that was contested. Consequently, “Many women have family property cannot be sold lost access to land.” without others being informed, But colonial rule led to the intro- giving consent or benefiting from duction of Western systems of land Many African countries today the proceeds. tenure. In East and Southern Africa, recognize both “traditional” rules of the high number of white settlers land ownership and Western-type “Another alternative would be for encouraged the privatization and statutory laws. In Nigeria, the state land to be put in the name of families subdivision of land, held under indi- assumed ownership of all land after or both men and women to have their vidual freehold titles. In West Africa independence in 1960. Although this names on the certificate,” suggests much land was left under communal weakened customary land tenure, Ms. Mwangi. “Where resources such forms of ownership, managed by traditional laws still were recognized as water, sanitation and grazing customary leaders. by the government in areas of long- land have to be shared communally, established clan and lineage owner- then whole communities could be At independence, some new govern- ship. The recognition of Islamic law identified as owners of the land, with ments, as in Tanzania, Mozambique in Nigeria’s northern states compli- everyone having equal access.” and Benin, proclaimed state owner- cated the situation further. ship over all land. In Kenya and Resistance to reform South Africa private ownership Land titling But such ideas may be easier existed alongside lineage or clan One solution that Western develop- proposed than implemented. ownership. In Nigeria, clan and ment experts initially promoted Activists for women’s land rights lineage ownership coexisted with to overcome the shortcomings of have tried to have laws passed in both state and private ownership, customary law was to give land titles many countries, with mixed results. especially in urban areas. to individuals. Esther Mwangi, a In Uganda, where there was very land rights researcher at Harvard active lobbying by the Uganda Land Over the years, rapid population University, notes that governments Alliance for both men and women to growth has contributed to the in East and Southern Africa followed be listed in title deeds as co-owners, overuse of land and to the deple- the course of land titling, in an effort the bill came to parliament repeat- tion of soils. This has made fertile to ensure that individuals had legal edly and failed each time. land more valuable and increased power over their land. This policy competition for its control. Such was expected to help women secure Where progressive laws have pressures, together with changes legal rights to properties that they passed, things do not necessarily in family structures and clan rela- owned or inherited. get easier. In Mozambique, civil tions, have eroded traditional social society groups gained a law in 1997 safeguards that ensured access “In the areas where I have been entitling women to secure access to by women. So while many land working, the privatization process land and property. “We saw the land disputes in Africa are still formally has actually stripped women of their law as a victory,” Lorena Magane governed by customary law, notes access,” Ms. Mwangi told Africa of the Rural Association of Mutual Mr. Cousins, “many protections of Renewal. During titling operations, it Support told a reporter. But Rachael women have not been accurately was mainly men who got their names Waterhouse, an editor of a report on carried forward” into modern life. on the documents because they were gender and land in Mozambique, says Moreover, he told Africa Renewal, deemed to be the “household heads.” that while the law was fine in theory,

Special Edition 2012 39 law. Yet some HIV-positive women who lost access to land after their If it benefits rural women, you husbands died were able to negotiate can call it development.” with a female chief to persuade other chiefs to give the widows land they —UN Women could use to secure their livelihood.

implementation proved difficult court systems are very expensive and In Kenya, community watchdog because traditional courts, which intimidating.” organizations and other groups most rural women use, still consider providing home-based care for the man the head of household and Traditional land ownership systems in those living with HIV/AIDS are therefore the rightful authority over particular need some rethinking, she intervening. When they encounter land. says. Local chiefs authorized to allocate property grabbing, they negotiate, land generally assign it to men. “How do mostly with male members of the In Ghana the 1985 Intestate you democratize the systems for alloca- family, for women and girls to retain Succession Law and the Head of tion of land?” Ms. Kagwanja asks. “Do access to the land and property. Household Accountability Law were you develop new localized land boards, both intended to create greater where you elect members of the land In Rwanda, the government passed a security for widows and children. board and insist on a requirement for law in 1999 giving women inheritance If a man died without a will, the gender equity, as is the case in Tanzania rights equal to those of males, over- succession law decreed that his and Uganda? Or do you democratize the ruling traditional norms by which only property would be equally divided old system? These are some of the ques- male children could inherit. This has and distributed among his widow, tions we need to answer.” enabled widows and female orphans of children and other members of the 1994 genocide to secure land. the extended family. Yet a study Combating negative norms by the UN’s Food and Agriculture Broader cultural change is also vital, Currently, UN agencies such as FAO, Organization (FAO) in Ghana’s Volta says Ms. Mwangi. Those who decide UN Women and the UN Development Region found that few women knew land allocations have particular Fund are working with non-govern- of either law and that customary cultural understandings of the role mental organizations to raise aware- practices continued to determine of women. ness among women of their rights and inheritance. That left many women to support efforts to entrench equality without access to land after the She spent some time talking to men and of access in national laws. death of their partner. women about sharing land ownership. “I think that the men are not ready,” UN Women’s Africa programme Changing institutions observes Ms. Mwangi. “They don’t for rural women has several pillars What women need, argues Ms. seem very sensitized to the idea that through which women’s role in agricul- Kagwanja, is for their basic rights women can be decision-makers when it tural transformation can be enhanced. to be entrenched in constitutions pertains to land.” That is a paradox, she It considers equitable land allocation and for equal rights of property adds. “Women’s labour is key to produc- as critical to such a transformation. ownership to be clearly stipulated tivity, yet that land is literally out of One of its strategies is “to strengthen in the law. Where this has already reach for women.” the capacities of the ministries of been done, it is necessary to bring agriculture to prioritize support to all inheritance and land laws into Mr. Cousins agrees. “To address women food production systems in harmony with the constitution, so land rights, you need to address their planning and resource allocation that they say the same thing. In the unequal power relations within mechanisms.” addition, legal institutions respon- families. Unless you change the power sible for implementing the land laws relations, the legal definition of who One of UN Women’s key messages need to operate equitably, be friendly has rights may not make much of a is, “Rural women play a key role in to women and extend their reach to difference,” he says. food production and food security in the countryside. Africa.” The UN agency encourages Positive developments governments, development partners “At present,” she says, “we have very There are some positive achieve- and the private sector to enhance centralized institutions. Moreover, ments, however. In Swaziland, women’s rights to land, arguing that it is men who are in charge of the women cannot own land because “if it benefits rural women, you can dispute-resolution systems and the they are considered minors under the call it development.” 40 Special Edition 2012 Economic empowerment Tapping women’s entrepreneurship in Ghana

Selling tomatoes at a marketplace in Access to credit, black pepper sauce for friends. The Accra, Ghana: Women face many hurdles chili sauce, popular in Ghana, is in expanding their businesses beyond the technology vital known as shito. Ms. Osafo-Addo’s “micro” level. Alamy Images / Ulrich Doering for breaking into was a success and demand for it grew. She sought and found additional to delayed payment from her biggest manufacturing training, including an integrated client, the Ghana Armed Forces. But capacity-building programme initi- that year also proved to be a turning ated by the UN Conference on Trade point. The Ghana Investments By Efam Dovi Accra and Development (UNCTAD) for Promotion Centre facilitated the promoting sustainable small- and acquisition of 51 per cent of her medium-enterprises. company by an Austrian soup-making t has been a very long journey,” firm, increasing its value and thus says Leticia Osafo-Addo, a Moving the business out of her enabling it to secure loans from two ‘Ibusiness owner in Ghana. kitchen and into formal premises government ministries. That in turn Her journey to success began nearly proved a long, challenging process. meant she could refurbish a rented 30 years ago. She started off in her The biggest hurdle was securing industrial site, and the factory opened kitchen by making just 10 jars of capital. In 2001 she landed in debt due in January 2006.

Special Edition 2012 41 Stuck at the bottom Ghanaian women generally do not But she adds: “We are not there yet. Ms. Osafo-Addo’s story of success is face problems in starting businesses I have seen married women who unusual. But her struggle is common on a subsistence basis. The difficulty had to go out of their way to intro- to many of Ghana’s women entrepre- has always been in developing them duce their male business colleagues neurs. About 80 per cent of women- beyond that level, to graduate in scale to their husbands,” to reassure the owned businesses are stuck at the from micro to small. This is where help husbands that their relationships “micro” level. They are unable to is most needed. In an effort to address were strictly professional. Some expand because they lack properly the issue, the government launched marriages simply fall apart. coordinated support, cheap and the Venture Capital Trust Fund to help long-term credit, and sufficient invest in small- and medium-scale Time for reform access to new technologies. They enterprises, known as SMEs. Ghana’s political history has not been face poor infrastructure, low capacity encouraging for entrepreneurship in and sometimes obstructive Social handicaps general. Decades of military rule in government policies. But women’s business groups worry the 1970s and 1980s drove away many that their members might not be able local and foreign entrepreneurs. Now, According to World Bank estimates, to tap into the fund. “At the end of the with a stable political atmosphere and most businesses in Ghana, which day, only big businesses will be able to the goodwill that the country enjoys account for 70 per cent of employ- access these funds, because the infor- with the international community, ment in the country, fall within the mation doesn’t flow to the ground, industry activists are hoping the categories of “micro,” “small” and where the majority of the women government will implement policies “medium” enterprises. They range are illiterate,” says Ms. Quachey. to encourage business growth. Such from farming activities, agribusiness, “Resources may be available, but they an approach could help create a light manufacturing such as textiles may not be accessible to women at shift from subsistence to micro and garments, and arts and crafts. all, because culturally and socially, businesses, from small to medium However, due to neglect, this sector women are handicapped.” She cites and from medium to large. This would has suffered greatly over several women’s multiple roles. They are in turn provide many opportunities decades, contributing to a nationwide expected to look after the home and for women-owned businesses to grow shift from productive entrepreneur- family, which impedes their progress and flourish. ship to petty trading. in vocations outside the home. A wind of change may already be Because of such challenges, says In addition, Ghana’s prevailing social blowing in favour of women-owned Ms. Christy Banya, a programme norms affect the ability of women- businesses. The government, with analyst with the UN Development owned businesses to function as donor support, is also implementing Programme (UNDP), the government bigger, male-dominated businesses a programme of market reforms. The should take firm action. “Local do. Many deals are conducted in goal is to achieve widespread private- businesses need to be protected.” hotels after business hours. In a sector growth throughout the country country where women are still by enhancing competitiveness and She also notes that the banks largely regarded as home-makers, the reducing the risk of doing business in appear more willing to give loans to question frequently pops up: “What Ghana. Although these reforms do not importers of cheap products than to is a married woman doing in a hotel specifically target women-owned busi- local manufacturers. The importers with some men?” nesses, their nature should eventually sell their produce quickly, at higher promote women’s entrepreneurship. returns. But home-grown businesses Ms. Quachey also cites prevalent “old require more time to turn a profit and boyism” in business circles. These “Establishing practical and workable to repay their loans, so the financial are overwhelmingly male-dominated, legislation is an essential part of institutions shy away from them. and there are simply too few women assisting and encouraging women at the top to encourage other women to consider starting and running As in Ms. Osafo-Addo’s case, the to strive to break in. their own business,” says Mr. Patrick challenge of finding much-needed S. Frederick, head of a UK-based capital has stalled the growth of Lucia Ms. Gifty Boahene, chief executive business consulting agency and Quachey’s clothing manufacturing officer of Fairgreen Ltd., an informa- co-founder of the African-Caribbean company. Usually, commercial bank tion technology company, believes Business Network, who was quoted interest rates are high. Moreover, that times are changing and that in a local magazine. “This is a hugely banks want collateral, which many perceptions of women doing business under-tapped resource that should be women do not have. outside the home will change as well. addressed and not overlooked.” 42 Special Edition 2012 Resources on women

Selected reports LINKS WomenWatch Maintained by the UN Inter Agency Network on Women and Gender Equality, WomenWatch is a central gateway to information and resources on the promotion of gender equality and the empowerment of women throughout the UN system. The website also provides information on efforts to incorporate gender perspectives into follow-up to global conferences.

www.un.org/womenwatch

Say NO – UNiTE to End Violence against Women Progress of the World’s Annual Report 2010-2011 UN Women’s “Say NO” initiative is Women: In Pursuit of UN Women’s Annual Report documents a global platform for advocacy and Justice 2011-2012 its work to foster women’s empower- action, engaging participants from all The most recent in a recurrent series of ment and gender equality around the walks of life to prevent and address reports, Progress of the World’s Women world. It highlights some of the orga- violence against women and girls. outlines ten recommendations to make nization’s initiatives during the year It contributes towards the objec- justice systems work for women. and provides summary financial state- tives of UN Secretary-General Ban The report also includes data on ments, a list of new programmes and Ki-moon’s campaign, UNiTE to End women’s political and legal rights projects, and contact information. Violence against Women, through around the world. social mobilization. www.unwomen.org/wp-content/ http://progress.unwomen.org/ uploads/2011/06/UNwomen_ www.saynotoviolence.org pdfs/EN-Report-Progress.pdf AnnualReport_2010-2011_en.pdf GenderandAIDS UN Women’s Comprehensive Web Contact Portal for Gender Equality Dimensions information of the HIV/AIDS Epidemic. GenderandAIDS.org aims to promote UN Women Headquarters UN Women Liaison Office understanding, knowledge sharing and 304 East 45th Street, to the African Union action on HIV and AIDS as a gender 15th Floor,New York, + Representative to the African Union and and human rights issue. This web NY 10017, USA UNECA: Florence Butegwa + United Nations Development Fund for Women portal offers up-to-date information +1 212 906-6400, +1 212 on the epidemic from a gender 906-6705, www.unwomen.org Ericsson Building, 3rd Floor, Opposite UNECA, perspective, a full range of resources, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia personal stories and commentaries, +251 11-5221067 or and multimedia advocacy tools. +251 913-202231, +251 11-5538163, www.unwomen.org/worldwide/ africa/ethiopia www.saynotoviolence.org

Special Edition 2012 43 Introducing

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