CLIO VOL. 21, 2011 The Annual Publication of Phi Alpha Theta, Rho Xi Chapter Department of History California State University, Sacramento Clio Staff Executive Editor Scott Spitzer Editors Kevin Gleason Christopher Hoganson Jessica Jami Jon Perry Shameel Singh Faculty Advisor Erika Gasser, Ph.D. Faculty Advisor, Phi Alpha Theta Candace Gregory-Abbott, Ph.D. Contents Editors’ Biographies 2 Authors’ Biographies 4 Th e Truman Doctrine 7 Jessica Jami Defi nitions of Race and Ethnicity 20 Jenn Kistler Beats and Punks: Conformity and Counterculture in Cold War America 34 Steve Estabrook Th e Orientalism of Heka 54 Kevin Gleason Daisy’s Story: A Tale of Sacramento in the Progressive Era 63 Lorraine Dias Herbon Tertullian: Rhetorical foundation, Revelatory Inspiration 77 Christopher Hoganson Vukovar: Memory, Media and Myth 87 Annie Snider Ancient Israel: From Polytheism to Monotheism 98 Scott Spitzer Biographies 2 Kevin Gleason Kevin Gleason is a graduate student in the History program at California State University, Sacra- mento. He received his Bachelor of Arts degree from California State University, Sacramento in History. His current area of interest is ritual and power relationships in ancient literature. Aft er receiving his Master of Arts, he plans to pursue a doctorate degree in Ancient History and hopes to teach at the university level. Christopher Hoganson Christopher Hoganson is a graduate student in History at California State University, Sacra- mento. He received his Bachelor of Arts in the Humanities and Religious Studies from Sac State. Christopher’s area of interest is the religions of Antiquity with an emphasis on the transition from Paganism to Christianity. Th e eternal student, he worries he might not earn his Master’s degree before the impending Mayan Apocalypse. Jessica Jami Jessica Jami received her Bachelor’s in History in 2007 from Sacramento State University. She truly enjoys learning about United States and International history and how major events of the twentieth century have impacted social and cultural norms. Currently, Jessica works as a man- ager, while also raising her two beautiful children. She hopes to one day attend a Ph. D. program. Jon Perry Jonathan Perry is a full-time History and English teacher. He has earned undergraduate and graduate degrees in History and Education. Jon’s special areas of research include ancient mystery religions, mythology, and Hermeticism. He lives with his wife and two children in Sacramento. Shameel Singh Shameel Singh is currently as second year graduate student in the History program concentrat- ing on Colonialism. She received her Bachelor of Arts in History with a concentration in Ancient History and the Classics from University of California , Davis . She hopes to apply her education towards research and towards potentially teaching History at a Community College. Scott Spitzer Scott Spitzer is a graduate student in the History/Humanities program at the California State University, Sacramento. He received his bachelor’s degree in Communications at UC San Diego and aft er a long, circuitous journey, he is currently studying political orthodoxy in early Christi- anity. He is scheduled to graduate in December 2011, and is in the process of applying to doctor- ate programs with the goal of teaching at the university level. Biographies 4 Steve Estabrook Steve Estabrook is a graduate student in the history/humanities program at CSUS with an em- phasis on Cold-War era culture in the United States and Western Europe. He received his Bach- elors and Masters in Music at CSU Sacramento as well. He has directed and performed with the Village Opera Th eater and other local theater groups and currently plays with the band Myler and Starr. Aft er graduation Steve hopes to continue writing and do some teaching as well. Kevin Gleason Kevin Gleason is a graduate student in the History program at California State University, Sacra- mento. He received his Bachelor of Arts degree from California State University, Sacramento in History. His current area of interest is ritual and power relationships in ancient literature. Aft er receiving his Master of Arts, he plans to pursue a doctorate degree in Ancient History and hopes to teach at the university level. Lorraine Dias Herbon Lorraine Dias Herbon is a graduate student in the History program at California State University, Sacramento. She received her Bachelor of Arts degree in History also from Sacramento State. Her current area of interest is the history of California, specifi cally Sacramento, during the Progres- sive Era. Th e mother of two, Lorraine would like to pursue a doctorate degree in history and work toward expanding the interest of Sacramentans in their rich and colorful history. Christopher Hoganson Christopher Hoganson is a graduate student in History at California State University, Sacra- mento. He received his Bachelor of Arts in the Humanities and Religious Studies from Sac State. Christopher’s area of interest is the religions of Antiquity with an emphasis on the transition from Paganism to Christianity. Th e eternal student, he worries he might not earn his Master’s degree before the impending Mayan Apocalypse. Jessica Jami Jessica Jami received her Bachelor’s in History in 2007 from Sacramento State University. She truly enjoys learning about United States and International history and how major events of the twentieth century have impacted social and cultural norms. Currently, Jessica works as a man- ager, while also raising her two beautiful children. She hopes to one day attend a Ph. D. program. Biographies 5 Jenn Kistler Jenn Kistler is a graduate student in the History program at California State University, Sacra- mento. Her primary area of interest is the history of science during the Middle Ages. She received her bachelor’s degree in Journalism and Mass Communications from New Mexico State Univer- sity and worked as a journalist at various newspapers for several years before embracing the call of the history profession. She plans to teach at the community college level and eventually pursue a doctorate degree. Annie Snider Annie Snider is a graduate student in the Master of Arts in History program at California State University, Sacramento. She received her Bachelor of Arts in History from California State Uni- versity, Sacramento. Annie’s areas of interest are nationalism and culture in the fi n de siècle Hab- sburg Empire and ethnic confl ict in the former Yugoslavia. She plans to earn a Ph.D in Eastern Central European History. Scott Spitzer Scott Spitzer is a graduate student in the History/Humanities program at the California State University, Sacramento. He received his bachelor’s degree in Communications at UC San Diego and aft er a long, circuitous journey, he is currently studying political orthodoxy in early Christi- anity. He is scheduled to graduate in December 2011, and is in the process of applying to doctor- ate programs with the goal of teaching at the university level. The Truman Doctrine Jessica Jami earching through vast scholarly writings regarding the Truman Doctrine and its origins Sone is able to gain an understanding of the historical importance of this decisive speech. Since 1947, the Truman Doctrine has been analyzed by historians in terms of how it was created, who infl uenced its creation, those it aff ected and how it has impacted American foreign policy. Th ere has been great acclaim attributed to the Truman Doctrine and its signifi cant infl uence in regards to American foreign policy. Joseph Jones expresses the importance of the events which took place beginning February 21, 1947, “[a]ll who participated in the extraordinary developments of that period were aware that a major turning in American history was taking place.”1 John Lewis Gaddis, in his article, “Was the Truman Doctrine a Real Turning Point?” challenges conventional thinking and argues that the Truman Doctrine was “very much in line with the previously established precedents for dealing with shift s in the European balance of power”.2 Focusing on the literature the Truman Doctrine inspired, it is possible to establish a historical consensus regarding whether or not the Doctrine was a radical change in American foreign policy, or was it as Gaddis claims, “far from representing a revolution.”3 While policies established within the Truman Doctrine are oft en associated with the end of World War II, the literature represents the address before Congress as a revolutionary step in American foreign policy. Th e Truman Doctrine Th e Truman Doctrine, as it has come to be recognized, originated as an address given by President Harry S. Truman on March 12, 1947 to a joint session of Congress asking for aid to help Greece and Turkey.4 Th e President stressed the importance of aid claiming that, “it must be the policy of the United States to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by 1. Joseph Jones, Th e Fift een Weeks (February 21-June 5, 1947), (New York: Th e Viking Press, 1955), vii. 2. John Lewis Gaddis, “Was the Truman Doctrine a Real Turning Point?,” Foreign Aff airs 52, no. 2 (1974), http://www.jstor.org/stable/20038005 (accessed March 10, 2009), 386. 3. Ibid. 4. Judith S. Jeff ery, Ambiguous Commitments and Uncertain Policies: Th e Truman Doctrine in Greece, 1947- 1952, (New York: Lexington Books, 2000), 1. The Truman Doctrine 8 outside pressures.”5 Th roughout the address, the President stressed the urgency with which the United States needed to provide support to countries who were enduring disastrous circumstances that might ultimately result in their falling to communism. In 1941, the Nazi forces invaded Greece. In October of 1944 Greece was liberated from the occupational forces.6 However, liberation did not bring peace to Greece. G. M. Alexander claims that, “Greece suff ered many upheavals in the fi rst half of the twentieth century: dictatorships, civil war, and numerous coup d’état[s].”7 While “While policies established within the Truman Doctrine the situation in Greece is not easy are oft en associated with the end of World War II, the to understand, L.