University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

UNIVERSITY OF DEFENCE

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 May 18, 2016 – May 19, 2016

Conference proceedings

Brno 2016

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

Venue of the Conference:

University Club

Šumavská 4

662 10 BRNO

GPS: 49°12'44.897"N, 16°35'49.039"E

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

CONFERENCE MAIN SECTIONS

1) Military Leadership: Military Leadership consist of folowing major topics: Military Management (applied in artillery, engineer, tactics etc.), Behavioural Science in Military Leadership, Defence Economy, Logistics, Emergency Management, Civil Protection, Military Art, Military History, Applied Econometrics.

2) Military technology:

Military Technology consists of the following major topics: Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Communication Systems, Information, Simulation and Control Technology, Radar technology, Aircraft and Rocket Technology, Avionic Systems, Combat and Transport Vehicles, Weapons and Ammunition, Military Constructions and Engineer Technology, Material Engineering and Special Production Procedures, Military Geography and Cartography.

3) Military Chemistry and CBRN Defence:

Military Chemistry and CBRN Tactics consista of the following topics: Detection and Analysis of Chemical Warfare Agents and Toxic Industrial Chemicals, Personal and collective protection, Decontamination, Nuclear and Radiological weapons, Biological weapons, CBRN Tactics and Strategies.

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

ORGANIZATION COMMITTEE

Chairman: ŠTEFEK Alexandr, plk. gšt. prof. Dr. Ing. Member: GOLD Stanislav, Ing. PORÁŇ Stanislav, Ing. VESELÝ Jan, Ing. VLKOVSKÝ Martin, mjr. Ing., Ph.D. PETŘÍČEK Otakar, Ing., Ph.D. HOSKOVCOVÁ Monika, mjr. Ing., Ph.D. KUŽEL Jaroslav, pplk. Ing.

SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE

Sections Military Leadership:

Chairman: MAREŠ Jaromír, pplk. doc. Ing., CSc. Member: BINAR Aleš, Mgr., Ph.D. BERGEON M. Yves, professor / teacher (Francie) MIKULKA Zdeněk, pplk. Ing., B. Th. KRÁTKÝ Miroslav, doc. Ing., Ph.D. KASUMOVIĆ Tomislav, COMMANDANT OF CADET BATTALION (Chorvatsko) JAZBEC Gregor, MAJOR, TEACHER OF MILITARY PSYCHOLOGY (Slovinsko)

Sections Military technology, Military Chemistry and CBRN Defence:

Chairman: MAŇAS Pavel, plk. doc. Ing., Ph.D. Member: BALLA Jiří, prof. Ing., CSc. BINAR Tomáš, pplk. Ing., Ph.D. HOSKOVCOVÁ Monika, mjr. Ing., Ph.D. PALCZEWSKA Milena, PhD. (Polsko) MOŽNIK Darko, OFFICER FOR SCIENCE AND DEVELOPMENT (Chorvatsko) TOMASZEWSKA Justyna, PhD., (Polsko)

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

INDEX OF AUTHORS

B BRANZEA Georgiana …………………………...………………………………………… 8

G GHETE Mihai-Decebal ……………………….……...………………....…………………. 12 GRAJŽL David, GRUBAR Ana …………………………...……………….….………….. 17 GÖBLYÖS Bence ……………………………………………………..……………...... 29 GRZĘDA Kamil ………………………………………………...………….…………….… 41

CH CHRUŚCIEL Artur ………………………………………..………...... 56

J JANKŮ Rostislav …………………………………………………………………...……… 67

K KAPUŚCIOK Adrian ………………………………………...…………………….……… 79 KRZYSIAK Pawel ………………………………………………………………………… 91 KUSTRA Marek ………………………………………………...…...……….…………… 103 L LOVRIĆ Ivan ……………………………………………...……………………………… 114

M MUNTEANU Alexandra ……………………………….…….……..…………...……….. 125

N NAGY Máté …………………………………………………………………....…….……. 133 NEGOITA Carmen ……………………………………..………………………....……… 143

O OLUJIĆ Josif ………………………………………………..…..……………...………… 150

R ROSIŃSKI Piotr ………………………………..………………….…………...………… 164

S SFETCU Delia ………………………………………………………………...………….. 182

T TOLNAJ Ivana ……………………...……………… ……………………………...…….. 190

V VAŠENDA Václav………………………………...……………...... ……………. 203

W WACHNIO Aron ……………………………………………..…….…………..………… 220 WLIZŁO Patrycja ………………………………………………………………………… 232

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

POSTS OF AUTHORS

BRANZEA Georgiana NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION- HEARING WHAT ISN’T SAID …………………. 8

GHETE Mihai-Decebal STRATEGIC ASYMMETRY ……………………………….…………………………….. 12

GRAJŽL David, GRUBAR Ana COMPARITIVE ANALYSIS OF TWO DIFFERENT STYLES OF MILITARY LEADERSHIP ON ISONZO FRONT IN WORLD WAR I ………………………………. 17

GÖBLYÖS Bence PSYCHOLOGY OF NON-FIRING AND DECREASING ITS ROLE …………………… 29

GRZĘDA Kamil RISK MANAGEMENT IN ARMY …………………...…………………………………… 41

CHRUŚCIEL Artur TRAINING FUTURE PLATOON LEADERS FOR URBAN WARFARE ……………….. 56

JANKŮ Rostislav POSSIBILITIES OF THERMO-ANEMOMETRIC AND OPTICAL MEASURING OF LIQUID WATER CONTENT IN WET AIR …………………………...………………….. 67

KAPUŚCIOK Adrian DETECTION AND ANALYSIS OF CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL, RADIOACTIVE AND NUCLEAR WEAPONS THREAT …………………………………………………………. 79

KRZYSIAK Pawel AIRBUS A320 ACCIDENTS ANALYSIS ………………………………………..……….. 91

KUSTRA Marek ANALYSIS OF THE AIRCRAFT ACCIDENTS OCCURRED IN UNITS OF THE OFFICER’S AVIATION SCHOOL IN YEARS 1970 – 1994 ……………………………. 103

LOVRIĆ Ivan TECHNOLOGY OF DISARMING EXPLOSIVE DEVICES …………..…...…………… 114

MUNTEANU Alexandra ARMY LEADERSHIP ………………….…………………………..…………………….. 125

NAGY Máté EXAMINING THE FACTORS INFLUENCING THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNMANNED AVIATION IN CONTRAST WITH THE CONVENTIONAL AVIATION …………………………………………………………………………………….……….. 133

NEGOITA Carmen HYBRID WARFARE - RUSSIA’S HYBRID WAR IN UKRAINE ………….….……… 143

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

OLUJIĆ Josif MILITARY ETHICS: MORAL DILEMMA AND THE ROLE OF THE DILEMMA WHEN TAKING DECISIONS ………………………………………………...………………….. 150

ROSIŃSKI Piotr INTEGRATED INDIVIDUAL BATTLE SYSTEM TITAN – POLISH APPROACH TOWARDS THE „21ST CENTURY SOLDIER” AND THE 5TH GENERATION OF WAR …………………………………………………………………………..………….……… 164

SFETCU Delia ROLE OF INTELLIGENCE IN PLANNING PROCESS ……..………………..…………. 182

TOLNAJ Ivana MILITARY ETHICS IN MILITARY LEADERSHIP …………………….....…………… 190 VAŠENDA Václav EXTRACTION SPECTROPHOTOMETRY OF SELECTED OPIOID INCAPACITATING AGENT ……………………………………………………………..…………………….. 203

WACHNIO Aron WEIGHT OF WAR LEAD BY EXAMPLE OF TECHNOLOGICAL SUPERIORITY PARADOX – SOLUTION ENDEAVOURS ……………………………...……………… 220

WLIZŁO Patrycja DESIGN 3D PRINTER DEDICATED TO CONFECTIONERY BRANCH …………….. 232

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION- HEARING WHAT ISN’T SAID

Georgiana BRÂNZEA

Abstract Nonverbal communication involves language of gestures, postures, tone of voice and using of space and it became an decisive factor in nowadays society because it reveals clues to the character, emotions, and reactions of an individual. Because of this aspect, people should follow some rules for becoming successful in their interractions. Body language is an outward reflection of a person's emotional condition. Each gesture or movement can be a valuable key to an emotion a person may be feeling at the time. The ability to read a person's attitudes and thoughts by their behaviour was the original communication system used by humans before spoken language evolved, leading to the appearance of myths which, nowadays, can be contradicted.

Keywords: nonverbal, reflection, rules, myths.

Introduction Before early humans developed spoken language, they were still able to communicate with each other. They may not have had words, but they used facial expressions or body movements to express their ideas. Even nowadays, after developing language, people use these in speaking. Nonverbal communication is expressed through nonlinguistic means. It is the actions or attributes of humans, including their appearance, use of objects, sound, time, smell, and space, that have socially shared significance and stimulate meaning in others. Nonverbal communication involves every body part in motion from head to toe and also tone of voice, the amount of space between people in a conversation, posture and positioning of legs and feet. Scientists in body language found in their researches that the verbal component represents 7% in a conversation and the rest of 93% it is based on nonverbal aspects.

Facts vs Myths  “Eyes never lie”- it is believed that eye signals are an essential part of reading a person’s attitude and thoughts because they are a focal point on the body and the pupils work unconsciously. Many people associate lying with looking away, but this popular belief does not correspond with experiments and researches made by authors like Paul Elkman or Allan Pease. The results showed that just 30% of people looked away when they lied, while the other 70% maintained strong eye contact with the victim.  “Touching shows dominance”- touching is used for different purposes like encouraging, expressing concern, or showing agressivity. It creates a momentary bond between people and it can produce both positive and negative effects.

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

 “A smile means happiness”- in the enjoyment smile, not only are the lip corners pulled up, but the muscles around the eyes are contracted (characteristic wrinkle lines beside the eyes are visible, eyebrows dip slightly), while non enjoyment smiles involve just the smiling lips. A smile can be used to show peacefulness, kindness, sarcasm, or to give the impression of liking someone.  “Crossed arms means resistance”- hiding behind a barrier is a normal human response that we learn at an early age to protect ourselves. People, in their early childhood, hide behind solid objects like chairs or tables, but over time they develop the arm crossing gesture which signals that they feel threatened, that they want to hide from an unfavourable situation or that they disagree something. Also, many people claim that this arm position feels more comfortable or that they are just looking for an alternative position after being in open body postures for a long time.  “Putting your hands behind your back is a power gesture”- this position of hands is usually used by people placed in a position of authority like policemen, school headmasters or military personnel. It is believed that it is a confidence or a superiority gesture because using it the person exposes herself to others. The palm-in-palm gesture should not be confused with the hand-gripping-wrist gesture which is a signal of frustration and an attempt at self-control. In this case one hand grips the other wrist or arm very tightly as if it is an attempt by one arm to prevent the other from striking out.

Rules to follow when having a conversation  Posture: Lean forward when listening, stand straight when speaking. Good, straight posture indicates leadership and confidence and it tells the audience that you are in control. It also conveys the message that you have confidence in your competence. Leaning slightly forward shows the audience you care. Slouching to one side delivers the opposite message. It shows disinterest. Hunched shoulders indicate lack of confidence and possibly low self- esteem. Poor posture, on the other hand, reflects poor self image and negative feelings, it can be temporary state when we feel down, or it can the result of bad habits accumulated over years.  Eye contact: Avoid attacks from agressors averting your gaze by looking away. It is only when you see 'eye to eye' with another person that a real basis for communication can be established. While some people can make us feel comfortable when they talk with us, others make us feel ill at ease and some seem untrustworthy. Initially, this has to do with the length of time that they look at us or with how long they hold our gaze as they speak. Also, giving yourself more authority by not blinking and focusing closely on the person you are talking to. When having discussions on a business level, imagine that there is a triangle on the other person’s forehead. By keeping your gaze directed at this area, you create a serious atmosphere and the other person senses that you mean business. Provided that your gaze does not drop below the level of the other person’s eyes, you are able to maintain control of the interaction.  Territories and personal space: Decide distance carefully. Like most animals, each human has his own personal portable 'air bubble', which he carries around with him; its size is

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

dependent on the density of the population in the place he grew up. 1. The Intimate Zone, the most important zone, as it is this zone where only those who are emotionally close to us are permitted to enter. These include lovers, parents, spouse, children close friends, relatives and pets. The Personal Zone is the distance that we stand from others at social events, for example at cocktail parties, office parties or friendly gatherings. The Social Zone is the distance we stand from strangers or people we don’t know very well like a carpenter doing repairs around our home, a postman, a new employee at work. The Public Zone is the comfortable distance at which we choose to stand when we address a large group of people.  Hands gestures: Shake hands sincerely. The hands have been the most important tools in human evolution and there are more connections between the brain and the hands than between any other body parts. Few people ever consider how their hands behave or the way they shake hands when they meet someone. Yet those first five to seven pumps establish whether dominance, submission or power plays will take place. Dominance is transmitted by turning your hand so that your palm faces down in the handshake. Your palm doesn't have to face directly down, but is the upper hand and communicates that you want to take control of the encounter. The opposite of the dominant handshake is to offer your hands with your palm facing upwards, symbolically giving the other person the upper hand, like a dog exposing its throat to a superior dog. When two dominant people shake hands, a symbolic power struggle takes place as each person attempts to turn the other's palm into the submissive position. The result is a vice-like handshake with both palms remaining in the vertical position and this creates a feeling of equality and mutual respect because neither is prepared to give in to the other.  Interest: Stay focused. When the listener begins to use his hand to support his head, it is a signal that boredom has set. The degree of the listener’s boredom is related to the extent to which his arm and hand are supporting his head. Extreme boredom and lack of interest are shown when the head is fully supported by the hand. Drumming the fingers on the table and continual tapping of the feet on the floor are often misinterpreted by professional speakers as boredom signals, but in fact they signal impatience. The audience who displays boredom and impatience signals together is telling the speaker that it is time for him to end the speech.

Conclusion Communication through body language has been going on for over a million year but has only been scientifically studied to any extent in the last forty years or so; it became popular during the 1970s. Research has now shown convincingly that if you change your body language, you can change many things about your approach to life. You can alter your mood before going out, feel more confident at work, become more likeable and be more persuasive or convincing. When you change your body language you interact differently with people around you and they, in turn, will respond differently to you.

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

By paying attention to nonverbal cues, paying attention to cultural differences, being alert for inconsistent messages, matching nonverbal behavior and relationships so they are compatible, monitoring our nonverbal behavior, and recognizing that we vary in our abilities to encode and decode nonverbal messages, we improve the likelihood of communicating effectively.Conscious observation of your own actions and those of others is the best way for each person to gain a better understanding of the communication methods of the earth’s most complex and interesting beast - man himself.

References 1. Pease, Allan, Body language How to read others’ thoughts by their gestures, London: Sheldon Press, e-book 2. Pease, Allan, Pease, Barbara, The definitive book of body language, Australia: Pease International, e-book

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

STRATEGIC ASYMMETRY

GHEȚE Mihai-Decebal

I. Introduction

In war, there are always differences between the opponents. At times these are insignificant, passing disparities with no bearing on the outcome. At other times, the differences between opponents are important, placing one in a position of advantage, the other at a disadvantage. This is a very simple observation, but from it flows one pressing issue today: strategic asymmetry.

Strategic asymmetry is the use of some sort of difference to gain an advantage over an adversary. It is an idea as old as warfare itself, appearing under a number of guises. Among strategic theorists, Sun Tzu placed great stock in psychological and informational asymmetry, writing that:

„All warfare is based on deception. When confronted with an enemy one should offer the enemy a bait to lure him; feign disorder and strike him. When he concentrates, prepare against him; where he is strong. avoid him.”

In the middle of the 20th century, the British strategic theorist Liddell Hart advocated “the indirect approach” in strategy. The wisest strategy, he contended, avoids the enemy’s strength and probes for weakness. Edward Luttwak, who is one of the more astute contemporary strategic theorists, has extrapolated a general rule from it. Strategy, Luttwak contends, involves actual or possible armed conflict between thinking humans and thus is dominated by a “paradoxical logic” based on the “coming together and even the reversal of opposites.”

Asymmetry is certainly not limited to strategic theory. Many of history’s greatest generals also had an instinctive feel for it. Like the U.S. military in the Gulf War, the Mongols under Genghis Khan and his successors often used superior mobility, operational speed, intelligence, synchronization, training, and morale to crush enemies in lightning campaigns. When necessary, the Mongols used the superior technology of Chinese engineers to undertake successful sieges. Other conquerors, whether Romans, Europeans, Aztecs, or Zulus, brought superior technology, discipline, training, and leadership to the battlefield. Rebels in anti- colonial wars also relied on asymmetry, weaving guerrilla operations, protracted warfare, political warfare, and a willingness to sacrifice into Maoist “People’s War,” the Intifada, and the “Troubles” of Northern Ireland. Asymmetry is as old as warfare itself.

II. Dimensions of asymmetry 1. Positive or negative

Strategic asymmetry can be positive or negative. Positive asymmetry entails using differences to gain an advantage. U.S. military strategy, for instance, places great value on superior training, leadership, and technology. This strategy seeks to both sustain this

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016 superiority and make use of it. Negative asymmetry is a difference that an opponent might use to take advantage of one’s weaknesses or vulnerabilities. It is, in other words, a form of threat.

2. Short-term or long-term

Strategic asymmetry can also be short-term or long-term. As military history shows, many if not most types of strategic asymmetry are short-term. Sooner or later the enemy adjusts. In World War II, for instance, blitzkrieg succeeded for a year or two until the Soviets found ways to counter it. It took longer, but Third World governments and their militaries eventually found counters to Maoist People’s War. The 1999 air campaign against Serbia suggests that enemies may find ways to counter the U.S. advantages in airpower by camouflage, dispersion, and dense but relatively unsophisticated air defense systems. Long- term asymmetry is rarer. NATO and the US will probably be able to sustain its asymmetric advantage over certain types of enemies for a fairly long time, in large part because it is able and willing to devote more resources to maintaining military superiority than potential enemies. Sustaining an asymmetric advantage, though, does require constant effort and adaptation: any military force that stands pat during a time of strategic change will decline in effectiveness.

3. Deliberate or by default

Usually antagonists in a conflict or war simply use what they have and do what they know how to do. That the outcome is asymmetric is more accidental than planned. For instance, when untrained military forces use irregular methods as when a combined force of French and Indians defeated the British General Edward Braddock near Fort Duquesne in 1775, or a group of American mountaineers defeated a loyalist force commanded by Major Patrick Ferguson at King’s Mountain in 1780, victory came because the Indians or the American mountaineers fought in a way they understood, not because they analyzed the weakness of the somewhat more conventional Loyalist forces and designed ways to take advantage of them. In most anti-colonial wars or insurgencies the “less advanced” forces preferred to emulate the “advanced” ones. Mao held that guerrilla war was seldom decisive but should be used as a preface for large scale mobile war. After all, it was not the Viet Cong that overthrew the government of South Vietnam, but a conventional combined arms force from North Vietnam. When countering asymmetric threats, understanding whether the asymmetry is deliberate or by default is important since an enemy using deliberate asymmetry is likely to make more adjustments and thus requires a more flexible strategy to counter.

4. Low risk or high risk Some forms of asymmetry such as superior training or leadership are time tested. They may entail costs to develop and maintain, but seldom increase strategic or operational risk. The high cost of having a fully trained, equipped, ready force reduces risk even though it may not fully protect against all asymmetric actions. Other forms of asymmetry are experimental or untested, and thus entail significant risk. Terrorism, for instance, may be a low cost but high risk approach since it can generate a backlash against those who use it or steel rather than erode the resolve of the target. Just as most mutations in nature prove dysfunctional or, at

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016 best, insignificant, many forms of strategic asymmetry are acts of desperation that do not work or only work for a limited period of time.

5. Discrete or integrated

Strategic asymmetry can be discrete or integrated with other, symmetric techniques. Generally only the most desperate antagonists in a conflict would rely solely on asymmetric methods. Those who are able integrate asymmetric and symmetric methods. Generally, such integrated approaches are more powerful than strategies that rely solely on either symmetric or asymmetric methods.

6. Material or psychological

The two concepts are interrelated: a material asymmetric advantage often generates psychological advantages. But there have been states and militaries throughout history that were particularly adept at manipulating psychological asymmetry, often by propagating an image of fierceness. The Mongols, Assyrians, Aztecs, and Zulus are examples. These great conquerors found a combination of material and psychological asymmetry most effective. While they tended to be superior to their enemies in training, leadership and doctrine, the image of fierceness augmented this advantage. Often psychological asymmetry is cheaper than the material variant, but is harder to sustain.

III. Forms of asymmetry

1. An asymmetry of method entails using different operational concepts or tactical doctrines than the enemy. Examples include guerrilla war and other kinds of nonlinear concepts.

2. Asymmetries of technology have been common in military history, particularly in wars that pitted an industrially advanced state against a backward one, such as Europe’s imperial wars of the 19th and 20th centuries. In conflicts where the lesser developed antagonist does not have the time or the ability to adapt to advanced technology, it can be decisive. The Maxim gun, for instance, was first used by Britain’s colonial forces in the Matabele war in 1893-94. In one engagement, 50 soldiers fought off 5,000 Matabele warriors with just four Maxim guns. Clever enemies, though, tend to find counters to asymmetries of technology during protracted wars. Vietnam provides the clearest example of this.

3. Asymmetries of will are important when one antagonist sees its survival or vital interest at stake, and the other is protecting or promoting less-than-vital interests. This type of

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

asymmetry played a role in earlier conflicts in Vietnam, Somalia, and Iraq. An asymmetry of will leads the antagonist with the higher stake to be willing to bear greater costs, accept greater risk, and undertake actions which the less committed antagonist might eschew on moral or legal grounds. Asymmetries of will are most relevant at the level of grand strategy.

4. Asymmetry of morale can be crucial, often even decisive since, as Napoleon held, “In war the moral is to the material as three to one.”

5. Normative asymmetries come into play when a conflict involves antagonists with different ethical or legal standards.

6. Asymmetries of organization have also been important in the history of warfare. At times, organizational innovations gave great advantage to a state even when it did not have a technological advantage or any other kind. Examples include the Macedonian phalanx, the formations of Swiss pikemen which dominated European battlefields during the Renaissance, the “nation in arms” that helped French Revolutionaries stave off a number of professional European armies, the system of independent but mutually supporting corps created by Napoleon, and insurgent undergrounds. In the future, state militaries may face nonstate enemies organized as networks rather than hierarchies, again leading to organizational asymmetry.

7. Asymmetries of patience or time perspective can be significant. These are conceptually linked to an asymmetry of will, but more often operate in cross-cultural conflicts. Specifically, an asymmetry of time perspective may occur when one antagonist enters a war willing to see it continue for a long period of time while their opponent is only able to sustain their will for a short war.

IV. Conclusions

The uncertainty that asymmetric strategies tend to produce make them deeply unsettling to their targets, leading to confusion about the relative strengths of adversaries, the viability of existing defenses, the utility of existing response options, and even the validity of the foundation of one’s own power. This power to unsettle and confuse a target may explain asymmetric strategies’ frequent association with terrorism, as the effects just described are precisely those terrorists seek when they launch their attacks. As we have seen, there is nothing about the motivations or relative weaknesses of terrorists that make them the exclusive or even most effective users of asymmetric strategy.

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

Bibliographies

 Metz, Steven and Douglas V. Johnson II, Asymmetry and U.S. Military Strategy: Definition, Background, and Strategic Concepts, Carlisle Barracks, Strategic Studies Institute/U.S. Army War College, 2001  Record, Jeffrey, Beating Goliath: Why Insurgencies Win, Washington D.C., Potomac Books, 2

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

COMPARITIVE ANALYSIS OF TWO DIFFERENT STYLES OF MILITARY LEADERSHIP ON ISONZO FRONT IN WORLD WAR I

Ana GRUBAR1 and David GRAJŽL2

SUMMARY: Over the time of history of warfare the commanders which were capable and had leadership skills became legendary for their actions and victories. Although we bellieved for the most part of history that leaders are born, social science nowadays prove that a leaders can be made too. We were analyzing the basic differences between »a head« and »a leader« on a case study of Isonzo front. We analyzed the leadership styles of General Cadorna and Field Marshall Boroević. From this analysis we had drawn conclusions what it means to be a good and a bad leader. We linked their case with the theory of leadership and found similarities and also some dilemas.

Keywords: Leadership, principles, Boroević, Cadorna.

1 Methodology Case study identifies two main goals, of which we want to find a suitable answer:

I. Show the difference between “head” and “leader” and show that being a “leader” is better II. Analyze the leadership style of General Cadorna and Field Marshall Boroević – and pull out the proper conclusions for an army officer.

In our analysis we used the methods of the analysis of historical sources, comparative method, qualitative analysis and a method of synthesis.

We obtained our sources from internet, science articles and scientific and historical books.

1 Officer Candidate Ana Grubar, Poveljstvo za doktrino, razvoj, izobraževanje in usposabljanje, Šola za častnike, Engelsova ulica 15, 2000 Maribor. E-mail: [email protected] 2 Officer Candidate David Grajžl, , Poveljstvo za doktrino, razvoj, izobraževanje in usposabljanje, Šola za častnike, Engelsova ulica 15, 2000 Maribor. E-mail: [email protected]

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

2 Theory Description Since the age of the dawn of the men, humanity has been fighting amongst each other. At the beginning people were fighting for mere survival, having to hunt for food. Later with the increasing number of people, they had begun fighting for whole other reasons. With the increasing number of population of people, the appetite for territory was growing. The conflict began when people desired the same territory. The reasons for human desire to expand their living space must be searched in egoism that exists in every human being. In more modern history the main incentive for humans fighting are economy and politics.

First wars were very primitive and were being fought on a very limited territory. With time wars have intensified, because human always developed new and better ways to fight and also the weapons he fought with. But the goal never changed – »to beat the other guy«.

The ways to achieve victory were countless, the difference was the only in the price you were willing to pay to win. Enemies were never equal, some had bigger numbers, others were better equipped some had better weapons. But many times in history the unbeatable were defeated. The reason for this wasn't equipment, nor numbers. The main reason was many times a human, a leader, who had enough military knowledge, bravery and personal qualities that enabled him to lead his army to victory against much bigger armies. These were exceptional men, true leaders. With their actions they were positive example to their armies. But they were also under great pressure as they were responsible for many numbers of human lives and sometimes they were the one that had to decide on the matter of life and death.

With their decisions, that were at the moment of implementation viewed as strange and bad, but were at the end critical for the victory, they had many times revolutionized the ways and strategies of warfare. Only few military commanders were able to rise above the average. But those that did were living legends in their times and they were written in history for all times. These people possessed remarkable human qualities, not only the military ones. In civil life they were also, very respected, as they were also very highly respected in their societies. Great military leaders are also very smart people too. They have above average IQ, and are usually highly educated.

Up until about the 20th century (before the scientific research of military leadership), it was considered that the military leadership is the art and that successful military leader with important properties is already born. With the development of social sciences (especially psychology and sociology) and their methods and research procedures, it has become more and more clear that leadership abilities are not given in a "cradle". Military leaders are not born but are "made". We all know successful US General Marshall, MacArthur, Eisnhower, Patton, field marshal of the Austro Hungarian army Boroević and German general Rommel. All of them were "made" through education and service. The essence of their success is a commitment to military career (readiness to work, education and training) and the desire - to be a great leader! Common features of mentioned generals and field marshal is a group of

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016 personal qualities important for successful leadership. These qualities are honesty, modesty, selflessness, caring for others and respect (Vrbec 2006, p. 7).

For further discussion, we have to explain that through many different literature, expression “head” is synonymous with commander, chief, manager,...We decided to use this expression, because we believe it unifies them all.

Thompson (1999, p. 3-4) shows us good distinction between being a head and a leader:“ Leadership particularly is about effective change-making and the single-minded application and enforcement of that change, however unpalatable the change may be.“ As Warren Bennis said (in Mahmutović, 2008: p.16): „Heads do things on the right way, but leaders do the right things!“

Military leaders, overall, must have a breadth of long-term vision, be decisive and independent, act and stand firm, be a warrior, transmitt intentions into reality, achieves extraordinary results, speak openly, plainly and frankly, learn quickly from defeats and mistakes and has an important impact on subordinates. They impact on people, with an intention od reaching pledged organization goals – impacting means a process to prepare people, to do what you want them to do ( Vojaška doktrina, 2006).

On the other hand, head skills can be taught more easily and they can also be learned. Capabilities are usually to control, do, organize, implement decisions and depends on organization. However, all that does not necessarily mean that being „just“ a head is easier that being also a leader (Thompson, 1999). No, leadership just requires more personal and proffesional commitment – speaking for war leaders.

Leadership principles are basic “truths”, that survived the test of time. They also assert themselves through history. Basic principles – so called truths, are foundation for appropriate army leading process. This is not a prescription, which a head would use to succeed every time. But they are definitly good and worthy accessories, that can help a leader, if regarded, on his way to success.

Mahmutović (2008, 24-28) identified the following: - “knowing yourself and self-improvement - to be proffesional - demand responsibility and take responsibility for our own actions - decisions must be clear and on time - to be an example - know your people in take care for their well-being - regularly inform all subordinants and superiors - help to develop leadership capabilities - provide, that all missions are understood, controlled and done - train your people as a team

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

- never underestimate your enemy! Respect him, but never forget, that your unit is better than his.” Everybody, who was given the formal position - earned with education or studying, can command. But that person is not a leader, not yet. Leaders are not born, they become one. They develop themselves through self-education process, training process and through experiences. It’s a never ending process, which lasts whole military career. To understand well the difference between a head and a leader, we will explain it on a history example – leading italian and on the other side austro-hungarian army on Isonzo front.

3 Case study On 23 May 1915 the Italian Empire declares war on the Austro Hungarian Empire (Simić 1998). A new front arises between these two countries in the World War I. The so-called Isonzo Front was part of the battlefield , which took place on the river Isonzo, from Rombon to the Gulf in a total length of 90 kilometers. The purpose of the Italian army was to capture Villach, then Klagenfurt and Ljubljana basin, deep in the heart of the Austro Hungarian Empire. The Italian army, which was led by General Cadorna was on the first day of fighting on the Isonzo Front consisting of 173 infantry battalions, 100 squadrons of cavalry and 182 artillery batteries (Simić 1998). On the other side was Austro Hungarian army led by Field Marshall Svetozar Boroević, which counted 45 infantry battalions, 5 squadrons of cavalry and only 35 artillery batteries (Simić 1998). The ratio of soldiers on the battlefield was 10 to 1 in favor of the Italian army (Simić 1998).

3.1 Svetozar Boroević von Bojna

Svetozar Boroević was born in 1856 in Croatia. In those times Croatia was a part of a multinational empire that was Austria-Hungary. At the age of 10 Boroević went to cadet school at Graz in today Austria. He became an officer in 1875. He advanced quickly through the ranks.

Boroević was a head and a leader at the same time. But as a great number of officers that rather stayed at the rear of the front than being with their troops, he wasn't any different. Troops were able to see him on rare occasions and he never appeared on the first line of the front.

He was a very good defensive strategist and when on the offensive his forces suffered heavily. The Isonzo Front was perfect for his temperament. It was for the fist eleven battles, highly defensive. Although his command was sorely tried on the Isonzo Front, opponents of the Italian Army suffered horrendously during those two and a half years and completely collapsed in October 1917.

I. Be an expert Svetozar boroević was a lifelong student of the art of warfare. He went to a military school at the age of ten.

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

Svetozar Boroević prepared for a military career by attending the Military Educational Establishments in Kemenitz near Peterwardein and finally the Infantry Cadet School at Liebenau near Graz where he received the ranks of Corporal (1st September 1872), Sergeant (21st July 1873) and Cadet (1st November 1874). In January 1875 he was transferred to the troops and commissioned as a Lieutenant on the 1st of May 1875 in the 52nd Hungarian Infantry Regiment then stationed in Graz. He participated with his regiment in the Bosnian campaign of 1878 fighting in engagements at Kakany, Kolotić, Visoka and the occupation of Sarajevo. For his outstanding performance during this campaign especially during the storming of Sarajevo was promoted to First Lieutenant on the 1st of May 1880 he attended the course at the War School in Vienna from 1st October 1881 from which he entered the General Staff with a posting as a General Staff officer to the 63rd Infantry Brigade in November 1883. Between 1887 and 1891 he was an instructor at the Theresian Military Academy at Wiener Neustadt. He received promotion to a rank of Major on the 1st of May 1892 serving in various staff appointments until appointed to the command of the 4th battalion of the 17th Infantry Regiment on the 16th April 1896. On the 1st of November 1897 he received his promotion to Colonel. Following his appointments as head of the general staff of the 19th, 18th and 27th infantry divisions and the important post as head of the general staff of the 8th corps at Prague between 1898 and 1904, he was assigned to the command of the Peterwardein based 14th Infantry Brigade initially still as a Colonel but on the 22nd February 1904 was promoted to General-major. Following his appointment as the commanding General of the Croatian- Slovenian VII Landwehr District on the 14th April 1907 he was further promoted to Brigadier on the 1st May 1908. He remained at this post until April 1912 when he was appointed to the acting head followed by the permanent command of VI Corps at Kassa (Kosice, Slovakia) the following October. Promoted to General of the Army on the 1st of May 1913 he would take this Corps to war He would command the Corps during the first summer of the war in Galicia at the battle of Komarów before assuming the command of 3rd Army in early September. With 3rd Army he defended the Carpathian passes throughout the winter of 1914-1915 and took part in the initial phase of the Gorlice-Tarnów offensive the following May. He was then assigned to the theatre where he would achieve his greatest fame and success - the Isonzo front on the Italian - Slovenian border. He firstly assumed command of 5th Army in late May 1915 which was renamed as the Isonzo Army in May 1917. Having been promoted to General-colonel on 1st May 1916 he was appointed to command Army group Boroević in August 1917 with a final promotion to Field-Marshall on 1st February 1918. During these three difficult years he would fight all twelve battles of the Isonzo culminating in the great success of 12th Isonzo or Caporetto battle in October 1917 and the battles on the Piave river that followed (Astro-Hungarian Army).

Boroević was truly an expert, he had an extensive theoretical knowledge that he used very successfully in practical situations. He also had a very good “sixth sense”, when it came to fighting he could predict when and how battles will occur.

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

II. To be an example Boroević was known to be always neatly dressed. His appearance was strictly military and he would never allow himself to be seen as anything other than a military professional. But the greatest example he gave to his troops was his behaviour and character. He was always very strict and consistent. His troops could always know what to expect of him. He had a very stable and consistent behaviour. He excelled in a time of war. Not even all the pressure he was under as a head of a whole front, he kept his appearance and behaviour on a very high and professional level. He was truly a remarkable and a born military head and a leader.

III. Decisions must decisions must be clear and timely At the beginning of the new front on the west with the Italian Army Austro-Hungarian army head Field-Marshall Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf suggested that a front would be established on the Sava River and on the eastern edge of Ljubljana basin. At some point Hötzendorf even suggested that the most part of Slovenia should be left to the Italians and that the Austro-Hungarian army will retreat. Boroević didn’t allow that and he insisted that Slovenians will ferociously defend their homeland and stop the advance of the Italians. This opinion was recognized by the Emperor Franz Joseph himself and he put Boroević in charge of the entire Isonzo Front (Astro-Hungarian Army). This decision proved accurate because the territory around the Isonzo River was very mountainous and was easily defendable as basins around Ljubljana. With this extraordinary example of military knowledge and boldness, Boroević probably also saved a big part of Slovenian territory becoming part of Italy after the end of the war.

IV. To accept responsibility for your actions After the fiasco of the last Austro-Hungarian offensive on the Piave River, the morale of the soldiers was very low. Many had deserted and mutinies had occurred, there was shortage of food and weapons. With the disintegration of the Austro-Hungarian Empire Boroević was still able to hold the front for some time. The front lasted till the November of 1918, when Boroević was forced to order a retreat. Because Boroevič was very professional he took defeat really personally and consequently he resigned his position. He was loyal to the Monarchy till the very end.

3.2 Luigi Cadorna – office style of leadership in Italian army

Cadorna (4 September 1850 – 21 December 1928), was an Italian General and Marshal of Italy, most famous for being the Head of Staff of the Italian Army during the first part of World War I. Cadorna had been offered the post of Head of Staff for the first time in 1908, which he had rejected over the issue of political control during wartime. He was again offered the position in July 1914. When Italy entered the war in May 1915 on the side of the Entente,

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

Cadorna fielded thirty-six infantry divisions composed of 875,000 men, but with only 120 modern artillery pieces. He was a General who was on one hand, marked as strict, precise, methodical and often too cautious head, and on the other hand, as a General, which was ready to sacrifice everything for the ultimate success. Soldier needs were for him of secondary importance. The success of his leadership was disastrous, mainly due to the antiquated method of warfare: 11 offensives on the Isonzo Front under his command ended without success, but with a huge number of dead and wounded – basically due to the wrong choice between caution and headless sacrifice of soldiers in critical moments of individual battles. He was a typical cabinet head, who commanded with directives, but he did not supervise their implementation. He came very infrequently on the front line and had no contact with the lower heads or soldiers. Cadorna in his vicinity disliked competent officers, who could jeopardize his current position. That tells an important data, that during all Isonzo battles, he fired 217 subordinate officers. He implicated a strict discipline, executions of deserters and so called decimation - shooting every tenth soldier in the unit, who has made an error. Therefore his name became very offensive swearword among the soldiers. Failure to comply with the principles of leadership from General Cadorna’s side:

I. Develop leadership skills with their subordinates General Cadorna did not allow any initiative related with his subordinates, which particularly apparent in the breakthrough of the German forces during the 12th Isonzo battle. When the Italian soldiers saw the Austro Hungarian army on Krn, how they are penetrating into the interior of the Italian territory, they thought that the Austro Hungarian Empire collapsed and that its soldiers are led into captivity in Italy. Just as confusion reigned on the battlefield, it was also on the General Staff. Instead of a thorough examination of the whole battle situation, clear commands, rapid response, General Staff made orders that were contradictory and unrealistic given the rapid changes on the battlefield. Heads on the battlefield were not accustomed to act on their own initiative, and they were only waiting for orders that did not come (Simić, 1996, p. 218). Cadorna took over the decision-making process and the absolute responsibility of the Italian army in Posočje on his shoulders - consequently that led him to complete isolation. Any decision, before made, had to be approved by General Cadorna. He also did not suffer any civilian interference in military operations.

II. Know your people and take care of their well-being “Even the best head can not win if he does not understand people that he leads"Gen. Omar Bradly" The Italians entered the war full of enthusiasm and national pride. They all wanted war, which gave them so much hope. Excitement has subsided in 1917 when it was mobilized almost 2.4 million soldiers and tens of thousands killed. In the hinterland was also happening injustice, since many of the children of the rich remained at home and have not been mobilized. War speculators became rich very quickly, meanwhile the poorest were starving. For soldier families was badly taken care of, which was also affecting the soldiers on the battlefield. The average Italian soldier on the basis of statistical data was intact or alive at the front only three months. The soldiers were tired of war propaganda, lies and empty hopes. In addition to all suffering at the front they had to endure the harsh discipline, where the executions because of disobedience or other defects were not rare (Simsic, 2006, p. 288). General Cadorna called, low motivation of soldiers in the trenches and the growing phenomenon of desertion, cowardice – of course the consequence was the executions of subordinates. Because of all this, many Italian soldiers during the attack of the German and Austro - Hungarian army

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016 decided that they will not fight, so they dropped their weapons and surrendered or withdrew (Bidovec, 2007, p. 25). Also the Italian intelligence before the collapse of the Italian Army on the Isonzo front, misjudged the morality of their soldiers and their mood, which was extremely antiwar or they just did not dare to present the real happening situation of the Italian Army to Cadorna.

Caring for people means the implementation of such training, which will look like a real battle conditions – “train as you fight”.

Italian troops were not trained, not equipped to resist such a raging attack of the Austro - Hungarian and German army. Germans were using gas on 12th offensive, and because of Italians inadequacy of protective gas masks they were powerless and massively dying. Despite the fact that the Italians on the Isonzo battlefield already once experienced a gas attack, and from intelligence informations found out that Germany was working on a new one, General Cadorna did not protect his soldiers adequately. Their antigas devices were ridiculous and frivolous. Gas masks, which were used were a copy of the old French mask, which had instead of the real filter cartridge only cotton wool, soaked in chemicals. Soldiers were protected only against chlorine, although they should be multifunctional. As a major problem has also proved to be their number, because there was not enough masks for everybody. German army during the 12th Isonzo battle applied so called “kihavce” (difenilklorarsen) and choking agents (diphosgene). They often used both types at the same time - kihavec caused convulsive coughing and watery eyes, which caused a removal of the mask, and then diphosgene suffocated the victim (Svoljšak, 2002).

III. Decisions must be clear and on time “It’ s better a good decision today than perfect one in one week” The beginnings of battles on the Isonzo front: Around midnight from 23 on May 24, the Italian army, which counted about two hundred and fifty thousand men, came to the Austro Hungarian - Italian border. On discharged area of Soca river, Italians conquered some places without fighting. The greatest success of the Italians in the early stages of fighting was the conquest of Mt. Vrsic and Mt. Krn, which were defended by Hungarian troops. Cadorna sent his best units on Krno- Alpine (special unit at that time), on the other side stood the Hungarian territorial militia units which were basically compounded of reservists. Above all, Hungarians were clearly not accustomed to such high altitudes, which was another problem for Austro-Hungarian side. With the conquest of Mt. Krn, Vrsic and the surrounding peaks, Italians have created a significant tactical advantage, but they were not able to exploit it. General Cadorna was considered for a prudent head and did not want to risk too much, so after the initial successes he decided to wait for further reinforcements, which the Austro Hungarian side came in very handy- they were able to consolidate defensive positions and bring fresh military power to the front. 11.th Isonzo battle: In the 11th Isonzo battle, Italy finally wanted to charge with the persistent opponents in the East and break the monarchy with breakthrough in river Soča. For this purpose, they placed along the entire front more than three thousand six hundred cannons and more than half a million soldiers. On 17 August 1917, the cannon thundered, the next day was time for Italian infantry, who in the early days of the eleventh Isonzo Front recorded some successes. Boroević additional reinforcements did not stop the progression of the Italian army on Banjšice, so after consulting with his staff officers, Boroević decided for a tactical retreat in the interior. Movement into the interior, was also preventing the functioning of the Italian

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016 artillery, because cannons had limited reach. With that tactical move, Boroević also gained some valuable time to consolidate new defense line, because he knew that the Italians were progressing very slowly and carefully. Despite the fact that Boroević flexible defense of the Austro Hungarian army brought success, the Italians in the 11th Isonzo battle with the occupation of Banjška plateau reached an important strategic advantage, but General Cadorna once again was not able to exploit it. Austro Hungarian army was on the edge of being broken "even Boroević informed his superiors that his exhausted army will not refrain at new attack", General Cadorna again decided to stop the attack, and thereby losing the initiative, priority and the possibility of ultimate success.

IV. To demand and take responsibility for own actions After release he was transferred to allied headquarters in Versailles. After the war, he received severe criticism for defeat at Caporetto, but Cadorna has repudiated his guilt.

V. Never underestimate the enemy. Respect it, but never forget that your unit is better than his. Italy was outnumbered, so Cadorna was convinced that all the attacks of the Austro Hungarian army will be easily repulsed. In the Upper Soča Italians had deployed too few troops and cannons, because they expected austrias movement to Karst. The reason for low numbered army on that area was also the fact that in this part of the battlefield for two and a half years there had been no serious operations. Defence positions of Italy were very well established, so Cadorna thought that this part of the battlefield was unreachable. Two days before the German and Austro Hungarian offensive, the battlefield visited Italian king itself and made sure about the readiness of the Italian army.

VI. Knowing yourself and self-improvement „Leadership and learning go hand-in-time" John F. Kennedy.

Cadorna didn’t take lessons and learned nothing from military tactics at the western front, which provided a lightning-fast attack, breakthrough and encirclement of the opponent's defense. Against such tactic Italians should have to defend with a flexible defense, it should be placed in more depth, because that would ensure the only way to enable safe evacuation in reserve positions and then reattack. The Italians had with a defensive way of fighting very little experiences, because since 1915 they were only attacking. Cadorna did not consider that the cannons on the battlefield of World War I had larger effective range, so he set three defense lines too close together. At cannon attack by German and Austro Hungarian army during the 12th Isonzo battle, grenades fell on first and second line of defense almost at the same time. The Italian army was not able to withdraw to the interior of their territory and reorganize their defense. All defense lines were broken and the Italian army was routed.

VII. Be a proffesional

Leader must be familiar with his as well as with the work of his subordinates. Respect their work and respect their expertise.

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

Italian heads began after 11 Isonzo battle suspect that the Austrians are preparing an offensive - when they shut down the Austrian-Swiss border. 30 September 1917, the Italian headquarters were informed about the presence of German officers in Tolmin section and the arrival of German troops in Grahovo ob Baci. On 2 October, Intelligence units predicted arrival of German troops in Ljubljana and Tolmin. Despite all the warnings that the attack will happen soon in the Upper Soča, Cadorna was convinced that the attack will occurre on Banjšice, that is why he relocated most of his cannons and units on that area. Not even the plans or documents of austrian soldiers and officers, didn’t change Cadorna’s idea about direction of the attack. With the help of interception, on october 23 was also known supposable attack time, but it was already too late – Italian artillery bombardment was very short, because of the lack of grenades.

VII. Be an example Own role model is not the most important thing in influencing people. It is the only thing!

General Cadorna was known of the fact that he did not often visited the front. Instead of that he stayed in his command posts, where he enjoyed all the comfort which belonged to the officers in World War I. To soldiers, who lived in the tunnels in a large shortage, cold and in constant fear, Cadorna did not lift the desire for a military victory. An example and being a role model is the greatest source of influence and it can not be replaced by the strongest discipline.

VIII. Ensure that tasks are understood, supervised and done "Feedback is the breakfast of champions!" Ken Blanchard

He was a typical cabinet head, who commanded with directives, but never monitored their implementation.

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

5 Conclusion History of warfare had shown us that in order to be a victorius on a battlefield you have to have certain skills that separates you from the other soldiers. You have to be able to led your men into chaos of war and not only to survive but to be the victor. Certain characther features had shown to be common to many of good military heads. They had all shown expertize on the field of military science, were professional, were inspirational, were motivational and were able to command their troops. But a good leader must also be able to take command of the situation and decide on the spot, sometimes even endangering the lives of his troops. Cadorna had shown typical charateristics of a head and wasn't a good leader. Boroević on the other hand was a capable leader and also a head. He knew when to take a more strict approach to his leading and was commonly known as a serious and strict military head. He was able to balance his style of command. He adapted to situation and that proved to be the key for his success.

So, what have we learned about leadership from case studies of General Cadorna and Field Marshal Boroević? I. Be a Human. II. Know your disadvantages and your advantages III. Respect opinions of your brothers in arms and also respect the knowledge from other branches of the army IV. Stand behind your acts V. Timely decisions are very important- be active all the time, keep the initiative VI. Take care for your subordinates well-being („train as you fight“- so they can survive on battlefield in the hardest conditions) VII. Pass your subordinates informations regularly ( a soldier without a goal and information, is a soldier without a will to fight and morale) VIII. Encourage leadership abillities – in the times needed the subordinants will be able to do the job of their head IX. Make sure your subordinants had understood your intention X. Military leader must encourage team spirit XI. Each unit has its capabillities and limits, that a leader has to know and be aware of.

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

Modern social science teaches us that in order to be a good leader you don't have to be born as one. You can become a great leader through the process of selection, learning and through acquiring practical experiences. You still have to have some talent, but in the end it depends on combination of personal characteristics and different styles of learning. The definition what those combinations are doesn't exist as it depends on each individual.

It is also important to mention that not all commanders need to be leaders, they can also be heads. In certain fields of army some commanders can be heads – in fields such as logistics, analytics, and strategists. But a commander that is supposed to lead his army on the battlefield needs to be a good leader and a head. General Cadorna could have had many capable officers in his command but he didn't allow any disagreement. This meant that entire army depended on the qualities of a bad leader. If we allow the theory that a leader can be made, we have to ask ourselves the question how to select the proper candidates for military commanders. There certainly isn't only one right answer as we pointed out earlier that not every head needs to be a leader. This field leaves a lot of open questions and allows for further exploring. References

MAHMUTOVIĆ, J. Vojaško voditeljstvo in menedžment. Maribor: Prometna šola Maribor, 2008. Poveljstvo za doktrino, razvoj, izobraževanje in usposabljanje. Vojaška doktrina. Ljubljana: PDRIU, 2006. SIMČIČ, M. 888 dni na Soški fronti. Ljubljana: Orbis, 2006. SIMIĆ, M. Po sledeh Soške fronte. Ljubljana: Mladinska Knjiga, 1998. SVOLJŠAK, P. Soška fronta. Ljubljana: Cankarjeva založba, 2002. THOMPSON, W. R. RTO MP-55. Officer selection, 1999. VRBEC, D. Osebnostne lastnosti vojaškega vodje. Diplomsko delo. Ljubljana: Fakulteta za družbene vede. Astro-Hungarian Army, URL: http://www.austro-hungarian-army.co.uk/biog/boroevic.htm First World War, URL: http://www.firstworldwar.com/battles/isonzo.htm Isonzo Front. URL: http://www.worldwar1.com/itafront/isonzo11.htm

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

PSYCHOLOGY OF NON-FIRING AND DECREASING ITS ROLE

Bence GÖBLYÖS

SUMMARY: In my essay I attempted to collect all the relevant knowledge in the topic of the phenomenon called ‘non-firing‘. This is a pretty important issue, that we have to face when we talk about warfare. This psychological condition was always present in warfare, but was revealed by decision-makers (or you can put it that way: commanders) just in the Second World War. After that in the last some decades, thanks to more specific and effective training, this phenomenon has been having a decreased role. In my paper firstly I clarify the definition of non-firing itself, then I define aggression and combat stress, as three vital expressions in understanding the whole topic. Secondly, I introduce and explain the reasons leading to non- firing, its ethological base and the historical efforts to decrease non-firing. Thirdly, I suggest some ways to apply the results in the real life. I mention some examples from the history and from the wildlife, as this condition is present in the fauna as well, therefore I examine the ethological backround. In this paper my efforts aiming to get some explanation on the causes of this lesser known condition making the soldiers and their commanders job even more difficult, and look for solutions from the past and opportunities for the future to fully or at least highly eliminate the problem of non-firing. We are may not mistaken, if we say that non- firing will always present in the conflicts of the world. Because of this fact, I am highly motivated to introduce how the Hungarian Defence Forces can improve its trainings in order to eliminate the non-firing, and improve firing rate, while they don’t have to face great financial costs.

During my work I use several English and Italian language sources, but unfortunately the topic lacks satisfying Hungarian works, except for the ethology. Authors like Dave Grossman, S. L. A. Marshall, Carl von Clausewitz, Konrad Lorenz, Sigmund Freud, Luigi Bonanate, Frans de Waal or Vilmos Csányi and their knowledge gave me aid writing this paper.

I personally think that this essay could be a summary of the knowledge and experience gained in the topic, and by studying the examples of the past; we can provide better circumstances for the future, offering applicable solutions for the problem by improving the methods.

Keywords: Psychology, Non-firing, Aggression, Stress, Training, History

1 Introduction When it comes to talk about wars and battles, we tend to visualize an enormous and chaotic battlefield, where the bravest sons of different nations fire at each other, without exception. We have to admit that the reality is a little bit differentiated, as a strange psychological condition exists, which fundamentally transform this romantic vision.

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

This condition is called non-firing, which is a natural psychological inhibition. It is present among the people, and all the animals of the fauna. The main result of this inhibition is that none of the animals and the people is able to kill another member of their own species. Similar to the aggression and many other psychological processes, this condition is the criteria of long-living species.

The main goal of this essay is to describe this condition, reveal its reasons, and to illustrate that, with examples taken from the animals, through ethology and from the history’s warfare. Another important goal is to show, with what methods can be this situation settled in all of the ages, and how the role of the non-firing has been reduced, and how can be reduced its probability even more in the future. As nowadays we can significantly reduce the problems in connection with this condition, we have to concentrate on other important issues as well, for example with the consequences of this, because our job is not done, as we can handle the non- firing, we have to deepen our knowledge about how to cure the homecoming soldiers with PTSD, which won’t be extracted thoroughly, but could be in a whole dissertation (and I guess, it was).

In my essay I am looking for some answers. I declare my work successful, if I can explain the meaning of non-firing; I can present the ethological and psychological base of it, and suggest some solutions in order to decrease this condition’s role in the Hungarian Defence Forces.

2 Theory Descriptio AGGRESSION, COMBAT STRESS In order to fully understand the topic discussed, we have to make clear the definition of aggression and combat stress, as they have a huge role in creating the condition of non-firing. However they do not seem so complex and difficult expressions, they are not so easy to explain. In the last decades there were so many efforts to clarify the definition of aggression, and there are things they agreed on, but explanations can differ, therefore I would not choose only one, but explain some of them. Sigmun Freud, father of psychoanalitics, stated that aggression is in strict connection with our drives, so aggression is somehow created by our inner instincts. Drive is an urge to satisfy our needs and optimalize our inbalanced homeostasis in order to restore the perfect working manner. According to his theory, there are primary drives, such as hunger, intensive working of hormones causing sexual frustration, or abnormal body temperature. Aggression comes when these above can not be satisfied within a short period of time.[1] John Dollard stated something similar: aggression is an impulse born with us, which is based on the frustration caused by the drives not being satisfied. His theory although contains a special connection between frustration and aggression, which induce eachother. [1] It is wise to consider the theory of the Austrian ethologist, Konrad Lorenz. He stated that aggression is a bless of evolution, which is vital in the survival of the species, the base of natural selection.

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

Aggression is a very important aspect of the discussion over non-firing, as directing the aggression can be a vital tool for the commander in order to reduce non-firing and improve effectiveness. [2] Combat stress is another important issue, but it is more probable that stress is more harmful than aggression, as it is usually the cause of non-firing. Similar to the aggression, stress is needed in the everyday life as well. People tend to have quite negative opinion of the stress, but at a certain level, stress is pretty useful. When it comes to talk about stress, it has two different factors. The stressor and the reaction. In the battlefield, the most common stressors are the psychic and the physical ones. Psychic stressor can occur because of frustration that comes from the feel of being unable to affect the ongoing actions, the lack of space, and incompetent commanders or subordinates (or both). On the other hand, physical stressors can be the strong sound effects, the heat, injuries,or the failure of senses. [3] Reactions given to these stressors can be a deciding factor of the battle. We can divide these reactions into three categories. The first is the psychic reaction. These are sadness, frustration, lower awareness and creativity, slower and worse decision-making, and negative changes in the areas of the time reaction, the soldier get disconcerted. The second category contains physical reactions, such as problems with heart, respiration and headache. Thirdly, the soldier’s behavior can dramatically change: useless aggressiveness, larger chance of arguing. [3]

NON-FIRING

Despite the fact that non-firing is a phenomenon that was always present in the history of warfare, researches seeking for the explanation of this condition only started in the middle of the last century. The average people can easily say that they could easily kill under certain circumstances, but the reality is probably quite different. We expect our soldiers to fight against their enemies with full determination and remorseless hunting instinct. Now we arrived to our main definition: what does non-firing mean? This is a strange and interesting condition: due to the psychologic instinct, all the species of animals (and humans as well) have a special survival, self-preservation desire, which helps avoiding the extinction of the species. Literally a sane individual of any species of wildlife is unable to intentionally kill another member of its own race. Of course, there are accidents, or extreme situations, when it comes to kill another member of the race, but it is extremely rare that one member of the race

FIGURE 1 Fighting bears- it won’t be fatal CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016 attacks an other member at the same level of development and gender with the clear intention of killing. There are many examples, when the mother kills its new-born, because it would be too weak or defected to survive, or long hunger can lead to cannibalism. Feeling the hunger is really strong drive amon people as well, for example there was an airplane crash in the Andes, Chile, in 1972, when a deeply religious catholic Uruguayan rugby team suffered an accident, and lacking food the survivors had to consume their dead mates’ flesh. Elsewhere in the World, in other cultures cannibalism is nearly part of the daily routine, but they show their respect to the dead ones this way. Killing a yet living human solely in order to eat is quite rare, and it is neither usual in the fauna. When we see dogs or lions fighting, that is just training, or they fight in order to get the opportunity to lead the flock, or to have sex with the females, but this is vital in order to create stronger and stronger and longer living species [4] [FIGURE 1].

During these fights, deaths can occur, but this is not the goal, just the unlucky result. Aggression is an important issue here as well. The fact that this condition is psychological, suggests that it is ageless, however it is pretty hard to prove archaelogically before of the spread of firearms. [5] If we think through the history of the development of weapons, we can make an interesting conclusion, which is highly in connection with our topic. All started with close-combat weapons, such as rocks, afterneath smithing called to life various kinds of swords, then it was a huge step to firearms, then now we can launch intercontinental missiles as well. As we can see, the tendency shows that we want to remain as far from our enemy as possible to fight effectively. Of course, the first motive of this kind of development is not primarily the desire of decreasing the role of non-firing, but it has great effect on our issue. We can easily agree on that it is way less hard to kill someone from farther, it is safer and more effective. Psychologists state that the soldier has the hardest job, when it comes to kill someone so close to him that he can see the enemy’s face, he can look in the eye of him. It is hard, because face can express a wide scale of feelings, and the memory of the victim’s face itself will accompany the soldier in his whole life causing even more problem. [6] In the middle ages, firearms were not really accurate compared to today’s weapons. Soldiers were told that they should fire only when they could see the colour of the enemy’s eye. This did not ease the job of the soldiers, but from bigger distance, the soliders just could not hit the target due to the inaccurate weapons. There is another interesting example from the past: the hangmen put a bag on the head of the man to be executed. It had clearly psychologial reasons to protect the executioner. [7] In the American Civil War (1861-1865) there were several guns providing shocking information: the soldiers loaded the gun, pretended to fire and loaded again. As a result, some of the weapons contained up to 23 bullets in the barrel of the gun. There is an interesting statistic of the mentioned war: a thousand attacking soldier killed only three of the enemy. It is clear, that soldiers actually fighting on the first lines exactly knew the problem of non- firing, they simply just tried to hide it.

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

The first significant step was taken by Samuel Lyman Atwood Marshall, who concluded a study among the soldiers after the Second World War, and the results changed the soldiers’ training forever. According to his findings, only twenty of hundred soldiers fired their weapons at all during the Second World War. A data that is even more interesting is the rate of those, who fire with the direct intention of killing: in a war 1-2% (later revealed: many

FIGURE 2 S.L.A. Marshall findings psychopaths) of the soldiers were willing to kill [FIGURE 2]. When reached this conclusion, it was quite clear that we don’t even have to concentrate on quantity or technical domination, but we can benefit from being more effective and we have to increase this 1-2%, if we do so, we fight a more effective, cheaper, less bloody war with expert soldiers, who are able to kill under all circumstances.

Non-firing is the biggest problem at the infantry, who fight their battle from short range. Artillery, air force is much lesser involved, as they do their job from chilometers of horizontal and vertical distance. Close combat is present at the air force as well: according to the statistics, more than half of the dogfights fought in the Second World War were won by just 1% percent of the pilots. Therefore we can state that pilots have difficulties to kill in close combat like infantrymen. Despite these facts, the war had so many victims, but these deaths were the results of bombings, illnesses, epidemic reasons, injuries not or badly handled.

We can not say that soldiers who don’t shoot are totally useless. They can be great transporting weapons, ammunition, and accomplished other logistical work. Non-firing is not covardness, but a natural instinct that has to be eliminated in order to kill. We can say that the soldiers who could kill with ease in the wars despite not having proper training, probably are not mentally sane and are dangerous for the society. [6]

According to Lt. Col. Dave Grossman there are four options for the soldier to choose, when it comes to kill.

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

The first one is called ‘fight’. This is the better in the aspect of fighting the battle, the fighting soldiers are the most effective and useful. This soldier actively takes part in the fight, but usually needs proper training.

The second one is ‘flight’, it means the soldier tries to escape, and avoid any involvements in the battle.

The third, and the most dangerous one is ‘posture’. Primarily, this leads to non-firing, it means that the soldier simply don’t shoot, or even worse: the soldiers fire, but intentionally miss the target aiming way too high or too low. Although it can deter the enemy, but this is almost everytime unnoticable by the commander and the mates. Noone want to be covered by a posturing soldier. This solider desperately waits the end of the intercourse. Of course, literally this is not non-firing, but I would say ‘mis-firing’, but this time I wouldn’t seperate these two similar conditions, because the result is nearly the same. [6]

The last option is ‘submission’, it means that the soldier simply just capitulate.

In the aspect of these four elements, people differ from animals, as the animals don’t posture or submit. They fight or run, try to escape, but posturing and submission come from the human’s complexity. [8]

PSYCHOLOGY BEHIND NON-FIRING

I mentioned several times, that there is a psychological reason of the fact that originally we are unable to kill another person. To understand the whole process, we have to travel in our head. In the temporal lobe, there is a nerve centre, to which the sensory organs directly send the impulses. Sudden changes in the environment – such as light or sound – make impulses on sensory organs, then in small part of the second, this centre gets the information. This centre is responsible for feeling fear, therefore these dramatic changes in the environment’s sound (e.g.: explosion) generate fear. These fears cause defending reflexes, including ones, which lead to incapability of firing. As almost every part of the human body, with appropriate and sufficient training, the level of these impacts causing fear can be pushed higher and higher. With no proper training, we forget all practiced drills and response actions because of the fear. Fear and chaos makes more and more difficult to fire and execute the desired actions. Several times this can be so strong that not only psychical, but also physical difficulties can occur. In the Second World War, there were many soldiers who simply could not use there firing finger, they were just unable to move their pointing finger, or eventually their whole firing arm. This is a psychical condition’s physical manifestation.

I mentioned before, that only one or two percent of people are able to kill. Later an interesting connection was revealed. Studies showed that the share of the psychopaths in the whole society is exactly 1-2%. The connection can be understood, if we highlight that fear is a main reason of non-firing. Psychopaths do not have so much feelings, neither fear, so this blocking is lifted. They may act better on the battlefield, but the society can not cope with them easily. It would be a mistake to think that only psychopaths can fight actually in a war. The

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016 psychopaths make about the half the competent, useful, soldiers, who can fire and willing to kill. We have to cope with the killers who we created, and the soldiers themselves have hard time getting through kills. About three times more soldiers of the United States serving in Iraq in 2009 committed suicide than killed in action.

TEACH THEM TO KILL

Despite being this psychological condition, somehow we have to teach our soldiers to kill, and if possible, without serious consequences for the future social life of the soldiers. I think I shouldn’t even underline that the soldiers’ physical training was always vital and covered the military training itself. As there were not really accurate and obvious knowledge of non-firing and the causes of it, military leaders did not do anything significant to improve the training psychically whatsoever. Till the Second World War, the soldiers fired at haystacks, or simple, round targets. Due to the lack of time (and maybe intention) the soldiers were not trained to solve problem of non-firing, but were given drugs, like LSD in order suppress the phenomenon. It was not really responsible decision, and did not work out so well.

Since the war partly thanks to S. L. A. Marshall and Dave Grossman, huge improvements were established in order to improve the soldiers. In the United States there was enough money and willing to improve the training. They started to use running targets that were similar to the human torso. Earlier in the soldiers’ training, the targets always were at the same distance, but after the war, they started to use human-like targets in different distances. These changes seem really small, maybe insignificant things, but the soldiers’ performance started to improve slightly, later faster and faster. Not only did they use another method to teach the soldiers to fire, but also they started investing in the military personnel’s psychical education. They made the soldiers to shoot a lot, the methods, the drills got imprinted, therefore they reached that the soldier after a whole proper training, now is able to use his weapon in a correct manner. [6]

Significant changes occurred, when during the Korean and the Vietnamese war the researchers experienced a 55%, and a 95% firing rate in sequence in comparison with the 20% in the Second World War.

In this race, the Cold-War’s other participant power, the Soviet Union started with a handicap, and they did not really realize the true importance of non-firing, they did not take so serious and fast efforts in order to improve the training, and the psychological preparation was almost completely missing from the Soviet side. Later, when discovered the importance of non- firing, the Soviets started to teach firing in classrooms, they had a kind of study guide in order to improve the psychical state of the personnel, but their methods were way less empiric than their Western rival, they did not recognized the importance of practicing, and imprinting worked on another way. Theoretically, the soldiers were given the opportunity to share their experiences with the decision-makers, but significant changes did not take place, and knowing the level of freedom of speech in the Soviet Union, we can not be sure that these opinions were even sincere, or if they were, military experts considered them.

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

The time later in the Cold War proved, that the Soviet Union should had been devoting much more energy in order to improve the training’s quality and revise their attitude towards military psychology.

As we can see, the situation is much better than it was; there is still room for improvement.

As the years passed, military leaders started to be more conscious about psychological training. They admitted that a good, useful soldier is not only in great physical and health conditions, but they also have to be in fine psychic state. Experts started to examine the soldiers’ mental, psychical state as well, so the selection nowadays is quite extensive, if well- trained psychologists check the psychic suitability of the newcomers and time-by-time the already selected military personnel. The goal of these examinations is to select those people, who will be able to cope with the psychical challenges that come from their future profession. Aggressive behaviour is really important, because if directed, it can be very useful, but aggressiveness has to be kept is a narrow range, because unrestrained, omni directional aggression is highly harmful. The commander should keep an eye on the circumstances, which causes aggression in the life of the subordinates. It is not a drawback, if the commander knows, what is the personal opinion and attitude towards the executing soldier of the given task, because if the soldier does not agree with the tasks taken, his action may become unpredictable and harmful. Aggression can be even more harmful, when it is consorted with selfish goals. Aggression this time is much more intensive, and destructive. Well-directed aggression and high motivation can significantly lower the presence of non-firing and combat stress.

SIMULATION METHOD’S ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES IN HUNGARIAN DEFENCE FORCES

As I explained in the last chapter, we can earn significant results with small changes, a lot training and more conscious attitude. Now I will compare the simulation methods that the HDF uses in the aspect of educating the soldiers to kill.

The live firing is vital in the training of a soldier, and was the only opportunity to practice. This method teaches the soldier to use his loaded weapon, in calm, ‘sterile’ circumstances. It helps a lot to conduct a shoot without any problems. Decades ago the soldiers fired at round targets, but from the Second World War, the method was changed to running targets with the silhouette of a man. This traning is great to follow the soldier’s improvement, helps to correct the mistakes. Live firing has a big drawback. This way the personnel can’t practice lifelike situations. The bullet is not recommended to enter our mates’ body, because it can be a bit unpleasant, therefore it is impossible to practice tactical operations. The following options provide much better simulation.

The second chosen method is the practice with blank ammunition. In this case the noises are quite similar to real-life conditions, the weapon reacts the same way it reacted in the battlefield. The muzzle flash, the noises, and the possible chaos in a good scenario could be useful, because a soldiers have to get used to the feelings provided by the practice. The

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016 negative side of this way of practice is that everybody knows that they will not get hurt. Even more serious drawback is that the soldier do not get any feedback of his shoot’s result.

To avoid this problem, MILES-system seems to be an optimal solution. Practicing with MILES provides all the advantages of practicing with blank ammunition, and additionaly there is feedback, therefore it is a better way to improve our tactical and shooting skills. I would say that this way of practicing mixes all the advantages of live firing and practicing with blank ammunition. As biggest advantage of the system I would mention is the fact that virtually the soldiers can die, so they immediately know what they did wrong, so a feeling kind of fear exists, and adrenaline-level increases, while they have to be fully alert. These advantages do not make the MILES-system practicing the best way to recreate real combat situations, because it has serious disadvantages. For example, the live ammunition of the rifle easily pass through some materials, but the laser can not traverse some leaves, so the application of MILES is really limited. The laser beam is unable to reproduce the trajectory of the real live bullets. It does not ascend, descend and we can fire easily in even strong wind. In combat situation, we can easily replace our broken weapon with our fallen mate’s weapon, MILES-system knows this operation, but takes way too much time, and the soldier maybe not in that state that he coould easily go through the procedure. The system can identify two types of shoots aimed at us: those, which avoided us closely and those, which hit us, but we can not identify shots that would probably not kill us in real life. Nowadays it is more useful to hit the enemy in a way he would not die, but injure severely. There is much more to do with an injured soldier in order to make his way out of the battlefield than the dead ones. Overusing MILES can be dangerous as well, some cases occured when on the battlefield American soldiers died indirectly because overusing MILES. For example, once a soldier was shot on the head, but did not injured, as the bullet hit his helmet and bounced off. The uninjured soldier than took off his helmet, as he did during the practices, as it is a common sign to identify who is dead yet. Seconds later he was killed by a headshot. MILES seems to be pretty good tool in order to practice tactics, and very effective, almost fully models the combat situation, but due to the satellite-using system it is very costly.

Practicing with paintball and airsoft tries to model the combat from a different aspect: it provides extra motivation as if we are hit with one of their bullets, that can be really unpleasant and painful. The soldier exactly knows that the other will not die if he hits him, but it starts to be similar to the real-life,as it can cause aggression and stress as well. Another positive aspect of them is that in this case the bullet is solid, therefore it has a trajectory. It ascends, descends, bounces and can be diverted. The downside is the atmosphere: there is no noise, gunpowder smell, and the range of effective fire is much below the live ammunition, it can be applicable solely under urban circumstances. These are mainly used by civilians as a sparetime activity, but could be used in the military as well.

Finally, in my opinion, the best solution to copy the combat situations is the training ammunition (a.k.a. Simunition). It is similar to the bullets used in paintball, but the soldier can use his own weapon, as there are many types of these ammunitions, almost every kind of firearms can work with training ammunition. It perfectly imitate the atmosphere of the

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016 battlefield, as we use the same weapon with the same noises. To train with these, the soldiers need serious protection, because when hit, it is much more painful than paintball. Without protection, from short range, hitting a proper point, they can lead to death. Despite having protections, the arms and legs are quite uncovered, so hitting one of the limbs, it is very painful, so it is quite close to real-life situations. This protection is very useful besides of its protecting role: now the soldier exactly knows how painful is it if he hits his mate’s leg or arm, and he will be very cautios not to be hit. As the head and the upper body is very well protected, the soldier tries to fire at his mate’s head or upper body and not at the arms or legs. In combat situation the soldier probably will aim to the head or the upper body beacuse this is imprinted, and hitting these parts will almost surely lead to the enemy’s death. The ammunition leaves behind certain colors, so we can identify friendly fires as well. I could not enlist so many drawbacks of the training ammunition, the only one is its cost. The protection itself is really expensive, and the ammunition is not cheap as well, it costs about three times as much as the original live ammunition. Due to the low muzzle velocity, its maximal range is about 100 meters, it is a needed compromise; with faster muzzle velocity the ammunition would be fatal with using these protections.

There is one more way to practice, these are the simulators. Around forty years ago, as information technology started improving really fast, combat simulators were created for the US Army. Later many other country had efforts like this. Some military academies still use them as a part of the training. They are cheap, easy to maintain, but way far from the actual combat activity. I think they are mostly used to offer some spare-time activity to the soldiers in connection with combat.

PERSONAL EXPERIENCES WITH THE SIMULATION METHODS

Before practicing tactics, we usually take part on live firing. We can get more familiar with our own weapons, we can improve our skills. It is not important here to imitate combat situation, it is about just the shooting. According to my experiences, everbody is concentrated here. After this we do the same with blank ammunition. For me it is quite interesting, as many of my mates do not elaborate their shoots, they do not concentrate enough, they do not even aim correctly. My personal opinion is that it is because we do the same so many times that it can be boring. I think imprinting does not work like this, if we want to improve, we have to be alert and concentrated, but it is actually pretty hard. The commander can not look everbody’s shoot, there is no feedback. Afterwards we carry out the tactical operation with MILES- system. Usually now everybody is much more concentrated, we feel like we are in combat now. According to my observation, those who did not take seriously all the tasks, had much more difficulties. Many of them blamed the MILES, stating that they could not even aim, but they were dead yet. I did not want to be that guy who enlight them, but I am sure that if they had done properly the task before, they could survive longer. Many of my mates said that how strange it was to fire at their running or hiding mates. I guess, they did not know, but they got the lifelike experience, or maybe some of them met the difficulties of firing for someone with a real weapon.

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

LIFE AFTER FIRING

When we taught our soldiers how to kill, our job is far from done. Many of the soldiers, who could kill in a war, had very much difficulty with getting back to the normal, everyday life. It is interesting that the more we suppress non-firing, the more problem we have to face because of the Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). PTSD was firstly detected after the Vietnam War, when about one and a half million American went back home, and they had a strange, yet unknown psychological condition. Earlier I mentioned that the Vietnam War was the first war in which a fairly good share of the soldiers could fire their weapons. The syndrome causes hallucinations, nervousness, aggression, nightmares and revives of a certain memory. These people can not handle the family issues, escape to addictions or commit crimes. It is vital that if PTSD occurs in the family, do not feel ashamed to admit it and ask for help. The modern armies have programmes in order to ease the homecomings’ integration and the familes’ situation. [10]

Conclusion To sum up my essay, non-firing is a phenomenon that was always present in the history of warfare. We often read that the soldier was unable to kill its enemy, and archaeological researches prove that this condition exists. In the essay, I mentioned the most significant example, the gun found near to Gettysburg, which contained 23 bullets filled in the barrel. Today many people think that they could easily kill under certain circumstances, but most of them are wrong. It is interesting, that researches looking for the reason started only in the middle of the twentieth century. Leading psychologists answered so well the upcoming questions that nowadays we can cope with the problem, the question now is how we can improve more the firing rate, and how will we reintegrate the homecoming soldiers, who killed in the battle. After the Second World War, training and preparation improved a lot worldwide, and this created the base for an even more effective psychical education and willingness of firing. Today, even in Hungary there is a quite satisfying psychological training involved in the officers’ training. Training methods such as live firing, blank ammunition practice, use of MILES-system, training ammunition, paintball and airsoft help us now to teach our soldiers how to use their weapon fearlessly and kill, if they have to do so. In the last chapter, I mentioned the difficulties with the homecoming soldiers in a nutshell.

I personally think that I met my expectations with this paper, I revealed the history of non firing, I introduced it through examples and ethology, I went through the possible methods, which can help decreasing the role of non-firing.

References [1] K. Alexandra SMITH, Theories of Agression 1999, URL: , [cit. 2016-02-17] [2] Konrad LORENZ Az agresszió Budapest: Katalizátor Iroda, 1995. [3] János SELYE, A stressz URL: , [cit. 2016-02- 24]

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

[4] Frans DE WAAL Chimpanzee Politics: Power and Sex among Apes Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007. [5] Luigi BONANATE La guerra, Bari: Giuseppe Laterza & Figli, 1998. [6] Dave GROSSMANN The psychology and the truth behind it, 2015, URL: , [cit 2016-03-04] [7] Dave GROSSMANN On Killing: The Psychological Cost of Learning to Kill in War and Society. Boston: Back Bay Books, 2009. [8] Vilmos CSÁNYI Etológia. Budapest: 1994. [9] Zelimir PAVLINA-Zoran KOMAR Katonapszichológia. Budapest: HM Zrínyi Kommunikációs és Szolgáltató Kht. – Zrínyi Kiadó, 2007 [10] Dave GROSSMAN PTSD and the Price of Conditioning, URL: , [cit 2016-03-27]

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

RISK MANAGEMENT IN ARMY

Kamil GRZĘDA3

SUMMARY: In this method, the assessment of the likelihood of the risk and the consequences (severity) and their impact the action, if such a risk occurs, in most cases are based on experiences of members of staff of the activities carried out in the past and experience collected as part of the so-called. Lesson learned. An important advantage of using this method in decision-making it is that it examines the effects of specific risks, which allows commanders to a broader assessment of the situation and take resonable decision . It is worth noting that in the regulations describing the method contains information that the risk assessment is only to support the commander in making decision, but not to impose a final solution to the problem, it can not exclude competent decisions resulting from combat experience.

Key words: armed forces, risk, CRM, control.

Risk management is a management technique, which convinced more and more organizations. It is far-reaching subject, therefore we can found it in literature4. In many countries public sector is obliged recently to use advanced managing techniques such as risk management. The basic element of the risk management in process for all forms of activity, is to ensure the safety of the implemented projects. This is important not only in business, but also the organization of society, the functioning of local governments and other institutions, and including the activities of the armed forces, police, hospitals and schools. With the advance of globalization and the increasing number of threats, among them the high intensity of natural disasters and natural disasters, accompanied by increasingly escalating climate change, and also very dangerous phenomenon of international terrorism, they reveal new risks which affects virtually every organization.

In armed forces of many countries during the realization of the process of command there is no such element, as risk assessment. Although it is being considered a threat, associated with the operation of an opponent, the wider environment, and other factors that may negatively influence the actions of their troops, but these considerations are more indicative, without a reliable assessment of the likelihood and consequences that may occur.5 Analyzing the methods of risk identification and management, from the point of view of military applications, it can be said that they are the most popular in the US Army. Americans use risk management procedures virtually in every level of command. Well-known procedure

3Master degree student, Kamil Grzęda, Faculty of Management and Command, National Defence University, Warsaw, Poland. E-mail: [email protected] 4 See: The orange book. Management of Risk – Principles and Concepts, HM Treasury, 2014; E. Baranoff, P. L. Brockett, Y. Kahane Risk Management for Enterprises and Individuals, Paperback, 2009. 5 See: Developing Leaders. A British Army Guide, http://www.army.mod.uk/documents/general (access: 10.04.2016)

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016 is described originally in the rules of FM 100-14, Risk Management6, which describes the genesis of management risk elements of the risk management process and the ability to implement risk management procedures in the decision-making process. In a further improved, the release of the Rules of FM 5-19, Composite Risk Management7 proposed a new approach to risk management, which includes not only combat training and all kinds of tactical actions and operations, but also non-military activities and activity off-duty. These instructions are not only ones of the issues of risk management 8, because practically all of the currently issued regulations in the US Army refering specific situations, there is a chapter of risk management. The risk assessment is carried out also in the support branches of the US Army9.

1. Composite Risk Management

Composite Risk Management (CRM) is a method used in the United States Army, the primary element of the decision-making process used to identify hazards and control the risks involved in the whole spectrum of activities and projects carried out by the US Army. The main objective of the process is to reduce the level of risk for all hazards that may cause injury or death to personnel, damage to or destruction of weapons and military equipment and may affect the effectiveness of carried missions.

Composite risk management is a five step process:

I. Identify hazards II. Assess hazards to determine risk III. Develop controls and make risk decisions IV. Implement controls V. Supervise and evaluate Steps 1 and 2 are assessment steps, steps 3 through 5 are management.10

6 Michniak J., Dowodzenie i łączność, AON, Warsaw 2003.

7 Field Manual No. 5-19 (100-14), Composite Risk Management, Department of the Army, Washington 2006. 8 ORM 0-1, Operational Risk Management, Headquarters Marine Corps, Washington 2002. 9 Eg: US Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) develops risk assessment method called Component Level Risk Assessment Methodology for the construction of and operation of bridges. 10 Field Manual No. 5-19 (100-14), Composite Risk Management, Department of the Army, Washington 2006.

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

Figure 1. CRM process Source: Field Manual No. 5-19 (100-14), Composite Risk Management, Department of the Army, Washington 2006.

1.1 Identify Hazards

The threat, according to the regulations of the US Army this circumstance, situation, event or factor that may cause injury, illness and death of personnel, damage to or loss of equipment, weapons or other property, as well as the loss combat capability, failure or not performing task. Risks relate to different activities of army: combat, stabilization operations, databases security, training, garisson activities and off-duty activities. CRM hazard identification method involves searching for their areas related factors such as: mission (task), the enemy, terrain and weather (environment), its own and support troops, time, civil consideration (METT-TC)11. These factors are associated with the primary purpose of military combat, but in a similar manner it is considering the risk occurring during the implementation of non-military tasks. Difference lies in the fact that in this case are considered dangers caused by factors: project, interference, terrain and weather (environment), people, time and legal aspect.

11 METT-TC: Mission, Enemy, Terrain And Weather, Troops And Support Available, Time Available, And Civil Considerations.

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

Figure 2. Assessment factors Source: Field Manual No. 5-19 (100-14), Composite Risk Management, Department of the Army, Washington 2006

The mission The tasks depending on the nature of the combat mission may be more or less dangerous. Considering this aspect, the commander should seek the risks associated with the complexity of the task and the complexity of the action plans and orders of superiors, eg. a particularly complicated scheme of maneuver. Manner or form putting tasks can also cause certain risks, eg. a preliminary decree instead of fighting developed in detail, the complete order of battle with all the attachments increases the risk of misunderstanding the intention supervisor.12

Activity This factor relates to current operations business unit and off-duty activity. Risk identification and assessment can be carried out during planning activities within the framework of a long weekend, which can be spent in the form of recreation, sporting event, exit, pass or duty. They play an important role in this case, commanders at lower levels command, who are responsible for evaluations of individual characteristics character of the individual subordinates. Particular attention should be paid events during which it will be consumed alcohol or be able to adopt other stimulants.13

12 Field Manual No. 5-19 (100-14), Composite Risk Management, Department of the Army, Washington 2006. 13 Field Manual No. 5-19 (100-14), Composite Risk Management, Department of the Army, Washington 2006.

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

Enemy Information preparation of the battlefield (IPB), as a dynamic part of the decision making process is important to identify the hazards, the source of which the opponent is. Assessing the enemy, it considers the elements that could pose a threat to the operation or task. This includes: its location, composition and combat capabilities and expected behavior. As part of this evaluation seeks to answer the question: what the opponent can do to disrupt the operation of my department? Which seeks to determine the most likely or most dangerous in the situation how it works. IPB is a tool supporting risk assessment, which is the basis for risk assessment by identifying opportunities and constraints, which creates an environment of the battlefield both for the enemy and friendly forces. At the same time this is a tool for revealing opportunities and weaknesses of your opponent.14

Disrupters Disrupters are factors which are equivalent to opponent in combat, but considered in the context of duty activities or off-duty activities in military base, and they are recognized as an external action, having a negative impact on the planned project or activity.15

Terrain and weather When assessing the area, in order to identify and assess the risks that may affect performing the task, we analyzes the following elements: - observation and fields of fire - cover and concealment - obstacles - key and decisive terrain - ways of approach Widespread risks associated with the area stem from parameters such as: altitude, low cloud ceiling, surface roads, inequality field, the degree of inclination and capacity of the area. Risks associated with conditions weather conditions relate to categories such as: cold, ice cover, snow, rain, fog, heat, humidity, wind, visibility and illumination. Weather conditions may also create specific risks.16

Troops (or People) and Equipment In relation to the risk assessment during combat operations concept of the army involves consideration of factors such as the level of training, staffing positions, maintenance and condition of weapons, equipment and supplies. In addition, it considers also morale, access to supplies and stocks of munitions and material resources, access to services hedging activities tactical troops, including medical. In non-combat operations, the term ,,people” includes soldiers, their subordinates, civilian employees, and other people related or not in

14 Field Manual No. 5-19 (100-14), Composite Risk Management, Department of the Army, Washington 2006. 15 Field Manual No. 5-19 (100-14), Composite Risk Management, Department of the .Army, Washington 2006 16 Field Manual No. 5-19 (100-14), Composite Risk Management, Department of the Army, Washington 2006.

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016 undertaken action. Risks that may be considered include assault sexual abuse, domestic violence, substance abuse, sexually transmitted diseases and other risks associated with medical or behavior of people.17

Time The amount of time available to prepare the mission is critical because its deficiency often forces commanders to accept higher levels of risk during the planning, preparation and implementation of the action. To avoid or reduce the level of risk in the conditions of limited time for planning, commander should act in accordance with the principle of 1/3 time for me, 2/3 for subordinates. It means that in such calculated time after the 1/3 of time it should be commanded order of battle. The remaining 2/3 is dedicated to planning and organizing activities by subordinates, and at the same time this is the phase of control, involving the monitoring of the situation in subordinate units and response in case of problems. In non- combat activities, limited time is more a matter of haste than disposability of it. An example would be a period of a long weekend where objective of young soldiers is quick access to the house, even at the expense of sufficient rest. This factor is important when such tired soldier is the driver of the vehicle, which returns home.18

Civil or Legal Considerations This aspect of considerations include the risk of losses, among the civilian population and military personnel during non-combat tasks in the area of operation. A common trend is to reduce the risks. Hazards of this factor is associated with the presence of an communities in the area of its activities, and with the intensity of its traffic members. The large amount of movement of the inhabitants may cause risks of moving the soldiers and the planned tactical maneuvers. During the evaluation of risks we should also consider eg. guerrillas, the possibility of riot and criminal activity. In non-combat operations within the legal considerations we take into account situations that may affect the desired or unwanted action of group leader or other people. 19

During the hazard identification we can use the following sources and tools: - Experience and other experts. - Regulations, manuals, standing operating procedures (SOPs), policies. - Accident data. - War-gaming what-if scenarios. - Risk assessment matrices. - Readiness assessments. - Cause and effect diagrams. - Change analysis. - Energy trace and barrier analysis. - Logic diagrams. - Mapping techniques.

17 Field Manual No. 5-19 (100-14), Composite Risk Management, Department of the Army, Washington 2006. 18 Field Manual No. 5-19 (100-14), Composite Risk Management, Department of the Army, Washington 2006. 19 Field Manual No. 5-19 (100-14), Composite Risk Management, Department of the Army, Washington 2006.

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

- Training assessments. - After-action reviews (AARs).20 Threats can occur in many areas. They may be related to the activity of opponent, the possibility of accidents, weather conditions and environmental, health, sanitation, operation of weapons and equipment. Casualties in people, equipment or means of warfare, caused by any threat, have a devastating impact on the readiness and ability to complete the task of despite of the source. Unit (soldier or civil) has greater impact on changes related to the risks arising from obeying certain rules, the possibility of accidents, effects of weapons and equipment than those the performance of the opponent.

2. Assess the hazards This step uses figures and statements and diagrams to explain the methodology aimed to assess the likelihood and degree of difficulty in achieving appropriate level of risk. However, that the mathematical description and tables have to support the commander, but it should not be a decisive element in the decision-making. It is a tool that should not decisive the making decision, based on combat experience. The risk level is determined by estimating the probability of the risk and the consequences (severity) and their impact on the functioning of subdivision (branch), if such a threat occurs. These assessments in most cases are based on the experiences of members of staff with activities in the past and the experience gathered in the so-called step Lesson learned. In this step, It seeks to answer the question: What is the likelihood of an unfavorable events and what will be the consequences if the event occurs? Hazards and associated risks are considered in the process of making decisions and the preparation (including synchronization) and implementation (Tab. 1). The end result of the analysis is preliminary risk assessment for each identified hazard categories: extremely high, high, moderate, low (Fig. 3).

Process of making decisions and risk management

Making Risk management decisions Identify Assess Develop Implement Supervise hazards hazards Controls & controls and evaluate Make decisions

1. Receiving X task

2. Analyzing X X taks

3. Developing X X X the variants of

20 Field Manual No. 5-19 (100-14), Composite Risk Management, Department of the Army, Washington 2006.

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016 action

4. Considering X X X the variants of action

5. Comparison X of variants

6. Selection of X variant - decision

7. Developing X X an order

8. X X X X X Implementation of task

Tab. 1 CRM and making decision process Source: own work based on Zarządzanie ryzykiem w organizacji militarnej według poglądów amerykańskich, D. Becmer, D. Skorupka, Zeszyty naukowe WSOWL, 2011 and Field Manual No. 5-19 (100-14), Composite Risk Management, Department of the Army, Washington 2006

Fig. 3 Risk assessment matrix Source: Field Manual No. 5-19 (100-14), Composite Risk Management, Department of the Army, Washington 2006

2.1 Assessment of the likelihood of unfavorable events

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

The probability is defined as the possibility of the event. The assessment is made on the basis of information and experience, which has a commander and staff. Probability level for each of risk is determined according to the task, developed variants or frequency of similar events. For the purposes of CRM methods, the following categories of probability: - Frequent - the risk is very common, almost regularly; if eg. found about 500 similar situation has occurred unpleasant event, you can expect a similar effect for sure happens (such events may include a rollover car collisions in the form of colliding with each other cars, injuries, abrasions resulting from conducting physical training during hot weather or acclimatized soldiers) - Likely - a threat occurs repeatedly, commonly; for example, if someone reveals 100 exposures to certain threat without appropriate action to eliminate the threat or reducing the risk that can be expected (passing improvised explosive devices, hit high voltage line by plane, unintentional discharge of weapons) - Occasional - emergency situations occur sporadically, but they are not common (can include them unexploded bombs and unexploded ordnance, and losses caused by the fire of their own troops ) - Seldom - the occurrence of dangerous situations possible in the least degree (eg. death due to heat) - Unlikely - you can assume that the hazardous situation does not occur, but it is not impossible (eg. the detonation of ammunition during transport)

2.2 Estimating the expected results or the severity of the consequences of events The severity expressed in degrees determines the size of the effects of events that may adversely affect the ability of the fighting or the ability to perform a task. Degree severity estimated for each of the risks based on the knowledge of the results of similar events in past. When filling risk assessment worksheet indicates the following levels of severity: Catastrophic - - Complete mission failure or the loss of ability to accomplish a mission. - Death or permanent total disability. - Loss of major or mission-critical systems or equipment. - Major property or facility damage. - Severe environmental damage. - Mission-critical security failure. - Unacceptable collateral damage. Critical – - Severely degraded mission capability or unit readiness. - Permanent partial disability or temporary total disability exceeding three months time. - Extensive major damage to equipment or systems. - Significant damage to property or the environment. - Security failure. - Significant collateral damage. Marginal – - Degraded mission capability or unit readiness.

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

- Minor damage to equipment or systems, property, or the environment. - Lost days due to injury or illness not exceeding three months. - Minor damage to property or the environment. Negligible – - Little or no adverse impact on mission capability. - First aid or minor medical treatment. - Slight equipment or system damage, but fully functional or serviceable. - Little or no property or environmental damage21.

2.3 Determination of the specified level of risk The likelihood and severity of the consequences of each of the identified risks using the risk assessment table (Fig. 3) are transferred in the concrete level of risk, please notice that the table shows only the risk assessment, but it should not be regarded as undeniable certainty. It can be an indicator of the relative risks of the operation or any other project. Levels of risk, specified in the table below, are taken to be presented as follows: - Extremely High Risk – Loss of ability to accomplish the mission if hazards occur during mission. A frequent or likely probability of catastrophic loss (IA or IB) or frequent probability of critical loss (IIA) exists. This implies that the risk associated with this mission, activity, or event may have severe consequences beyond those associated with this specific operation or event. The decision to continue must be weighed carefully against the potential gain to be achieved by continuing this COA. - High Risk – Significant degradation of mission capabilities in terms of the required mission standard, inability to accomplish all parts of the mission, or inability to complete the mission to standard if hazards occur during the mission. Occasional to seldom probability of catastrophic loss (IC or ID) exists. A likely to occasional probability exists of a critical loss (IIB or IIC) occurring. Frequent probability of marginal losses (IIIA) exists. This implies that if a hazardous event occurs, serious consequences will occur. The decision to continue must be weighed carefully against the potential gain to be achieved by continuing this COA. - Moderate Risk – Expected degraded mission capabilities in terms of the required mission standard and will result in reduced mission capability if hazards occur during mission. An unlikely probability of catastrophic loss (IE) exists. The probability of a critical loss is seldom (IID). Marginal losses occur with a likely or occasional probability (IIIB or IIIC). A frequent probability of negligible (IVA) losses exists. - Low Risk – Expected losses have little or no impact on accomplishing the mission. The probability of critical loss is unlikely (IIE), while that of marginal loss is seldom (IIID) or unlikely (IIIE). The probability of a negligible loss is likely or less (IVB through (IVE). Expected losses have little or no impact on accomplishing the mission. Injury, damage, or illness are not expected, or may be minor and have no long term impact or effect.22

21 Field Manual No. 5-19 (100-14), Composite Risk Management, Department of the Army, Washington 2006. 22 Field Manual No. 5-19 (100-14), Composite Risk Management, Department of the Army, Washington 2006.

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

3. Develop controls and make risk decisions After assessing each hazard, commanders (staff) are developing one or more procedures that eliminate or reduce the risk (probability and / or severity) of dangerous events. During the development of these procedures commanders (leaders) must focus on the reasons which are causing threats, and not on threats as themselves. Procedures of risk control tool can take many forms, but usually are grouped into three basic categories: - Educational (awareness) controls - based on the knowledge and skills individuals, organizations and soldiers. This includes their awareness of danger and its control. Effective scientific procedure of risk control introduced through individual and collective training, which should provide its performance at the required level - Physical controls - taking the form of guards and barriers or signs (Signals) to alert people, individuals or organizations about the existence of the threat. This also includes a competent supervisor or supervising staff - Avoidance / elimination controls - include measures positive in order to prevent interference with the identified threat or complete elimination of the threat

Effective measures (tools) controls must specify: who ?, what ?, where ?, when and how? There are a few examples of procedures to reduce risks in certain situations, taken from the instructions Field Manual No. 5-19 (100-14), Composite Risk Management: Unsecured/unstable loads. WHO: Supervisors, leaders, drivers, operators. WHAT: Ensure loads are secured in accordance with load plans and applicable manuals. WHERE: In the assembly area. WHEN: Before vehicle is allowed to leave. HOW: Emphasize cargo center of gravity, ammo, and pyrotechnics. Unsecured hatches/ramps. WHO: Supervisors, leaders, drivers, operators. WHAT: Inspect and repair unsafe conditions. WHERE: In the assembly area or motor park. WHEN: Before operation. HOW: Secure with locking pin or latch devices Improper passing. WHO: Supervisors, leaders, drivers, operators. WHAT: Establish and enforce standards, train vehicle operations to pass other vehicles only at safe places and times while considering road visibility and traffic conditions. WHERE: In assembly areas and motor parks. WHEN: Train operators and drivers before licensing, brief operators and drivers before vehicle operation. HOW: Verify drivers and operators are trained and licensed, enforce standards. Improper ground guiding. WHO: Supervisors, leaders, drivers, operators, Soldiers WHAT: Establish and enforce standards for operation of vehicles in congested areas (bivouac, maintenance, assembly and battle positions).

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

WHERE: Assembly areas, motor parks. WHEN: Before licensing drivers and operators, before exercises. HOW: Require use of ground guides while operating in limited visibility, backing vehicles, movement of vehicles in bivouac, maintenance, assembly and battle positions.23

3.1 Reassess risk With the implementation of control procedures - risk should be reassessed to determine the residual risk that is regarding individual threats and total residual risk in relation to the mission. The residual risk is the risk remaining after the implementation of the procedures of risk control selected for specific threats. The residual risk can be true, only if the selected procedures for its elimination or reduction has been implemented. As soon as certain procedures for identified threats will be selected, the risks are reassessed and the level of the risk is re-verified. Must be reckoned with the possibility that the use of some procedures will not be sufficient to significantly reduce the level of risk. The total residual risk must be determined by considering the individual residual risks relating to each identified hazard. The residual risk for each threat may be different, depending on the probability and the severity of the impending event. It is assumed that the overall risk The residual should be equal to or greater largest to the identified risks, that concerning any of the identified risks. It should also includes the quantity and nature of existing risks. In some cases, the commander may decide that the total residual risk is higher than any of the risks. The basis for such a decision is the number of threats with lower risk, if together they present a higher risk. However, in view of the complexity of the required procedures controlling risks and the synergistic effect of all the risks, commander may decide that the residual risk for the whole mission is high24.

3.2 Risk decision The purpose of the assessment process and risk management (CRM) is to create a basis for make optimal decisions about risk acceptance or lack thereof. A key element to make this decision is to determine the acceptable level of risk. Risk or the possibility of potential losses must be balanced expected benefits. The decision acceptable level of risk must always be taken on the right for of the operation, the task level of command or leadership, and the basis for its adoption is the level of risk presented.

4. IMPLEMENT CONTROLS In this step, commanders and their staffs provide merging and transformation procedures controlling risk in the standard operating procedures (SOP) and release appropriate written and oral decisions and instructions. The decisive test for this step is to make sure that the process (tool) to control the risk have been transformed into clear and simple decisions (orders). Implementation of procedures (tools) risk control, according to the literature, involves coordination and communication (contact) from:

23 Field Manual No. 5-19 (100-14), Composite Risk Management, Department of the Army, Washington 2006.

24 Field Manual No. 5-19 (100-14), Composite Risk Management, Department of the Army, Washington 2006.

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

- Appropriate superior, adjacent, and subordinate units, organizations, and individuals. - Logistics Civil Augmentation Program (LOGCAP) organizations and civilian agencies that are part of the force or may be impacted by the activity, hazard, or its control. - The media and nongovernmental organizations (NGO) when their presence impacts or is impacted by the force.

Leaders must explain how the controls will be implemented. Examples include the following: - Overlays and graphics. - Drills for vehicle and aircraft silhouette identification. - Rehearsals and battle drills. - Refresher training on intensive threat and friendly vehicle identification for all antiarmor and air defense weapons crews. - Orientation for replacement personnel. - Installation and maintenance of communications links for key civilian organizations. - Operating convoys with a prescribed minimum number of vehicles. - Provisions to carry weapons and wear body armor and helmets when outside secure compounds. - Accident awareness, safety briefings, and warnings.25

5. SUPERVISE AND EVALUATE In the fifth stage, the aim is to obtain confirmation that the risk control procedures that were made in accordance with the imposed standards were selected in appropriate control measures in order to achieve the desired goals and results. Monitoring and evaluation measures of taken decision is basic element of each stage of the operation or project. Continuous process control, based on the results achieved in the changing situation, is to provide the ability to identify shortcomings and input changes and adjustments in the procedures of risk control.

5.1 Supervise Result of the surveillance provides us a confirmation that the subordinates properly understood, how, when and where they were made for procedures of risk control. An important element in the process of identifying the CRM threats is situational awareness, which is equally important in time of supervision. It provides the appropriate level of monitoring such factors as: complacency, fatigue, availability, and capabilities of maintenance equipment and supplies, weather conditions and environmental deviations from the plan and violations of risk control procedures. This monitoring allows to reduce risks associated with these factors and reduce their negative impact on the achieving the objective. Supervision and review of the situation also allows commanders and leaders, identify and evaluate new risks and develop or modify control procedures. In the fifth step is required to maintain a high level of discipline that does not allow complacency and overconfidence that results in fatigue, caused by a situation in which staff, subordinates perform routine repeating steps. The control procedures established and implemented for a long period can often be ignored because of too much self-confidence. For example, the stabilizing actions, at the start of the operation may be identified threats caused

25 Field Manual No. 5-19 (100-14), Composite Risk Management, Department of the Army, Washington 2006.

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016 by the existence of landmines, and the following This can be set up and implement specific control procedures. However, with time, with successfully achieved (the lack of any accidents and serious incidents) conviction of the absence of risk may increase, which may result in decrease the effectiveness of established procedures. Other long-term risks, which can sometimes cause a decrease in efficiency risk control procedures includes: extreme climatic conditions, risks of using weapons of mass destruction, pollution and hazardous waste, as well as diseases from the area of operation or unfriendly society.

5.2 Evaluate Ratings (estimation) is carried out throughout the operating range, as a part of. After Action Review (AAR) - review and assess the action, which follows the completion of the operation or project. The evaluation process is used to achieve the following objectives: - Identify any hazards that were not identified as part of the initial assessment, or identify new hazards that evolved during the operation or activity. For example, any time that personnel, equipment, environment, or mission change the initial risk management analysis, the control measures should be reevaluated. - Assess effectiveness in supporting operational goals and objectives. Did the controls positively or negatively impact training or mission accomplishment? Did the controls support existing doctrine, techniques, tactics and procedures? Assess the implementation, execution, and communication of the controls. Assess accuracy of residual risk and effectiveness of controls in eliminating hazards and controlling risks. Ensure compliance with the guiding principles of CRM. Was the process integrated throughout all phases of the operation? Were risk decisions accurate? Were they made at the appropriate level? Were there any unnecessary risks, and did the benefit outweigh the cost in terms of dollars, training benefit, and time? Was the process cyclic and continuous throughout the operation?26

The commanders, leaders and individual soldiers are responsible for monitoring and evaluation of both tactical and non-military projects or off-duty activities. The techniques they are using for this purpose may include studies sampling, inspection, SITREP (situation report), checks direct supervision and so-called. review of the operation (AAR - After Action Review), which provides data of the basis of whole mission or other project may be evaluated. The review of the action should be included also evaluate the effectiveness of the process of CRM.

26 Field Manual No. 5-19 (100-14), Composite Risk Management, Department of the Army, Washington 2006.

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

References - The orange book. Management of Risk – Principles and Concepts, HM Treasury, 2014 - E. Baranoff, P. L. Brockett, Y. Kahane Risk Management for Enterprises and Individuals, Paperback, 2009 - Developing Leaders. A British Army Guide, http://www.army.mod.uk/documents/general (access: 10.04.2016); - Michniak J., Dowodzenie i łączność, AON, Warsaw 2003 - Field Manual No. 100-14, Risk Management, Department of the Army, Washington - 1998 - Field Manual No. 5-19 (100-14), Composite Risk Management, Department of the - Army, Washington 2006 - ORM 0-1, Operational Risk Management, Headquarters Marine Corps, Washington, 2002

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

TRAINING FUTURE PLATOON LEADERS FOR URBAN WARFARE

Artur CHRUŚCIEL

SUMMARY: Nowadays modern conflicts force soldiers around the globe to adjust to new situations. Modern conflicts after II World War in 80% were conducted in urban terrain. The system of training new leaders for this type of conflicts were modernized and changed many times. The aim of this article is to familiar reader with urban terrain tactics, platoon training for modern conflicts, officer cadet training in Poland and military leadership value. Keywords: Urban terrain, urban training, military leadership, officer cadet training, military tactics

1 Introduction What is military leadership? “Military leadership is the process of influencing others to accomplish the mission by providing purpose, direction, and motivation.”,

“The process by which a person influences others to accomplish an objective.”

Simple quote, but this sentence describes the main point of military leadership. Every country and its army has its own principles, however if we try to dig deeper, we can see that principles of military leadership are quite similar. “Leadership is both a research area and a practical skill, regarding the ability of an individual or organization to "lead" or guide other individuals, teams, or entire organizations.”

Principles of military leadership:

• Know yourself and seek self-improvement;

• Be technically and tactically proficient;

• Develop a sense of responsibility among your subordinates;

• Make sound and timely decisions;

• Set an example;

• Know your people and look out for their welfare;

• Keep your people informed;

• Seek responsibility and take responsibility for your actions;

• Ensure assigned tasks are understood, supervised, and accomplished;

• Train your people as a team;

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

• Employ your team in accordance with its capabilities.

Does those principles create the perfect leader, who can inspire others? Not exactly. Following them will help to develop necessary “mind guidelines”, however only experience gained from the training grounds, missions, deployments and other can determine what the true leader can become. Here comes the question, is there anything that can be done to prepare fresh platoon leaders for what they will face in the future? The answer is not that obvious, but newest training methods brought from the modern conflicts provide crucial income.

2 How does it work in Poland? Polish Army took part in main modern conflicts such as Iraq and Afghanistan. It provided great amount of experience which cannot be given from “dry” training focused on tactical books. It was a very tough time for our army which has brought a lot of changes in the entire military system from equipment, tactics to education.

Polish soldiers now follow modernised training which provides desired skills. This training can be divided for certain parts:

1. General military training (physical training, drills, basic weapon handling, basic tactics); 2. Special training (advanced tactics, advanced weapon handling); 3. Speciality/Branch training (depending on the type of the branch, task is to adapt the soldiers to the situations on the battlefield); 4. Joint force training (combined tactics). When we focus on the cadets in military academies they follow training adapted to their system of education. They study for 5 years. They learn tactics, leadership and get into their branches doing their best to reach the first level of their officers career- platoon leader. They have to work in every environment from forest, mountains even to desert area. Teachers from military academies try to bring from the cadets all their abilities and make them to judge the situation and adapt with their own approach and thoughts. Their training is also combined with professional soldiers from various units. Most of them had already been on several tours and brought lots of tough experiences.

Following the year 2016, which was named by our commanding general Mirosław Różański year of international cooperation, both training grounds and military academies are full of leaders, soldiers dealing with certain scenarios and challenges. The motto that follows one of our leaders is that - “ train as you fight, fight as you trained”. Without a doubt it follows every piece of ours army training.

3 The biggest challenge for leaders: urban warfare. World is facing conflicts all the time. Each day we read or hear about different fights that are taking place. Mainly they are focused on urban terrain. Urban terrain can be described as sector or terrain which 50 % of coverage are cities and buildings of urban type (that is: they

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016 have urban character), industrial objects and additional infrastructure. Iraq showed how devastating and bloody can be that type of fighting.

The basis of almost all modern warfare is combined arms use. Different weapons systems, wielded by different types of soldiers from different military branches at different ranges all come together to cause more damage to the enemy than would be possible alone.

Assaulting a city, an attacking military has to deal with several impediments to its success. These are enemy insurgents trying to stop them from capturing perimeter and cause heavy losses in the process, civil population of the city may or may not sympathize (or be part of) the enemy forces but in any event are in the path of the battle and must be dealt with one way or another, and the city itself which includes the geography it is built upon, the structures that make up the city and also the infrastructure that allows the city to remain inhabitable.

Taking a city street by street and building by building is enormously expensive in everything from men lost to munitions fired to time spent. So, one of the first things any military does is to begin breaking down a city's ability to remain a coherent whole. The US does this through "Effects-Based Operations", which is a fancy way of saying they break the important parts of a city's infrastructure (which can be rebuilt later) and governance (which can be changed) to induce paralysis and to so demoralize both enemy fighters and the civilian population that no one wants to fight27.

Nowadays, all eyes are focused on Syria. Despite the bombarding, air strikes etc. There is no direct conflict that coalition is taking part in. In Syria there is one thing that makes everyone terrified - civil population that is suffering the most. Key factors of urban warfare:

 civil population;  monuments;  places of religion;  large area with buildings;  stressful environment;  hard to operate;  heavy fire fights;  communication problems;  loss of ability of the heavy equipment.

27Urban Warfare Theory to Syria,URL: , [cit.2016-03-11]

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

Picture 1Soldiers in an urban warfare Source: URL: [cit. 2016-03-05]

4 What are the tactics? Tactics in urban warfare are one of the most difficult for each leader to deal with.

I would like to focus on the tactics at platoon level.

Platoon leader has to keep his men alive and also fulfil the task. Before entering the urban terrain, there are some steps to follow:

1. Recon phase (provides information for platoon leader);

2. Preparation phase (adjusting equipment for the mission, briefing, preparing tactics, signals, case scenarios such as wounded or dead);

3. Main phase (getting boots on the ground, fulfilling the mission);

4. Ending phase (return to base).

Reconnaissance is the most important part of every operation that is to take place. Platoon leader must be aware that with good intel (information gained by military intelligence), he can command his platoon more direct and precise. It also helps to plan the task and gives information such as: what is enemy activity, numbers and equipment, what routes can be used, what are the crucial parts of urban terrain that they are to operate. Platoon leader is able to set plan A and B, RV points (rendezvous points), points for wounded and dead to be picked up.

Platoon must be trained in different scenarios before entering urban terrain such as:

1. Basic tactics in urban terrain (moving through the streets, entering the buildings, securing the area);

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

2. Advanced tactics in urban terrain (clearing the buildings [Close Quarters Battle], response to fire contact, cooperation with other branches, dealing with civil population);

3. Specialised tactics in urban terrain (preparing soldiers specialised in : heavy equipment, JTACs [Joint Terminal Air Controller], medics, engineers).

Urban terrain is the most dangerous to conduct operations. Very small space, buildings they force soldiers to remain focused all the time, which makes them very tired in no time. Most of the casualties are to be done during CQB. Insurgents are hiding in very small corners of every building that platoon is to check. Lieutenant as a leader should provide as many trainings as possible, preparing his soldiers for almost every scenario. In Poland despite regular CQB trainings, special forces operators offer their knowledge and experience for regular units. It raises the morale and ability of those troops that were trained by the best of the best.

During building clearings leader must: • divide platoon for support and assault sections; • check communication/signals; • check weapon systems; • be aware of the surroundings.(Picture 1) Only then he can start moving through urban terrain.

Picture 2 Example of building entry tactics Source: Taktyka walki w terenie zurbanizowanym If the operation is more complex or requires more firepower, platoon leader can get extra support such as IFV ( Infantry Fighting Vehicle), MBT (Main Battle Tank) or even air support, but only in harsh exceptions. They can cause tones of damage and help own troops to

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016 gain advantage, however if they are to be used, it must be done wisely. Such a support without good coordination will be useless at the battlefield.

IFV’s and MBT’s in urban terrain can be engaged from every part of the street or building leaving them unprotected. During cooperation infantry must cover the IFV or MBT from the sides also following it. Platoon must be divided that every soldier has a sector and he follows it no matter what. In case of enemy to engage they return fire at the command of platoon leader.(Picture 2)

Picture 3 Getting through crossroads with the help of infantry Source: Taktyka walki w terenie zurbanizowanym

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

Lieutenant also must be aware that damage caused by tanks or IFV can be irreversible for native people leaving in the city. Before giving order to open fire he must be sure that area is clear of civilians and that fire will not damage crucial infrastructure.

In case of presence of civil population, platoon must change to carbines and sniper rifles to be more precise and fire must be controlled at every manner. Here is another point which nowadays plays the biggest role in modern urban conflicts - who is who?

In Afghanistan or Syria civil population wear beards, typical clothing for their culture but so do insurgents. They hide among the civil population, secretly smuggle weapons and waiting for the best moment to attack. Dangerous part is that they use innocent people and religious infrastructure as shields. They are aware that coalition forces are forbidden to open fire at those buildings and of course civil population. Before engagement, enemy must be positively verified either with UAV (unmanned aerial vehicle) or soldiers on the ground and only then fire can be used at them.

There is not much for platoon leader to do in that manner. Only recon or intel on the ground can provide enough information to help operate on the ground. However soldiers can learn about the culture and habits of the certain country. It can be a favourable for them to verify any suspicious actions. Platoon can set checkpoints at the most crucial points at the city. Lieutenant must also take advantage of snipers or marksman soldiers attached to his platoon. With their support soldiers on the ground can feel a little more safer. Task of such a soldier is:

 provide information;  reconnaissance;  counter sniper;  fire support;  observation.

5. How to train platoon leaders? Lieutenant as a platoon leader has very broad responsibility. He must focus from the smallest parts of the training to the biggest. Beginning with soldiers physicality, it is said that it is on a single soldier to maintain fit and healthy, however leader can train with his soldiers additionally in manners that he wants to focus on. The scheme shows optional system that should be followed to sustain platoons readiness.

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

Figure 1Platoon leaders training scheme Source: Own work It must be said that it all depends on the type of the unit and its purpose, however this scheme can be modified depending on the needs. Platoon leader must follow one important rule: be flexible. The unit should provide both equipment and skilled instructors, not only to develop the level of soldiers, but also to push them to their very best.

Platoon leaders must themselves study the history of urban warfare, because history should be learnt from. Each conflict brings important facts that should be analysed. United States Army has developed wide spread urban warfare training based on experience brought from Iraq and Afghanistan. It begins with basic tactics in section, teams, platoons and step by step they get into the theme of more advanced urban warfare. They separately train shooting from static to very dynamic, which provides the key for a urban training.

Mentioned before, crucial training must be focused on buildings and their “clearing”. It is both dangerous and hard to do. USA also send their special forces operators to help in learning process. It is known that their experience is only to show how it should be done, but it takes years of training, working together and dealing with the mistakes that happens all the time. If it comes to additional remarks, from different perspectives we cannot forget about communication and signals. In era when operations are conducted with combined effort of multinational forces both language and communication is of the highest importance. When it fails we must be aware that casualties will be taken.

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

Picture 4 Mascatatuck Urban Training Center in USA Source: URL: < http://www.astateofdefense.com/uploads/1/3/3/1/13311122/602012_orig.jpg > [cit. 2016- 03-05]

6. Urban training for cadets in Military Academy of Land Forces of gen. Tadeusz Kościuszko. Wędrzyn - small village on the western side of Poland. It is a place of wooden terrain which suites perfect the environment of our country. In the middle of Wędrzyn’s training grounds there is the biggest urban training complex in Europe. It is used not only by regular units of Polish Armed Forces, but also by special forces, cadets and international armies such as USA.

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

Picture 5 Cadets urban training in Wędrzyn (left) Picture 6 Getting out of the building method made by cadets(right) Source: Own source Military Academy of Land Forces each year trains its cadets in urban tactics, sending them for longer period of time. It is said that 90% of conflicts after II World War happened in urban terrain28. That is why our academy focus on developing necessary skills and habits which will be used by them in the future duty.

During urban training each cadet who is to operate in urban terrain must go through basic urban course which involves: basic building clearing, moving though urban terrain, getting through natural urban obstacles, getting off the higher places with the use of leaders and ropes, psychological course and improvised “French” obstacle course.

All those basic skills that cadet will get during his training will be used during more advanced urban tactics. When a cadet passes to advanced level he is to start commanding from team to platoon. Qualified instructors are guiding him through all levels of the tactical warfare. At the beginning they follow direct instructions, but after some time they are tasked to fulfil specific mission with their own approach which makes the training more realistic.

For cadets it is the best way to test themselves and see how difficult duty can be. Also instructors try not only to prepare them for urban warfare, but also develop necessary principles from military leadership which is a key of a future platoon leader.

For those cadets who are seeking more challenges academy offers section called Section of Combined Operations. Their job is to train cadets in every tactical terrain from mountains to urban. Cadets are trained mostly by special forces operators for longer period of time, they focus on “dry” training then moving through fire trainings. After passing their combined work they are send to certain terrain, receive the task and they are given from 24 to 72 hours to fulfil it. They are also taught survival skills and individual habits to operate.

28A. SOBOLEWSKI, Wybrane aspekty walki w mieście (English: Choosen aspects of urban warefare), AON, POLAND, 2006

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

Picture 7 Soldiers preparing to attack urban area Soruce: URL: [cit. 2016-03-05] To sum up, conflicts around the world develop all the time, bringing new threats, new enemies and new situations. Armies of all countries need to develop and adjust their training seeking modern ways to deal with the problems and outcomes. Military academies through platoon leader training system must seek the most realistic approach to develop in single cadet necessary skills and habits. It must be said that practical approach is one of the most important for a future leader to go through.

International cooperation is the best step that was made by countries to get together different perspectives and experiences. Each year brings this international leadership program to another level helping cadets to become better in future duty and greater readiness for what is to come.

References [1] Urban Warfare Theory to Syria, URL: ,[cit.2016-03-11]

[2] A. SOBOLEWSKI, Wybrane aspekty walki w mieście (English: Choosen aspects of urban warefare),AON, POLAND, 2006

Online references: www.polskazbrojna.pl

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

POSSIBILITIES OF THERMO-ANEMOMETRIC AND OPTICAL MEASURING OF LIQUID WATER CONTENT IN WET AIR

Rostislav JANKŮ29

SUMMARY: The paper is focused on the experimental study of possibilities of the thermo- anemometric analysis for determination of the liquid water content in the stream of wet air. The developed method is based on the measurement and comparison of stream velocity of wet and dry air by the hot-wire thermal anemometric probe. Experiments were performed in the small icing wind tunnel using the standard thermal anemometer Testo 425. There was found the correlation between the liquid water content and the difference in velocity of the wet and dry airstreams. The next aim of this work is an assessment and evaluation of possibilities of optical measurement of LWC, MVD and the stream homogeneity. This method of measurement is based on catching of streaming droplets by a highly advanced camera, while the outputs of measurement are processed and evaluated by used of software such as Matlab and Adobe Photoshop. The conclusion of the paper pays attention for the interpretation and formulation the final analyses and recommendations.

Keywords: Liquid Water Content, Aircraft Icing, Hot-wire Sensor.

1 Introduction The liquid water content (LWC) is a measure of the amount of water contained in the amount of dry air, usually expressed by grams of water per cubic meter of air (g/m3). The LWC is used for determining of the water content in a cloud. Clouds may contain LWC values from of 0.03 g/m3 for cirrus clouds up to 3 g/m3 for cumulonimbus clouds. Clouds contain wide range of water droplet sizes with different diameters. The range of diameters usually extends from 15 to 40 μm. Clouds below freezing often contain a mixture of supercooled liquid droplets and small ice crystals. Freezing drizzle size droplets normally extend from 40 to 400 μm. Freezing rain droplets are larger still, extending up to several millimeters in diameter.

The liquid water content, along with airspeed, air temperature, and water droplet size is one of the important parameters that affects icing on aircraft. Therefore, it is crucial to determine a suitable method for measuring the liquid water content in natural clouds or in the stream of air in an icing wind tunnel.

2 Measuring Techniques There are several ways that can be used to measure the liquid water content in clouds or in the flowing air stream.

29 rtm. Bc. Rostislav Janků, Faculty of Military Technology, University of Defence, Kounicova 65, 662 10 Brno, Czech Republic. E-mail: [email protected]

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

One way involves cloud remote-sensing techniques. The most known are weather radars. Operational radars were not specifically designed for icing detection, but they may yield information that, when combined with that from other sources such as numerical weather prediction models, satellite imagery, or surface observations, provides clues to the location and intensity of icing [1].

Cloud water can also be retrieved from passive microwave measurements because of its strong spectral signature and polarization signature. Clouds are semi-transparent allowing for measurement of the total columnar absorption. The absorption is related to the total amount of liquid water in the viewing path, after accounting for oxygen and water vapor absorption [2].

A laser disdrometer measures the reduction of total signal as a hydrometeor passes through a horizontally oriented laser-beam. This signal is proportional to the linear extent of the beam blocked by the hydrometer at this instant in time [3].

The icing blade and rotating cylinder, which are commonly used to measure LWC in icing wind tunnels, although there are very simple devices can provide accurate measurements in an icing spray cloud with a median volume diameter less than 50 μm. Both are based on the measure of thickness of ice accreting on the probe surface during the appropriate exposure time [4].

The iso-kinetic probe is less sensitive to droplet splashing, because droplets are drawn iso- kinetically into the probe. The amount of collected water is then weighed to provide a direct LWC measurement. The iso-kinetic condition defines a cylindrical stream tube in a spray cloud with a cross-sectional area equal to the probe’s inlet area, hence, each measurement represents a discrete point in a spray cloud distribution [5].

Another way is in situ airborne measurements providing the most accurate information about cloud characteristics and detection of icing conditions.

The forward scattering spectrometer probe is an instrument developed for the measurement of cloud droplet size distributions and concentration. This probe detects single particles and size them by measuring the intensity of light that the particle scatters when passing through a focused laser beam. The instrument can size particles from 1 to 50 μm and it is capable of sizing particles having velocities from 20 to 175 m/s [6].

Optical array probe for in situ cloud droplet measurements uses the definition of the cross- sectional sample area within which droplets are detected. The sample volume is derived by multiplying the sample area by the flow velocity and the sample duration. Therefore, a bias in the sample area or in the flow velocity translates directly to a bias in measured droplet concentrations and calculated LWC. This probe is used for measure droplets in the range of dimeters from 15 to 450 μm [7].

The hot-wire liquid water sensors are frequently used. The wire is attached to the power supply and is situated on the outside of the airplane. As it moves through a cloud, water droplets hit the wire and evaporate, reducing the temperature of the wire. The resistance of the

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016 sensing coil is directly proportional to its temperature; therefore, the control circuit maintains the sensor at constant temperature by maintaining it at constant resistance. A Wheatstone bridge is formed of four resistances, of which the master coil sensor is one. The power dissipated by the sensor is the product of the current through the sensor and the voltage drop across it. The power dissipation due solely to vaporization can then be estimated, which in turn gives an estimate of liquid water content.

The Johnson-Williams instrument uses two heated wires in a balanced bridge circuit. The main sensing wire is 0.55 mm in diameter and is mounted perpendicular to the airstream. It is heated at a constant voltage to a temperature above the boiling point of water. Cloud droplets impinging on the wire are evaporated, causing the wire to cool and its electrical resistance to decrease. This change in resistance causes an imbalance in the bridge circuit; the degree of imbalance is related to the LWC. The second wire is mounted to the airstream and is shielded from droplet impingement. This wire is connected to the opposite side of the bridge and compensates for small changes in air temperature, air density and speed [4].

The CSIRO-King instrument employs a sensor composed of three wire coils wound around a small hollow tube. The slave coils on each side of the master coil are connected in series and minimize the longitudinal heat conduction from the master coil. The total heat transfer rate from the coil is determined from the power required to keep the sensor coil at a constant temperature. This heat transfer rate is composed of the “dry” term, which is a function of airspeed, air density and air temperature, and a “wet” term, which is a function of airspeed and LWC [4].

The Nevzorov instrument is also a constant temperature device which consists of two separate hot-wire sensor systems that are intended to measure liquid water content and total water content (i.e., liquid plus ice crystal water content). The sensing elements are mounted on a vane that is designed to keep the sensors aligned into the airflow. Each sensor system consists of two heated wires a sensing wire and a compensating wire. The liquid water content sensor consists of the sensor wire coil of 1.8 mm diameter mounted on the leading edge of the vane and the compensating wire mounted on the trailing edge of the vane. The total water sensor consists of a wire mounted inside a cylindrical cone and the compensating wire wound in a groove around the cylinder. Each set of wires is controlled and monitored by its own set of electronics [4].

3 Thermo-Anemometric Method of Measurement Prices of the above mentioned systems are too high for using in the small icing wind tunnel, that is used at the University of Defence [8]. Therefore, we were seeking for some simple and less expensive sensor for determining of the liquid water content in the stream of wet air.

Hot-wire anemometers have been used extensively for many years as a research tool in fluid mechanics. Measurement of fluid flow velocity is based on the fact that the probe’s resistance is proportional to the temperature of the hot wire, which is influenced by the fluid convective heat transfer. If water droplets are present in an air stream, it is supposed that the impacting

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016 droplets should substantially increase the hot-wire probe cooling. This phenomenon is then indicated by increasing the measured flow velocity. This increase in velocity due to contained water droplets in the air stream is examined for various liquid water contents, flow velocities and temperatures.

The standard thermal anemometer Testo 425 was chosen as the instrument for measuring flow velocities and temperatures by means of a permanently connected hot-wire probe. View of the instrument is show in Fig. 1 (a). The hot-wire probe of the thermal anemometer Testo 425 was attached in the center of the test section of the small icing tunnel as shown in Fig. 1 (b).

(a) (b) Fig. 1: Thermal anemometer Testo 425 (a), hot-wire probe attached in test section (b)

The one nozzle sprayer has been used for the injection of the distilled water into the annular air duct of diameter 120 mm. The resulting liquid water content in the stream of wet air is determined by: the mass of injected water, the duration of water injection, the air flow velocity, and the air duct of diameter. It yields

m LWC  , (1) vA where Δm is the mass (g) of water consumed in a sprayer and Δτ is the time (s) of this consumption, v is the airflow velocity (m/s) in the tunnel test section and A is the flow cross- sectional area (m2).

The experiment was performed in such a way that it is possible to find a dependence between the liquid water content and the difference in velocity of the wet and dry airstreams.

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

Differences in velocities of airstreams with and without water droplets injection were examined for various injector modes ensuring LWC values from zero to 8 g/m3. A set of measurements were performed for three airstream velocities v = 5, 8 and 11 m/s and for two air temperatures 0 °C and 24 °C.

Results of measurement as the courses of difference in velocity Δv of the wet and dry airstreams versus the liquid water content LWC for three dry airstream velocities v are given in Fig. 2 at the temperature 24 °C and in Fig. 3 at the temperature 0 °C.

Fig. 2: Difference in velocity of wet and dry airstreams versus liquid water content at temperature 24 °C for airflow velocities: (a) 11 m/s, (b) 8 m/s, (c) 5 m/s

Fig. 3: Difference in velocity of wet and dry airstreams versus liquid water content at temperature 0 °C for airflow velocities: (a) 11 m/s, (b) 8 m/s, (c) 5 m/s

Presented results of measurement show us that the difference in velocity of wet and dry airstreams is a suitable parameter for the determination of the liquid water content with a substantial increase for higher airstream velocities. The influence of the temperature is fairly low.

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

If we are looking for the correlation between the liquid water content and the given difference in measured velocity, it seems to be rather complicated as seen in Fig. 2 and Fig. 3. However, if we express the difference in measured velocity Δv related to the airflow kinetic energy by Δv/v2, we do obtain nearly identical courses for all airflow velocities as shown in Fig. 4. These slight differences are probably given by the measurement accuracy.

Fig. 4: Difference in velocity of wet and dry airstreams related to airflow kinetic energy versus liquid water content at temperature 24 °C for airflow velocities: (a) 11 m/s, (b) 8 m/s, (c) 5 m/s

An approximation of the measurement results is useful for a computer processing. The dependence of LWC versus Δv/v2 is plotted for two air temperatures in Fig. 5.

Fig. 5: Liquid water content versus difference in velocity of wet and dry airstreams related to airflow kinetic energy for air temperatures: (a) 0 °C, (b) 24 °C

The best candidate for the approximation of measured results seems to be the polynomial equation in form

y1 v y2  v  LWC  x1 T  x2 T   , (2) v2  v2  where T is the absolute air temperature (K).

By applying the approximation equation (2) for results of measurement, we can obtain by using the Excel processor the dependence of the liquid water content LWC on the difference

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016 in measured velocity of the wet and dry airstreams Δv, the airflow velocity v, and the absolute air temperature T valid for the thermal anemometer Testo 425 in form

2 11 4.045 v 22 8.4  v  LWC  4.454 10 T 2  2.727 10 T  2  (3) v  v  ,

4 Optical Method of Measurement

Next method of measurement is optical method, which was chosen to measure MVD and LWC. The aim of this measure was to catch the picture of streaming water droplets in the small icing wind tunnel. Firstly, it was necessary to use highly technical advanced camera with very short exposure time. We assumed that the size of the droplets is about 0.5 mm. After that we calculated that with the streaming velocity about 10 m·s-1 the overcoming distance of water droplets is about 0.125 mm. After considering this fact, we set the exposure 1 time to 푠. This camera, which was fixed on the tripod takes photo of sharp water 8000 droplets. There was also a condition that we need to center the camera to the center of measuring section so that we were able to distinguish water droplets which look like sharp or fuzzy. The small icing wind tunnel was illuminated with the cold lights because of possible destruction the glasses wall of the tunnel by using hot lights. The injection nozzle was set as 3 bar and the velocity of streaming air was 8 m·s-1. The sprayer with injection nozzles of diameter 0.512 mm and 0.584 mm and the spray gun set as maximum or minimum diameter were tested. Photos of streaming water droplets for each diameter of injection nozzle are shown in Fig. 6 and 7.

Fig. 6: Streaming water droplets using the sprayer injection nozzle of diameter 0.512 mm

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

Fig. 7: Streaming water droplets using the sprayer injection nozzle of diameter 0.584 mm

It was necessary to determine the transfer between pixels and millimeters because of obtaining the size and the velocity of water droplets. After evaluating the field of acuteness we calculated that on 1 mm is equal to 31.12 px from the photos of 4256x2832 px distinction. Nevertheless the photos were evaluated and the average value of water droplets diameter and velocity was determined. The diameter of water droplets were evaluated approximately in program called Adobe Photoshop and the average value of water droplets and velocity was by following equation calculated.

1 푥̄ = ∑푛 푥 , (4) 푛 푖=1 푖

1 1 푛 푠 = ( ∑ (푥 − 푥̄)2)2 , (5) 푛 푖=1 푖 Appropriate numbers were placed into equations above and the results of water droplets diameter and velocity are given in the following table.

Diameter of injection v [m·s-1] d [mm] nozzle [mm] 0.512 13.182 ± 3,653 0.265 ± 0.051

0.584 11.601 ±2.454 0.271 ± 0.068 Tab. 1: Results of optical measuring

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

It was find out that the camera we used was not able to catch the picture of such small water droplets when the spray gun was sued. How was the needle tightened or release was not important while the picture of streaming droplets was identical (Fig. 8).

Fig. 8: Streaming water droplets using the spray gun – fuzzy picture

After determination the diameter and velocity of water droplets, the next goal was to evaluate LWC optically. Using this method we had to specify the deep of acuteness. The deep of acuteness was set as 18 mm, it means that the sharp water droplets were able to observe to this depth. In the photos which were taken before was the field with accurate dimensions defined (Fig. 6 and 7). We could imagine the cube or prism, which is specified with these dimensions – dimensions of the field and the depth of the photo. In these three dimensional fields there was the amount of sharp water droplets counted. Firstly we need to calculate the volume of one droplet in this field (6).

4 푉 = 휋푟3 , (6) 3

Where 푟 is the radius of one droplet, actually it is half of average diameter which was calculated in previous chapter. Final equation of LWC calculated in imaginary air prism is following:

푋.푉.휌 퐿푊퐶 = , (7) 퐴푓푖푒푙푑.푡

where 푋 is the number of sharp droplets in evaluated field, 푉 is the volume of one droplet and 휌 is the density of water. Multiplying 푉 and 휌 we obtain the weight of one droplet. The next quantity which was necessary for obtaining LWC is the surface of evaluated field - 퐴푓푖푒푙푑. Finally the last quantity which was contained in the equation is 푡 – the thickness of the prism,

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016 in fact it is equal to the depth of the field. We assume that the field is homogenous, because of possibility of using this specific method.

Evaluated field for determination the amount of water droplets

Fig. 9: Evaluation the field from the photo for injection nozzle of diameter 0.512 mm

Evaluated field for determination the amount of water droplets

Fig. 10: Evaluation the field from the photo for injection nozzle of diameter 0.512 mm

The streaming velocity of the air was again 8 m·s-1, the injection nozzle was 3 bars. Final results of optical measurement for these concrete parameters are in table below introduced in Tab. 2. We were not able to evaluate the results for the spray gun, why the problem with catching streaming droplets persists.

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

Diameter Dimensions Area of Amount Volume Weight of of of the the of water of one Depth one water LWC injection evaluated evaluated droplets water accuteness droplet [g.m-3] nozzle field field in the droplet [mm] [g] [mm] [mm] [mm2] field [mm3]

0.512 86.0 x 71.8 6174.8 120 9.7·10-3 9.74·10-6 18 10.52

10.4·10- 0.584 65.5 x 51.3 3360.1 80 1.04·10-5 18 13.78 3

Tab. 2: Final results of the optical method experiment

Conclusion The low cost method for the liquid water content quantification in the stream of wet air using the thermal anemometer Testo 425 has been developed. It is possible to use this method for determination of LWC in an icing tunnel from differences in measured velocities of airstreams with and without water droplets spray injection. In principle, it is possible to use the thermal anemometer also for the in situ airborne measurements, if the hot-wire probe would be placed nearby the pitot tube for determining the airspeed of an aircraft. The difference between measured velocities using the thermal anemometer Testo 425 and the pitot tube would be applied by the same way for the determination of the liquid water content. During the testing, there was also the optical measurement accomplished. Optical measure was provided by special photographic method when the photos were examined. The results of optical measure show that the size of the streaming water droplets in dependence of the injection hole increases. The results of LWC show that the size on injection hole has the same effect. We were able to test only the sprayer using this specific method, because we were not able to catch the streaming droplets during the spray gun testing.

Results of measurement and their approximation presented in this paper are valid for the given one nozzle water sprayer. The type of water sprayer determines the droplet size diameter. In future, further testing for another water sprayers is supposed.

References [1] Marcia K. POLITOVICH. Aircraft Icing, Elsevier Science, 2003, p. 73. [2] Frank J. WENTZ. A Well Calibrated Ocean Algorithm for Special Sensor Microwave Imager, Journal of Geophysical Research, Volume 102, Issue C4, p. 8703-8718. [3] Mary J. BARTHOLOMEW. ARM’s Handbook for the Parsivel2 Laser Disdrometer. DOE/SC-ARM-TR-137, U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Science, February 2014.

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

[4] Robert F. IDE. Comparison of Liquid Water Content Measurement Techniques in an Icing Wind Tunnel, NASA/TM-1999-209643 [Report], December 1999, p. 24. [5] Jason TAN, Michael PAPADAKIS, Selvakumar MUTHUSWAMY. Development of a Reference Liquid Water Content Probe, U.S. Department of Transportation DOT/FAA/AR-05/23 [Report], August 2005, p. 135. [6] Fast Forward Scattering Spectrometer Probe. SPEC FCDP Technical Manual, March 2011, p. 18. [7] Sara LANCE at al. Water droplet calibration of the Cloud Droplet Probe (CDP) and in- flight performance in liquid, ice and mixed-phase clouds during ARCPAC. Atmospheric Measurement Techniques, 2010, Vol. 3, p. 1683–1706. [8] Vladimír HORÁK, Bohumír HOŘENÍ, Dalibor ROZEHNAL, Emil SVOBODA. Small Icing Wind Tunnel. ICMT’07, Proceedings of the International Conference on Military Technologies. Brno, University of Defence, 2-4 May 2007, p. 85-90.

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

DETECTION AND ANALYSIS OF CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL, RADIOACTIVE AND NUCLEAR WEAPONS THREAT

Adrian KAPUŚCIOK

SUMMARY:

Over the last decade, much has been written about Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) and Terrorism. The meaning of the terms itself is somewhat controversial and very similar., Although there is a formal, legalistic definition of WMD “any weapon or device that is intended, or has the capability, to cause death or serious bodily injury to a significant number of people through the release, dissemination, or impact of toxic or poisonous chemicals or their precursors; a disease organism; radiation or radioactivity”. Don’t you have terrorism on your mind when you read those definition? The aim of this article is to familiar reader with the Polish army equipment which helps to fight danger, which is inseparable with WMD.

Keywords: Weapons of Mass Destruction, Chemical, biological, radioactive, nuclear, warfare, CBRN, contamination,

1. INTRODUCTION

The sixties of the last century were the years of the Cold War confrontation between the two blocs - the Warsaw Pact in the composition , which as a result of the postwar division of Europe was the Polish , and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). In these years, military scenarios of both opposing sides, assumed in the possibility of armed conflict , to use the weapons of mass destruction . The sense of threat that was carrying behind the escalation of the Cold War was the cause of plans to create military units responsible for defense against nuclear, biological and chemical weapons. One of these units was the Centralny Ośrodek Analizy Skażeń COAS (CBRN Area Control Center – CBRN ACC) , which was formed on 31 of March 1968. The resort was responsible for collecting information about impacts of weapons of mass destruction and the preparation of simulation and forecast development of contamination, as well as proposals for action for leaders at the highest level.

The collapse of the Warsaw Pact, leave from the theory about Cold War and the possibility to use of weapons of mass destruction and social pressure to "act without losses" caused the system of CBRN defense changed their orientation from the protection of combat

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016 capability subdivisions on care about the health of individual soldiers. Also important was the growing care of the environmental protection in the areas of the armed forces activity. Another factor modifying orientation activities, was that Poland join to the structure of NATO. This resulted in the need to adjust operating procedures of our system to the existing alliance system detection and reporting of the contaminations .

The second, extremely dramatic incident that affected the way of thinking about the organization CBRN defense, was the attack on the World Trade Centre on 11 September 2001. This tragedy made it clear to all of us that sense of security is an illusion. Threat may arise in the least expected place, time and form. That broth about the need for such reconstruction of CBRN defense system, so that it can respond immediately, without time- consuming implementation projects related to the process of achieving higher states of readiness. In result, Department of Response was brought to life in 2003. It contains the Mobile CBRN Laboratories and Mobile Response Team, ready to complete its tasks alike, within the country and abroad, including in the structure of the NATO Response Force.

2. COLLECTIVE PROTECTION

One of the greatest achievements of the twenty-first century in the Polish military technology, according to a large range of specialists, is the wheeled Wheeled Armored Vehicle ROSOMAK.

Picture 1. KTO ROSOMAK Source: [online] http://tenksite.blogspot.com/2014/09/rosomaki-w-akcji.html [cit. 27.03.2016]

This opinion was gained not only because of high quality and combat prowess of the car, but by the various types of systems installed in it. Such a system is, among other, OPBMR board system, which will be specified later in this article.

Chemical, radiological and nuclear blast detection system CHERDES®II, also known as ” the signaller CHERDES®II" is used for the detection and identification of contamination

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016 toxic warfare agents, toxic chemicals, detection of radioactive contamination, close nuclear explosions and measure the dose and dose rate of gamma radiation.30

Picture 2. CHERDES II Source: Manual of CHERDES II After the detection of chemical, radioactive or nuclear explosion the signaller CHERDES®II automatically generates alarms (light and sound) to warn the crew of the vehicle from the risks of contamination as well as electrical signals to run the systems of defense against weapons of mass destruction (closing air intakes, the inclusion of suction and filtering system, disabling motor vehicle, closing blinds and start-up eye protection system).

Signaling device CHERDES®II is a board device, which can be installed in tanks, stationary objects, combat infantry vehicles and wheeled armored vehicles, etc.

The signaller CHERDES®II is a complex structure which consists of the following components:

N Component Name Number 0. 1 The detector of chemical contamination GID-3 1pcs. 1. 2 The Block of Detection Contamination TSC 1pcs. 2. and Nuclear Blast Detection 3 Radiometric probe - ZR-1 2 pcs. 3. 4 An air-intake system TATS 1 set 4. 5 Desktop Display 1 pcs. 5. 6 An installation frame with shock absorbers 1 pcs. 6. The detector of chemical contamination GID-3

30 Chemical, radiological and nuclear blast detection system CHERDES®II - manual

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

Sensor GID-3 is a portable sensor designed to detect and identify poison gas. GID-3 defines the vapor concentration of gases in the atmosphere. The result of chemical analysis of air samples is signaled by indications bar graph that points the level of chemical risk in real time.

Picture 3. Detector GID -3 Source [online] http://www.pimco.pl/[cit. 27.03.2016]

In addition, the sensor has the following features:

1. Automatically detect the presence of one or more vapors of poison gas in real time, 2. Enables acoustic and visual alarm in case of detection of poison gas in the analyzed air 3. Identifies nerve gases as well as stinging gases and specify the level of concentration. 4. When a gas is detected the sensor, during the 25 min, automatically is purified of remnants contaminated samples, calibrates itself and after that able to re-analysis. 5. The sensor works without supervision in locations distant from the centers of management. 6. Operation requires only one person. 7. The sensor is a portable device. 8. Preparation of the sensor to work after removal from the transport container takes up to 30 minutes. Collapsing probe into condition for transporting, in the transport container, requires no more than 10 minutes. 9. The sensor operates in all weather conditions.31 Operating principle of the sensor GID - 3:

31 Detector of chemical contamination GID-3 - manual

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

The sensor draws in an air sample through the aspirating nozzles and pumps the air sample to two detectors through the membrane. One of the detectors detects gas paralyzing G (NERVE); other stinging gasses H (BLISTER). Following the chemical analysis, the sample is pumped into the air through the exhaust nozzle. As a result of chemical analysis detectors produce electrical signals that are analyzed by an internal microprocessor. The signal analyzed by the microprocessor is further sent to a bar graph that shows what kind of gas and what the concentration level has been detected in the sample.

Alarm. When the level of the gas concentration in the sample exceeds 3 / three LEDs with eight-LED pointer lights up / red alarm lamp starts blinking. At the same time acoustic alarm is activated. Rotary switch that is located on the control panel allows you to disable audible alarm.

Automatic cleaning and calibration of the sensor. In the case where the vapor concentration exceeds level 5 on the display , the sensor automatically stops analysis and initiates the self-cleaning air system. After completion of the self-cleaning GID-3 automatically resumes.

Total work time of the sensor is recorded in the hourly numerator (HOURS LOG).

The Block of Detection Contamination toxic warfare agents and Nuclear Blast Detection

It is designed to:

• detection of terrestrial and low-air nuclear explosions from a distance to 5 km from the epicenter of a nuclear explosion; • detection of the selected toxic chemicals agents (chlorine and ammonia); • Digital communications with radiometric probes ZR-1, with the detector of chemical contamination GID-3 and the desktop display; • generate alarm signals (CONTAMINATION, ATOM) after detection of contamination; • control pneumatic air system for analysis (detector of chemical contamination GID- 3). It is designed to measure the dose rate and gamma dose rate.

Radiometric probe - ZR-1

Measurement range: . Absorbed dose of 1μGy / h to 10Gy / h;

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

Gamma dose rate of 10μGy to 20Gy.

Picture 4. Raniometric probe –ZR-1 Source: own

An air-intake system TATS

It is designed to take in air from outside the vehicle, also allows separation aerosol of water as well as large-size dust particles from the air.

Picture 5. An air-intake system TATS Source: By CSWIiCh Wrocław

Desktop display

It is designed to display information about contaminations, technical condition of CHERDES®II, alerting the crew car about contaminations with sound or light signal, communication with the on-board computer.

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

Picture 6. Desktop display Source: [online] http://www.pimco.pl/[cit. 27.03.2016]

3. RECOGNITION OF CHEMICAL POLLUTION

Automatic recognition device of chemical contamination AP4C is designed to detect, group identification and indicative determination of the level of concentration of toxic warfare agents and toxic industrial substances in the air, as well as for the detection and identification of these measures in samples of liquid materials, including water and in samples of solids.

Picture 7. AP4C device Source: AP4C manual

Device AP4C thanks to the channel "CH" has the ability to detect flammable gas chemicals and is adapted to safe work in the atmosphere containing such gases. Equipped with internal memory, which continuously record data associated with its use, and executed measurement.

AP4C device is adapted to work with a PC. For this purpose is equipped with a RS 422 connector, where communication derivation is disposed under the handle. Derivation

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016 allows you to obtain information related to the previous and current use of the device and to generate real-time information with the diagnosis of contamination recorded in the form of report ATP45. It is a portable device that is operated by a single soldier, including the one who is wearing personal protective equipment against contamination, adapted to work in the field.32

Thanks to the high detection sensitivity AP4C device can be used to signal the risk of contamination at a level which does not require the use of individual protection measures against contamination. Such a high detection sensitivity BST also determines about the fact that device AP4C is widely used in the process of assessing the effectiveness of decontamination of armament, military equipment and body surface area.

Picture 8. assessing the effectiveness of decontamination of suit Source:By CSWIiCh Wrocław

AP4C instrument is a fully automatic, the usage and handling is limited to assembly the power source, a hydrogen cylinder, to enable and disable the device. A detailed description of the use is included in the accompanying instructions.

From unfavorable weather conditions and mechanical damage during storage and transportation equipment is protected by placing it in a suitcase designed to transport and storage.

32 Automatic recognition device of chemical contamination AP4C - manual

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

4. INFORMATION SYSTEM

The computer system PROMIEŃ system is designed for multi-level CBRN CC and CBRN ACC, which are the cells of the system connected to a vast network of transmission.

Picture 9. The computer system PROMIEŃ Source:[online] http://rczpi.wp.mil.pl/[cit. 27.03.2016]

Information System PROMIEŃ supports tasks related to:

 Processing and generating reports CBRN;  An assessment the situation of contamination;  Warning and alerting endangered troops.

Proper system design gives it the ability to act as both a standalone and cooperation with the systems that convert reports ADAT P3 format. IS PROMIEŃ can work based on client-server architecture or in a distributed environment (autonomous stations).

Picture 10. Structure of Information System PROMIEŃ Source: By CSWIiCh Wrocław

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

IS PROMIEŃ allows:

 Display on the digital map:  Creating CBRN Reports;  Creating Weather reports BWR, CDR;  Warning units about the dangers of units  Possible zones of contamination by CBRN incidents;  Endangered military units in the zone of contamination;  Storing and sharing data concern NBC reports for CBRN incidents, meteorological and system configuration data;  Generate possible zones of contamination ;  Assessment of the contamination, and in this: • Calculation of the decay constant; • Calculating the changes of dose rate over time; • Calculation of the absorbed dose of radiation according to the time; • Calculating the time of departure from the zone of contamination depending on the limits of absorbed radiation dose;33  Generating reports about individual units and their efforts and resources in the zone of danger.

33 Centralny Ośrodek Analizy Skażeń http://coas.wp.mil.pl/pl/index.html [cit. 27.03.2016]

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

5. CONCLUSION

Like this article shows, abilities of Polish CBRN defense are keeping on very high level all the time. The best proof of that is the diagram below, which shows NRF AND DEPLOYMENTS of Polish forces.

2006 - 2004 - DECON PLT 2011 - 2013 DECON PLT 2009 - 2016 - NRF 6 & 7 DECON DECON NRF 3 LN for CJ- LN for CJ- (Riga Summit COY COY & (Olympics CBRND-TF CBRND-TF Support, NRF 16 & RAD LAB Support, NRF 12 NRF 2016 Latvia) CHEM 17 NRF 2013 Greece) LAB NRF 6

2005 - 2007 - 2008 - 2012 - 2014 - 2010 - DECON PLT DECON BIO BIO CHEM CHEM NRF 4&5 PLT & LAB LAB LAB LAB NRF RAD-LAB – NRF RAD LAB NRF NRF NRF 14 5 NRF 8 10 2012 2014

Source: General Command Of Polish Armed Forces

Terrorist activities around the world are forcing us to be in constant readiness in case of the use of weapons of mass destruction. Constantly changing specification of warfare drives the technological development of the Polish army, resulting in good training and better equipment in which units designed to defend against CBRN weapons are equipped.

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

References: [1] Chemical, radiological and nuclear blast detection system CHERDES®II - manual [2] Detector of chemical contamination GID-3 - manual [3] Automatic recognition device of chemical contamination AP4C – manual [4] General Command Of Polish Armed Forces [5] Centrum Szkolenia Wojsk Inżynieryjnych i Chemicznych we Wrocławiu

Online references:

[1] Centralny Ośrodek Analizy Skażeń http://coas.wp.mil.pl/pl/index.html [cit. 27.03.2016] [2] http://tenksite.blogspot.com/2014/09/rosomaki-w-akcji.html [cit. 27.03.2016] [3] http://www.pimco.pl/ [cit. 27.03.2016] [4] http://rczpi.wp.mil.pl/[cit. 27.03.2016]

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

AIRBUS A320 ACCIDENTS ANALYSIS

Paweł KRZYSIAK34

ABSTRACT: Airbus A320, which is one of the most commonly bought medium-haul aircrafts, has been designed with safety in mind. In spite of the implementation of modern solutions, the problem of accidents has not been eliminated. The data, which make the statistical analysis possible, allow to correlate a few elements simultaneously and therefore gives the opportunity to formulate the regularities arising from them.

Keywords: Airbus A320, accident, statistical distribution, fatalities.

1. Introduction In the recent years the dynamic increase in the number of executed aircraft operations has been observed, and so has the passenger traffic as its consequence. It is, to a great extent, the result of the migration to a large scale, but also the access of middle income countries to aviation market. Aircraft manufacturers and design engineers are necessitated to introduce the most recent technologies, which will not only improve the safety of flights performed, but also the aircraft steering. New applications (fly-by-wire, onboard systems) have been implemented mainly to minimize or eliminate, in some case, aircraft accidents35.

In order to prevent accidents escalation, aircraft manufacturers began to design and implement new products, whereas the procedures underwent modification. The greatest Boeing’s competitor, European Airbus, entered the market gaining the air carriers’ appreciation from the very beginning and succeeding in numerous international fairs and shows. The corporation’s products were at that time technological advancement compared to American Boeing, and consequently gave the real chance for considerable security improvement.

2. Airbus A320 origins Aircraft market was revolutionized by the launch of the Airbus product, A320, at the end of the 1980s. It was the effect of the previous models’ success, moreover, it was to become the countertype of the popular, mid-haul Boeing 737. However, modern solutions of A320 were to outweigh the ones used in 737.

The innovativeness of the newly constructed aircraft was, first of all, implementation of electronic follow-up system fly-by-wire, whose aim was to transmit the signal from controls

34 Student Paweł Krzysiak, under the supervision of Justyna Tomaszewska PhD, Polish Air Force Academy, Dęblin, Dywizjonu 303, 08-521 Dęblin, Poland. e-mail: [email protected] 35 The term accident is understood as the occurrence when the aircraft was damaged regardless the number of casualties and the injured.

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016 to control surfaces digitally, not mechanically. A320 was one of the first aircrafts using of the system. The enhanced engines were to consume less fuel, which was at that time the crucial criterion of the aircrafts profitability. The groundbreaking changes were also accomplished by replacing analogue controls with display screens and a control column with side-sticks. From then on, the cockpit crew has comprised two members. The aim of such innovations was to guarantee greater safety and comfort for pilots.

In spite of implemented changes, the incidents still occurred. In some cases they were the outcome of the lack of accustomization with new solutions. The most frequent cause of accidents is the coincidence of negligence of mechanics, crew or constructors with the structure failures. Unfortunately, there are instances, where the human inadvertence or terrorist attacks are the factors responsible. As far as the European A320 is concerned, the majority of cases were due to pilot errors. After the occurrence of each incident, the profound research is conducted in order to improve safety and errors are progressively eliminated.

3. Airbus A320 Accidents Analysis

3.1. Statistical data analysis method

In order to analyze the correlation of occurrences and factors taking place during Airbus A320 accidents, the database published on www.aviation-safety.net was employed. The choice of the portal was enforced mainly by its credibility and accuracy of gathered data since it is produced by the Australian group Flight Safety Foundation, which is the editor of popular, public magazine AeroSafety World raising the issues of aircraft accidents.

The database of A320 published on the above-mentioned site includes the date and the location of the accident, the number of casualties, name of the air carrier and above all, a short description of the accidents circumstances and its cause (backed up by the official reports of the investigation commission). The data (qualitative and quantitative) were grouped, and analyzed to be correlated afterwards.

The outcome of the correlation is the data graph display which makes the statistical analysis possible. The use of two computer programmes: RStudio and Microsoft Excel enabled the clear presentation of histograms and graphs. Descriptive statistics was chosen for the analysis as the most relevant method. It allows to analyze the data in many various ways. Moreover, in some cases, numerical values charts were inserted to emphasize some numerical data.

Statistical data enable close examination of the facts linked with the incidents with A320 involvement and their analysis allows to draw conclusions thanks to which the regularity of ensuing situations can be formulated.

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

3.2 Accidents on respective continents

The aircraft Airbus A320 operate flight on all continents (including Antarctica). The continents where the accidents involving this type of machine have never been observed are Australia and Antarctica. Since 1988, when the aircraft has been put into service with airlines, 63 accidents involving A320 have been recorded. The greatest number of them occurred in Asia (35%), and the fewest cases in South America (6%). The number of accidents in Europe amounts to 19 (30%), in North America 12 (19%) while in Africa 6 which accounts for 10% of accidents in total.

Figure 1: The schematic of relationship between the number of accidents and the continents.

Taking into account the number of casualties on particular continents, the relationships are similar to the number of accidents. In total, 967 casualties have been recorded, 514 (53%) of which were noted in Asia. Europe comes second with 249 casualties (26%) and South America falls right after with 204 fatal cases (21%). On the African and North American continents, no casualties have been recorded.

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

Figure 2: The schematic of relationship between the number of casualties and respective continents.

It can be easily spotted – accident number distribution is not equal to the casualties distribution. In spite of the fact that Asia leads in both issues, the situation is quite dissimilar as far as North America is concerned, where nobody lost their lives in 12 accidents. Similar dependency concerns Africa, whose air is commonly regarded as “accidents favorable”. Statistically, it is a fact, that in relation to the number of aircraft, Africa dominates in the accident frequency. It results from the insufficient crew and air traffic controllers training but also the lack of functional navigational equipment of airports.

In respect of the number of accidents and casualties, Europe comes second. In 19 accidents, 249 people lost their lives, which accounts for approximately 13 casualties in each incident while in Asia 23. South America holds the dire balance of averagely 51 killed in each incident. The value is the outcome of small number of accidents in relation to a great number of casualties in each accident, especially if the flight number TAM 3054 is taken into account, which resulted in 199 deaths.

3.3 The frequency of accidents in respective months

The data allows to pay attention to the months with the greatest and smallest accident frequency. In this term, March is on the lead (16%) while both September and November are the months with the smallest number of accidents (3%) when Airbus A320 is in operation. The incident occurrence median in respective months takes the value of 5, which indicates the month of May and the mean average is 5.8.

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

Figure 3: The chart of dependency of the number of accidents in respective months.

Such distribution of accidents may have the direct correlation with unfavorable atmospheric conditions occurring in early-spring months in the north hemisphere. It is the time when the human organism is more prone to more rapid tiredness, limited concentration and bad moods. Moreover, at that time, visibility is reduced, relatively strong winds blow and the average precipitation is increased. Considering the fact that 84% accidents involving A320 took place in the north hemisphere, the weather factor can play a significant role in shaping statistics.

3.4 Accidents in respective flight stages

Accidents occur in all flight stages, however the likelihood of the incident is the greatest in the final stage of landing approach as well as take-off. Both maneuvers are the most difficult and the most encumbering operations for pilots, requiring making rapid decision in the situation of potential imperilment. The theory is also confirmed in the case of A320: 46% of accidents happened in the landing phase. The following position is held, in this respect, by cruising level (17%). The stage of standing accounts for a large number (14%). In this stage, sabotage actions damaging the aircraft and fires during refueling took place. Taxing and ascending (3% each) have constituted one of the safest stages of flight so far. 2% of the incidents were not qualified to any of the standard stages of flight due to insufficient data.

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

Figure 4: Relation of number of accidents to respective flight stages of A320.

In spite of the fact that landing is considered to be the most dangerous part of flight and the greatest number of accidents is observed, it does not indicate that the number of casualties is the greatest in this operation. It proves in the issue of relation of number of casualties to flight stage of Airbus A320.

422 people (46%) lost their lives during landing approach. Cruising altitude may appear to be one of the most dangerous stages of flight, however, in case of A320 it comes second with the balance of 313 deaths (32%). The situation was considerably different only at the beginning of 2015, however on 24th April 2015, the pilot’s deliberate action, which lead to crashing the aircraft in the Alpes and resulted in 150 deaths, consequently effected on such statistics. In stage of landing, 209 deaths (22%) were recorded while in the stage of ascending the mortality rate is represented by 3 deaths, which accounts for about 1% of all casualties. In other stages, ne casualties were recorded.

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

Figure 5: Number of casualties in relation to respective flight stages.

Comparing the histogram presenting the number of accidents in respective flight stages (Figure 4) with the graph concerning the number of casualties in respective flight stages (Figure 5), it can be noted that the greatest percentage of accidents occurs in the landing stage, however when the number of deaths is taken into consideration, it is considerably safe stage for A320 (the quotient of deaths to the number of accidents equals 7.2, which indicates that each accident during the landing stage resulted in approximately 7 casualties).

422 people lost their lives during the approach, where the number of accidents constitutes 5 cases.The quotient in this issue equals 88.4, which accounts for 88 casualties in one accident in this stage of the flight. Such value brings the conclusion that, in respect of statistics, more people die during approach than landing. Therefore, in the case of Airbus A320, the greatest likelihood of casualties is related to this particular stage of approach.

The data collation makes it possible to examine the number of accidents in different flight stages in respective continents.

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

Figure 6: the graph presenting the number of accidents on the continent in the respective flight phase.

Analysing the above graph it can be observed that the uppermost values are related to the stage of landing. It means that the greatest number of accidents with A320 involvement occurred in this particular stage. It is also conspicuous that Asia is the leader in this respect among other continents with 11 accidents during landing. The European continent is situated after Asia with 9 incidents. In the stage of cruise and approach, Asia takes on the paramount values among all continents – 5 and 3 accidents respectively. South America is the only continent where the accidents happened exclusively during landing and cruising. Relatively quite a number of incidents occurred during the aircraft parking. As mentioned above, it is linked with sabotage actions, mainly in Africa, aircraft fires or aircraft damages caused by ground personnel. The greatest number of accidents during take-off is assigned to North America, however, none of the people present on board lost their lives in any of them.

Such distribution (especially in terms of landing) may back up the thesis formulated beforehand , which mentions, among others, high difficulty level of piloting in the final stage of approach and landing itself. As far as cruising is concerned, each continent experienced at least one incident in the present flight stage. Collating these values with the number of casualties (Figure 5), it can be deducted that this part of flight is quite dangerous despite not implementing direct danger of contact with the terrain.

3.5 The number of aircraft in operation and the age of the airplane at the time of the accident

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

In order to examine if the presented and analysed variables have actual and practical reflection in statistics, the number of aircraft on a particular continent has to be taken into account. The fewer airplanes in operation at the specific, stable number of accidents, the greater probability and frequency of accidents. The following grid presents the number of currently used A320 aircraft on respective continents. It is based on the official table of Airbus aircraft being exploited.

Table 1: number of aircraft in operation on respective continents.

Number of aircraft in Continent operation

Europe 1080

Asia & Pacific 1449

North America 524

Near East 254

Latin America & Caribbean 342

Africa 93

Total 3742

The table evokes the conclusion that the greatest number of A320 aircraft is in operation in Asia while the fewest are in Africa. Considering the quantity of accidents and the number of A320 being used on particular continents, the percentile number of accidents including the figures of Airbus aircraft being exploited can be calculated. To do so, the number of accidents has to be divided by the total number of the aircraft in operation and the quotient multiplied by 100%. The figures fall as follows: Europe - 1.7%, Asia – 1.29%, Africa – 6.45%, North America – 2.29%, South America – 1.17%. It indicates that Africa faces the largest number of accidents considering the number of aircraft (over 6% of planes among the total number of A320 have undergone accidents) while South America, in this respect, is the continent with a small number of accidents. It is worth mentioning that the percentile fraction of number of accidents including the number of aircraft in operation constitutes merely 1.68%, which means that on average 63 airplanes participated in accidents out of the total number of 3742 aircraft fleet. It gives the base to formulate the regularity which states that every 59th aircraft was involved in an incident.

In order to examine if the airplane’s age translates into the number of accidents, it is necessary first to determine its time of life at the moment of the accident on the particular continent, and average the results afterwards. The results of the analysis are presented in the following graph. The values above the bars indicate the specific aircraft age expressed in years.

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

Figure 7: Average aircraft A320 age at the moment of the accident.

The analysis of the chart allows to draw the conclusion that older airplanes participate in incidents in Africa more often than on other continents. African countries, which are economically underdeveloped, purchase the aircraft from wealthier countries which replace the fleet after some period of exploitation. Frequently, they are faulty in a way and require an overhaul. Negligence of the ground personnel results in some defects which consequently may translate directly into the flight safety. The unit average age of 10.4 years seems to prove the theory, which applies not only to Airbus A320 accidents.

The continent possessing the newest aircraft is Europe with the result of around 7 years of age. Similar value applies to South America, however the number of aircraft in operation is considerably smaller than in Europe. The average age for all continents amounts to around 8.5 years.

One of the variables, the age of the aircraft, does not indicate precisely the correlation and link between the number of accidents and number of casualties. In order to check the correlation and hypothesis, which claims that accidents occur more often among the older aircraft than newer one, the analysis of several variables has to be conducted.

The examination of three variables correlation requires the application of simplifications in graph chart in order to minimize the amount of information available. In this respect, the aircraft age has been split into divisions. The left axis relates to bar chart of light blue colour and represents the number of accidents w the specific age range of the aircraft. The right axis relates to the number of casualties and is represented by the dark blue line, which additionally includes numerical values allowing to assess precisely the number of deaths.

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CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016

Figure 8: Correlation between the number of accidents and casualties and the A320 aircraft age.

It is distinctly clear in the chart that both the largest number of accidents and casualties are assigned to relatively new aircraft (6-10 year-olds). What also draws attention is the distribution of the number of accidents (blue bars), which decreases along with the age growth of the aircraft (excluding the range 6-10). It signalizes that the above hypothesis is mistaken. The line indicating the number of casualties is so called numerical amount polygon and forms bimodal distribution. The extrema take on the value of 504 deaths for the age range of 6-10, and 150 for the range over 20 years of age. The number of casualties is greater than the total of all other ranges. It indicates that considerably new aircraft underwent accidents entailing the largest number of deaths. In the case of over 20-year-old aircraft, the mortality amounts to 150 people and the number is exclusively the effect of the pilot’s deliberate action (page 8). In three cases, the data base does not include the aircraft age, therefore, the bar titled “data absence” has been created with one casualty assigned to it.

4. Summary

The escalation of accidents is lowered by means of reliable solutions. Over the years, technologies have been improved and modernized in order to enhance safety in aviation. However, these actions have not eliminated the problem of accidents completely. The example can be one of the most popular narrow-body aircraft – Airbus A320, whose innovative technologies improved flight safety only in some cases.

Due to the conducted research and analysis it is possible to look into the issue of A320 safety. The data collation enabled to formulate regularities and draw conclusions.

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In spite of the fact that the number of accidents in the stage of landing is the most significant, it does not find the reflection in the number of deaths. In the case of A320, it is inappropriate to claim that: “landing is the most dangerous stage of the flight” because the statement is in imprecise. Similar correlation applies to the aircraft age – the widespread opinion, especially among the elderly, that older aircraft are more prone to accidents than newer one, is also mistaken. The Asian continent prevails in the number of accidents, however, if the number of aircraft in operation is taken into account, it appears that Asia, in fact, comes second after South America in respect of the smallest percentage of accidents (1.29%). The largest percentage (6.45%) is linked to Africa. What is also worth attention, is the number of accidents in relation to month of the year – their frequency is the uppermost in the first quarter. Such distribution may not only be the outcome of prevailing atmospheric conditions but human factor as well.

The objective of the analysis was, above all, drawing a reader’s attention to the distribution of accident frequency in various circumstances. Considering the fact that Airbus A320 is relatively small aircraft, the statistical analysis regarding it, is the source of valuable information which are the base for investigating the problem in general and draw practical conclusions.

References [1] G. Norris, M. Wagner. Airbus, MBI Publishing, 1999, p. 45-46 [2] UBM Aviation Publications. Aircraft Finance Guide, Edition 2011, p. 37 [3] Google Books. Airbus Civilian Jets: A Complete Guide, Chapter 2, p. 20 [4] D. Briere, C. Favre, P. Traverse. The Avionics Handbook, Chapter 12, http://davi.ws/avionics/TheAvionicsHandbook Cap 12.pdf [5] Airbus. Fly-by-wire, http://www.airbus.com/innovation/provenconcepts/in-design/fly-by- wire/ [6] BEA. Rapport de la commission d’enquête sur l’accident survenu le 20 janvier 1992 près du Mont Sainte-Odile (Bas Rhin) à l’Airbus A 320 immatriculé F-GGED exploité par la compagnie Air Inter, 1993 [7] Airbus Technical Magazine. FAST, number 42, July 2008, http://skytraders.com.au/wp- content/uploads/FAST42.pdf [8] M. Keller, B. Fredrickson, O. Ybarra. A Warm Heart and a Clear Head. The Contingent Effects of Weather on Mood and Cognition, Psychological Science, 2005, p. 725 [9] C. Schuler. Africa’s skies not so friendly, The Christian Science Monitor, 2000, http://www.csmonitor.com/2000/0204/p1s2.html [10] A. Pasztor. African Air Safety Trails Rest of World, The Wall Street Journal, 2014, http://www.wsj.com [11] Airbus. Orders, Deliveries and Operators, [MS Excel], October 2015, http://www.airbus.com/ [12] A. D. Aczel. Statystyka w zarządzaniu [Statistics in Management], Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, 2000, p.34

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ANALYSIS OF THE AIRCRAFT ACCIDENTS OCCURRED IN UNITS OF THE OFFICER’S AVIATION SCHOOL IN YEARS 1970 – 1994

Jarosław KOZUBA36, Marek KUSTRA37

SUMMARY: The article concerns the aircraft accidents occurred in units of the Officer’s Aviation School from 1970 to 1994. There is described the actual training process of the Polish military pilots in the first part. Then there are characterized main causes of the aircraft accidents in units of the Officer’s Aviation School in concerned period of the time. The last part of the article is dedicated to analyze of the aircraft accidents occurred in units of the Officer’s Aviation School in years 1970 – 1994.

Keywords: Flight safety, Human factor, Training, Aviation accident.

1 Introduction A pilot profession is very beautiful and demanding as well. There is conviction that the pilot should have some attributes to fulfill his duties in safety manner for example: very good health condition, theoretical knowledge, practical skills, a lot of luck and aviation flair. But it is not everything. Other necessary features are: ability to anticipate, situational awareness, spatial imagination. These people should be reasonable and mentally stable as well38.

Human factor39 has always played an important role safety of flights regardless the type of aviation and performed tasks. Due to responsibility of many people for the safety tasks performance aviation activity is quite specific. Especially important is that a human is responsible for life of other ones. It mainly concerns the pilot profession but also an air

36 Jarosław Kozuba, PhD, Associate Professor, Dean of National Safety and Logistics Faculty, Polish Air Force Academy , Dywizjonu 303 nr 35, 08-521 Dęblin, Republic of Poland 37 Marek Kustra, Eng., Student of the Polish Air Force Academy, Faculty of National Safety and Logistics, Department of National Safety, Dywizjonu 303 nr 35, 08-521 Dęblin, Republic of Poland, [email protected] 38 Based on: Majewski A., Nadzwyczajny informator bezpieczeństwa lotów. Wypadki lotnicze zaistniałe w Wyższej Oficerskiej Szkole Lotniczej w latach 1947-1983 spowodowane niezdyscyplinowaniem personelu latającego, WOSL, Dęblin 1984, p. 12 39 The concept of human factors in aviation must be understood as an action (or inaction) of the pilot, mechanics, air traffic controller, etc. or any other person in the relationship between human and the interdependent aviation environment (Source: Makarowski R., Smolicz T., Czynnik ludzki w operacjach lotniczych. Człowiek, możliwości i ograniczenia – uwarunkowania psychofizjologiczne, ADRIANA AVIATION z o.o., Kosowizna 2012, p. 358).

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This article was written to identify causes of aviation accidents in units of the Officer’s Aviation School from 1970 to 1994 and determine percentage ratio of accidents caused by human factor to the overall number of these accidents.

2 The actual training of military pilots in Poland Pilot’s training is long-lasting and multi-step process which is showed on Figure 1. The initial three levels takes place at the Polish Air Force Academy. The military pilot silhouette is formed in the aviation school so this is very important part of training process. The knowledge, skills and habits gain in the university will be used in military units.

1th STAGE 2nd STAGE 3rd STAGE 4th STAGE

SELECTIVE TRAINING BASIC TRAINING BASIC AND ADVANCED TACTICAL TRAINING TRAINING WITH THE USE OF MILITARY AIRCRAFT Provided in Polish Aero Academic Centre For 4th Training Aviation Combat Units Club Aviation Training Wing

Fig. 1. The actual training of military pilots in Poland being in force from 01.10.2012. Source: own material based on: Bogusz D., Kulik T., Szkolenie lotnicze kandydatów na pilotów wojskowych w Akademickim Ośrodku Szkolenia Lotniczego WSOSP [in:] Zeszyty Naukowe AON, nr 3(96) 2014, p. 138.

Use of the correct methodology, adequate technical aids and motivation of the trained person allows to gain appropriate efficiency with maintaining proper training quality. In general, it can be concluded that selecting of teaching methods is important in system of: objectives – contents – rules – methods – organizational forms – methods of teaching – learning and depends on the rest of elements and teaching subjects […]41.

The first part of training is intended to determine predisposition of candidates to the pilot profession. We can mention for example: divisibility of attention, manual and psychophysical skills and ability to proper exploitation of the aircraft. This phase is also intended to present the flying possibilities of machines42.

40 According to art. 94 of the Polish Aviation Law of 3 July 2002 A member of aviation personnel is every person […] who have a valid license or a certificate of competency and is entered into the national register of aviation personnel or other appropriate register kept in accordance with separate regulations. 41 Janowski C., Zdolności a system szkolenia [in:] Przegląd Sił Zbrojnych, nr 3/2015, Wojskowy Instytut Wydawniczy, p. 110. 42 Based on: Bogusz D., Kulik T., Szkolenie lotnicze kandydatów na pilotów wojskowych w Akademickim Ośrodku Szkolenia Lotniczego WSOSP [in:] Zeszyty Naukowe AON, nr 3(96) 2014, p. 139.

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Then cadets take basic training in the Academic Centre of Aviation Training. This allows them to gain a private pilot licence (PPL) which is necessary for further education. During this time students are assigned to one specialization:

 jet aircrafts,  transport aircrafts,  helicopters43. The third phase of training is realized in 4th Training Aviation Wing on military aircrafts and it is divided into two stages: basic and advanced training. There is checked mastery of basic pilotage elements in the first part. Advanced training is to prepare candidates to next stage of training by realizing following tasks on military aircrafts:

 combat airborne targets,  combat ground targets,  visual – photographic reconnaissance,  exercise group flights,  exercise navigational skills during en-route flights44. Tactical training is the last stage of training which is realized according to aircraft’s type and nature of combat units.

Training program which is properly structured plays important role in pilot’s education process. It means it allows to gain appropriate knowledge and practical skills. This is equivalent to achieve proper level of aviation safety. It wouldn’t be possible without risk management which is consisted of six phases showed on Figure 2.

43 Ibidem, p. 139. 44 Ibidem, p. 139.

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Hazard Risk control identification

Implementation Risk of solution assessment

Decision Risk making mitigation

Fig. 2. Risk management. Source: own material based on: Klich E., Bezpieczeństwo lotów, Wydawnictwo Naukowe Instytutu Technologii Eksploatacji – PIB, Radom 2011, p. 189 – 219.

The aim of risk management is to assess probability of occurrence threats and minimalizing of risk level to acceptable.

The first phase (hazard identification) is to define threats for performed tasks. Every employee in organizations, institutions, etc. should be prepared and able to identify and informed about hazards other persons, especially superior one. The second part of the risk management, it means risk assessment is nothing more than estimate of the probability of risk occurrence and determine severity of risk adverse effects. The next phase understood as risk mitigation is to identify possible solutions, their potential impacts and indicate the most effective measures designed to reduce the risk. The fourth stage – decision making is to select the most effective solution for safety of the task and the decision making by appropriate person. Essential for implementation of solution is determine the entity or person responsible for making the decision and implementation of accepted variant. The last step is to verify the efficacy of adopted solutions through analysis and evaluation of the effectiveness of the implemented procedure. None of the risk management phases should not be ignored. Very important is that previous stages ought to be the basis for next parts in the process. It is essential to know the risk management is cyclical process. This means that after completion of every phase it is necessary to redefine the possible threats. In the case of their occurrence it is essential to implement the whole process again.

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3 Causes of the aircraft accidents occurred in units of the Officer’s Aviation School in years 1970 – 1994 Aviation safety depends on interactions between factors which create aviation safety model. These are:  human factor understood as the aircraft operator,  the aircraft, it means its technical condition, performance and operational restrictions,  environment that is the air space with all the physical characteristics, infrastructure and every technical device connected with performing operation,  organization that is regulations, procedures and management of the aviation institution. Causes of aviation accidents are invariable independly on type of aviation. Therefore reasons of them in units of Officer’s Aviation School in considered period of time can be divide on two groups: dependent and independent on aviation personnel. The first ones results from:

 errors during pilotage,  indiscipline of flight crew,  incorrect aircraft’s exploitation by technical personnel,  inadequate aircraft’s servicing by technical personnel. Independent reasons consists on:

 manufacturing defects,  other causes not related to human activities, for example meteorological conditions. Errors in pilotage are often result of need to focus attention on many devices which are in cockpit and perform a large number of activities in small period of the time as well. These factors have a negative impact on pilot’s work. What is more, these could be cause of wrong data reading or missing important information for task.

Indiscipline of flight crew can be cause of violations. […] perpetrators of violations know that their behavior departs from established procedures, schemes of proceeding, standards and practices but they do it intentionally45. This is nothing more than deliberate action. These proceeding will result in reduction of security level which may occur through loss of spatial orientation or reduce required separation minimum and other.

Other factors which generate threats for aviation are incorrect aircraft’s exploitation and servicing. These may result from routine, neglect and desire to obtain economic benefits. People who use and prepare machines to flights are responsible for safety of passengers, crews and aircraft’s technical condition.

Pilots have to know large number of procedures, augmentation and navigation systems. This won’t be possible without appropriate training process. It is very important

45 Podręcznik zarządzania bezpieczeństwem, ULC, Warszawa 2009, p. 21.

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Aviation accidents occurred by for example manufacture defects or exploited of components are impossible to avoid. This is due to the construction of aircrafts which are built of many mechanisms and devices. These components work together so it may cause part’s damage. It is also impossible to avoid aviation accidents which occurred due to rapid change of meteorological conditions. These include storms with lightning, wind shares during landing, fogs, heavy rains and strong wind.

4 Analysis of the aircraft accidents occurred in units of the Officer’s Aviation School in years 1970 – 1994 The following analysis of the aviation accidents was carried out on the basis of data collected in flight safety information brochures publicized in Officer’s Aviation School and then in Polish Air Force Academy from 1975 to 199846. The aim of this analyze was to obtain information about overall number of aviation accidents in years 1970 – 1994 and what is more important to identify percentage ratio of accidents caused by human factor.

46 Gilos J., Krasoń A., Informator bezpieczeństwa lotów za lata 1977 – 1978, WOSL, Dęblin 1979; Klich E., Informator bezpieczeństwa lotów za rok 1981, WOSL, Dęblin 1983; Klich E., Informator bezpieczeństwa lotów za rok 1983, WOSL, Dęblin 1985; Klich E., Informator bezpieczeństwa lotów za rok 1984, WOSL, Dęblin 1986; Klich E., Informator bezpieczeństwa lotów za rok 1986, WOSL, Dęblin 1988; Klich E., Krupka J., Informator bezpieczeństwa lotów za lata 1993 – 1994, WSOSP, Dęblin 1998; Krasoń A., Informator bezpieczeństwa lotów za rok 1979, WOSL, Dęblin 1980; Krasoń A., Informator bezpieczeństwa lotów za rok 1980, WOSL, Dęblin 1981; Krupka J., Informator bezpieczeństwa lotów za lata 1988 – 1992, WSOSP, Dęblin 1994; Majewski A., Informator bezpieczeństwa lotów za rok 1982, WOSL, Dęblin 1984; Majewski A., Nadzwyczajny informator bezpieczeństwa lotów. Wypadki lotnicze zaistniałe w Wyższej Oficerskiej Szkole Lotniczej w latach 1947-1983 spowodowane niezdyscyplinowaniem personelu latającego, WOSL, Dęblin 1984; Nowak H., Informator bezpieczeństwa lotów. Wypadki lotnicze i ważniejsze przesłanki do wypadków lotniczych zaistniałe w jednostkach WOSL w 1974 roku, WOSL, Dęblin 1975; Nowak H., Informator bezpieczeństwa lotów. Wypadki lotnicze i ważniejsze przesłanki do wypadków lotniczych zaistniałe w jednostkach WOSL w 1975 roku, WOSL, Dęblin 1976; Nowak H., Informator bezpieczeństwa lotów. Wypadki lotnicze i ważniejsze przesłanki do wypadków lotniczych zaistniałe w jednostkach WOSL w 1976 roku, WOSL, Dęblin 1977.

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Table 1. List of aviation accidents occurred in units of Officer’s Aviation School from 1970 to 1994 and percentage ratio of accidents caused by human. Accidents Accidents Total number Percentage ratio dependent independent of accidents of accidents caused on human on human by human

1970 0 2 2 0,00 %

1971 5 6 11 45,45 %

1972 10 9 19 52,63 %

1973 4 4 8 50,00 %

1974 10 4 14 71,43 %

1975 5 9 14 35,71 %

1976 11 4 15 73,33 %

1977 11 6 17 64,71 %

1978 8 6 14 57,14 %

1979 10 3 13 76,92 %

1980 11 8 19 57,89 %

1981 10 9 19 52,63 %

1982 12 2 14 85,71 %

1983 4 8 12 33,33 %

1984 3 3 6 50,00 %

1985 3 4 7 42,86 %

1986 7 5 12 58,33 %

1987 3 6 9 33,33 %

1988 2 10 12 16,67 %

1989 6 6 12 50,00 %

1990 8 11 19 42,11 %

1991 5 5 10 50,00 %

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1992 1 9 10 10,00 %

1993 0 5 5 0,00 %

1994 5 8 13 38,46 %

Total 154 152 306 50,33 % number

Source: own material based on: Flight safety brochures published by Officer’s Aviation School and Polish Air Force Academy from 1975 to 199847.

On the basis of data contained in Table 1 the conclusion is as follow there were 306 whole aviation accidents in concerned period of the time. Most of them, it means 154 (50,33%), were caused by human factor (pilots, technical personnel, air traffic controllers and other).

Result at this level isn’t satisfactory because shows a man as the weakest element of aviation safety system.

The percentage size of accidents dependent on human factor didn’t maintain at the same level in every year. The majority of them oscillated between 40 and 70 %. It was impacted by:

 flying hour on each aircraft type,  experience, discipline and conscientiousness of people involved in the tasks implementation,  the way of aircrafts exploitation,  correctness of technical servicing of aircrafts,  weather conditions and many other factors. The largest participation of the human factor in concerned aviation accidents (over 70%) took place in 1974, 1976, 1979, 1982 (see Figure 3) and the lowest (below 40%) in 1970, 1975, 1983, 1987, 1988, 1992, 1993, 1994 (see Figure 4). Rest of time these accidents classify between 40 – 70 % but vast majority it was 50 – 60 %.

47 Ibidem.

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Accidents dependent and independent on human

below 30 %

over 70 %

accidents dependent on human accidents independent on human

Fig. 3. Classification of aviation accidents occurred in units of Officer’s Aviation School in 1974, 1976, 1979, 1982. Source: own material based on Flight safety brochures published by Officer’s Aviation School and Polish Air Force Academy from 1975 to 199848.

Accidents dependent and independent on human

below 40 %

over 60 %

accidents dependent on human accidents independent on human

Fig. 4. Classification of aviation accidents occurred in units of Officer’s Aviation School in 1970, 1975, 1983, 1987, 1988, 1992, 1993, 1994. Source: own material based on Flight safety brochures published by Officer’s Aviation School and Polish Air Force Academy from 1975 to 199849.

Detailed analyze should be done with years 1974 and 1975. There were the same number of accidents in both years but in 1975 there were about 35,72 % less accidents caused by human than one year before. This may be due to enormous aviation personnel’s

48 Ibidem. 49 Ibidem.

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CONCLUSION

The presented considerations show that level of flight safety depends on many factors. The main of them is human factor which caused majority of aviation accidents in units of the Officer’s Aviation School from 1970 to 1994.

People elaborate aviation regulations and procedures, aircraft constructions and they are responsible for technical condition of the aviation ground infrastructure as well. Therefore it is necessary to regular improvement of knowledge and skills of aviation personnel. It has to decrease number of mistakes, violations and other undesirable behaviour, means number of aviation accidents. But this is not enough. It is important to adjust technical and tactical parameters of aircrafts to human possibilities. Statistics show that in US Air Forces nine crashes were caused by pilot’s unconsciousness from 1983 to 198452. It is necessary to obey mentioned principles because aviation safety depends on interactions between human, aircraft, organisation and environment.

References [1]. Bogusz D., Kulik T., Szkolenie lotnicze kandydatów na pilotów wojskowych w Akademickim Ośrodku Szkolenia Lotniczego WSOSP [in:] Zeszyty Naukowe AON, nr 3(96) 2014 [2]. Gilos J., Krasoń A., Informator bezpieczeństwa lotów za lata 1977 – 1978, WOSL, Dęblin 1979 [3]. Janowski C., Zdolności a system szkolenia [in:] Przegląd Sił Zbrojnych, nr 3/2015, Wojskowy Instytut Wydawniczy [4]. Klich E., Bezpieczeństwo lotów, Wydawnictwo Biblioteki Problemów Eksploatacji, Radom 2011 [5]. Klich E., Informator bezpieczeństwa lotów za rok 1981, WOSL, Dęblin 1983 [6]. Klich E., Informator bezpieczeństwa lotów za rok 1983, WOSL, Dęblin 1985 [7]. Klich E., Informator bezpieczeństwa lotów za rok 1984, WOSL, Dęblin 1986 [8]. Klich E., Informator bezpieczeństwa lotów za rok 1986, WOSL, Dęblin 1988

50 Based on: H. Nowak, Informator bezpieczeństwa lotów. Wypadki lotnicze i ważniejsze przesłanki do wypadków lotniczych zaistniałe w jednostkach WOSL w 1975 roku, WOSL, Dęblin 1976, p. 7. 51 Based on: J. Krupka, Informator bezpieczeństwa lotów za lata 1988 – 1992, WSOSP, Dęblin 1994, p. 12. 52 Based on: E. Klich, Bezpieczeństwo lotów, Wydawnictwo Biblioteki Problemów Eksploatacji, Radom 2011, p. 113.

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[9]. Klich E., Krupka J., Informator bezpieczeństwa lotów za lata 1993 – 1994, WSOSP, Dęblin 1998 [10]. Krasoń A., Informator bezpieczeństwa lotów za rok 1979, WOSL, Dęblin 1980 [11]. Krasoń A., Informator bezpieczeństwa lotów za rok 1980, WOSL, Dęblin 1981 [12]. Krupka J., Informator bezpieczeństwa lotów za lata 1988 – 1992, WSOSP, Dęblin 1994 [13]. Majewski A., Informator bezpieczeństwa lotów za rok 1982, WOSL, Dęblin 1984 [14]. Majewski A., Nadzwyczajny informator bezpieczeństwa lotów. Wypadki lotnicze zaistniałe w Wyższej Oficerskiej Szkole Lotniczej w latach 1947-1983 spowodowane niezdyscyplinowaniem personelu latającego, WOSL, Dęblin 1984 [15]. Makarowski R., Smolicz T., Czynnik ludzki w operacjach lotniczych. Człowiek, możliwości i ograniczenia – uwarunkowania psychofizjologiczne, Wydawnictwo ADRIANA AVIATION spółka z o.o., Kosowizna 2012 [16]. Nowak H., Informator bezpieczeństwa lotów. Wypadki lotnicze i ważniejsze przesłanki do wypadków lotniczych zaistniałe w jednostkach WOSL w 1974 roku, WOSL, Dęblin 1975 [17]. Nowak H., Informator bezpieczeństwa lotów. Wypadki lotnicze i ważniejsze przesłanki do wypadków lotniczych zaistniałe w jednostkach WOSL w 1975 roku, WOSL, Dęblin 1976 [18]. Nowak H., Informator bezpieczeństwa lotów. Wypadki lotnicze i ważniejsze przesłanki do wypadków lotniczych zaistniałe w jednostkach WOSL w 1976 roku, WOSL, Dęblin 1977 [19]. Podręcznik zarządzania bezpieczeństwem, ULC, Warszawa 2009 [20]. Polish Aviation Law of 3 July 2002

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TECHNOLOGY OF DISARMING EXPLOSIVE DEVICES

Ivan LOVRIĆ

Table of Contents SUMMARY ...... 3 1. INTRODUCTION ...... 4 2. CURRENT SITUATION OVERVIEW OF THE PROBLEM MATTER ...... 5 2.1. The forerunner of the robot deminers ...... 7 2.2 The descendants of Wheelbarrow ...... 8 2.2.1. Talon ...... 8 2.2.2. Theodor ...... 8 2.3. The principle of operation of robots for the disposal of mines ...... 9 3. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DESIGNED SOLUTION ...... 10 4. RESULTS ACHIEVED ...... 11 5. ASSESSMENT OF THE RESULT APPLICABILITY ...... 13 6. MORE WAYS OF DEVELOPMENT IN THE PROBLEM MATTER ...... 13 CONCLUSION ...... 14 REFERENCES ...... 15

SUMMARY

This paper will be based primarily on the protection of deminers in their daily task in which they look death in the eye and each of their next move may result in fatal consequences. Because of this kind of stress and danger posed on their lives deminers commonly suffer from PTSD. The aim of this paper is to protect deminers and provide them with safety while they perform their tasks. The paper presents the modern methods of removal of explosive devices, in this case robots for disarming explosive ordnance. I started with a single forerunner of the robots until the present robots, I looked at the prototype I'm working on so in this work I singled out part of it and its right arm, which will be mentioned later. I will show the way I connected the electrical parts of the arms and working principle of an arm.

Key words: terrorism, improvised explosive devices, protection, demining robot

NOTE: All information and data mentioned in the paper are unclassified.

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1. INTRODUCTION

Protection of the military personnel is in the first place when it comes to the question of life and death. The primary task of the armed forces (AF) is to perform given tasks without unexpected events that can result in death. This paper is based on the work of deminers and their protection by using modern technology, which in future could save many lives of deminers. While carrying out daily tasks they are faced with improvised explosive devices (Engl. - Improvised Explosive Devices - IED), homemade or professional lethal devices.

2. CURRENT SITUATION OVERVIEW OF THE PROBLEM MATTER

Everyday modern-day soldier / deminer in the fight against terrorism encounters homemade lethal explosives and residual unexploded ordnances risking his life to save other people who often become victims of explosive devices. No matter how protective equipment of deminers is able to absorb the shock wave of explosion it still is not resistant to all kinds of explosions. Therefore, the main idea of this paper is to create a robot-deminer that is remotely controlled and can be used very easily by a deminer. Modern-day time digitization of all possible things has occurred and robots are used as part of the military equipment earmarked for reconnaissance and combat. There are also robots that serve as "deminers" whose primary task is to remove the explosive device without direct human exposure to danger. It is easier to lose a robot than life of a soldier. Further robotization of the armed forces will minimize human losses in any aspect of the operation. As it can be seen from the table and graph made from unclassified data from ISAF more lives of soldiers are lost due to improvised explosive devices than in some other situations.

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Table 1. Mortality caused by IED-s

53 http://stats.areppim.com/stats/stats_afghanwar_ied.htm (visited on 22.2.2016.)

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Figure 1. Graph of mortality by years

As it can be seen from the table and graph risk years were between 2008 and 2012 due to the death of a large number of soldiers caused by IEDs than in other situations. That number was eventually reduced through the use of robots for disposal of the IED and new approaches of the army towards the problem of improvised bombs.

2.1. The forerunner of the robot deminers

After fruitless struggles of the British Army against IRA’s car bombs in Northern Ireland and the large number of casualties of British deminers something new was needed, something that would help in the fight against car bombs, that glorious move was taken by Colonel Peter Miller with his wheelbarrow.

Since the Wheelbarrow robot, whose descendants are still in service, overcame his first explosive opponent in 1972, it was clear that such robots are indispensable so that engineers and scientists have been continuously working on bomb disposal robots to be able to overcome any challenges. [4]

Thus, starting from the most primitive forms of using robots for disarming, using the string as a way to operate/control them, we have designed a modern robot that employs/uses the most modern management systems. If Colonel Peter Miller had not designed his innovation that completely changed the ways of disarming bombs perhaps today we would not have so sophisticated and capable robots that are able to protect the lives of deminers.

Figure 2. the forerunner of wheelbarrow robot

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Figure 3. Wheelbarrow robot today

2.2 THE DESCENDANTS OF WHEELBARROW 2.2.1. Talon

Talon is a powerful, lightweight and versatile robot designed for a wide range of missions, from reconnaissance to neutralizing bombs. What can be done? Basically all. One of the fastest robot in service, Talon has amphibious capabilities that allow maneuver through sand, water and snow, as well as stairs, and remains waterproof at 100 meters under water. Its four cameras are transmitted in black / white, color, infrared and night visor to the remote operator to 1,000 meters - which means they can work 24 hours, day and night. Equipped with hand and NBC sensors. Talon is the long arm of soldiers anywhere, anytime, it is shown in Figure 4. It allows soldiers to perfect the art of evacuation and disposal of bombs. Talon successfully performed more than 100,000 missions in Iraq and Afghanistan.

Figure 4. Talon robot

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2.2.2. Theodor

One of the most frequently used robots for bomb disposal today is Cobham Theodore. The base robot is a tracked vehicle with various versions in military applications, but standard Theodor is an expert in bomb disposal. It is equipped with a manipulator arm, sensors and a camera at hand to enable deminers to remotely disarm the explosive ordnance and improvised explosive devices (IEDs). Theodore is shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5. Cobham Theodor robot

2.3. The principle of operation of robots for the disposal of mines

Robots for the disposal of bombs or explosive ordnance (Engl.- Explosive Ordnance - EOD) disposal, are one of the many tools that are used by deminers to disarm a dangerous weapon. In addition to the cost of loss of the lives of deminers, training of officers for demining and disposal of explosives is much more expensive than buying a robot for bomb disposal. As a result, maintaining a safe distance from a potential bomb is of the greatest importance, and only in extreme situations will deminers expose their lives in the area within the blast radius instead of a robot.

In most cases, working with robots for disarming IEDs, deminers will sit at a safe distance in the control station. It is a device similar to laptop computer as it consists of a monitor that displays the view of the robot with its current point, as well as its surroundings, plus a joystick and control panel to manipulate manually and maneuver the tracks.54

54 http://someinterestingfacts.net/how-does-a-bomb-disposal-robot-work (visited on 25.2.2016.)

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Figure 6. Activation of explosives during the task of disarming the car bomb

3. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DESIGNED SOLUTION

Considering the problem of improvised explosive devices and the problem of suffering of deminers and soldiers because of these threats, I came up with the idea (why not) to make a humanoid robot deminer. The robot of humanoid form that is remotely controlled by a deminer, who is in a safe place, that imitates the deminer’s movements and can be monitored by a deminer via computer monitor. The robot’s right arm is currently being designed which I describe in this paper with brief mention of the overall robot’s operation. The arm has characteristics similar to the human hand, the operator uses his hands to operate the robot’s arm. By using a programmable microcontroller, which is the 'nervous system' of the hand, movement is achieved by control of servo motors, as mascule system. By connecting the microcontroller and servo motor we gain a mechanism that is capable of performing tasks assigned to it. The hand is made by using new manufacturing technology known as 3D print. The use of 3D printing mechanical movable and immovable parts gets lighter on weight of the robot and reduces the cost of manufacturing.

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Figure 7. Connecting flex sensors and a servo motor to a microcontroller

Figure 7. shows a method of wire networking the hand is currently working on, power lines are marked, grounding lines and lines that transmit signals from the flex sensors to microcontrollers and from microcontroller to the servo motor.

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4. RESULTS ACHIEVED

By measuring and research conducted on the mechanical hand I came to the conclusion that the hand functions as anticipated. There are slight differences in the values that are almost negligible, because of small unforeseen errors in measuring instruments and because of the components that are also not able to transfer values 100% because of parasitic interference that exists within each component as it can be seen from the graph shown below. Values of the flex sensors and servo motor are expressed in milli watts [mW].

Figure 8. Graph value of outstretched fingers

Figure 9. Graph value of slightly bent fingers

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Figure 10. Graph values of fingers totally clenched

While observing values of the flex sensors and servo motors I came to the conclusion that complete transfer of signals did not take place and that a small part of the signal was lost in transmission. The culprits for this are imperfection of the components and wires where the waste of signal transmission occurred. With almost no visible signs of the loss of signal an error is not greater than 6% of the difference between input and output signal. With a negligible error in the turn signal the arm is able to keep in the grip objects up to the maximum of 7 kg, and drag them behind when we talk about the whole robot. This is desirable because nowadays, in most cases, these mines and IEDs do not weigh more than 7- 10 kg. Using this combat support system, in this case demining, deminers are given almost real situation and image. With the robot a deminer has the ability to disable mines or IED from a great distance so that they are not exposed to mortal danger.

5. ASSESSMENT OF THE RESULT APPLICABILITY

After additional study I came to the conclusion that the arm of deminer robot as a unity functions better than expected after my initial calculations. Although there are fluctuations in the value of that input and output signal that does not affect the operation of the robot’s hand. The robotic arm is able to drag and hold objects weighing up to a maximum of 7 kg which could be useful for the deminer because most of these mines and IEDs weigh between 7-10 kg55. Hand and robot are currently prototypes of the final version in which the robot will work on wireless principle such as controlling all movements of the robot chassis to its other parts, in this case the hand, which are crucial for disabling and disposal of mines or IED.

55 [3] Đ.Todorovski: Minsko eksplozivna sredstva, Ministry of Defense of the Republic of Croatia, Zagreb, 2010

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6. MORE WAYS OF DEVELOPMENT IN THE PROBLEM MATTER

In addition to the design that provides the hand with capabilities required from a robot to disarm mines / IEDs, I plan to develop a mechanism for rotating the wrist so the hand would gain greater maneuver capability and could easily disable and dispose EOD. By installing a filter to stabilize the signal we would obtain greater signal cleanness that would eliminate the occurrence of oscillations in the input / output signals. By incorporating the latest and sophisticated servo motors the hand could lift more than 7 kg of weight.

CONCLUSION

Modern-day soldier / deminer in the fight against terrorism encounters on daily basis homemade deadly explosives and residual unexploded ordnances risking his life to save other people who often become victims of explosive devices. The development of technology and robotization resulted in the appearance of the armed forces robots for disabling EOD. Robots for the disposal of bombs and destruction of EODs are one of the many tools that can be used by deminers to disarm a dangerous weapon. In addition to the cost of loss of the lives of deminers, training of officers for demining and disposal of explosives is much more expensive than buying a robot for bomb disposal those trained professionals would work on. Considering the problem of improvised explosive devices and the problem of suffering of deminers and soldiers because of these threats, I came up with the idea (why not) to make a humanoid robot deminer. The robot of humanoid form that is remotely controlled by a deminer who is in a safe place that would imitate the deminer’s movements and can be monitored by a deminer via computer monitor. The research and implementation of measurements on the hand, I found new ways to improve the overall operation of the robot which is able to hold and pull objects weighing up to 7 kg. The hand and mentioned robot are currently prototypes and as such have their advantages and disadvantages, which are improved with further research.

REFERENCES

[1] D.Mikulić: Tehnika za razminiranje, Croatian Demining Center, Sisak, Zagreb, 1999

[2] M.Pleše; I.Šteker; V.Horvat: Eksplozivna sredstva, Ministry of Defense of the Republic of Croatia, Zagreb, May 1992

[3] Đ.Todorovski: Mines and Explosives Devices, Ministry of Defense of the Republic of Croatia, Zagreb, 2010

[4] http://gizmodo.com/5816663/search-and- disarm-the-cop-bot-that-takes-down- bombs (visited on 12.2.2016.)

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ARMY LEADERSHIP

Alexandra MUNTEANU

Summary

1. Introduction

2. Leadership Defined

3. The Foundations of Army Leadership

4. Leadership and command authority

5. Leadership Roles, Leadership Levels, and Leadership Teams

5.1. Roles and relationships

5.2. Army leadership levels

5.3. Leader teams

6. The Army Leader: Person of Character, Presence and Intellect

7. Competency-Based Leadership for Direct Through Strategic Levels

8. Leading at Organizational and Strategic Levels

8.1.Organizational leadership

8.2.Strategic leadership

9.Bibliography

Introduction

Competent leaders of character are necessary for the Army to meet the challenges in the dangerous and complex security environment we face. Upon taking the oath to become an Army leader, Soldiers, and Army civilians enter into a sacred agreement with the Nation and their subordinates. The men and women of the rmy are capable of extraordinary feats of courage and sacrifice as they have proven on ountless battlefields from the Revolutionary War to the War on Terrorism. These Soldiers and army civilians display great patience, persistence, and tremendous loyalty as they perform their duty to the Nation in thousands of orderly rooms, offices, motor pools, and training areas around the world, no matter how

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An ideal Army leader has strong intellect, physical presence, professional competence, high moral character, and serves as a role model. Army leaders recognize that organizations, built on mutual trust and confidence, successfully accomplish peacetime and wartime missions. Organizations have many leaders. Everyone in the Army is part of a chain of command and functions in the role of leader and subordinate. Being a good subordinate is part of being a good leader. All Soldiers and Army civilians, at one time or another, must act as leaders and followers. Leaders are not always designated by position, rank, or authority. In many situations, it is appropriate for an individual to step forward and assume the role of leader. It is important to understand that leaders do not just lead subordinates—they also lead other leaders. Everyone in the Army is part of a team, and all team members have responsibilities inherent in belonging to that team.

Leadership Defined

An enduring expression for Army leadership has been BE-KNOW-DO. Army leadership begins with what the leader must BE—the values and attributes that shape character. It may be helpful to think of these as internal and defining qualities possessed all the time. As defining qualities, they make up the identity of the leader. Who is an Army leader? An Army leader is anyone who by virtue of assumed role or assigned responsibility inspires and influences people to accomplish organizational goals. Army leaders motivate people both inside and outside the chain of command to pursue actions, focus thinking, and shape decisions for the greater good of the organization.

Values and attributes are the same for all leaders, regardless of position, although refined through experience and assumption of positions of greater responsibility. For example, a sergeant major with combat experience may have a deeper understanding of selfless service and personal courage than a new Soldier.

The knowledge that leaders should use in leadership is what Soldiers and Army civilians KNOW. Leadership requires knowing about tactics, technical systems, organizations, management of resources, and the tendencies and needs of people. Knowledge shapes a leader’s identity and is reinforced by a leader’s actions. While character and knowledge are necessary, by themselves they are not enough. Leaders cannot be effective until they apply what they know. What leaders DO, or leader actions, is directly related to the influence they have on others and what is done.

The Foundations of Army Leadership

The foundations of Army leadership are firmly grounded in history, loyalty to our country’s laws, accountability to authority, and evolving Army doctrine. By applying th is knowledge with confidence and dedication, leaders develop into mature, competent, and multiskilled members of the Nation’s Army. While Army leaders are responsible for being

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CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016 personally and professionally competent, they are also charged with the responsibility of developing their subordinates. To assist leaders to become competent at all levels of leadership, the Army identifies three categories of core leader competencies: lead, develop, and achieve. These competencies and their subsets represent the roles and functions of leaders. The Army and its leadership requirements are based on the Nation’s democratic foundations, defined values, and standards of excellence. The Army recognizes the importance of preserving the time-proven standards of competence that have distinguished leaders throughout history. Leadership doctrine acknowledges that societal change, evolving security threats, and technological advances require an ever-increasing degree of adaptability. To formalize our ties to the Nation and to affirm subordination to its laws, members of the Army—Soldiers and Army civilians—swear a solemn oath to support and defend the Constitution against all enemies, foreign and domestic. Soldiers simultaneously acknowledge the authority of the President as Commander in Chief and officers as his agents. The purpose of the oath is to affirm military subordination to civilian authority.

Leadership and command authority

Command is a specific and legal leadership responsibility unique to the military. Command is the authority that a commander in the military service lawfully exercises over subordinates by virtue of rank or assignment. Command includes the leadership, authority, responsibility, and accountability for effectively using available resources and planning the employment of, organizing, directing, coordinating, and controlling military forces to accomplish assigned missions. It includes responsibility for unit readiness, health, welfare, morale, and discipline of assigned personnel. Command is about sacred trust. Nowhere else do superiors have to answer for how their subordinates live and act beyond duty hours. Society and the Army look to commanders to ensure that Soldiers and Army civilians receive the proper training and care, uphold expected values, and accomplish assigned missions.

Leadership Roles, Leadership Levels, and Leadership Teams

Army leaders of character lead by personal example and consistently act as good role models through a dedicated lifelong effort to learn and develop. They achieve excellence for their organizations when followers are disciplined to do their duty, committed to the Army Values, and feel empowered to accomplish any mission, while simultaneously improving their organizations with focus towards the future. As their careers unfold, Army leaders realize that excellence emerges in many shapes and forms. The Army cannot accomplish its mission unless all Army leaders, Soldiers, and civilians accomplish theirs—whether that means filling out a status report, repairing a vehicle, planning a budget, packing a parachute, maintaining pay records, or walking guard duty. The Army consists of more than a single outstanding general or a handful of combat heroes. It relies on hundreds of thousands of dedicated Soldiers and civilians—workers and leaders—to accomplish missions worldwide.

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Each of their roles and responsibilities is unique, yet there are common ways in which the roles of various types of leaders interact. Every leader in the Army is a member of a team, a subordinate, and at some point, a leader of leaders.

1.Roles and relationships

When the Army speaks of Soldiers, it refers to commissioned officers, warrant officers, noncommissioned officers (NCOs), and enlisted Soldiers. Although the Army consists of different categories of personnel serving and empowered by different laws and regulations, the roles and responsibilities of Army leaders from all organizations overlap and complement each other. Formal Army leaders come from three different categories: commissioned and warrant officers, noncommissioned officers, and Army civilians.

2. Army leadership levels

The three levels of Army leadership: direct, organizational, and strategic. Factors determining a position’s leadership level can include the position’s span of control, its headquarters level, and the extent of influence the leader holding the position exerts. Other factors include the size of the unit or organization, the type of operations it conducts, the number of people assigned, and its planning horizon.

3.Leader teams

Leaders at all levels recognize the Army is a team as well as a team of teams. These teams interact as numerous functional units, designed to perform necessary tasks and missions that in unison produce the collective effort of all Army components. Everyone belongs to a team, serving as either leader or responsible subordinate. For these teams to function at their best, leaders and followers must develop mutual trust and respect, recognize existing talents,and willingly contribute talents and abilities for the common good of the organization. Leadership within the teams that make up Army usually comes in two forms: Legitimate (formal) and influential (informal).

The Army Leader: Person of Character, Presence and Intellect

Army leadership doctrine concerns itself with all aspects of leadership, the most important of which is the Army leader. Development of the desired attributes requires that Army leaders pay attention to them through consistent self-awareness and lifelong learning. Character, a person’s moral and ethical qualities, helps determine what is right and gives a leader motivation to do what is appropriate, regardless of the circumstances or the consequences. An informed ethical conscience consistent with the Army Values strengthens leaders to make the right choices when faced with tough issues. Since Army leaders seek to do what is right and inspire others to do the same, they must embody these values. Character is essential to successful leadership. It determines who people are and how they act. It helps determine right from wrong and choose what is right. The factors, internal and central to a leader, which make up the leader’s core are— Army Values,Empathy and Warrior Ethos. Becoming a person of character and a leader of character is a career-long process involving day-to-day experience, education, self-development, developmental counseling,

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CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016 coaching, and mentoring. While individuals are responsible for their own character development, leaders are responsible for encouraging, supporting, and assessing the efforts of their people. Leaders of character can develop only through continual study, reflection, experience, and feedback. Beliefs matter because they help people understand their experiences. Those experiences provide a start point for what to do in everyday situations. Beliefs are convictions people hold as true. Values are deep-seated personal beliefs that shape a person’s behavior. Values and beliefs are central to character. Army leaders should recognize the role beliefs play in preparing Soldiers for battle. Soldiers often fight and win against tremendous odds when they are convinced of the beliefs for which they are fighting. Commitment to such beliefs as justice, liberty, and freedom can be essential ingredients in creating and sustaining the will to fight and prevail. Warrior Ethos is another special case of beliefs.

Presence is not just a matter of the leader showing up; it involves the image that the leader projects. Presence is conveyed through actions, words, and the manner in which leaders carry themselves. A reputation is conveyed by the respect that others show, how they refer to the leader, and respond to the leader’s guidance. Presence is a critical attribute that leaders need to understand. The impression that a leader makes on others contributes to the success in leading them. How others perceive a leader depends on the leader’s outward appearance, demeanor, actions, and words. Followers need a way to size up their leaders, dependent on leaders being where Soldiers and civilians are. Organizational and strategic level leaders who are willing to go everywhere, including where the conditions are the most severe, illustrate through their presence that they care. There is no greater inspiration than leaders who routinely share in team hardships and dangers. Moving to where duties are performed allows the leader to have firsthand knowledge of the real conditions Soldiers and civilians face. Soldiers and civilians who see or hear from the boss appreciate knowing that their unit has an important part to play.

Physical characteristics—military and professional bearing, health and physical fitness— can and must be continuously developed in order to establish presence. Ar my leaders represent the institution and government and should always maintain an appropriate level of physical fitness and professional bearing.

An Army leader’s intelligence draws on the mental tendencies and resources that shape conceptual abilities, which are applied to one’s duties and responsibilities. Conceptual ab ilities enable sound judgment before implementing concepts and plans. They help one think creatively and reason analytically, critically, ethically, and with cultural sensitivity to consider unintended as well as intended consequences. Like a chess player trying to anticipate an opponent’s moves three or four turns in advance (action-reaction-counteraction), leaders must think through what they expect to occur because of a decision. Some decisions may set off a chain of events. Therefore, leaders must attempt to anticipate the second- and third-order effects of their actions. Even lower-level leaders’ actions may have effects well beyond what they expect. The conceptual components affecting the Army leader’s intelligence include: agility, judgment, innovation, interpersonal tact and domain knowledge.

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Competency-Based Leadership for Direct Through Strategic Levels

Leaders serve to provide purpose, direction and motivation. Army leaders work hard to lead people, to develop themselves, their subordinates, and organizations, and to achieve mission accomplishment across the spectrum of conflicts. For leadership to be effective in the operational environment, it is important to consider the impact of its dimensions on the members of the organization. Weather and terrain, combined with the day-night cycle, form the basis for all operations. This basic environment is influenced by technology, affecting the application of firepower, maneuver, protection and leadership. A combination of the psychological impact of mortal danger, weapons effects, difficult terrain, and the presence of enemy forces can create chaos and confusion, turning simple tactical and operational plans into the most challenging endeavors.

The leading category of the core leader competencies includes four competencies. Two competencies focus on who is being led and with what degree of authority and influence:leads others and extends influence beyond the chain of command. The other leading competencies address two ways by which leaders to convey influence: leads by example and communicates.

Developing is also very important. Good leaders strive to leave an organization better than they found it and expect other leaders throughout the Army do the same. Leaders can create a positive organizational climate, prepare themselves to do well in their own duties, and help others to perform well. Good leaders look ahead and prepare talented Soldiers and civilians to assume positions with greater leadership responsibility in their own organization and in future assignments. They also work on their own development to prepare for new challenges. From the definition of leadership, achieving is focused on accomplishing the mission. Mission accomplishment is a goal that must co-exist with an extended perspective towards maintaining and building up the organization’s capability for the future. Achieving begins in the short term by setting objectives. In the long term, achieving based on clear vision requires getting results in pursuit of those objectives. Getting results is focused on structuring what needs to be done so results are consistently produced. This competency focuses on the organization of how to achieve those results.

Each day as a leader brings new challenges. Some of these challenges are predictable based on experiences. Some are unpredictable, surfacing because of a situation or place in time in which Soldiers find themselves. Leaders must be prepared to face the effects of stress, fear in combat, external influences from the media, the geopolitical climate, and the impact of changing technology. Some of these factors are mitigated through awareness, proper training, and open and frank discussion. The Army must consider these external influences and plan accordingly. An effective leader recognizes the tools needed to adapt in changing situations.

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Leading at Organizational and Strategic Levels

All professional Army leaders consistently prepare themselves for greater responsibilities while mastering core leader competencies. By the time they become organizational and strategic leaders, they should be multiskilled leaders who can comfortably operate at all levels of leadership and apply their vast experiences and knowledge for success across the spectrum of conflicts. They oversee continuous transformation of the Army and respond to evolving operational environments. They also mentor and develop the leadership of the future force.

1.Organizational Leadership

Whether they fight for key terrain in combat or work to achieve readiness in peacetime training, organizational leaders must be able to translate complex concepts into understandable operational and tactical plans and decisive action. Organizational leaders develop the programs and plans, and synchronize the appropriate systems allowing Soldiers in small units to turn tactical and operational models into action. Through leadership by example, a wide range of knowledge, and the application of leader competencies, organizational leaders build teams of teams with discipline, cohesion, trust, and proficiency. They focus their organizations down to the lowest level on the mission ahead by disseminating a clear intent, sound operational concepts, and a systematic approach to execution.

2.Strategic Leadership

To support strategic leaders effectively—general and some senior field grade officers as well as senior Army civilians—one must fully understand the distinct environment in which these leaders work and the special considerations it requires. Strategic leaders are the Army’s ultimate multiskilled pentathletes. They represent a finely balanced combination of high-level thinkers, accomplished warfighters, and geopolitical military experts. Strategic leaders simultaneously sustain the Army’s culture, envision the future force, and convey that vision to a wide audience. They often personally spearhead institutional change. Their leadership scope is enormous, typically responsible for influencing several thousand to hundreds of thousands of Soldiers and civilians. Strategic leaders are experts in their own fields of warfighting and leading large organizations, and have to be comfortable in the departmental and political environments of the Nation’s decision making. They have to deal competently with the public sector, the executive branch, and the legislature. America’s complex national security environment requires an in-depth knowledge of the diplomatic, informational, military, and economic instruments of national power, as well as the interrelationships among them. Leaders not only know themselves and their own organizations, but also understand a host of different players, rules, and conditions.

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Bibliography

1. Army Leadership Competent, Confident, and Agil, FM 6-22 (FM 22-100),Washington DC, 2004. 2. Bennis, Warren. On Becoming a Leader. Cambridge, MA: Perseus Publishing, 2003. 3. Burns, James MacGregor.Leadership. New York: Harper & Row, 1978. 4. Kolenda, Christopher, ed.Leadership: The Warrior’s Art.Carlisle, PA: The Army War College Foundation Press, 2001. 5. Matthews, Lloyd J.The Challenge of Military Leadership. New York: Pergamon-Brassey’s International Defense Publishers, Inc., 1989. 6. Northouse, Peter G. Leadership: Theory and Practice. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2004.

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EXAMINING THE FACTORS INFLUENCING THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNMANNED AVIATION IN CONTRAST WITH THE CONVENTIONAL AVIATION

Máté NAGY

SUMMARY: In my paper I concentrate on the heavier than air aviation and its pilotless modification. I try to answer what reasons drove people to let mechanical equipment drive the airplanes, partly giving up the dream of flying. This question in extremely interesting taking into consideration, how much effort it had taken to create the first machine flying high the people. In order to find answer to this question, I compare and contrast the development of conventional airplanes and UAVs, examine the influence on each other, reasons, results and directions of their development. For this purpose I use chronological order. I divide the history of UAVs into 5 parts which are the following: from the beginning to the end of second world war; the first decades of cold war until the end of Vietnam war; from the Vietnam war to end of 20th century and the 21st century. I used this sequencing because military conflicts has always gave a big push to developments in technology, so the next era would mean the next level of development. According to my thesis tactical, financial and personal reasons also contributed to the development of these assets. I try to find and specify these reasons in my papers. I used documents in English and Hungarian language, books and periodicals, articles, studies and electronic materials to study the material. Keywords: Aviation, UAV, Drone, Flying, History

1 Introduction The human’s desire to fly high in the sky emerged as early as its awareness. However it took a long time to make this dream real. A large number of scientists had worked on this topic and it had demanded so many brave people’s life, until finally men could ascend from the ground. So people’s enthusiasm towards the aviation led to success. At first they conquered the air by balloons, later by airships, and finally with airplanes.

Nowadays unmanned aerial vehicles are invaluable assets for each modern military. However it took a long time for these systems to become so popular and widespread. There are several reasons why UAVs are used in such a large number and wide range. Some sort of deficiency or new demand in the conventional aviation led to the progress in the development of drones56. There has been many reasons like this throughout history. My supposition is that tactical, financial and physiological factors contributed to the emerge of unmanned aerial aircraft. What were these factors? In my papers I try to find the answer to this question.

I try to find out, why people have decided to partially, or entirely give up the dream of flying, and delegate the task of controlling the aircraft to machines. The question is even more exciting if we take into consideration how much effort it had taken to build the first

56 Drone- Expression used for the Unmanned Aerial Vehichle

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CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016 mechanism that elevated its pilot to the high. In order to find an explanation to this question I will compare and contrast the development conventional and UAV57 aviation, as well as I will examine their influence on each other and the factors indicating their development. I will also study the direction of their evolution and I will make a consequence out of these.

2 Theory Descriptio

FROM THE BEGINNING OF AVIATION TO THE END OF WORLD WAR II Men had long been trying to create a mechanism that would rise them to the high. The controlled heavier-than-air-aviation that I will describe in my papers remained just a dream, until the beginning of 20th century, when experiments with airplanes began, thanks to the technical development. On 17th December 1903 Wilbur and Orville Wright carried out the first take-off after thirty years of experiments, and soon this flight became history.[5] After that, a rapid development began and many new technologies and new ideas appeared until the beginning of World War I.

For obvious reasons as the new technology became better and better, and it had bigger and bigger potential, it gained the attention of military leaders. They soon realized, that despite the unreliable technology, airplanes were extremely useful in obtaining information about the enemy’s position. During the four-year-long war, after the initial steps the mass use of fighter aircraft became general. Airplanes like the Breguet 14, the Sopwith Camel, or the Spad XIII are just some examples for models, that were manufactured in a more thousand numbers. In the World War I it became obvious, how useful mechanism the airplane is in the warfare, and how much effort should be taken to develop, maintain and preserve the aircraft.

During the war it was very difficult to replace the lost airplanes and pilots, which happened quite frequently due to the mass introduction of warplanes. To solve this problem military leaders started to think about using Unmanned Aircraft, in certain missions. According to the theory of Douhet, a nation’s resistance could be broken and a country could be defeated by terror bombings. The use of flying bombs seemed to be a good idea for this task. The Kettering Bug [FIGURE 1.] was completed in the November of 1917. It was ordered by the US Military and constructed by Charles Kettering. The fuselage was created by Orville Wright, the control and navigation system was developed by the topic’s expert, Elmer Sperry. After take-off the small sized, biplane was guided by the automatism in the direction of the target, where when the pre-set time passed, the engine stopped, the wings fell down. The torpedo shaped body- filled with 80 kg explosive- hit the target and exploded.[13]

57 UAV - Unmanned Aerial Vehichle

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FIGURE 1. Kettering Bug being prepared for take-off The usefulness of airplanes in the fighting theatre became obvious based on the experience gained from the world war I. By the 1930s mounting machine guns and cannons was general. The larger bombers and reconnaissance airplanes were required to have more defensive weapons and some of them had rotating touret. Bombers could drop more and more explosives, while reconnaissance aircraft had an extended range of distance.

As I have written above, fighter aircraft of this era were faster, stronger and more maneuverable. This change affected the method of training of the pilots. New techniques were required in order to the recruits can practice dogfight, this is why Pilotless Target Aircraft shortly PTA58s where developed. A program with the aim of developing such an aircraft ended up in creating the Queen Bee in the United Kingdom. This new type of UAV meant a breakthrough and was a real innovation. This was the first system with the capability of returning after completing its mission, unless it was hit. Furthermore the Queen Bee was the first aircraft which was nicknamed Drone, meaning that it deserves its place in the history books. [13]

Airplanes speed, ceiling and range increased drastically in the 1930s, because of the arms race. Many people thought this time that it is possible to win in war only by the bombing activity of air force. To prove this idea, the Heinkel He-111 aircraft turned out to be so successful in the bombings of South-England that more than 6000 were made until manufacturing stopped in 1944.[1] In connection with this, new inventions were born, and these lay down the basics of a new mechanism which worked with the radio detection and ranging or shortly RADAR. By the May of 1940 a chain of radarstations consisting of 20 radio locators defended the British airfield on the North, along the coastline to the south and to the west.

58 Pilotless target aircraft

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Appearance of Radars had a big role in forming the GCI, which ensured the success of air combats.59 After implementing this new air defense system pilots could not rely solely on their eyes, but had to take into account the orders of GCI.[8]

After the outbreak of the World War II, the militaries need for Pilotless Target Vehicles started to grow for obvious reasons. That’s why the Aerial Target, [FIGURE. 2] codenamed OQ-2 was created in the US, which was a monoplane made of wood and propelled by an aircrew. The UAV could land with the help of a parachute if the datalink was lost for some reason, which fact proves it to be a relatively developed model. Furthermore it was able to take off from its landing gears on an ordinary runway. In contrast with the earlier UAVs, damaging could be avoided because of these features.

FIG. 2. An Aerial Target on the ramp ready for departure As more and more bombers were lost in the air defense fire during the terror bombings, the fighting parts started to seek for alternative solutions. Germans started to develop the V-1 aerial torpedo in the end of 1930s with the task of London’s bombing. Its technical background was provided by the invention of pulsejet engine in 1941. It provided enough power to take the warhead, filled with 850 kg explosive, to a distance of 320 km. After reaching the pre-set distance the engine stopped, the V-1 became nose heavy, and started to dive, it acted like a bomb launched from a bomber. The warhead activated and exploded at the time of impact. It was first used in the theatre in 1944 as a revenge for the D-day against London. Even though the Germans called it a ‘magic weapon’ it had little impact on the outcome of the war. [15]

EVOLUTION OF AVIATION IN THE FIRST DECADES OF COLD WAR Jet engines became widespread from 1945, whose development was started in the last years of the war. The first air battles with jet fighters happened in Korea in the early 1950s. The appearance of Soviet MiG-15 aircraft came as an uncomfortable surprise for the US troops. The US used the F-86 Sabre fighters, whose specifications were equal with the MiG-15. It made interception and engagement more difficult. After these new faster-than-ever jet fighters became widespread, the air defense artillery and missile forces started to use automatized fire

59 Ground Controlled Interception

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CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016 control equipment. Furthermore these air defense artillery and missile teams demanded pilotless target aircraft, that could fly over the speed of Mach 1.[12]

As I have written above, in the 1950s with the appearance of aircraft and missiles flying over the speed of sound, military leaders wanted to develop pilotless target aircraft with this speed. In 1953 the Radioplane branch of Northrop started working on the AQM-35 supersonic PTA, [FIGURE 3.] which carried out its first take-off in 1956. It was able to reach a speed as fast as Mach 1.55. Its main task was to help with the training of air defense missile units against supersonic airplanes. All together 25 models was build, and the program was stopped because the UAV was faster than what the air defense systems could handle, so they were unable to track it. [13]

FIG. 3. The AQM-35 supersonic target PTA Due to the extended range of weapons, the significance of reconnaissance executed deep above the enemy’s area has increased. The U-2 spy plane, which was developed by the commission of US government in the early 1950s, became the symbol of this era. It was designed by Lockheed Martin and meant a breakthrough in the history of aviation. It could fly in an altitude of 20 000 meters and had a range of 10 000km meaning that in some missions the airplane flew for more than 12 hours without stop. Its extreme high ceiling meant that it was believed to be protected from enemy air defense fire.[9] Pilot training could begin after the successful test flights. The freshly trained pilots carried out reconnaissance flights, and took photos over the most secret Soviet military and industrial areas within the framework of the CIA ‘Overflight’ program.[1] However in on 1st May 1960 the Soviet air defense shot down a U-2, piloted by Francis Gary Powers, over Sverdlosk. This incident made it obvious that high altitude does not provide enough protection, in addition the program’s high costs, and the media scandal following the shooting down were against the use of such airplanes. If we take into consideration these factors, it is not surprising that leaders started to think about unmanned reconnaissance systems that would take high quality photos deep in the enemy controlled area.[6]

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In 1960 the USAF gave a commission to the Ryan Aeronautical about converting four Q-2C Firebee PTAs into reconnaissance drones. The newly born UAVs were given the name 1147A Firefly, [FIGURE 4] and later were codenamed Lightning Bug. This RPV could be launched from. a catapult either on the ground or on a ship. However, most often it was started from DC-130 airplanes, which could carry 4 drones at the same time. Initially, after finishing its mission the Firebee landed with its parachute, later specially modified CH-3 helicopter ‘caught’ it, then put it on the ground on a described location. At first this new unmanned aerial vehicle proved how useful it was in the Vietnam War. [13]

The Vietnam War was the scene of introduction of new technologies. Fighter aircraft for example were built with delta wings. It provided greater lift, and larger fuel capacity, while increasing the fighters’ speed. The two most important fighter aircraft of this war are the American F-4 Phantom II and the Soviet MiG-21. The Phantoms outranged the MiGs in range, speed and thrust. These aircraft clashed several times during the war, including close combats and distant missile launchings. The most important lesson learnt from the war was that the significance of air battle in large and middle distance increased, while dogfights remained quite important. This all distance warfare generated a demand for reconnaissance assets at the lowest price available. That’s how UAV got in the middle of attention Small, but powerful drones appeared at first in Vietnam, later in the middle east.[3]

The importance of gathering information was proven when striking aircraft of the Vietnam War started to suffer a large number of casualties. Most of the cases they were shot down by air defense missiles, so it became a priority to locate and destroy them. For this purpose the US developed 28 modifications of the Model-147 UAV. The new drones’ tasks incuded day- and-night photographing, electronic detection, jamming, deception and spreading leaflets. By 1972 it was even possible to broadcast the data live to the ground station. The Ryan Model 147 –SC was equipped with TV camera and datalink system. The Ryan Model 147N could amplify its radar signals, so it was detected as it was a much larger target. [13] From 1972 the UAVs joined the propaganda warfare by spreading leaflets, because the conventional airplanes had suffered serious damage.

FIG. 4. Ryan Model-147 UAV

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FROM THE END OF VIETNAM WAR TO THE END OF 1990S From the late 1970s and early 1980s the rapid electronical development gave a huge push for the airplane development. From these years digital technology was used intensively, thanks to the cheap CPUs and software developments.[2] In these decades new and modern weapon systems and airplanes were build. These new fighter aircraft can be grouped into the their third generation. There most famous examples are Soviet MiG-23 Fogger and F-14 Tomcat. They were lighter due to the state of art electronic system, and had better flying parameters, like their predecessors. One of the biggest military conflict of this time was the Arab-Israeli War. According to the doctrine of the small country, it invested a lot in its air force. To prepare for the war intelligence and information gathering turned out to be a crucial point, in which Israel seemed to be the best.[11] It was carried out largely by UAVs, on the basis of the US experiences in the Vietnam War.

In the 1970s Israel was the leading UAV manufacturer country. Rapid development of this era, that I have already mentioned, helped this process. Two of the most successful drones of these decades are the Mastiff and Scout UAVs. They gathered information on the ground and air forces of the enemy, and the location of radio locators and its parameters. During the Israeli air strikes they continued reconnaissance, estimated the result of the strikes, and monitored the movement of enemy units. Certain UAVs were able to locate and jam the enemy’s radio equipment, which capability shows their electronic development. The biggest purchase of Pioneer UAVs, developed in 1984 in Israel, was executed by the United States This drone is capable of flying on a pre-programmed route, but if necessary, an operator also can drive it. During its operation the US Navy faced several technical issues, and spent a fortune to deal with these problems. [13]

In 1991 the US and its allies started the Operation Desert Shield in Iraq. The coalition forces came to a rapid win, because they used state of the art technology. These new technologies included stealth technology, precision weapons, the space assets, highly developed reconnaissance equipment, air-to-air refueling, SEAD procedures and UAVs.[14] The next big conflict was the Yugoslav War. The NATO air force and the UN joined it in 1995 with the operation Deliberation Force. Reconnaissance played a big role in the military planning and leaders used the experience gained from the Gulf War.[7] A strategy led to success, and the air force seemed to be more effective than ever. This success was largely because of the appearance of 4th generation fighter aircraft. [14] They are so modern and over developed, that we can say that the man sitting in it is the weakest point of the system. However, they are almost ineffective without enough information and knowledge about the own and enemy positions, and about almost everything. Since the 1990s the UAVs have been the assets, which have collected extreme amount of data flying deep above the enemy controlled area.

During the operation of Desert Shield 15 % of reconnaissance aircraft used by the US military were drones. Their extended range of use is well represented by the fact that all branches started using them. From 1995 Pioneers also joined the war in the Balkan, which had proven to be an effective system in the Golf War. In the same year the USAF’s Predator UAV [FIGURE 5.] was introduced in combat in the European theatre. These two models had SAR

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CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016 equipment and were mounted with systems that provided satellite data link. It made possible to operate and carry out its mission in any meteorological condition. Predators are able to send their data in real time to the CAOC or other higher level leading positions. With these inventions, it turned out that drones can be used in many ways in almost every combat theatre, and they are extremely effective. [13]

FIG. 5. A Predator UAV in Taszár, Hungary, during the Yugoslav War

AVIATION IN THE 21ST CENTURY In our century stealth capability of fighter aircraft is a basic requirement as well as integrating the on board system into one complex unit. This idea leads us closer to topic of the information warfare, whose aim is to achieve information superiority against the enemy. In the information warfare, both the soldier and the commanding post have a huge need of constant information. To meet this demand, UAVs are used in mass, and they are indispensable in the flow of information. Due to their effectiveness their number is still growing. Although their main purpose was gathering information, today they can execute air interdiction or air suppression missions.[4] Air strike capability is best represented by the Reaper UAV of the United States whose main purpose is to strike ground targets.

The potential using of UAVs is seemingly unlimited, because of the constant growing of applications and it has become obvious for all militaries in the world.

Conclusion In my papers I tried to find out, why men wanted to give up its dream of flying, and let robotic systems drive the airplanes instead of him.

In the first war drones were just in experimental phase, their mass use was impossible. As the airplanes main task was terror bombing, UAVs were used for this purpose. They had poor automatization, so they were inaccurate. The lack of technical-technological development didn’t permit making more complicated, more reliable, and more accurate drones.

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Between the two wars it turned out that one possible direction of developments is the PTA. Although we have seen some working theories, they were not ready to be widespread. .However in the Second World War using drones as target aircraft became general, because of the necessity of training pilots and air defense units. Other big area where UAVs where used is the aerial torpedo. These assets tried to replace the lost aircraft during the air attacks, and reduce their high cost. In addition, the power didn’t have to count with losing a pilot’s life or with captivity.

After the Second World War in the arms race of the cold war UAVs were still useful. Most often they were used as supersonic PTA, to train the air defense units’ personnel. Air defense missile units went through a rapid development due to the latest jet fighters and nuclear threat. This is why strategic air reconnaissance was extremely important at the time of cold war, but after shooting down U-2 over the Soviet Union, US leaders found out, that it is not desired for a pilot flown airplane to spend more than 12 hours over enemy territory. That’s how the first reconnaissance UAV was born, after long experiments, and it was given the name Lightning Bug.

In the Vietnam War the next big step was when drones were provided with live data network, so the pictures taken by them could be analyzed instantly. It was possible because of the development of electronics and some of the UAVs carried out electronic warfare tasks. More and more systems that had been present only on conventional aircraft were mounted on UAVs, but their main purpose was to take aerial pictures.

In the late 1970 and early 1980 the digital technology made it possible to create cheaper and lighter-than-ever UAVs. The main developing country was Israel and its drones had multiple roles. They formed the basis of UAVs that we use today.

In the conflicts of 1990s the US forces could execute more accurate strikes than ever. It was largely because of the 4th generation fighters and because of the information that was gathered in large quantities and was processed in a rapid pace. It led to the information warfare, where drones have a key role. In this decade it was proven that all branches can use UAVs and they are very effective in every theatre.

Nowadays each military possesses some kind of UAV, in with the extension of their role their number will increase. In my papers I have shown that the military conflicts where the motivating factors to develop drones.

One of main reasons of their development is the limitations of human being. The lack of person on board has several advantages, like extended maneuverability, improved stealth capability and almost unlimited duration in time. In addition most of the cases they are cheaper than conventional airplanes. So we can say that is has always been some new need, the lack of capability or change of application in the conventional aviation that motivated people creating UAVs.

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References [1] Batchelor, John- Lowe, Malcolm V.: A repülés enciklopédiája 1945-2005. Budapest, GABO Könyvkiadó, 2006 [2] Bertold, Békési: Repülőgépeken alkalmazott digitális adatbuszok URL: [cit. 31 Jan. 2016] [3] Géza, Bognár – István, Réé: Légifelderítés egyszerű eszközökkel URL: [cit. 16 Jan. 2016] [4] Carney, Duane T.: Unmanned aircraft Systems role in network centric warfare URL: [cit. 20 Feb. 2016] [5] Chant, Christopher: Aviation an illustrated history. London, Obris Publishing, 1978. [6] Clark, Richard M.: Uninhabited Combat Aerial Vehicles, Air University Press: Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama, 2000. [7] János, Jakus: A NATO légierő csapásai Jugoszláviára 1999 URL [cit. 19 Feb. 2016] [8] Macaulay, Horace R. (Red) Ground Controlled Interception Radar in Operation NEPTUNE/OVERLORD URL [cit. 28 Oct. 2015] [9] Niccoli, Riccardo: A repülés története Pécs, Alexandra Kiadó, 2002. [10] Pál, Péter A légierő csapásmérő képessége az 1991-es öböl-háborúban URL [cit. 10 Feb. 2016] [11] Mátyás, Csaba, Palik: A III. Arab Izraeli háború repülő és légvédelmi szempontból I. URL [cit. 10 Mar. 2016] [12] Mátyás Csaba, Palik: Vadászrepülőgépek automatizált rávezetése Vozduh-1 rendszerben URL: [cit. 10 Mar. 2016] [13] Mátyás, Dr. Palik: (Szerk.) Pilóta nélküli repülés profiknak és amatőröknek Szerkesztette: Budapest, Nemzeti Közszolgálati Egyetem, 2013. [14] Radar vagy fürgeség? URL: [cit. 12 Mar. 2016] [15] Gyula, Sárhidai: Robotrepülőgépek Budapest, Zrínyi Katonai Kiadó, 1986.

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HYBRID WARFARE - RUSSIA’S HYBRID WAR IN UKRAINE

Carmen NEGOITA

Hybrid threats include different modes of warfare including conventional capabilities, irregular tactics and formations, terrorist acts including indiscriminate violence and criminal disorder. Hybrid threat actors seek to master unrestricted operational art in order to reconcile overmatch and protect or advance their interests. As interest-based rational actors, hybrid threats translate strategic intent into unrestricted distributed operations. The hybrid threat concept represents the evolution of operational art and a potential paradigm shift as a doctrinal and organizational Revolution in Military Affairs (RMA). As an unrestricted collective methodology, the hybrid concept bypasses the cognitive boundaries of traditional threat characterization and the application of organized collective violence. The hybrid threat construct offers a framework to describe the evolving character of contemporary threat actors, challenge conventional threat assessment methodologies and understand the anomalies in the contemporary operating environment. In addition, hybrid warfare is used to describe attacks by nuclear, biological and chemical weapons, improvised explosive devices and informational warfare. These are created by state and groups of people which employ a large array of lethal and nonlethal forces and assets, in order to obtain some strategic advantages. Hybrid conflicts therefore are full spectrum wars, with both physical and conceptual dimensions: the former, a struggle against an armed enemy and the latter, a wider struggle for, control and support of the combat zone’s indigenous population, the support of the home fronts of the intervening nations, and the support of the international community.

Introduction Over two thousand years ago, the ancient Chinese military strategist Sun Tzu realized that indirect warfare is one of the most efficient ways of fighting an enemy. It allows an opponent to defeat their adversary without directly engaging them, thereby saving themselves the resources that would have to be expended in a direct confrontation. Attacking an enemy indirectly can also bog them down and put them on the defensive, thereby making them vulnerable to other forms of attack. It also carries with it a certain opportunity cost for the defending side, since the time and resources that they spend in dealing with the indirect attack could potentially have been put to better use elsewhere. Besides the tactical advantages, there are also strategic ones as well. There may be certain constraints (e.g. alliances, military parity, etc.) that prevent one entity from directly launching hostilities against another. In this case, indirect warfare is the only option to destabilize the other. We have entered a time period when multiple types of warfare will be used simultaneously by flexible, adaptable, rogue and sophisticated adversaries and enemies (according to their goals) some analysts call these “hybrid wars”. Today’s enemies and tomorrow’s will certainly employ irregular forms of warfare. It is crucial to prepare our armed forces to be ready for the full spectrum of conflict. Hybrid threats include a full range of different modes of warfare including conventional capabilities, irregular tactics and formations, terrorist acts including indiscriminate violence and coercion and criminal disorder. hybrid wars can be conducted by both states and a variety of non-state actors. Future challenges will present a more complex

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1. Hybrid war concept Hybrid war is defined as a combination of symmetrical and asymmetrical armed conflicts, in which the intervention forces conducted traditional military operations against military and enemy targets, while simultaneously act and decisively to get control of the indigenous population of the area of operations by stability operations. Historical examples of hybrid type warfare reach back to antiquity, even though the term hybrid threat is relatively recent. In ancient Rome, a hybrid force of criminal bandits, regular soldiers, and unregulated fighters employed tactics ranging from that of fixed battle, roadside ambush, and the employment of stolen siege engines against Vespasian’s Roman Legions during the Jewish Rebellion of 66 AD. During World War II, the Soviet Army on the Eastern Front integrated and synchronized an ill-equipped irregular force with its conventional military forces in order to generate multiple hybrid type effects from 1941 to 1945. The non state actor in the 2006 Israel-Hezbollah War, Lebanese Hezbollah, combined the aspects of conventional and unconventional war to fight against the premier conventional military power in the Middle East, the Israeli Defense Forces. In each of these historical cases, trends emerge which, arguably, suggest why and how hybrid forces exist, enabling observers and analysts to anticipate the manifestation of hybrid threats in the future.[1] The concept was launched in the academic world in 2005 by publishing the article Future Warfare: The Rise of Hybrid Wars. According to the authors conflicts in Afghanistan and Iraq have influenced the balancing of strategic thinking. However, it highlights that the threats will never go away, and conventional and modern armed forces must maintain superiority in this area [2]. In 2007, Frank Hoffman publishes Conflict in the 21st century: the rise of hybrid wars, which emphasizes the impressive adaptability of opponents in preparing and employing them in an innovative way, different capabilities and asymmetric methods. Therefore, future conflicts can not be classified as conventional or unconventional. The challenge will not come from a state that selects a particular approach, but from states or groups who choose the entire arsenal at its disposal, technologies and tactics that suited their strategic geographies and cultures.[3] Hybrid warfare is conducted by irregular forces that have access to the more sophisticated weapons and systems normally fielded by regular forces. Hybrid warfare may morph and adapt throughout an individual campaign, as circumstances and resources allow. It is anticipated that irregular groups will continue to acquire sophisticated weapons and technologies and that intervention forces will need to confront a variety of threats that have in the past been associated primarily with the regular Armed Forces of states. Hybrid threats and hybrid warfare can be described as a method of social warfare which is unbounded by social constraints. Therefore, hybrid threats not only gain a physical advantage through the combination of conventional technology and organization with unconventional tactics and applications, but also gain a cognitive advantage by the very lack of social restrictions that conventional state forces must adhere to such as the Law of Land Warfare, Geneva Convention, and Rules of Engagement. The model in terms of hybrid warfare can be explained by arguing that the pressures of globalization allow potential hybrid threats to gain access to conventional military capabilities

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CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016 that normally reside closer to the middle of the spectrum through the use of global finance and the available proliferation of information and technology. In order to begin to understand hybrid warfare, it is necessary to engage in a deeper enquiry into the reasons a hybrid force forms, or is formed. Logic would seem to indicate that a hybrid force is formed to generate specific effects upon a battlefield or directly on an enemy combatant. The formation of this force would be constrained by both the available means at its disposal and envisioned in ways that those means could be applied to achieve desired ends. Historically, the hybrid formation process has resulted in several commonalities in terms of composition and effects, which in turn can be generalized into seven principles to describe hybrid war in its totality:  The first principle of hybrid war is that a hybrid force’s composition, capabilities, and effects are unique to the force’s own specific context. This context relates to the temporal, geographic, socio-cultural, and historical setting in which the given conflict takes place;  The second principle is that there exists a specific ideology within the hybrid force that creates an internal narrative to the organization. This ideology is inherently linked to the strategic context and is grounded within the socio-cultural, religious identity of the hybrid force. The resulting narrative serves to redefine the extant rules within the strategic context;  The third principle is that a hybrid force perceives an existential threat by a potential adversary. This perceived threat drives the hybrid force to abandon conventional military wisdom to achieve long-term survival;  The fourth principle is that a capability overmatch between the hybrid force and a potential adversary exists. The hybrid force contains less conventional military capability in comparison to its adversary and therefore must seek a way to offset this apparent advantage in military capability;  The fifth principle is that a hybrid force contains both conventional and unconventional elements. These elements often comprise “accepted” military; technology and nonmilitary, guerrilla type technology. The elements may also include the use of terrorist or other criminal tactics. These combined capabilities create an asymmetric advantage for the hybrid force;  The sixth principle proposes that hybrid organizations rely on inherently defensive type operations. The hybrid force seeks to defend its existence and employs an overall strategy of defensive operations. These operations will often include offensive components, but the overarching intent is still one of defense;  The seventh principle is that hybrid organizations use attritional tactics in the employment of the hybrid force. These tactics manifest in both the physical and the cognitive domains in order to continually whittle away the adversary’s forces and his will to use them.[4] Therefore, hybrid war theory may be best summarized as a form of warfare in which one of the combatants bases its optimized force structure on the combination of all available resources—both conventional and unconventional—in a unique cultural context to produce specific, synergistic effects against a conventionally-based opponent.

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Current contexts challenges in hybrid threats, according to military analysts are considered to be: understand the security environment, winning the battle perception, adaptability and agility actors, access to advanced technologies, cyber security systems. Understanding the security environment is one of the biggest challenges, but it will be vital. Hybrid threats may occur in a complex environment from different ethnic or cultural groups, whose specificity must be fully understood. Winning the Battle perception assumes that both opponents, state and non-state actors have access to the means of international media and will try by all means to discredit the role of the enemy's actions and credibility, exploiting the complexity of the situation in legal terms, the hostilities and criminal activities that overlap, complement and mutually reinforcing their effects. Adaptability and the ability of actors. The ability to counter a conventional enemy remains acute, but is rivaled by a new challenge in the need to counter opponents smaller, unconventional, well organized and supported. Opponents will be difficult to distinguish among the local population in the context of lack of force structures visible, the more that are not constrained by respect for international law on carrying war and decide quickly using a range of methods terrorist, criminal, conventional and asymmetrical, benefiting from the decision cycle minimalist that they have. Access to advanced technologies. Increasing the number of specialists and documentation in the field of high technologies will allow some state or non-state actors to develop their capabilities and performance in areas more extensive than in conventional war. The ability of a state to sponsor and support organizations surrogate will allow even small lead actors precise and devastating attacks using advanced technical systems and at the same time, being able to evade the effects of military strikes. Cyber security systems. Computer networks are used in all areas of social life, and this dependency is a real advantage for developing the full spectrum of human activities. Most modern organizations are seeking solutions to protect themselves from the threat called "hybrid". Before, there were three major programs designed to stand alone servers and computer damage: worms, trojans and viruses. Each entity uses its own strategy to infect target. In addition, the behavior of the worm or virus varies depending on the payload carried by it, a message can consist in an order pushing or destructive.[5]

2. The “Hybrid” Aspect of Russian Operations in Ukraine The way in which Russia hasused force against Ukraine since early 2014 has prompted some observers to remark that it is engaging in ‘hybrid warfare’. Rather than openly using military power to secure its political objectives in Ukraine, Russia has adopted a subtler approach intended to give the Kremlin ‘plausible deniability’ while reducing the costs associated with engaging Ukraine’s armed forces directly. For example, Russia did not launch a traditional invasion to wrest Crimea away from Kiev’s control; instead, it fomented local pro-Russian demonstrations, inserted unmarked militia groups (‘little green men’) to occupy official government buildings, and oversaw a local referendum to lend an air of legitimacy to the annexation effort. In eastern Ukraine, Moscow continues to deny that it is directly involved in armed hostilities between Kiev and rebel groups. Nevertheless, it provides those

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CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016 rebels with diplomatic cover as well as heavy munitions and logistical support. Despite the Kremlin’s assertions to the contrary, there is strong evidence that some Russian units are fighting Ukrainian forces in the Donbas region.

Russia’s invasion of Ukraine has sparked a rethinking of traditional geopolitical norms and warfare tactics. For this reason, ICDS convened a panel of experts to shed light on recent developments and in particular, Russian use of hybrid warfare. This report is largely drawn from discussions with those experts.[6] Hybrid warfare incorporates the most potent attributes of an insurgency while minimizing the drawbacks associated with using conventional force. It is a strategy born not out of weakness but out of strength. In Ukraine, theoretical visions of information warfare have become a reality. In September 2014, according to a report from security firm F-Secure, a Russian cybercrime gang was uncovered distributing targeted malware called BlackEnergy to Ukrainian governmental organizations. Difficulties with attribution aside, it would be convenient for Moscow to maintain deniability because “patriotic hackers” may be acting on their own accord. On the other hand, they could also be state-backed. While actions have consequences, with plausible deniability, the Russians are able to maintain a buffer to prevent any concrete international action against them. The majority of Russian attacks in cyberspace have been psychological in nature. The attacks are aided by the fact that over the past 15 years, media has become more and more dominated by the state. This level of control domestically, and within loyal Russian communities, has allowed for more psychological tactics such as playing on positive emotions by personifying soldiers and demonizing the West. Russia has been using social media as a platform for spreading disinformation and anti-Western sentiment. In fact, Russia has set up “troll farms” to infiltrate news sites and other social media sites to diminish dissenting voices.[7] Information control is vital to the Russian strategy to maintain control of its citizens and prevent any dissent. In November 2014, Russia set up the government-controlled news site, Sputnik News, dubbed by Foreign Policy the “Buzz Feed of propaganda.” Cyberspace actors seem to have a keen awareness of how to manipulate human emotion, which therefore can be used to exploit the biggest weakness in computer systems – the users. Russia has been focusing its efforts on being able to effectively tailor its weapons, surveillance tools, et cetera to cater to the weaknesses of the users. Malware and surveillance techniques emanating from Russia make use of this psychological knowledge specifically in order to gain unauthorized and often high-level access to state and organizational affairs. In this respect, Estonia is held up as an example; it has exhibited strong defence by excelling in trying to increase the capacities of its citizens, but this remains an uphill battle. The sophistication of Russian social engineering makes clear the fact that they believe information will give them the upper hand in future conflicts. It furthermore makes clear the tangible uses of private data in conducting psychological attacks.[8] Quite clearly, Russia has vast experience in spreading disinformation; but the West’s traditional tactics cannot counter it. Current mainstream Western media has recently fallen under fire for inaccuracy and false reporting. However, the ubiquity and accessibility of the internet provides an opportunity. Despite Russian attempts at limiting internet freedom, the

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Russian people still have the means to examine outside news sources to distinguish fact from fiction. Trust in all media is at an all-time low, leaving the West’s role in protecting the world order increasingly ambiguous, but certainly a free and open internet can give citizens the opportunity to dig deeper, beyond the Kremlin’s rhetoric.[9] Possibly the most important aspect of the Kremlin’s hybrid warfare is not its immediate effects as much as the underlying socio-psychological and politico-economic calculus behind it. Ukrainians are becoming worn down by being held in a state of suspense over months and years—stuck between calm and tension, war and peace, insecurity and stability. In particular, this creates volatility and frustration in the Russian-speaking regions bordering Russia, and along the Black and Azov seas. Local entrepreneurs are discouraged, young university graduates disillusioned, civil society activists unsettled, international partners made nervous, and foreign investors scared off. [10]

Conclusion Hybrid warfare is the future of warfare. Each state (and ideally the entire international community) must embrace this uncertainty in its policy and doctrine. The current lack of legal and political means for addressing cyber operations leaves the international community vulnerable to these kinds of coordinated attacks. Because there are essentially no precedents with which to address cyber warfare, most states shy away from directly addressing a nation’s misbehavior in cyberspace. If there had been a response to aggressive behavior within the Ukrainian network sphere, perhaps the West could have had a more expedient and cohesive response to the Russian physical invasion. As it is, there are very few binding legal documents that would serve as guidance when dealing with cyber operations; there is not even any clear legal consensus on whether or not accessing the system of an attacker is permissible. The kinds of operations that Russia is conducting in Ukraine are not terribly novel, or even that sophisticated; rather, they exploit the fact that any operations in the cyber domain are befuddling to Western nations. The ensuing debates leave them plenty of time and leeway to continue their aggressive behavior. Russia will attempt to continue informational warfare in the future, albeit through potentially more subtle means, even though the strategy failed to meet some of its goals. Hybrid warfare relies for success on taking advantage of the vulnerabilities of a stronger adversary. Russian information warfare, particularly the doctrine of reflexive control, is a critical component of Russia’s hybrid warfare. Recognizing the limitations of Russia’s hybrid warfare is as important as recognizing its strengths, however. Its success depends heavily on certain conditions holding in the minds of the adversary. Were the West determined to resist Russia’s destruction of the Ukrainian state, the dissimulation and confusion Putin has spread would have much less effect. The hybrid strategy will always pose significant challenges to the West, and it must be much more alert to the indicators of Russian attempts at reflexive control. But the West is not helpless in the face of such a strategy either. It can and must, in fact, develop a theory and doctrine of its own to counter it.

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References

[1] T. McCulloh, R. Johnson, Hybrid Warfare, JSOU Report 13-4, 2013, p.3. [2] Future Warfare: The Rise of Hybrid Wars, November 2005, Vol. 132/11/1,233: http://milnewstbay.pbworks.com/f/MattisFourBlockWarUSNINov2005.pdf. [3] Hoffman, Conflict in the 21st Century: The Rise of Hybrid Wars, op.cit., p. 29. [4] ] T. McCulloh, R. Johnson, Hybrid Warfare, JSOU Report 13-4, 2013, p.16-17. [5] https://geopolicraticus.wordpress.com/2014/10/07/hybrid-warfare/ . [6] A. Lanoszka, Russian hybrid warfare and extended deterrence in Eastern Europe. [7] The Challenges of Hybrid Warfare, http://www.icds.ee/fileadmin/media/icds.ee/failid/Eve_Hunter__Piret_Pernik_- _Challenges_of_Hybrid_Warfare.pdf . [8] Ibidem. [9] Ibidem. [10] Russia’s Pernicious Hybrid War Against Ukraine, http://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/new-atlanticist/russia-s-pernicious-hybrid-war-against- ukraine .

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MILITARY ETHICS: MORAL DILEMMA AND THE ROLE OF THE DILEMMA WHEN TAKING DECISIONS

Josif OLUJIĆ

Table of Contents

SUMMARY ...... 3 1. INTRODUCTION ...... 4 2. EXAMPLES OF MORAL DILEMMA ...... 6 2.1. Civilians as a live shield ...... 6 2.2. Mission above all ...... 7 2.3. Everything by the law, with bitter taste ...... 8 2.4. The mission has to be morally correct ...... 8 2.5. Military virtues or careerism ...... 9 2.6. Choosing a lesser evil ...... 10 2.7. Don’t break the international law of armed conflict ...... 11 2.8. The right decision making process ...... 12 CONCLUSION ...... 14 REFERENCES ...... 15

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SUMMARY In this paper I will write about a moral dilemma that contemporary soldiers and commanders are facing. A lot of situations are resolved through rule books and laws, but there will be some situations that are not prescribed or regulated in the rule book or law. Those situations will have to be resolved between soldier and the commander.

I will briefly introduce the notion of military ethics and its use in the war. I will also be questioning whether ethics can be trained or learned.

In the main part of this essay, there are many examples which are the best example of doubts of the military commanders and situations that cannot be learned but people have to learn how to deal with them.

I will bring up true positive examples of ethical behaviour during the Homeland war, just like Jean-Michel Nicolier did. He was a French citizen who fought on the side of Croatia. There are also examples and situations where moral and ethical dilemmas or rather decisions of the general made a difference. I will also be mentioning examples of that are done under protection of the law and are legal but are done with bitterness.

I will show how military commander should think, what kind of rules he has to respect and what he has to be guided by. I will mention the importance of “Rules of Behaviour” during the conflict and participation in peace operations. This text will show some Croatian examples of the “Rules of Behaviour” but also examples of NATO countries because I think that we have a lot in common with Western view of military ethics. The foundations of our moral values are Western philosophy and Christianity. In this essay I also refer to a burden that military soldier has to carry in modern warfare.

In the end I will link all opinions that I stated in the examples, and write a final conclusion about importance of consideration and education of the military ethics.

Key words: Modern soldier, ethics, moral, ethical dilemma

1. INTRODUCTION „In law a man is guilty when he violates the rights of others. In ethics he is guilty if he only thinks of doing so“ 60 I decided to deal with problem of military ethics and the role of morality during decisions making and issuing commands. Personally, I think that this topic is very complex and that there is not one specific solution because there are too many factors that influence the solution. I will point out at the problems and moral dilemmas that modern soldier is faced with.

60 Immanuel Kant

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Ethics is the science of morality, or rather the study of human behaviour. Homer in Iliad is describing a hero, a warrior, he is using the word ethos. A warrior is a hero if he puts his whole heart in the fight. Latin word for ethics of moral. ( Lat. Mos. Moris) Cicerian translation of both Greek meanings of the word ethos was: custom and character. Ethics searches for a correct decision or action. The correct decision is the decision which can be justified and the one we responsibly stand behind. I would like to mention that some of the ethical and moral norms are similar in the Western world and are based on Western philosophy and Judean-Christian history. I would dare to say that Christianity and Western philosophy have a big part in ethical behaviour of the modern soldier. The main terms of ethics are good and evil. Ethics searches for correct behaviour and action. So how to connect such positive notion with a notion such as war? War is associated with killing, destruction and capturing. People are the main participants in the wa, they are originators of the idea of war and conduct war operations. People have determined moral values, civilized people, who think of themselves as being honest and just. „ ... War is nothing more than the application of brutal force, logically indistinguishable from mass murder. “ (Alex J. Bellamy, Just Wars: From Cicero to Iraq (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2006.)p. 1. In short war is evil. The role of ethics in war was given more importance in the 20th century after the World War II. Although the concept of a just war is mentioned at the time of St. Augustine, who said in his „Sermon on the Mount," we should give up the evil by assessing the situation of time. Not even authority is exempt from this duty. Its concern is common good. A soldier has a major role in the preservation of good. Soldiers in some just war are not just killers but servants of the God laid authorities. They do not try to take a revenge on some personal issue or injustice, they are defenders of the state – the common good. Besides St. Augustine's idea of a just war it was also elaborated by St. Thomas Aquinas, De Vittoria, Suarez, Hugo Grotius. (J. Koprek, Ethics the Manual of One Discipline, 1996. CC , pp . 236-238) During the long European history the principle in force was of William I, the Conqueror- «Fight well, kill all: if we win, we will be rich. What I gain, you all gain, what I conquer, you will all conquer». (F. Tuđman, Bespuća povijesne zbiljnosti, Nakladni zavod Matice Hrvatske, 1989.). Is it the old Plato saying: “ Homo homini Lupus” ( A man is a wolf to another man); really true? Politic leads the war, and where is the army? Is it the army just an instrument or rather executor of a command? What is the role of its commanders who have to lead the war? These are the people that decide about life and death. In this paper I would like to comment the people who are in the role of the commander and have to make really tough decision in certain situations. Wars nowadays are much more complex then a few decades ago. Soldiers and their commanders are assigned completely different roles then initial ones and with that they lot of a burden has been placed on them.

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Modern-day Croatian soldier must have a big responsibility when executing basic tasks such as: defending Croatia and allies, contributing to international security and support to civil institutions. That means that nowadays modern soldier, in addition to participating in the task of defence and security of the Republic of Croatia sometimes has to help civil institutions (helping police, health, citizenship…). Moral relativists would say that view on the world is certainly different from the perspective of various cultures. If morality and ethics are different from different perspective of other cultures, then it is easy to conclude that the view on what is moral and ethical will be different from the viewpoint of various people. I think that there should be certain “global morality “or generally accepted sense of what is bad and what is good. The responsibility is placed on the people who make decisions and issue commands; whose decisions lives depend on. Military ethics is best shown with military values which are integral part of every soldier. From those fundamental skills that every soldier should have, such as competence, mental and physical qualifications, adaptability up to the most important characteristic that makes him/her a soldier, and that is the desire to serve the nation and to use moral – ethical principles that will provide guidelines for any decision that commander must bring. In every modern army the basic principles that must be part of every soldier are humanity, empathy and desire to serve the nation as well as core military values: loyalty, duty, respect, unselfish service, honour, honesty, personal courage.

Figure 1. Ethic and law are sometimes at the crossroads

2. EXAMPLES OF THE MORAL DILEMMA Today’s warfare is very limited and strictly controlled. With the advancement of technology the whole world knows what is happening in real time. The definition of the war in fact is an armed conflict between two or more parties in order to achieve a goal. So, how to determine rules when it comes to guns and where people get killed. The great roman speaker Ciceron said “Inter arma enim silent leges”, that means: in the war the law is silent. War in today’s time is much more complex and therefore big responsibility is placed on military commanders. They are the ones who have to decide when a problem occurs. The Law on Service in the Armed Forces as well as regulations define many situations and behaviours; however, they do not help at all in many ethical dilemmas.

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2.1 Civilians as live shield An example of the dilemma experienced by a member of the Croatian Armed Forces during Homeland war: “It is summer time during the 90s in the 20th century during the war in Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. Commander K.M. was given a mission to explore the intersection guarded by members of Croatian Military Police. Since they did not report it was assumed that something happened. On the way to the intersection, Commander K.M and his unit encountered thirteen civilians of the opposite side among whom were women and children. The Commander allowed the woman and a child to return to the village, but since he was in enemy’s territory he decided to take the rest of the civilians with him and civilians were walking ahead of him. When they approached the enemy, he established communication and found out that his men who guarded the intersection were captured. Therefore he asked for exchange of the civilians for soldiers who guarded that intersection.” The situation turned out for the best, but there is moral dilemma in this story. Was he allowed to use civilians as some sort of human shield? From the talk with that Commander I found out if he would ever be in the same situation again he would do the same thing again. At that moment, his decision was correct. He deliberately violated the international law of armed conflict, but he saved members of the Croatian army. If he had released civilians they would have informed the enemy about their arrival and there would probably be some casualties. In this case a commander’s decision is based on ethical viewpoint known as utilitarian, i.e. the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people. In today’s warfare something like that should not be even thought of, but in this case the lives of his friends and colleges were in danger. On the other hand civilians he took with him were probably innocent and had nothing to do with the enemy. A big example of negative behaviour during war conflicts was the example from Homeland war. During the fall of Vukovar in the enemy’s hands on 20th November 1991. The enemy killed all Croatian civilians and the wounded who were in the hospital. The enemy did not respect the Geneva Convention or the law of armed conflict. Homo Homini Lupus.

2.2 Mission above all? The person who carries out an order is obligated to carry out the order of the superior officers and that is unquestionable. What happens if those orders do not correspond to moral and ethical principles of the person who received the order. I will describe an example of different attitudes of the members of two nations during participation in peacekeeping mission. It is a scenario where one commander refused to execute the order of his senior Commander because that order would have placed his men under unnecessary danger. He was told that he had to block one humanitarian rout with his unit, so he could prove something to the government of the country in which that operation was conducted. Having realized that he would bring his men into unnecessary risk, because their equipment was old and the mission that was assigned to him was not in conformity with his conciseness. Also there would have been many more casualties.

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He refused to execute the order, at the cost of being liable for disobedience and the senior Commander had difficulties to accept his disobedience. After this incident, although they worked together for some time there was no trust between them. From this example we can see that sometime moral and mission are in not in accord one with the other. What would have happened if the junior Commander followed the order of his senior Commander. Maybe everything would have ended well, but the point is the Commander did not want to put his men under unnecessary risk. He stood by his moral believes which are part of his personality and his upbringing. Military call just represents an additional part of the person and in my opinion, it cannot change the person’s essence. I would also like to mention the example in which we will see how strong is the feeling for justice and morality in some people and possibility of the choice between two options: to save your own life or to stay and share same faith with his comrades, he his decision is to stay and die. Jean-Michel Nicolier, a French Citizen during the Homeland war in Croatia became Croatian defender. He participated in battle for Vukovar, he was captured, tortured and executed by the enemy. He came to fight for the Croatian side although he did not have to. Before he died In Vukovar hospital he said: “I have lost too many friends, I saw too many people cry, too much suffering. I was told many times to leave Vukovar and to return to France, but I stayed. We have lost. I knew it would be hard, but I did not think it would be this horrible, especially for civilians. I came to Vukovar as a volunteer, and that was my choice, in good and in bad. Why as volunteer? Because I thought they needed help. Because of that I choose their side. What does Vukovar represent for you actually? Slaughterhouse.Slaughterhouse.Slaughterhouse”. Human kindness and a sense for justice had overcome the fear and national boundaries. This is example of good morality in action; this is the point of humanity and empathy. We are people above all, and are forced to live together on this planet.

2.3 Everything by the law, with bitter taste. The example of lawful action of the Commander of the Dutch battalion from the nineties but with grave consequences for inhabitants of the protected zone. Dutch members of the United Nations were responsible for the so-called protected zone in Srebrenica. By the beginning of July 1995 Srebrenica was occupied by Serbian forces that afterwards carried out massacre of the Bosnian population. The number of killed Bosnian men in Srebrenica was about 8000. “We do not have any reason to regret for what we have done. I think we did what we could and we did it right. However, I am sorry that this war happened and that bad things happened, but that is war”, Karremans pointed out, Commander of the Dutch battalion responsible for the protected zone61. Although he begged for help, he had to surrender the protected zone to Serbs.

61 (www.balkans.aljazeera.net ) 13th November in 2014 and Lorsquel'ethique et l'egalite s'affrontent par Michel Reid dans la Revue militaire canadienne

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Upon his return to the Netherlands LTC Karramans was promoted to higher rank, he and his whole unit received the decoration of the Dutch government.

2.4 The mission has to be morally correct. Modern soldier and military commander must complete their missions, mission is considered to be above all things that are an imperative from which a soldier must not withdraw even if his life is at stake. However, a mission has to be morally justified and it must not violate ethical principles. Situations can be dubious and decisions are never easy to make so that consequences are never just positive or just negative. Military commander has power but it also has responsibilities. He can be faced with a dilemma of making the right decision which will not have negative consequences on anybody, but that is very hard to accomplish. Michael Waltzer, a philosopher and expert of military ethics, considers that there are hierarchical and non – hierarchical military Commander’s duties. Hierarchical duties relate to your superiors and one must obey their orders and non – hierarchical relate to all other situations (help to civilians, refugees…) 62 Let us imagine a hypothetical situation. Put your self in the roll of a junior officer and you received a complaint that your soldier made an offence, e.g. he abandoned his work place and did not report to anybody. What would you do? The regulations and the law clearly state that he broke the rules so he must be adequately punished; but when you talked to him you found out that he had a case of death in his family and he had to leave urgently. So, you initiate a disciplinary procedure against him but with that act you lost his trust. There are plenty of similar situations. Some of them are more dramatic, and some of them are less dramatic, but every military commander must deal with them. I strongly believe that the majority of people would do exactly the opposite just because their ethics and morality they have adopted their whole lives dictate so. Ordinary people make similar decisions everyday, but in the army that is completely different. In the army human lives are at stake and decisions can have consequences for the people who carry out orders. Ever since I started my education as a cadet to become Croatian army officer, I have always thought that we must be an example to others, that we must lead by example, and if we follow that we will always do the right thing. However, we must remain true to ourselves and we must act as we think it is right. We must listen words of advice from those who are wiser and more experienced, but then again we must stay true to ourselves and that is the only way we can succeed.

62 (major R. Hout, professeur au College militaire royal au Canda, La moralite et l'ethique professionelle militaire: un paradoxe)

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2.5 Military virtues or careerism?

Figure 2. Which path to take when you are at the crossroad?

“Treat others as ends, not means to an end.” 63 Here we encounter yet another dilemma, and that is the conflict between military virtues and careerism. These two factors frequently collide. There are people who would do anything in order to succeed, completely disregarding their fellow man, and in doing so often betray their own principles. And when you strip a man of his personality – what remains of him? Should we start ab ovo and ask why would someone even want to join the military? The logical answer to this is that they want to serve their country, to protect their people and its national interests. A strong desire for success in an individual, more often than not, causes harm to the people around him. Quoting the Cadet's oath: “I swear to adhere to the Constitution and laws, to consciously and responsibly carry out orders, to defend the sovereignty and territorial integrity of the Republic of Croatia, and to honor and defend the fundamental principles of freedom and equality.” We must constantly remind ourselves why we are here and that what we do, we do for those who need protection, and not for ourselves. I will quote a Croatian Sergeant First Class: “Gentlemen, we are here to defend the weak, the old, and the defenseless, so that they could live and work in peace.” We are here, not for ourselves, but for others. A question arises when we come to the crossroad – which path to take? One path leads to promotion, a career full of success and fortune. The other path leads to self-respect and integrity. There are cases where this is the only choice. What we choose, and what we decide in that moment, cannot be taught in any training, cannot be regulated by any set of rules, and in the end the only thing that matters is what we are made of – our experiences, our ethics and our integrity. These should be our guides on the path we choose.

2.6 Choosing a lesser evil The next big dilemma when issuing an order is choosing the lesser evil. Everyone has surely been in a situation in which they had to choose between two evils, so you must know how hard it is. Now imagine that you have to decide for someone else. It is something that military commanders often do. Everything the person has learned so far is hardly applicable in such

63 Immanuel Kant

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Figure 3. Always choose what is right

I wish to present another situation in which the commander had to choose between two options, although both involved risks. This time we have a situation in a war-stricken country where one commander who participated in a peacekeeping operation had to save people’s lives by hiding them from their enemies. He took them to a UN-protected camp. But the conditions in the camp were inhuman. There was no drinking water or a toilet and the camp was crowded with people. He knew there is a big chance they will die of dehydratation or sickness, because the conditions were really bad. The family he decided to take to the camp died of cholera. Any commander would have a guilty conscience. Would the family still be alive if he hadn't brought them to the camp and if he had left them where they had all the necessary living conditions, or would the enemy find them? That is the worst thing a person can do at that moment, but it is brutal reality. You see, the commander had no order or an imperative to save those people, he simply had to do what he thought was best. It puts the commander in an even worse situation because he will start thinking that he could have done better. It is a big load on the shoulders of a contemporary soldier, whose morale is constantly tested and who is always in conflict with himself because of the load laid upon him. He couldn't have learned the solution to this situation. This situation is one of those situations in which are the psychological, moral and ethical conditions of a person are most expressive. Maybe taught by former experiences, the way he was raised, religion if he is religious, this commander had to make the right decision. And nobody can say he made the right or the wrong decision. That is also the problem I'm trying to emphasize in my paper. This topic has no concrete answer. I dare to say this topic has as much answers as there are people, because everybody experiences ethics and moral differently. When we choose, we must choose what we think is the best possible solution in a given moment, we must decide the way our instincts say is right.

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2.7 Don't break the international law of armed conflict A commander mustn't bring his subordinates in a position in which they would break their own moral and ethical principles. Even if the mission is unethical and immoral, and against his beliefs, we still expect him to complete it, so he will have to break the principles and go against himself to complete it. You can say that this happens rarely, or never, but I believe that history is filled with these examples in which the people were made to do something, but it was against their nature. Christianity and its saints is such an example. We see that sometimes a person would rather die then doing something that will break their life principles. There we see that life education and moral lessons which are integrated in a person are important for it. The military and military education are just an add-on to the life call of every person and with it a military commander. The international law of armed conflict must be respected, but what if the opposing side doesn't abide by the international law, which I have already written about. Do we have to respect the rules even if they bring our men in a compromising position, like death or captivity? That again is a question with a complex answer. During their work in peacekeeping operations all armed forces teach they members about the ROE. However, not all situations can be foreseen and in these moments comes the ''situational ethics'', when a commander chooses the best possible ethical solution in a given situation. What if have to have to use the property of civilians who are not involved in the war to complete our mission and protect our people. Is it the right thing to do? Human life is more important, but to a member of another nation, the life of his fellow citizen is more important then the life of another man. When our fellow citizen is in a peacekeeping mission and witnesses a car accident which happened in the local community and he can't help, or when he sees an indecent behaviour of a local man towards his family, he also can't react. Unfortunately, those are the dilemmas which are hard to answer and are often in conflict with the Rules of Engagement. The international community always tries to ensure that equal moral principles and Rules of Engagement apply to all solders. Croatia has also strict regulations on the behaviour of its soldiers in operations and peacekeeping missions. According to the Act on service in the Armed Forces64, the commitments of our soldiers in peacekeeping missions are the following: represent Republic of Croatia in a dignified manner, act in accordance with constitution and laws, respect international humanitarian law, respect military discipline, respect cultural and religious customs of the host, take care of material goods, obey the rules of personal safety, take care of your health and protect secret information.

64 (NN 73/13 and 75/15) Paragraph 167

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2.8 The right decision-making process The process of making the ethically right decision is defined as follows: “The moral dilemma follows the conflict of one or more moral values. In those cases, the ethical decision-making process will help you to solve the problem: a) Identify the specifics of the ethical dilemma b) Analyse all factors and powers of significance (laws, orders, regulations, national values, military virtues, personal virtues, institutional pressure) c) Choose the way closest to the ethical d) Act In cases of ethical dilemmas, the United States Armed Forces choose between different correct decisions (e.g. truth versus loyalty, individual versus common, short-term versus long- term, lawful versus just), using the “ethics triangle”, i.e. they consider three different ethical standpoints which can help in solving the ethical dilemma: virtue ethics, deontological ethics and consequential ethics65. Virtue ethics refers to the human character, or in other words, what the man is like, which moral traits he possesses. Proponents of virtue ethics are Plato and Aristotle. Deontological ethics refers to Kant's ethics whose principle is as follows: “Act according to the principle which you want to see become the universal rule” 66 Consequential ethics or teleological ethics explain the morality of decisions based on their consequences.

“The firm decisions of leadership may not always result in rewards for honesty or integrity, but if you made the ethical decision you will keep your self-respect and earn the respect of others.” 67

65 (dr. J. D. Kem, Prof. in the Department of Joint and Multinational Operations at the US Army Command “The use of the ethical triangle in military ethical decision-making”, 26-28). 66 Immanuel Kant 67 (N. Kranjčec, Leadership, 1997. p. 10)

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Figure. 5. Virtue, duty, consequence, principle Morale, consequence, principle and duty. Everything that characterizes the contemporary soldier. Morale must be the main guiding principle which guides the soldier in the performance of his duties. The consequences are everything which we can and have to expect when making our decisions, that is something which every soldier and military commander has to accept. What are the principles? The principles are the foundation, the starting point, the beginning of our actions and everything which we should adhere to in decision-making. The ethics triangle is a simplified representation of a sophisticated process.

Figure 6. Protect and serve

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CONCLUSION “Never do anything which is against your conscience, even if it is demanded by the State” 68

Nowadays, the engagement of the Croatian Armed Forces within the UN, EU or NATO missions and operations mostly include peacekeeping work. During the participation in different military and civilian operations, it is necessary for the soldier to act according to the rules of ethics. In doing so, he gains legitimacy in the field, within the local population. In fact, with this ethicality will win the hearts and souls of the population on whose territory he operates.

Additionally, it is necessary to mention that today's conflicts have immediate media coverage.. The information regarding them spreads in real time. Deviation from the rules of ethics will have tragic consequences, in other words it will generate a bad public image. The soldier's ethics, therefore, serves the geostrategical and military interests in the field and also enhances the legitimacy of the action. We conclude that the smallest military unit can endanger the legitimacy of the entire mission by its misconduct.

The Rules of Engagement have to be in accordance with the ethical code and in the heart of every operation, i.e. to implement the golden rule: “use the least amount of force, as fast as possible to minimize casualties.”

The soldier's ethics is the basis for his efficiency. In the long run, victory cannot be achieved without an ethical foundation. The lesson “the science of morality” is carried out in the majority of military schools for NCOs and officers. Considering the great responsibility of officers in the armed forces, it is necessary to bring to attention the moral responsibility in various dubious situations. The members of the armed forces experience the armed forces as their family with its own set of rules and with a significant feeling of solidarity.

Considering that the feeling of brotherhood is preferred to the feeling of individuality in the armed forces, a member of the armed forces can hope that the military will take care of him and his destiny, provided that he respects the rules of behaviour of the “family”. As the world globalises, values are being inverted in these modern technological times. All in all, the military is an institution which is constantly evolving, not only in the technological sense, but also in the development of its greatest power – its men: soldiers, non-commissioned officers, officers and all the other employed by it and those who dedicated their life to it with their honor, integrity and patriotism.

“Moral principles do not depend on majority vote. Wrong is wrong, even if everybody are wrong. Right is right, even if nobody is right.” 69

68 Albert Einstein 69 Fulton J. Sheen

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REFERENCES [1] Alex J. Bellamy, Just Wars: From Cicero to Iraq (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2006.) [2] J. Koprek, Ethics the Manual of One Discipline, 1996. [3] F. Tuđman, Bespuća povijesne zbiljnosti, Nakladni zavod Matice Hrvatske, 1989. [4] https://iconicphotos.wordpress.com/tag/thom-karremans/ (visited on 20.3. 2016.) [5] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Provide_Relief (visited on 21.3. 2016.) [6] https://www.scribd.com/doc/101944400/24/Vrijednosti-profesionalne-vojne-etike (visited on 21.3. 2016.)

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INTEGRATED INDIVIDUAL BATTLE SYSTEM TITAN – POLISH APPROACH TOWARDS THE „21ST CENTURY SOLDIER” AND THE 5TH GENERATION OF WAR

Piotr ROSIŃSKI

SUMMARY: The constantly evolving battlefield requires constant adjustment of soldiers’ equipment. The Polish response to continuously changing battlefield and new generation of war is project Tytan (English: Titan), the Integrated Individual Battle System also known as Polish Land Warrior program. This complex venture will bring complete system, as well as single components which could work separately, independently from the whole system. Program is intended to be a crucial part of modernization of Polish Armed Forces, planned to be provided for each infantry soldier and is designed to make Land Forces crucial force in Polish Armed Forces. The aim of this article is to familiarize the reader with the concept of the Titan program, its origin, and in a broader aspect bring attention to the needs of ever changing battlefield. Keywords: project titan, project tytan, land warrior, individual soldier equipment, individual soldier in the battlefield, military technology

1 Introduction Average soldiers’ life on a battlefield is increasing over the years. With every generation of war, the time put into training of the soldier and money consumed by an equipment given to him is increasing. Likewise with every generation of war the soldiers’ life is more valuable compared with the previous generations. During I World War, the infantry laid in trenches and was very vulnerable against artillery and the clashes was brutal and took many lives at once, for example the battle of Verdun took approximately 500000 human lives. The II World War brought new tactics, such as blitzkrieg and new equipment that was working on soldiers benefit such as infantry fighting vehicles. The cold war brought new kinds of helmets, new tactical equipment focused on soldiers wellbeing and ergonomics such as new kinds of webbings and tactical vests. After the end of the cold war, when the new, forth, generation of war started, it also brought a new tactics, mostly in urban warfare, the new kinds of ballistic plates to extend soldiers capability of surviving being shoot at and the new approach to communication among soldiers so that every one of them is equipped with their own radio station and is able to communicate with each other. Using those examples one can see that despite the fact that new kinds of weapons such as tanks and airplanes were developed, the role of infantry soldier has not decreased, even contrary, it has increased as a support for those new weapons. Tanks cannot fight in an urban area without an infantry support and the air support has to be guided in order to effectively engage ground targets.

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The main focus of this article is to show how the Polish Army is reacting to changes on the battlefield and how it is dealing with the challenges that will rise with the fifth generation of war.

The core of the preparation for the next generation of war is project called Integrated Individual Battle System Titan (IIBS Titan) that focuses on infantry soldier, his equipment, safety, fire capability and in overall increasing his chances on the battlefield.

2 The generations of war Last 300 years meant not only rapid technology development and along gave human race even faster development of munition. In past 300 years human kind invented not only the musket and breech-loading weapons but also, along many others, strategic bombers and nuclear weapons. If we take a closer look at present times we can separate four generations of warfare70. Nevertheless keep in mind that transition between one generation of war to another does not happen overnight.

It is a fluent process that needs to be started by an impact as big as for example Germany conquering France in 30days, which revealed that trenches were no good anymore and the blitzkrieg was the future.

The first generation of war was all about clashes of concentrated human masses, where the amount of manpower was a determining factor and the equipment was not that important. It established firm sovereignty of the nation-state, which lead to reduction of the importance of private armies and essentially meant, that only state could have their own army. The invention of musket starts the slippery slope towards the end of the first generation of war, where the tactical side and drill had started to play more significant role than manpower. This technical advancement meant change in thinking so deep that the whole way of thinking about war changed.

That is when the second generation of war occurred and the new tactics had to be developed. The musket meant longer range and faster rate of fire, the marching ranks of men were no longer such thread as in first generation of war. In the second generation the lines of battle was still maintained, especially at the beginning, and it still maintained lines of battle, but the use of technology allowed smaller units of men to operate separately. The technology, such as artillery for example started to play bigger role in a battlefield. The use of blitzkrieg by Germans during the invasion of France fully demonstrated that speed and maneuverability can easily win against static artillery and trench defenses, and again, the tactics had to be readjusted. It meant that static second generation of war was also becoming extinct.

Third generation of war was based on the idea that the disadvantages in technology can be overcome by greater strategy. The development of helicopter allowed intersections in hostile territory and advanced missile technology allowed to strike enemy from great distances. The

70 W.S. LIND, Understanding Fourth Generation War, Free Congress Foundation, USA, 2004, URL: , [cit.2016-03-04]

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The four generation of war is characterized by a mix of war, politics, combatants and civilians. Because of a status quo that was archived after the cold war by both superpowers keeping each other in check, the threat of one country attacking another in Europe or war between superpowers or military alliances became distant. But as history teaches us, the warfare adapts to surroundings and current political situation. Because of that the fourth generation of war can be defined by a war where one of a major participants is not a state but rather a violent non-state actor.71

Nevertheless even though the battlefield is constantly changing, the human factor remains still the most important one of all. That is why it is so important to give soldier the tools to take a best advantage of his potential, make full use of his capabilities and even cross the barriers which restricts him. Even though deadly machinery such as tanks, mechanized infantry combat vehicle and aircrafts has been invented, the infantry still remains main factor and most important force on the battlefield. That is why the single-soldier equipment development is so important.72

3 Genesis of concept of soldier of XXI century In 1984 British company SiCon during „British Army Equipment Exhibition” presented main guidelines for so called „soldier of 21st century” (pic. 1)73.

71 A. J. ECHEVARRIA, Fourth-Generation War and Other Myths, United States Army War College, USA, 2005, URL: , [cit. 2016-03-05] 72 With every generation of war the importance of single soldier have risen. Soldiers became better equiped therefore posesed more means to threat tanks and armoured vehicles One might say that during I World War the soldiers were used as weapons, during II World War they used weapons and future soldiers will be connected with weapon and will become a weapon theyselfs. 73 D. BECMER, Francuska koncepcja wyposażenia żołnierza przyszłości (English: French equipement concept for future soldier project), Zeszyty Naukowe WSOWL, POLAND, 2008, issue 3 (149), p. 55

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Picture 8. First vision of "Soldier of 21st century" Source: URL: [cit. 2016-03-20] This proposition was an answer to a growing demand for a comfortable equipment that provides the solider best possible equipment and comfort. SiCon’s concept ought to have electrically heated suit, in which the temperature might be regulated depending on the climate conditions. Another innovation was that the suits were to be made from material that not only provided temperature comfort but also drained the sweat and provided full protection against chemical and nuclear weapons, which in 1980s were a huge concern since the world was still living in a cold war conditions. In this concept one might notice first use of a primitive tactical vest which replaced a webbing as a solution not only more comfortable but also providing more protection. Soldier feet were protected by boots that were able to withstand the explosion of an anti-personnel mines. The main weapons for were: automatic rifle with an under-barrel grenade launcher and rocket launcher mounted on a backpack. The concepts helmet was equipped with a laser rangefinder, image intensifier, camera and display.

As one might see, even thirty years later most of the concept ideas still sounds like taken straight from sci-fi movie. Even though this proposition was only a concept, most of which are not possible to develop even nowadays, it inspired the American Army to start the SIPE ATD (Soldier Integrated Protective Ensemble Advanced Technology Demonstration)74 project in which they set basic guidelines towards the weaponry and equipment for a soldier of 21st century. The SIPE system consisted of following subsystems:

 Integrated headgear subsystem (HIS) which included helmet with mounted electro-optical ocular which was connected to a thermalvision mounted on the gun, the headset connected with a radio and

74 R. WILK, Żołnierz przyszłości – kolejne przybliżenia (English: Future Soldier – another closer look), Raport WTO, POLAND, 2005, issue 3, p. 5

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a gasmask that allowed to consume liquid nutrients while remaining under conditions of the chemical or radioactive contamination.  Advanced clothing subsystem (ACS) including uniforms that could regulate humidity and temperature, module that replaces backpack, bulletproof vest, the underwear designed to protect soldier from chemical fumes, active cooling vest, regular and chemical resistant gloves.  Microclimate conditioning subsystem equipped with ventilator providing cool air via ACS to upper body parts and helmet.  Weapon subsystem – the M16A2 rifle with a prototype thermal scope, laser sights and device that detects sounds from a great distance.  Individual soldier computer that was designed to allow use GPS, digital maps, self-localization and was connected by an interface to a compass and camera (which allowed to send video to upper command)75.

Picture 9 SIPE System prototype Source: URL: [cit. 2016-03-05] Mentioned SIPE ATD project was a base to determine the specific requirements for further development76.

In 1994 fourteen NATO members signed a modernization plan of reconstruction of equipment and weapons for soldiers. The soldier has been treated as binder which integrates all the systems that are assigned to him: the communication system, navigation system,

75 V.MIDDLETON, Soldier Integrated Protective Ensemble Advanced Technology Demonstration, Technical Report, Simulaton Technology Demonstration (ATD), USA, 2000, p. 7-8 76 M.S. SALTER, Soldier Integrated Protective Ensemble: The Soldier Perspective, Research Report, U.S. Army Research Institute, USA, 1993, p. 3-4

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 Fire effectiveness – characterizing soldiers’ ability to eliminate enemy from the battle, connected with development of individual weapons, scopes and sights, situation assessment, identification, classification and exchange information about spotted targets, destroying them and evaluation of effectiveness of taken actions.  C4I – the including command and control system, which are the systems connected with communication and sensory system.  Lethality – understood as ability to survive in the battlefield, which is affected by: uniform, camouflage, identification and information exchange about spotted targets, ballistic protection, protection against weapons of mass destruction and chemical weapons and monitoring and exchange of information about the weather and terrain.  Mobility – set by an effective operating range of a soldier and his reaction time depending on a navigation, dimensions and equipment weight  Logistic – including supplies, food and power, health monitoring, administration of medicaments and minimizing the effects of stress77 The turning point that really set on tracks the “future soldier” system was the end of Cold War and dissolution of bipolar balance of power in the world. With the collapse of Soviet Union most states started to reduce the size of their armies and cutting cost of maintenance by reducing the amount of heavy armored units. Currently, under further transformation the aim is to maintain a small, but highly professional army, equipped hardware with high degree of technological advancement.

Disappearance of the division of the world reduced the risk of conflict on a large scale, but did not lead to disappearance of threats, on the contrary, it lead to expanding their scope. Currently, the most dangerous threats are: terrorism, proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, international organized crime, uncontrolled migration economic crisis, religious and ethnical crisis, famine and technical failure on a large scale.

4 Setting the guidelines While trying to develop something for military, one need to think ahead. As popular proverb states “Generals are always preparing to fight the last war”. To avoid that “Project Titan” is being designed to set standards and provide best possible support for the soldier not only now or when it will be delivered to soldiers in an army units, but serve and still be modern and sufficient for many years. Taking into account experience from current military conflicts and predicting the increase in asymmetry in future conflicts, to set guidelines for whole project one must think of fifth, yet not occurring, generation of war. In the fifth generation of war the information will be the most valued resource, main threat will be terrorism78 or anti-governmental groups inspired by other countries or organizations, main

77 D. BECMER, Francuska koncepcja wyposażenia żołnierza przyszłości (English: French equipement concept for future soldier project), Zeszyty Naukowe WSOWL, POLAND, 2008, issue 3 (149), p. 58 78 Terroryzm to wojna piątej generacji? (English: Is terrorism a fifth generation of war?), POLAND, 2007, URL: , [cit.2016-03-04]

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Therefore in 2006 General Staff of Polish Armed Forces developed a set of requirements that they want to be included in Integrated Individual Battle System codenamed Titan. The main goals of project Titan was to improve effectiveness of soldiers activities in battlefield and to research a set of systems of weaponry, communication and equipment connected altogether.

Project Titan includes:

 New type of uniform.  New generation of tactical equipment.  Work focused on individual electronics and optoelectronics.  New soldier-to-soldier communication system.  Inventing new type of camouflage.  New generation of ballistic protection. The outcome was a set of a research results that were combined and defined the conception of polish future soldier80.

79 G. FRIEDMAN, Beyond Fourth Generation Warfare, ROA National Security Report, USA, 2007, URL: < https://wikileaks.org/gifiles/attach/27/27445_nsr-sept07.pdf>, [cit.2016-03-04] 80Zintegrowana Grupa Bojowa (English: Integrated Battle Groups), URL: [cit.2016-03-11]

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Picture 10 Earliest presentation of Project Titan - Prague Future Soldier Exhibition 2008 Source: URL: < http://www.altair.com.pl/news/view?news_id=1833> [cit. 2016-03-24] In 2008 as a result of work of 13 research teams formed both in civilian companies and those owned by state, and the experience from the participation in combat missions in Afghanistan and Iraq, the tactical-technical guidelines were set. According to those guidelines, the Project Titan will consist of following modules:

 Combat uniforms (jacket, pants, underwear, headgear, tactical gloves, boots and socks)  Protection system (bullet-, fragments- knife-proof tactical vest, helmet, gas mask, filtration suit, elbow and knees protection gear, eyes and hearing protection, clothing under the protective vest)  Weaponry system (automatic rifle with under-slung grenade launcher, knife – bayonet, pistol, carbine-grenade launcher, sniper rifle, unit of ammunition, grenades)  Apparatus for surveillance and reconnaissance (binoculars, integrated sights, helmet sights set, night vision googles, personal flashlight, laser pointer)  C4I - Command, Control, Computers (Technology focus) and Computing (Human activity focus) system81 (individual computer with information projection device, personal radio station, hub, headset, precise localization system, Friend-Foe Identification System, soldiers health sensor system, power source)

81 Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated, US Department of Defense, USA, 2009

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 Equipment carrying system (integrated with uniform set of mounting grips and pockets to carry the soldiers equipment and weaponry, separate system to carry equipment and weaponry)  Supplementary equipment (individual medkit, individual antichemical package, survival kit)82 Additionally to this basic equipment, the additional packages, that will allow soldiers to operate in various conditions: PID (high intensively of operations packet), PWT (high temperature packet), PNT (low temperature packet), PI (engineer packet), PŻ (food packet), PW (climbing packet), PB (urban warfare packet), and PS (training packet).

Furthermore according to preliminary tactical and technical guidelines, Integrated Individual Battle System should provide:

- Ability to operate individually in solitary conditions, without replenishment food and water supplies - Ability to operate in industrial, chemical and biological contamination conditions - Ability to effectively operate in:  open field, woodland terrain up to 1000m  in buildings, in densely populated and densely built-up area up to 400m\  outside the vehicle (Wheeled Armored Vehicle or Mechanized Infantry Combat Vehicle) In IIBS Titan, analogous to similar projects abroad, system is subordinated to solider, who is its manager and at the same time is supported by systems cooperating in Network Centric Warfare System. All this because soldier is both source of data and performer of tasks, he is a vital and most fragile and exposed to direct attack element of Network Centric Warfare System. Because of that, he should be provided with best equipment designed to conduct tasks available. System construction must be modular with open architecture enabling the use of currently available items and at a later time replacement of modernized modules. Open architecture will also enable composing a set depending on the intended task. The total mass of the whole equipment should not exceed 23 kilograms.

5. What’s on the outside One of many components of the IIBS Titan is newly designed uniform in two variants: first one with mounting grips and pockets to equipment and weaponry and second variant without mounting grips. First one might be used in units, during drill classes, parades and everyday life in unit, the second one might be used during military operations and field training. Another argument for the idea of two variants of uniform is fact that| every soldier

82 Based on Colonel EngD Chojnacki (Polish Department of Armament Policy) presentation entitled: Individual Warfare System Titan) during conference: Protection and survival of soldiers) conducted on 11.02.2009 in Depratment of Armored and Machenized Forces of General Command of Land Forces.

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Currently new camouflage is under development for the IIBS Titan program and are should be implemented in final production.

Picture 11 Camouflage variant produced by Andropol Source: URL: < http://www.andropol.pl/pl/7/informacje/4/129/ > [cit. 2016-03-26] Newly designed uniform is intended to protect solider from the climate conditions and provide thermal comfort and masking both by optical, thermal and electronical camouflage. Another capability required from new uniform is ability to implement soldiers’ health assistant system consisting of vital functions sensors and in case of emergency provide first aid by automatically putting on tourniquet on desired limb or applying medication83. To provide complete gear for each soldier additionally to uniforms jacket, pants and boots, soldier will be provided with the clothes that will be worn underneath the uniform such as underwear and socks and accessories to make soldier more efficient and protect more delicate body parts – tactical gloves and elbow and knees protection gear.

83 T. MIROSŁAW, 2010 – Rok Tytana (English: 2010 – Year of Titan), Nowa Technika Wojskowa, POLAND, 2011, issue 1, p. 28

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The Integrated headgear subsystem includes new helmet, designed to allow using observation and night- and thermalvision equipment, observation and screening system, active hearing protection gear, navigation subsystem and radiation warning system. Helmet provides ballistic toughness on level V50 above 700m/s (compared to 600m/s in the helmet mod. 2005 used by Polish Armed Forces nowadays), bulletproof up to 9mm FMJ 8g, and weight from 1,1kg to 1,4kg (compared to 1,3kg to 1,55kg used in helmet mod. 2005).

Picture 12 IIBS Titan HBK Helmet with visible mounting rails produced by PSO MASKPOL Source: URL: [cit. 2016-03-26] Another feature of project Titan and new helmet is the ability to attach an external night- thermal- vision and screening gear. This gives soldier ability not only to see at night or find hidden enemy by its heat signature. The biggest innovation is screening gear integrated with night and thermos vision in helmet mounted eyepiece. It gives soldier ability to shoot behind the cover or to see what is behind the corner. The screening gear gives unlimited possibilities, current mission objective can be displayed on it or because of the GPS adapted in radio station, and digital maps with current position can also be shown to the soldier.

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Picture 13Project Titan soldier with 5,56 MSBS Rifle and additional gear on helmet and rifle scope Source: Source: URL: [cit. 2016-03- 28] Another subsystem is new integrated tactical vest, which is designed to be a connector between all subsystems, mainly because the main computer is mounted on back of it. The vest is designed to carry up to 6 magazine in a quick access area (near the chest), 6 grenades, supplementary equipment (individual medkit, individual antichemical package, and survival kit), the magazines drop bag, gas mask carrying bag and hydration system. Tactical vest is designed not only to carry equipment and give ballistic protection, it is designed to carry C4IR subsystem, power supply, internal and external networking. Tactical vest will have 2,5cm mounting rows of heavy-duty nylon stitched onto the vest to allow for the attachment of various accessories, pouches and equipment. Vest will be integrated with uniform by set of mounting grips, on combat shirt, so that it will fit operation needs better and provides better comfort. In second variant the vest will be carried on uniform, so that it can be put on in just a few seconds. The important ability of the vest is quick-drop handle, to detach ballistic plates in case of emergency and quickly lose weight in situation such as falling into the water. The vest itself will be equipped in Type III ballistic protection that protects from 7.62mm Full Metal Jacketed bullets (7,62 x 39mm) used in AK and similar guns. The ballistic protection itself is highly configurable from maximum protection level, with additional shoulders, thigs and collar panels that can be detached to provide more comfort and less weight.

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6. The weapons and weapon related systems

Picture 14 Variety of 5,56 MSBS with folding rifle butt (1) Short barrel ; (2) Long barrel ; (3) With under-slug grenade launcher ; (4) With extended magazine ; (5) With muzzle-flash reducer ; (6) Honor guard version with a bayonet Source: Fabryka Broni „Łucznik“ Radom prospect (2016) To make IIBS Titan complete, it also needs new generation of assault rifle. The “5,56 Modułowy System Broni Strzeleckiej (English: 5,56 Modular Weapon System) which is currently under development in Fabryka Broni “Łucznik” Radom. The MSBS is weapon platform system with unique features. It is fully designed and manufactured in Poland.

The modular fire-arms system with quick-change barrel is based on a common upper receiver for a conventional (with folding, telescopic stock) or bullpup design. Modularity of the gun gives opportunity of making multiple types of guns on one bolt chamber and common upper receiver which allows to standardize basic weaponry and additional gear in whole Polish Armed Forces. Unification of basic weaponry would also lower the maintenance and production costs and also simplify the manufacture process84.

84 M. SITARSKI, MSBS 5,56 – Podsumowanie (English: MSBS 5,56 - Summary), Nowa Technika Wojskowa, POLAND, 2011, issue 7, p. 30

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Thanks to a variety of modules, both variants can be easily transformed into a carbine, sniper rifle or squad light machine gun. Additionally, there exist plans to develop a 12-gauge combat shotgun based on the platform85.

5,56 MSBS is designed to replace used nowadays AKM and Beryl rifles, Mini-Beryl rifle and Pallad under-barrel grenade launcher. The following variants of MSBS will be produced:

 MSBS 556K – the conventional variant with classical folding stock  MSBS 556B – the bullpup variant uses many common parts and can be converted into one another Both can be offered in 4 variants: o Basic variant with 406mm barrel o Short barrel variant with 256mm barrel o Machine gun variant with heavy thick 406mm barrel o Sharpshooter variant with precision 406mm barrel and two stage trigger Additionally each variant can be armed with dedicated under barrel grenade launcher, which uses 40mm NATO standard ammunition, both lethal and nonlethal. The grenade launcher is designed to be front grip as well to provide comfortable and firm grip of a gun which it is attached to and not to impede execution of a mission.

 MSBS 556R – parade model designed to fire blanks and withstand drills and will be used by honor guard battalion. MSBS is equipped with gas regulator which has two positions. First one is the standard one, used when gun is clean and at beginning of the operation. Second one is designed for difficult conditions or in case of a lack of ability to clean weapon for a long period of time.

The gun is designed both to left- and right- handed users, all switches (cocking handle, magazine release button, and bolt catch) are located on both sides of a weapon and select on which side the shells should be thrown out. Basic sights of a 5,56 MSBS is reflector sight backed up in case of failure by mechanical sights. Furthermore on the whole length of rifle there is picatinny rail which allows to mount many additional sights and additional gear. MSBS is fitted with 30 bullets magazines in an NATO AR system standard, but larger ones up to 150 bullets can be used.

85 Radon MSBS-5.56: Poland's New Battle Rifle, Small Arms Defense Journal, POLAND, 2015

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MSBS 5,56 Tactical-technical specifications:

Cartridge: 5,56x45mm NATO

Muzzle velocity: 890m/s

Muzzle energy: 1600J

Action: Gas operated, rotating bolt

Effective range: ~500m

Rate of fire: 700-900 rounds/min

Sights: Mechanical and optoeletric

Weapon empty: 3550g – 3750G

Picture 15 MSBS K and MSBS B version specification Source: Fabryka Broni „Łucznik” Radom prospect (2016)

7. The technology working for soldier benefit Individual battle management system (C4I) is designed to integrate all the electronic, optoelectronic and informatics modules and provide speech, video and data exchange between team members and superiors. Computer included in system is aimed to allow information and data exchange in a real-time, without any delay, between all peripherals such as sights, helmet mounted hear, information screening gear (both on helmet and digital display on forearm). Additionally computer has to provide functional integration of a commander between his subordinate solders, neighbor teams and by the vehicle that has been mounted with Battle Management System with superior command system. The C4I System should provide ability to acquisition, collection, processing and transfer of the necessary information to the soldiers of the team and/or to higher command.

The C4I system mounted on a tactical vests back acts as an information hub connecting all modules altogether and is essentially an individual computer connected with information projection device mounted on helmet or on forearm, personal radio station, headset, precise location system, power source and Friendly-Foe Identification System.

The radio station will be PERAD WB Electronic and headset in two versions, one integrated with hearing protection, and second one without hearing protection. The WB Electronic radio station is drop resistant, water resistant and can withstand extreme temperatures. PERAD will be connected with personal camera transmitting live feed from battlefield. Inside not only there will be radio station that integrates communicator, mobile phone and external 1W to 10W radio but also GPS navigation and screening device. Basic radio range will be up to 4km

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All this features are designed and implemented to provide secure encrypted digital connection and make impossible to overhear radio conversations and intercept exchanged data. Inside the C4I system the Friend-Foe Identification gives the ability to receive and screen information about own and allied soldiers and objects. System will be integrated giving soldier ability to identify his companions so that the chance of friendly fire is dramatically reduced by outlining the friendly soldiers86.

Picture 16 IIBS Titan C4I system mounted on back of a tactical vest (on the right side) Source: URL: < http://www.dziennikzachodni.pl/artykul/357563> [cit. 2016-03-29] Battle Management System (BMS) is not part of IIBS Titan program per se, it is not being worn on soldiers back, but it is strongly connected with it as soldier himself is a part of the Battlefield Management System and worth to mention while talking about C4I system. Soldiers equipped with IIBS Titan can connect to Battle Management System to allow complex network-centric information and communication platform at the tactical level of command. Commander can connect with higher command and neighbor units directly by combat vehicle and BMS Jaśmin.

86 Based on Colonel EngD Chojnacki (Polish Department of Armament Policy) presentation entitled: Individual Warfare System Titan

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Picture 17 Video and position send via C4I system to commander and displaying soldiers position on map (left) Picture 18 Video, position and friend-foe system mounted on Wheeled Armoured Vehicle Rosomak (right) Source: ISBS Presentation for Polish Department of Armed Policy (left) [online] www.teldat.com.pl (cit. 29.03.2016) (right) Vehicle commander is able to connect directly with another commanders:

 On VoIP terminal he chooses another vehicle number  Terminal connects with UKF gate, which by UKF radio station connects to UKF gate in another vehicle  UKF gate connects to VOIP terminal and allows communication and data exchange between vehicle commanders Vehicle commander can also connect with infantry with PERAD radio station and receive both audio transition and exchange data. Furthermore in BMS Jasmin vehicle commander and platoon commander can connect on a same basis with higher command to a landline phone by broadband radio station87.

8. The future of Project Titan Developing such advanced technology does not happen overnight or in a few months. Process of setting guidelines took place between 2006 when Polish General staff developed operational requirements until 11th of January 2010 when the Polish Ministry of Defense signs an agreement with consortium that consist of 13 polish companies lead by BUMAR (Polish Defense Holding, Inc.) to determine the assumptions of the design development work under the name of "Advanced individual combat systems”. In the meantime between 2007 and 2008 based on experience from Afghanistan and Iraq missions the guidelines were adjusted to fit soldier needs better. At the end of 2012, IIBS Titan went to phase one of production called Titan 0, mentioned before 13 companies began to integrate all modules together, modify them and fully adjust them to work in the Battle Management System. Since February 2015 the IIBS Titan went to phase two of the production and was supplemented with missing elements which were still in development phase and carrying out the necessary modification.

87 Battle Menagement System Jaśmin, Teldat Broschure, POLAND, 2015 URL: < http://www.teldat.com.pl/produkty/bms_jasmin.html > [cit.2016-03-30]

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August 31st was the deadline for implementation of the first phase of the project. Now Project Titan is in the second phase, preparation of technical project, preparation of documentation and according to General Adam Duda, chief of the Inspectorate of Armament finally the fourteen thousand equipment units will be received in 2017.

“Wars may be fought with weapons, but they are won by men (…)”, General Patton said, but if one give those man a technological advantage, the war will be won much quicker.

References [1] W.S. LIND, Understanding Fourth Generation War, Free Congress Foundation, USA, 2004, URL: , [cit.2016-03-04] [2] G. FRIEDMAN, Beyond Fourth Generation Warfare, ROA National Security Report, USA, 2007, URL: < https://wikileaks.org/gifiles/attach/27/27445_nsr-sept07.pdf>, [cit.2016-03-04] [3] A. J. ECHEVARRIA, Fourth-Generation War and Other Myths, United States Army War College, USA, 2005, URL: , [cit. 2016-03-05] [4] D. BECMER, Francuska koncepcja wyposażenia żołnierza przyszłości, Zeszyty Naukowe WSOWL, POLAND, 2008, issue 3 (149) [5] R. WILK, Żołnierz przyszłości – kolejne przybliżenia (English: Future Soldier – another closer look), Raport WTO, POLAND, 2005, issue 3 [6] V.MIDDLETON, Soldier Integrated Protective Ensemble Advanced Technology Demonstration, Technical Report, Simulaton Technology Demonstration (ATD), USA, 2000 [7] M.S. SALTER, Soldier Integrated Protective Ensemble: The Soldier Perspective, Research Report, U.S. Army Research Institute, USA, 1993 [8] Terroryzm to wojna piątej generacji?, POLAND, 2007, URL: , [cit.2016-03-04] [9] Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated, US Department of Defense, USA, 2009 [10] T. MIROSŁAW, 2010 – Rok Tytana (English: 2010 – Year of Titan), Nowa Technika Wojskowa, POLAND, 2011, issue. 1 [11] M. SITARSKI, MSBS 5,56 – Podsumowanie (English: MSBS 5,56 - Summary), Nowa Technika Wojskowa, POLAND, 2011, issue. 7

Online references: www.atplatoon.w.interia.pl/zigbo.html www.polskazbrojna.pl www.andropol.pl www.altair.com.pl www.teldat.com.pl

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ROLE OF INTELLIGENCE IN PLANNING PROCESS

Delia SFETCU

ABSTRACT

Information on its own may be of utility to the commander, but when related to other information about the operational environment and considered in the light of past experience, it gives rise to a new understanding of the information, which may be termed “intelligence.” Intelligence is defined as mental capability that involves the ability to reason, to plan, to solve problems, to think abstractly, to comprehend complex ideas, to learn quickly and to learn from experience. It is not merely book learning, a narrow academic skill, or test-taking smartness.

In simple words, intelligence is nothing but thinking skills and the ability to adapt to and to learn from life’s everyday experiences.

A. The nature of intelligence

“By ‘intelligence’ we mean every sort of information about the enemy and his country— the basis, in short, of our own plans and operations.”

Carl von Clausewitz On War, 1832

To understand the nature of intelligence we need to know the classification intelligence as given by E.L. Thorndike and Garret:

1. Concrete Intelligence – It is the ability of an individual to comprehend actual situations and to react to them adequately. The concrete intelligence is evident from various activities of daily life. This type of intelligence is applicable when the individual is handling concrete objects or medicines. Engineers, mechanics and architects have this type of intelligence.

2. Abstract Intelligence – It is the ability to respond to words, numbers and symbols. Abstract intelligence is required in the ordinary academic subjects in the school. This is acquired after an intensive study of books and literature. Good teachers, lawyers, doctors, philosophers etc. have this type of intelligence.

3. Social Intelligence – It means the ability of an individual to react to social situations of daily life. Adequate adjustment in social situations is the index of social intelligence. Persons having this type of intelligence know the art of winning friends and influencing them. Leaders, ministers, members of diplomatic sources and social workers have it.

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Intelligence provides the commander a variety of assessments and estimates that facilitate understanding the OE. Assessments are situational, for example some assessments will be threat-based providing an analysis of threat capabilities and intentions; others are population-based, providing the commander an analysis of sociocultural factors.

With predictive, accurate, and relevant intelligence estimates, commanders gain an advantage in the OE by understanding an adversary’s decision-making cycle, and possibly predicting and countering adversarial operations. Regardless of the situation, intelligence assessments and estimates enable commanders to formulate plans and make better decisions based on this knowledge. Thus, predictive, accurate, and relevant intelligence can mitigate the risks inherent in military operations and increase the likelihood of success.

Commanders use the operations process of plan, prepare, execute, and assess to continuously design and conduct operations. The commander cannot successfully accomplish the activities involved in the operations process without information and intelligence. The design and structure of intelligence operations support the commander's operations process by providing him with intelligence regarding the enemy, the battle-field environment, and the situation.

Intelligence plays a critical role across the range of military operations.

Commanders use intelligence to anticipate the battle, visualize and understand the full spectrum of the operational environment, and influence the outcome of operations. Intelligence enables commanders at all levels to focus their combat power and to provide full- dimensional force protection across the range of military operations.

The operations process and the intelligence process are mutually dependent. The commander, through the operations process, provides the guidance and focus through CCIRs and PIRs that drives the intelligence process; the intelligence process provides the continuous intelligence essential to the operations process.

Intelligence about the enemy, the battlefield environment, and the situation allows the commander and staff to develop a plan, seize and retain the initiative, build and maintain

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The intelligence process describes how the various types of intelligence operations interact to meet the commander’s intelligence needs. The intelligence process provides a useful model that facilitates understanding the wide variety of intelligence operations and their interrelationships. There are no firm boundaries delineating where each operation within the intelligence process begins or ends.

B. Intelligence Planning Process

IP and direction is best understood as the development of intelligence plans and the continuous management of their execution. Planning and direction activities include, but are not limited to:

• the identification and prioritization of intelligence requirements; • the development of concepts of intelligence operations and architectures required to support the commander’s mission; • tasking subordinate intelligence elements for the collection of information or the production of finished intelligence; • submitting requests for additional capabilities to higher headquarters; and submitting requests for collection, exploitation, or all-source production support to external, supporting intelligence entities.

IP and direction occurs continuously as the intelligence component of the command’s campaign and contingency adaptive planning effort. IP for campaign plans allows for the prioritization of intelligence support across all ongoing operations and simultaneous planning efforts. On the other hand, IP for contingency plans informs the development of joint capabilities and enhances the readiness to respond to potential crises.

Intelligence planning and direction occurs continuously as the intelligence component of the command’s steady-state campaign and contingency adaptive planning effort. Intelligence planners, through the development of the concept of intelligence operations, lay the foundation for how the joint force J-2 will manage preplanned collection and production tasks to satisfy the intelligence needs of the commander and staff. JIPOE helps the joint force J-2 focus by providing a proper foundation for the entire intelligence process.

IP activities are generally organized along two lines of effort (LOEs):

 providing intelligence support to joint operation planning  planning intelligence operations.

IP activities along the providing intelligence support to joint operation planning LOE include the production of intelligence assessments and estimates of adversary intentions, 184

CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016 capabilities, and COAs. Specific outputs of this LOE are the DIA-produced dynamic threat assessment, or theater intelligence assessment, and the development of tailored products from the CCMD’s JIPOE process that culminate in the production and maintenance of the intelligence estimate.

IP activities along the planning intelligence operations LOE include identifying information gaps, prioritizing intelligence requirements, developing federated production and integrated collection plans, and assessing intelligence capabilities for the purpose of identifying shortfalls and mitigation strategies. Specific outputs of this LOE are the CCMD J- 2 staff estimate, which identifies available CCMD intelligence capabilities and anticipated shortfalls, CSA and Service intelligence center estimates, the annex B (Intelligence) to a campaign or a contingency plan, and when appropriate a national intelligence support plan or the joint intelligence posture assessment.

C. The role of intelligence in military operations

The objective of joint intelligence operations is to integrate Service and national intelligence capabilities into a unified effort that surpasses any single organizational effort and provides the most accurate and timely intelligence to commanders.

Intelligence plays a critical role across the range of military operations.

Commanders use intelligence to anticipate the battle, visualize and understand the full spectrum of the operational environment, and influence the outcome of operations. This includes determining adversary capabilities and intentions; identifying adversary critical center of gravities and vulnerabilities; and estimating the adversary course of action sby probability.

Most important, visualization requires understanding the adversary’s objectives, identifying how they might fulfill them, and their readiness to achieve them.

Based on this intelligence, the joint force commander may anticipate adversary actions and plan detailed countermeasures.

In war, intelligence focuses on enemy military capabilities, centers of gravity (COGs), and potential courses of action (COAs) to provide operational and tactical commanders the information they need to plan and conduct operations. The nature of modern warfare requires intelligence to consider all relevant aspects of the operational environment.

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Today’s operational environment requires consideration of more than military factors and the J-2 must be flexible in its ability to integrate nonmilitary considerations into its analysis. Although not all-inclusive, nonmilitary aspects can include political, economic, social, information, and infrastructure considerations.

Joint Publication (JP) 2-0, Joint Intelligence, describes intelligence and the range of military operations:

o aiding commanders to frame the operation by identifying the nature of the problem and contributing to the design of the operational approach; o effective intelligence planning to integrate, synchronize, and manage all available theater and national-level intelligence capabilities to assess the impact of military operations and support the joint force commander's decision-making needs; o early warning of the potential for adversarial elements or factors in the operational environment to negatively or positively impact current or planned operations; o joint intelligence preparation of the operational environment using all available sources to continuously and systematically estimate adversary courses of action and provide assessments of the current situation; o intelligence architecture planning that enables interoperability and information sharing, supports fusion of single-source information, and feeds decision-making tools; o continuous maintenance of intelligence data visualization input for knowledge boards, common operational picture, etc; o collection and requirements management that identifies gaps in information and formulates strategies to proactively acquire needed information from the most appropriate source; o provide target intelligence in support of the command targeting function to enable appropriate target selection in line with the commander's priorities, and assess the effectiveness of targeting; o provide direct intelligence liaison support to joint force staff functions such as information operations and joint targeting boards.

D. Planning and Direction

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Joint intelligence operations are founded on an understanding of the commander’s mission and intent. This understanding also provides the basis for the identification of intelligence gaps regarding relevant aspects of the operational environment, especially the adversary.

These intelligence needs are identified by the commander and all joint force staff elements and are formalized by the J-2 as intelligence requirements during the planning and direction portion of the intelligence process.

The planning process falls into two types:

a) contingency (plans based on assumptions of what might happen) b) crisis (reactionary planning based on real-world conditions/events).

The joint operation planning process is used for both.

Annex B is the intelligence annex to a plan or order that provides detailed information on the adversary situation, establishes priorities, assigns intelligence tasks, identifies required intelligence products, and specifies intelligence procedures.

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Intelligence activities during joint operation planning process include:

 monitor I&W problem sets (indications and warning)  analyze adversary activity and assess adversary capabilities  initiate joint intelligence preparation of the operational environment effort  support the wargaming process by “playing” the red force  develop adversary COAs (course of actions)  highlight advantages and disadvantages from the intelligence perspective  provide intelligence update to the JFC (joint force commander)  produce the situation paragraph to the base plan or order  produce annex B  produce the meteorological and oceanographic operations annex  produce the geospatial information and services annex

Successful intelligence support to military operations demands that some universal principles be understood and applied.

The J-2 participates fully in the planning and decision-making process, contributing knowledge concerning the operational environment, and receiving guidance to help focus the intelligence effort.

The intelligence planner examines mission success criteria and their associated metrics and then determines what intelligence support and information will be required to assess the impact of military operations and inform the commander’s decisions.

E. Conclusion

 Intelligence provides an understanding of the enemy, which assists in planning, preparing, and executing military operations.

The most important purpose of intelligence is to influence decision making. Commanders must receive the intelligence, understand it, believe it, and act on it. Through this doctrinal concept, intelligence drives operations.

 Intelligence plays a critical and continuous role in supporting military operations.

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Technology, precise global positioning, and telecommunications provide commanders with the capability to determine accurate locations of friendly and enemy forces, as well as to collect, process, and disseminate relevant data to thousands of locations. These capabilities, combined with the ability to deny or degrade the enemy’s ability to collect, process, and disseminate an uninterrupted flow of information, provide the JFC with information superiority. Likewise, the fusion of all-source intelligence along with the integration of sensors, platforms, command organizations, and logistic support centers allows a greater number of operational tasks to be accomplished faster, and enhances awareness of the OE—a key component of information superiority.

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MILITARY ETHICS IN MILITARY LEADERSHIP

Ivana TOLNAJ88

Table of Contents

SUMMARY ...... 3 1. INTRODUCTION ...... 4 2. MILITARY ETHICS AND MILITARY VALUES ...... 5 2.1. Ethical war questions ...... 6 2.2 International Criminal Court...... 7 3. CONTEMPORATY MILITARY LEADERSHIP ...... 8 3.1. What military values should every soldier and commander posses? ...... 8 3.2. Military leadership of the 21st century ...... 11 3.3. An ethical commander is formed while in the classroom ...... 11 3.4. A commander needs to respect gender perspective in armed forces ...... 12 3.5. The best prevention and protection of vulnerable groups is to introduce women in every phase of decision making in security systems ...... 12 3.6. An ethical leader breaks down every prejudice ...... 13 CONCLUSION ...... 14 REFERENCES ...... 15

88 Cadet Lance Corporal, Military leadership and managment, Croatian Defence Academy ''dr. Franjo Tuđman'', Ilica 256b, 10 120 Zagreb, Republic of Croatia. [email protected]

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SUMMARY After the Cold War, there were big changes in geopolitical and strategic world maps. There are new countries and new types of conflicts which call for other approaches due to daily major changes which are present in warfare concerning space, time, mobility, armament and media. The question that needs to be answered is what kind of ethics is necessary during contemporary conflicts with members of armed forces are facing. That is, what kind of military leader is required in this new environment, with new challenges and tasks during various operations. Throughout history many philosophers and Christian scholars, such as Saint Augustus, Thomas d’Aquin, Suarez, de Vitorie, explored the concept of legitimate warfare. Following World War II, the rules of justified warfare were created. Every soldier, especially the commander, is obliged to learn and honor those rules during peace operations and war. Besides that, the commander must responsibly and ethically treat his subordinates and superiors in order to respectably represent his army in public and the state in peace operations led by UN, NATO and EU across the world. The commander is responsible for actions of his subordinates. Even the least unethical conduct of the unit can endanger the whole mission. Key words: military ethics, leadership, commander, legitimate warfare, peace operations

1. INTRODUCTION We are witnesses of continuous changes on the international scene. Conflicts are getting complicated and the deluge of refugees is coming to European territory daily. We see pictures of fences and barriers between the states of EU. The rise of fundamentalism is spreading to all parts of the world. Since I am studying at the Croatian Military Academy, I am aware that my future job will bring me many different tasks. That is why the aim of my work is to highlight the importance of ethics in the military calling especially in military leadership. Besides two world wars in the 20th century, the 21st century is marked with conflicts in Arab countries, Afghanistan, Iraq and Syria, which are a constant reminder to the whole world of what horrors and destruction a man is capable of doing. Accordingly, the noble idea of EU founders Robert Schuman (the French Minister of Foreign Affairs), Conrad Adenauer (Chancellor of Germany), Alcid De Gasperi (Prime Minister of Italy), was to create a righteous order where states would cooperate and not kill. 89 For Croatia, like most European countries, the ethical code is created from the values and culture of our country. One of the founders of the European Union Jean Monnet said: ''there is no Europe without culture''. Our culture is founded on Greek-Latin and Judeo-Christian heritage, whereby every country can find its values, morals and religion from which it can draw its ethical code. The Ethical code represents society, state and armed forces. Based from its heritage, Croatia can find a source of ethical military conduct. In addition to the Judeo- Christian heritage, a source of ethics and morals can be found in humanism and the Charter of Human Rights.

89 www.europa.eu/about-eu/eu-history/founding-fathers/ (visited on 18th of March 2016)

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Robert Schuman said: ''Much more than an economic alliance, Europe has to become a cultural union.'' The concept of ''Europe'' has to be found in its historical and cultural roots in order to develop military ethics and code of conduct. They will allow Europe to answer to any security challenge. However, global changes bring new threats. I will highlight not only the conflicts in Arab countries where European armed forces conduct peace operations, but also more frequent bloody terrorist attacks on the territory of the European Union. The contemporary military has more complex tasks, but for them to be executed in the satisfactory way there needs to be military ethics in military leadership. During the warfare at the end of the last century in the areas of Croatia, Bosnia, Kosovo and Macedonia, the European public was surprised by the fact that the military ethics were neglected if not forgotten. Taking that into consideration, all military schools of the EU member nations and NATO are studying military ethics as an important part of military leadership and management. I will concentrate on the military ethics in military leadership, and how those two concepts are interconnected. The first chapter is based on the definition of ethics. To understand the idea of military ethics, we must first understand ethics in general. The second chapter deals with military leadership and the role of the military leader. Besides ethical value, I will talk about other desirable characteristics of a leader. There are examples of negative and positive leaders during warfare such as the Homeland War in Croatia. The third chapter contains ethical rules which must be an imperative to every soldier and commander during the execution of their professional tasks and its implementation during the education and training of the commander. I will also focus on gender perspective in security system which is necessary for the successful execution of tasks in the contemporary armed forces. A commander (he or she) can not be good and ethical in their job if they neglect gender perspective. That is, if they do not know how to benefit form the knowledge and capabilities of the opposite gender in operations. The main thesis of my work is that a commander needs to be highly ethical in order to successfully lead members of armed forces during increasingly demanding duties.

2. MILITARY ETHICS AND VALUES Ethics is a study which analyzes morality, and tries to find a difference between what is good and what is bad. It means, ethics defines a set of rules and principles according to actions which can be characterized as good or bad. Ethics is related to a man, a sensible being capable of love and hate, creation and destruction. The essence of ethics is about activity, it searches for a right decision or a right activity. Ethics is a tool which teaches us how to choose what is right in certain ethical dilemmas. Ethical dilemmas are situations where there can be conflict of interests. Then we need to select an option which represents less damage and which is the best among available options. Morality is more about rules which are created by society and individuals about certain ideas of right and wrong. Morality is a dimension in which every activity done by a person gets a specific value of quality. A man's conscience is the best indicator if a person has done something right or wrong. Conscience goes off like an

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CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016 alarm in us, and then we know if we had not been aware before, that we have done something morally wrong. Immanuel Kant said: ''Two things awe me most, the starry sky above me and the moral law within me.'' Ethics is a much broader concept than morality and it involves every aspect of a man's life. Ethics cannot be misunderstood for cultural differences between different nations and can lead to ethical or moral relativism. For example, at some point in history people used to kill children who were born with ill or with disabilities. That was considered justified at the time, but today we see it unethical. Another example is that of Japanese rules of conduct towards prisoners of war, which are not the same as those of western democratic countries. In Japanese tradition a soldier would rather kill himself than become a prisoner of war, while rules in west countries are different. The main moral rule is: do to others what you would want them to do to you. Or seen from the more negative side: don't do onto others what you wouldn't like being done onto you. This golden rule can be found in Christianity, Judaism, Islam, Confucianism, Hinduism and Buddhism.

2.1. Ethical war questions Military ethics is a subgroup of ethics which studies ethical conduct in the military, that is, all activity which involves members of armed forces. Military ethics contains ethical issues about war and its legitimacy. The first theory of legitimate war was expressed by St. Augustus. His point of view was a combination of Roman law and Evangelicalism. According to Saint Augustus, a soldier should disavow evil and revenge. A soldier is a defender of his country - the common good.90 Augustus's theory bellum-iustium is about loving thy enemy. 91 The point of view of Thomas Aquinas is that war is hatred, envy and malignancy which oppose love. Thomas thought that there is no question about the right for an individual to defend his life. That is why a country has a right to defend its people, also. In the theory about legitimate warfare, it is a choice of the lesser evil. For legitimate warfare, three conditions need to be fulfilled: only a legal authority can lead a war, there needs to be a good reason, and a war must be led for the right cause, for good and not wrong. Thomas Aquinas as well as St. Augustus rejected cruelty, revenge, retribution and the hunger for power. After them, Francisco de Vitoria and Francisco Suarez dealt with the theory of legitimate warfare. They both criticized Spanish and Portuguese colonial politics. Suarez also stated the conditions of legitimate warfare, expanding those established by Thomas Aquinas. However, law theorists, like Thomas Hobbes, who followed, abandoned these rules so war became a tool of violence and not a tool of law.92 The wars of the 19th century were marked by the creation of national countries, after the colonial wars, and two world wars which were far from legitimate warfare.

90 AUGUSTUS, ContraFaustum 22, 74, ML 42,447 91 Usp. B. Haring, Gewaltfrie Verteidigung utopie oder notwerdende Alternative? Augsburg1985, 36 92 J. Kohler „Die spanischen Naturrechtslehrerdes 16 und 17 Jahrhundert, Archiv fur Rechts und Wirtschafts philosopie 1916/17, 235

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Just after the World War 2, the theory of justified warfare was legalized in the UN charter. The second article in the charter bans any war that isn't self defensive. The theory of legitimate warfare is elaborated in detail and divided into three sections: 1) jus ad bellum, which pertains to justice in warfare in general and relates to state leaders. In order to enter war, a country has to have:

 righteous and justified reason  good intentions  legitimate authority and public announcement  last resort /option  a probability of success  proportional demands 2) jus in bello, which concerns justice in war after it has started, and that the commanders of armed forces are responsible for its implementation;

• righteousness in war during battle • generals are held responsible • no use of forbidden armaments • forbidden to attack civilians and civilian objects • proportionality • rape, genocide and ethnic cleansing are forbidden • no retribution allowed 3) jus post bellum, which concerns justice in the last phase of war, and after the war is over.

 proportionality and publicity  restoration of rights  dissimilitude  metering out punishment  compensation  rehabilitation93

2.2. International Criminal Court In order for the war crimes not to go unpunished and to punish those who didn't obey the law of armed conflict, an international court was established in the Hague.

93 Just War Theorie, Standard Encyclopedia of Philosophie, Feb 4, 2000, www.standard.library usyd.edu.au

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During hundreds of years of injustice, the worst crimes were committed by individuals, entailing genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes in armed conflicts. Today, those kinds of crimes can be prosecuted before the International Court in Hague. International criminal justice has its roots in military courts in Nürnberg and Tokyo where war criminals from World War II were made accountable. Government representatives couldn't agree on the formation of a permanent criminal court. An important step was a resolution of UN Security Council in New York. The resolution was a decision for the creation of ad hoc courts for ex- Yugoslavia (ICTY, 1993) and Ruanda (ICTR, 1994). Their successful execution of the trials paved a way for negotiations for the Rome Statute which was accepted after long and hard work on 17th of July 1998. It was then accepted by 120 countries including Germany, but with seven votes against (China, Iraq, Israel, Yemen, Qatar, Lebanon and USA), and with 20 sustained votes. After the adoption of the 60th ratification Charter, the Statute of the International Court of Justice came into force on the 1st of July in 2002. Up until now 110 countries have joined the Rome Statute94. The commanders of the Croatian Army, generals Gotovina, Markač and Čermak, defended their honor and the honor of Croatia before the International Court in Hague.

3. CONTEMPORARY MILITARY LEADERSHIP ''Leadership is the art of getting someone else to do something you want done because he wants to do it.'' 95 Croatia has defended its independence in the Homeland War which was a defensive and legitimate war. The war ended with the operation “Storm” (Oluja) when Croatia got back the majority of its occupied territory. The Croatian Armed Forces were created during the war, and today they are becoming a contemporary military which is a member of NATO. Croatian soldiers participate in many peace operations around the world, and face new challenges. Today, Croatia stands shoulder to shoulder with NATO countries and participates in keeping peace around the world. Taking account of rules broken during armed conflicts committed in the theatre during the war which emerged in the heart of Europe and other warfare in the world, the idea about teaching military ethics was created in many military schools in NATO countries. Today there is a European Institute which deals with European military ethics whose initiatives for creating unique military ethics could be acceptable for every NATO and EU country member.

3.1. What military values should every soldier and commander posses? In antiquity, it became clear what four basic virtues every country must posses. They are: prudence, righteousness, courage and moderation. Prudence should be a virtue of a ruler, righteousness of the judges, courage of a soldier and moderation of producers. Plato: ''There will be no end to the troubles of states, or of humanity itself, till philosophers become kings in this world, or till those we now call kings and rulers really and truly become

94 Prof. dr Sabine von Schorlemer , International Law Department, EU law and international relations at the Technical Faculty of Drezden, http://www.goethe.de/ 95 Dwight Eisenhower

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CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016 philosophers, and political power and philosophy thus come into the same hands.'' A good example of a prudent decision is the decision of the first Croatian president dr. Franjo Tuđman. He decided that East Slavonia should be reintegrated under Croatian jurisdiction by peaceful reintegration. Vesna Škare Ožbolt, the president of the National Committee for Establishing Trust in the project of peaceful reintegration of East Slavonia under Croatian jurisdiction during the Homeland war said in one interview96: ''According to assessment of war strategists and simulations of the military operation called 'Vukovarska golubica', Croatian Armed Forces after the operation 'Storm' were supposed to free the territory of eastern Slavonia in just a few days, even if the enemy forces got involved, despite being weakened due to their engagement in the protection of occupied territory in Bosnia, and their problems with mobilization. However, when the first Croatian president Franjo Tuđman discovered that the number of potential casualties was estimated (which was a conservative assessment) at 1 500, he decided to avoid that kind of military action in every possible way. He justified his decision with the words: ''Every life is important to me, Croatian and Serbian.'' Aristotle thought that virtues were amiddle between two extremes of something. That's why for him courage was amiddle between cowardice and recklessness. Thinking about those virtues, is courage really the most important virtue of a soldier? Events throughout history showed that courage is an important virtue of a soldier, if not the most important. The American military has segregated seven virtues that a good leader must possess: loyalty, duty, respect, selfless service, honour, integrity and personal courage97. Besides that, a good leader must also be ethical so he can be a true example for his soldiers. The Croatian Army has also adopted these virtues as the most important virtues of a soldier and a commander. Aristotle claimed that ethicalness is developed through certain phases. After the phases of reward and punishment, it is crucial for people to give them an appropriate role model to follow. 98 According to some ethicists, there are two most important virtues that a leader and every soldier must have: loyalty and obedience. Loyalty means that he will professionally fulfil his tasks and be faithful and committed to being and trying to be a better soldier. Without obedience to the army and political authority, armed forces can not be a successful instrument of a country. 99

However, history teaches us that many wrong doings were done out of loyalty and obedience. Since loyalty and obedience make likewise pertain to Nazi and Communist commanders and leaders who were simply following orders. Hanna Ardent, a social philosopher who followed the Eichmann trial, wrote the book titled ''The banality of evil'' where she wrote: ''Many

96 www.tportal.hr (visited on 19th of March 2016) 97 Miller J. Joseph, Squaring the Circle: Teaching Philosophical Ethics in the Military: 202 98 Miller J. Joseph, Squaring the Circle: Teaching Philosophical Ethics in the Military: 204 99 Ceulesmans Carl and van Damme Guy, The Soldier and the State: An Analysis of Samuel Huntigton's View on Military Obedience Toward Political Authority: 9

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crimes of the Third Reich were committed by ordinary people who were “simply” following orders. According to Ardent, under certain conditions even an ordinary, average and decent person may become a criminal. Certainly that is not easy for us to accept. We wish to believe that crimes are committed only by evil people.’’

Referring to this subject, I will mention Milgram's experiment. With his experiment Milgram came to a shocking conclusion that the people are unconsciously willing to obey authority even if it means that with their actions they are breaking their own moral principles. Because of his experiment and conclusion, society in his days did not accept it and claimed that he manipulated his results. That is why besides loyalty and obedience the members of armed forces need to be taught about honor and integrity. Integrity means doing the right thing and making the right choice even if no one is watching. If a person cares if someone will witness his good deed, it means that he is only doing it for selfish reasons and to be able to brag about it. In Croatian the word ‘časnik’ (in English officer) includes the word honour, being honourable. A ‘časnik’ needs to be honourable, not only because of himself but also for the sake of others. The Roman philosopher, Marcus Tullius Cicero wrote how the Romans didn't want to die not only for the greater good and the sake of community, but for the honour an individual would get for his deeds. This thesis was later substantiated by Thomas Hobbes who claimed that people are driven by personal interests. Immanuel Kant brings it to a higher level adding that personal interest as a primary force isn’t a moral way of thinking. The best example of a leader who put his personal interest before the interests of his people can be found in Homers Iliad as Achill and Agamemnon100. They put the lives of their people who fought for them on the line only to achieve their personal goals. However, in contrast to these examples which tell us about incomplete integrity of a commander, contemporary Croatia can name a great number of known and unknown heroes who were textbook examples of ethical and moral leaders. General Blago Zadro is one example of a true ethical, courageous and charismatic leader. When the battle of Vukovar began, he took over the command of the defence of the whole Borovo Naselje. It was because of his exceptional organizational skills and courage. Although lacking military education, he turned out to be an excellent organizer of the defence of Borovo Naselje. He was the commander of the third battalion of the legendary 204th Vukovar brigade. Under his leadership on Trpinjska Road the armoured units of JNA were stopped there. Dozens of Serbian tanks and armoured vehicles were destroyed there. That is way Trpinjska Road was called ''the Tank Graveyard''.101

100 Olsthoorn Peter, Honour as a Motive for Making Sacrifices: 185-192 101 www.kamenjar.com (visited on 16th of October 2015)

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These examples of Croatian heroes can be role models to all members of the Croatian Armed Forces. They had the ethics and virtues and all military values which every contemporary military leader should have. According to the findings of the Ivo Pilar Institute (The Croatian military and Croatian society – final thesis, 2010.) following the Homeland War, the Croatian public had a positive attitude towards the members of the Armed Forces and their duties. ''It’s important to help countries in trouble whenever possible”, is the attitude of the majority of the Croatian citizens who took part in the survey findings.

3.2. Military leadership of the 21st century Military leadership in 21st century is different from that of the last century because the enemy and the conflicts were different then. New threats require a shift in the military leadership. Daily terrorist threats call for a flexible leader capable of meeting new challenges. A commander needs to prepare for his tasks continuously, be ready to learn, spread tolerance for diversity and teach others to accept those diversities. Participation in multicultural peace operations in different cultural surroundings (for example Afghanistan, Golan Heights, western Sahara) requires preparation of leaders and members of armed forces to deal with other cultures. Future soldiers and commanders have training in religious and cultural differences in the environment where they are going. In this way they are better prepared for their roles. They have classes about Islam, Judaism, Protestantism, Orthodoxism and Catholicism. By being informed about different cultures, a contemporary commander will carry out his duties more efficiently.

3.3. An ethical commander is formed while in the classroom Not long after joining the army, I learned that rules are norms which must be obeyed, and for breaking them there are appropriate measures and punishments. A subordinate is obliged to follow the orders of his superior. Of course there are exceptions where a subordinate doesn’t have to carry out an order. The obligation of carrying out an order doesn’t apply when such an order would cause the breaking of law and a criminal offence and thus break international war and humanitarian law. Accordingly, members of the armed forces need to know these rules and recognize what is ethical in such situations. In addition to these exceptions, an order may be disobeyed when it would mean the degradation of another person’s dignity. Ethical rules that should be followed by all members of the armed forces can be found in the Law of the Armed Forces and in its rules and regulations. In addition, they must obey international law. I will provide examples of breaches of military discipline in the Croatian Armed Forces according to the Laws on Service from 2013. Some less serious breaches would be: untimely or incomplete order execution, frequent tardiness or going off duty early, unwarranted absence from duty in the duration of one day, impolite behaviour towards colleagues, and violation of rules of military uniform, appearance and personal hygiene. Some serious forms

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CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016 of breaches would be: failure or refusal to execute an order, sleep during time of service, importation of alcohol or drugs in official premises, presenting in service under the influence of alcohol or drugs, abuse of position, violation of rules regarding the use of force or firearms, violation of rules regarding the safekeeping of classified defence data, acts which degrade gender, religion, nation or skin colour, sexual abuse or harassment, misconduct which harms the reputation of Ministry of Defence and Armed Forces, and physical conflict. These breaches of military discipline also represent breaches of ethical rules. A member of armed forces must obey these rules and be extremely responsible and conscientious. By insulting anyone's dignity, a person only shows that he has no respect towards people or toward themselves in general. The easiest way is to insult someone, but what if the situation is reversed? No one foresees the consequences and how that person will feel.

3.4. Commander needs to respect gender perspective in armed forces

The contemporary commander needs to be aware of the importance of gender perspective in the Armed Forces. Although we are living in western countries with a liberal democracy, we are the witnessing existing stereotypes that some male members have toward females in the Armed Forces. The introduction of lesser represented gender in the Armed Forces is a new idea which is gradually being implemented in all NATO member countries in recent years. The reason for this is the fact that women, the elderly and children are the most vulnerable groups during armed conflict. Women, but also men, were sexually assaulted during the Croatian Homeland War. According to some statistics, around 2 000 women were sexually assaulted in Croatia, and about 50 000 in Bosnia, while in Africa these numbers are much greater. That is why UN Security Council made Resolution 1325 (Women, peace and security) in the year 2000. Its purpose is to protect the most vulnerable groups of people in areas where there is ongoing warfare. In the past, rape was considered just a crime against a person's dignity and as a side effect of war it maintained impunity. By being aware of the fact that rape is a crime used as a war tactic, the UN made a resolution in 2001 which stipulated that rape be declared a crime against humanity, right after genocide. However, this decision didn't result in the punishment of offenders because out of thousands of reported rapes, only twelve were prosecuted. "A world without rape would be a world in which women moved freely without fear of men. That some men rape provides a sufficient threat to keep all women in a constant state of intimidation, forever conscious of the knowledge that the biological tool must be held in awe for it may turn to weapon with sudden swiftness borne of harmful intent." 102

3.5. The best prevention and protection of vulnerable groups is to introduce women in every phase of decision making in security From the political top to every last soldier, a leader must be aware of gender perspective in the Armed Forces and in the whole country. In order to protect the most

102 Susan Brownmiller, Against Our Will: Men, Women and Rape

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CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016 vulnerable parts of society it is necessary to include women in every phase of decision making. The best prevention and protection of the powerless and vulnerable is to include women in security systems. An ethical and moral leader must be aware of these facts. The basic strategic document of Croatia is formulated with the goal of eliminating discrimination of women and establishing real gender equality. Implementing policies of equal possibilities is a goal of the National Policy for Gender Equality. The document which was presented for the forth time during the period of 2011-2015, redefines national priorities, methods of implementation and special measures according to amended social and political circumstances, progress achieved and further challenges in the implementation of gender equality. The document contains seven key areas of activity and obliges Croatia to implement gender perspective in every aspect of politics by taking special measures in: 1) promoting women's human rights and gender equality 2) creating equal opportunities in the labour market 3) improving the use of gender-sensitive education 4) balancing the participation of women and men in political and public decision- making 5) eliminating forms of violence against women 6) promoting international cooperation and gender equality outside Croatia 7) further strengthening of institutional mechanisms and methods of implementation.

3.6. An ethical leader tears down every prejudice An ethical leader will break down every prejudice among the troops and not allow any unethical behaviour toward female members. Since Croatian leaders show a high level of awareness about gender perspective, I will quote one attendee of the Advanced Officer School in the Croatian Military Academy: ''The requirements of separate accommodation for women in stationary and field conditions stand out as something that burdens the functioning of the unit, but I believe it shows more that the system is not ready for women, not that women are not ready for the system. '' Although women are considered a weaker gender, the fact that they participated in the Homeland War cannot be overlooked. They defended their country alongside men. There were 20 080 women which makes up 5% of the total number of soldiers during the war. 127 died during the Homeland War. I will mention only some examples of women who were heroes in the war. The defender of Vukovar, Vijoleta Antolić was on the first line of battle up to the time she was taken prisoner in a camp where she endured various forms of torture. The defender Sanja Arbanas was only 18 when she joined the Armed Forces and according to a lecture in Vukovar, the guide told us how she had run after tanks with bombs in her hands.

People may be of the opinion that women have no place in the military and that it is a men’s job, but NATO recognizes women’s role and potential in the military because of their hard work. With the aim of strengthening the position of women, they are being involved in all levels of the decision making process, including peace keeping,

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CONCLUSION

In my work I was trying to prove that the theme of military ethics and legitimate warfare has been a necessity through the centuries - from St. Augustus to the UN Charter following World War II. Although the rules and the law of armed conflict exist, we are witnesses to the fact that these rules are frequently broken. Accordingly, my thesis stresses the need to invest a lot of effort in teaching ethical, moral and righteous soldiers and commanders. I show examples of the existence of both good and bad ethical conduct. My conclusion is that it is essential for a military leader to be familiar with military ethics and to live by its rules. Not only a military leader, but also all members the Armed of Forces need to possess basic knowledge in military ethics so they can make decisions in ethical dilemmas and issues. A leader and his subordinates must develop ethically. Soldiers and commanders need to be aware that even the slightest unethical conduct and its tolerance tarnish the reputation of a military organization and of a country as a whole. A military commander must draw his ethics firstly from his upbringing, and accordingly his ethical knowledge acquired during his education and training. A true commander needs to refer role models, heroes and positive commanders who proved with their lives that the fight for the common good and justice makes sense. And thus he also needs to respect differences and other religions. Therefore, it is important to implement the best and most efficient methods to achieve these goals. Without moral and ethical foundations, the Armed Forces would lose the honour which they have upheld in the eyes of its citizens and civillians.

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REFERENCES

[1] J. Andrassy, B. Bakotić, M. Seršić, B. Vukas: Međunarodno pravo 3. dio., Školska knjiga, 2006 [2] C. Ceulesmans, G. van Damme: The Soldier and the State: An Analysis of Samuel Huntigton's View on Military Obedience Toward Political Authority. Military Ethics, 2008 [3] H. Lackenbauer, R. Langlais: Review of the Practical Implications of UNSCR 1325 for the Conduct of NATO-led Operations and Missions, 2013 [4] J. J. Miller: Squaring the Circle: Teaching Philosophical Ethics in the Military. Journal of Military Ethics 3 (3):199-215, 2004 [5] P. Olsthoorn: Honor as a Motive for Making Sacrifices. Royal Netherlands Military Academy, Military Ethics, 2008 [6] M. Walzer: Two kinds of military responsibility. Parameters, Journal of the US Army War College, Military Ethics, 2008 [7] Croatian Ministry of Defence, Laws on Service, 2013 [8] Captain Damir Ostriž, diplomski rad „Vojna etika – Stanje i perspektive“, mentor Ivica Protulipac, Zagreb, 2008 [9] M. Mesić: Multikulturalizam, Školska knjiga, 2006 [10] M. Bastick, D. de Torres: Implementing the Women, Peace and Security Resolutions in Security Secor Reform, DCAF, 2010 [11] M. Bastick: Gender Self Assessment Guide for the Police, Armed Forces and Justice Sector, DCAF, 2010 [12] I. Koprek: Pacifizam i teorija pravednog rata,1991

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EXTRACTION SPECTROPHOTOMETRY OF SELECTED OPIOID INCAPACITATING AGENT

Vaclav VASENDA103

SUMMARY: Remifentanil is the representative of ultra-short acting opioid analgesics with calming effect. It was probably used in combination with other fentanyl derivative during the Moscow theatre hostage crisis on 23 October 2002. The group of synthetic opioids is also very important because of its connection with drug-related problems. The output of this work is the screening of chromogenic reagents, including practical verification of their reactions with selected analyte – remifentanil – by using spectral analysis in UV/VIS area. Extraction spectrophotometry is easy, reliable, accurate analytical method, which is not very economically or instrumentally demanding and that is why it can be classified as a suitable method for the field analysis. Total five chromogenic reagents out of 30 were chosen for further measurements. The purpose of this work is to verify the possibility of determination by creating ion associates.

Keywords: Remifentanil, opioids, non-lethal weapons, azo dyes, ion-complex, ionic associates, extraction spectrophotometry, spectral analysis, spectrophotometry, field analysis, calmatives.

INTRODUCTION In contrast to unpredictable effect of hallucinogens and different mechanism of action of irritants, lachrymators or harassing agents, there is a group of incapacitating agents called calmatives (in practical medicine called sedatives). Synthetic opioids like fentanyl, remifentanil, carfentanil, sufentanil, alfentanil are the most important representatives of calmatives. They can be characterized by their calming effect on the human body. Fentanyl and its derivatives are used as pain relievers as well as in combinations with other drugs in human and veterinary medicine. Despite the fact that the first illicit use of fentanyl appeared in 1970-s in the US, it took 20 more years to become a problem in Europe. According to Trendspotter study on fentanyl in Europe, hundreds of opioid-related deaths were caused by fatal overdose of fentanyl or other synthetic opioid [1]. Synthetic opioids are abused because the physiological effects are very close to the effect of morphine or heroin, but with higher potency. Many drug dealers had already taken advantage of this feature and they have sold fentanyl-laced heroin or fentanyl as a heroin substitute, but it was also reported that some dealers were adding fentanyl to increase the potency of cocaine powder [2]. Fentanyl and other synthetic opioids became well-known as incapacitating agents after the Moscow theatre hostage crisis on 23 October 2002. Terrorists took more than 800 hostages and demanded the withdrawal of The Russian Armed Forces from Chechnya. Around 5 a.m., the aerosol mixture of unknown origin was dispersed inside the building and as a result, more than 120 people died. Later, the aerosol mixture was identified by liquid chromatography mass spectrometry analysis of urine and extracts of clothing as a mixture of

103 OR-5 Bc. Vaclav Vasenda, Faculty of Military Technology, University of Defence, Kounicova 65, 662 10 Brno, Czech Republic. E-mail: [email protected]

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carfentanil and remifentanil in unknown relative proportions [3]. Because of high level of secrecy, many people died as a result of insufficient treatment. Its dispersal was the first time when a therapeutic agent has been used as a weapon in a tactical situation [4]. Sophisticated and reliable method for quantification of fentanyl and its derivatives is the topic of interest and the scientific research for The Army of the Czech Republic was conducted by NBC Defence Institute. The main requirement was developing method that should be rapid, robust and it must be feasible in field conditions. The economic factor is also very important. These criteria are met by methods like thin layer chromatography (TLC) or UV/VIS spectrometry.

1 CURRENT SITUATION OVERVIEW Nowadays, most commonly used analytical method for the detection and identification of chemical warfare agents is liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS). Other possible analytical methods can be HPLC/ESI-MS, GC-MS or GC-FTIR [5, 6]. For analysis of opioids in biological materials, laboratory apparatus is usually needed, but there are also methods based on immunology tests like ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay), which is known for its high sensitivity of detection. It can be used for detection of actual exogenous substance and its metabolites, for example in urine [7].

1.1 Spectral analysis Spectral analysis methods, also called spectroscopy methods, are based on the study of the interaction between matter and energy of electromagnetic radiation (EMR). This technique provides the data which can be used for obtaining the spectrum. A lot of ways how energy and matter can interact has been described. In case of interaction with molecules, they can rotate, vibrate, and translate. For example, molecules, which absorbs IR radiation can change their vibrational or rotational states, whereas interaction with UV or visible light move bonding electrons to higher energy levels in molecules [8, 9].

1.1.1 Spectrophotometry Just the small fraction of EMR spectrums can be detected by the human eye, while other spectrums can’t be (as shown in Figure 1).

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Figure 1. EMR Spectrum [10] Most applications of absorption spectroscopy to organic compounds are based on transitions for n or π electrons to the π* excited state because energies required for these processes bring the absorption bands into the ultraviolet-visible region (200-800nm). Both n -> π* and π -> π* transitions require the presence of an unsaturated functional group to provide the π orbitals. Molecules containing such functional groups are capable of absorbing ultraviolet-visible radiation are called chromophores [8].

1.1.2 Ionic associates The anions of the acidic azo dyes or sulfophthaleins can form with the protonated cations of the bases ionic associates that are extractable with lipophilic organic solvent, usually chloroform [11]. These substances can form ionic associates in different ways. Important factors are polarity and relative permittivity. It was proven that in solutions with high polarity is the interaction energy of oppositely charged ions lower than in low polarity solutions. The solution must have low relative permittivity, because two ions cannot form ionic associates when the distance between them is too long [12].

1.2 Opioids Opioids can be both natural and synthetic. Natural or semi-natural opioids are called opiates and the most known are morphine, codeine and heroine. In medicine, these substances can be used for analgesia, general anaesthesia or some of them can be used because of their antitussive properties as a cough medicine. Morphine is also used as a drug reference standard for evaluating the potency of synthetic opioids. For more information about potency of opioids, see Appendix 1. Opioids work by binding to opioid receptors, which can be found in nervous system and gastrointestinal tract. They have analgesic effect due to decreased perception of pain, decreased reactions to pain as well as pain tolerance. Administration of opioids cause sedation, suppression of cough, respiratory depression, constipation and can lead to dependence [13, 14]. Fentanyl and its derivatives are classified as 4-Anilidopiperidine analgesics. The chemical structure of some representatives are showed in Figure 2.

Figure 2. 4-Anilidopiperidine analgesics and their chemical structures [15]

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1.2.1 Remifentanil Remifentanil is one of the newest derivatives of fentanyl. The main difference is the presence of the ester bond in the molecule. It is approximately 220 times stronger than morphine [16]. Due to its specific ester bond, this opioid is characterized as an ultra-short acting anaesthetic, this is caused because it is rapidly metabolized by nonspecific blood and tissue esterases and enzymes [17]. The elimination half-time ranges from 10 to 20 minutes and is apparently unaffected by impairment of hepatic or renal function [18]. Because of this feature, remifentanil is not accumulated in the organism and therefore the duration of action is not dependent on the time of exposure, but more dependent on activity of enzymes. This could be a very useful feature when remifentanil is used as a non-lethal weapon. Recent research indicates that the total exposure time does not have impact on blood concentration of remifentanil and the recovery of incapacitated individual is faster than in case of inhalation of aerosols containing other fentanyl derivatives [18, 19].

2 EXPERIMENTAL PART

2.1 Used chemicals

The Analyte: Remifentanil hydrochloride, CAS 132539-07-2, Pharmaceutical form for injection Ultiva TM, Glaxo Group Ltd. Greenford, Middlesex, UK, 2 mg of remifentanil in one glass vial. Reagents: CAS number Empirical formula Molecular weight (g×mol-1)

Acid Blue 40 6424-85-7 C22H16N3NaO6S 473.43

Acid Blue 80 4474-24-2 C32H28N2Na2O8S2 678.68

Acid Blue 120 3529-01-9 C33H23N5Na2O6S2 695.68

Acid Red 151 6406-56-0 C22H15N4NaO4S 454.43

Ponceau SS 6226-78-4 C22H14N4Na2O7S2 556.48 Manufacturer: Sigma-Aldrich, purity as stated on labels, chemical structures in Appendix 2.

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Other chemicals: CAS number Manufacturer Chloroform (stabilized) 67-66-3 Sharlau, p. a. Monopotassium phosphate 7778-77-0 Lach-ner, p. a. Sodium phosphate dibasic 7558-79-4 Lach-ner, p. a. Citric acid monohydrate 5949-29-1 Lach-ner, p. a. NaOH 1310-73-2 Lach-ner, p. a HCl (36%) 7647-01-0 Penta, p. a.

2.2 Used apparatus Absorbance measurements at the selected wavelength were conducted on the double beam UV-Visible absorption spectrometer Unicam Spectronic Helios Alpha with software package Vision 32. For data processing, Microsoft Excel 2016 was used. Other programs used were Microsoft Word 2016 and ChemDraw Ultra 12.0.

2.3 Methods of measurement

2.3.1 Determining absorbance spectrum Absorption curve was determined as a function of wavelength A = f (λ). An aliquot of the sample containing 0.1 mL of 1×10-3 mol L-1 of aqueous solution of remifentanil, 2.8 mL of the citrate buffer at pH 2.5 and 0.1 mL of 1×10-3 mol L-1 of aqueous solution of reagent were mixed in the test tube. After adding 3 mL of chloroform, the extraction lasting 2 minutes was made. It was followed by separation of the aqueous layer. Finally, the absorption spectra with its maximum was determined. The wavelength area was in the range from 380 to 700 nm.

2.3.2 Effect of pH An aliquot of the sample containing 0.1 mL of 1×10-3 mol L-1 of aqueous solution of remifentanil, 2.8 mL of the citrate buffer at pH 1.1-6.5 and 0.1 mL of 1×10-3 mol L-1 of aqueous solution of reagent were mixed in the test tube. After adding 3 mL of chloroform, the extraction lasting 2 minutes was made. It was followed by separation of the aqueous layer. Finally, the absorbance of each sample was measured, while the measurement with the highest absorbance is considered as the optimal pH and the buffer of this pH value will be used in following tasks.

2.3.3 Effect of reagent concentration An aliquot of the sample containing 0.1 mL of 1×10-3 mol L-1 of aqueous solution of remifentanil and 2.8 mL of the citrate buffer at optimal pH and were mixed in 10 test tubes. The following volumes of the aqueous solution of reagent are then gradually pipetted into the test tubes: 0.01; 0.02; 0.03; 0.04; 0.05; 0.06; 0.07; 0.08; 0.09; 0.1 mL of 2×10-3 mol L-1. Then, the total volume was made up to 3 mL with water. After adding 3 mL of chloroform, the extraction lasting 2 minutes was made. It was followed by separating the aqueous layer. Finally, the absorbance of each sample was measured.

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2.3.4 Calibration curve An aliquot of the sample containing 0.1 mL of optimal concentration of aqueous solution of the reagent and 2.8 mL of the citrate buffer at optimal pH and were mixed in 10 test tubes. The following volumes of remifentanil aqueous solution are then gradually pipetted into test tubes: 0.01; 0.02; 0.03; 0.04; 0.05; 0.06; 0.07; 0.08; 0.09; 0.1 mL of 1×10-3 mol L-1. Then, the total volume was made up to 3 mL with the water. After adding 3 mL of chloroform, the extraction lasting 2 minutes was made. It was followed by separation of the aqueous layer. Finally, the absorbance of each sample was measured.

2.3.5 The stoichiometric ratio of the ion-associate 2.8 mL of the optimal pH citrate buffer is pipetted into 9 test tubes. The following volumes of both the aqueous solution of analyte and the solution of reagent are then gradually pipetted into the test tubes: 0.02; 0.04; 0.06; 0.08; 0.1; 0.12; 0.14; 0.16; 0.18 mL, while the total volume was made up to 3 mL each time (this means 0.02 mL of analyte with 0.18 mL of reagent and vice versa). The concentration of both solutions is 1×10-3 mol L-1. After adding 3 mL of chloroform, the extraction lasting 2 minutes was made. It was followed by separating the aqueous layer. Finally, the absorbance of each sample was measured.

3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The screening of total 30 chromogenic reagents was performed. Five of them were chosen for more detailed research. Other reagents failed to form ionic associates, had problems with solubility in water, were extracted into organic layer, provided very low absorbance signals (Mordant Blue 9) or the reagent formed bubbles in the organic phase (Brilliant Blue R).

3.1 Absorbance spectrum Acid Blue 40, Acid Blue 80 and Acid Blue 120 react with remifentanil in an acidic buffer to give a chloroform soluble blue coloured ion-association complex which exhibits an absorption maximum λmax at 631 nm, 633 nm, 591 nm. Ponceau SS and Acid Red 151 react with remifentanil in an acidic buffer to give a chloroform soluble red coloured ion- association complex which exhibits an absorption maximum λmax at 516 nm and 524 nm. The highest signal was obtained when measuring ion-association complex of Acid Red 151.

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0,7

0,6

0,5

0,4

0,3 Absorbance

0,2

0,1

0 390 440 490 540 590 640 690 Wavelenght λ (nm)

Acid Blue 40 Acid Blue 80 Acid Blue 120 Ponceau SS Acid Red 151

Figure 3. Absorption spectra of selected reagents in chloroform

3.2 Effect of pH All reagents form ionic associates in acidic pH. Best signals obtained with citric buffers are showed up in Table 1. Table 1. Maximum absorption of selected reagents with remifentanil at various pH of used citrate buffer Acid Blue Acid Blue Ponceau Acid Red Reagent Acid Blue 40 80 120 SS 151 Ideal pH 3 2 2.5 2 1.5

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0,9

0,8

0,7

0,6

0,5

0,4 Absorbance 0,3

0,2

0,1

0,0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 pH

Acid Blue 40 Acid Blue 80 Acid Blue 120 Ponceau SS Acid Red 151

Figure 4. Effect of pH on absorbance

3.3 Effect of reagent concentration The influence of concentration of Acid Blue 40 on the intensity of the colour formed at the selected wavelength was studied by using solution of reagent of 3×10-3 mol L-1. We failed to prepare more concentrated solution because of problems with solubility. Same problem we had with Ponceau SS, but the highest achievable concentration was 2×10-3 mol L- 1. With more developed methods like ultrasound treatment, it would be possible to dissolve more reagent, but in order to keep this method simple and suitable for field analysis, we decided to construct calibration curve with lower concentrations. For both reagents Acid Blue 80 and Acid Blue 120, the ideal reagent concentration was determined as 1.6×10-3 mol L-1 . The influence of the concentration of Acid Red 151 on the intensity of the colour formed at the selected wavelength was studied by using solution of reagent of 1.5×10-3 mol L- 1. To keep maximum absorbance under 1, the ideal concentration is 1.05×10-3 mol L-1, but in higher concentrations of the analyte, the Lambert-Beer’s law was not effective therefore we used for construction of calibration curve maximum concentration 1.5×10-3 mol L-1.

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1,2

1,0

0,8

0,6 Absorbance 0,4

0,2

0,0 0,0000 0,0005 0,0010 0,0015 0,0020 0,0025 0,0030 0,0035 Concentration (mol.l-1)

Acid Blue 40 Acid Blue 80 Acid Blue 120 Ponceau SS Acid Red 151

Figure 5. Effect of reagent concentration on absorbance

3.4 Calibration curve The calibration curve was constructed and linear relations were obtained between absorbance and concentration of remifentanil. Correlation coefficient, intercept and slope for the calibration data are showed in Figure 6.

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1,4 y = 1267,2x + 0,0387 R² = 0,995 1,2

1,0

0,8

0,6

Absorbance y = 467,76x - 0,0199 R² = 0,9976 y = 449,37x - 0,0529 0,4 R² = 0,9953 y = 287,82x - 0,0086 0,2 R² = 0,9948 y = 269,76x - 0,0159 R² = 0,9959 0,0 0,0000 0,0002 0,0004 0,0006 0,0008 0,0010 0,0012 Concentration (mol.l-1)

Acid Blue 40 Acid Blue 80 Acid Blue 120 Ponceau SS Acid Red 151

Figure 6. Calibration curve of ion-pair complex

3.5 The stoichiometric ratio The stoichiometric ratio of the ion-associate was established by Job’s method of continuous variations using variable dye and remifentanil concentrations. The remifentanil-reagent stoichiometric ratio for Acid Blue 40 was found to be 1:1 as shown in Figure 7. The remifentanil-reagent stoichiometric ratio for Acid Blue 80 and Ponceau SS was found to be 2:1. For other reagents, theoretical expectations were not meet by measured data. According to the chemical structure of Acid Red 151, expected ratio of remifentanil-reagent is 1:1, but we observed 1:1.5 and with Acid Blue 120, expected ratio is 2:1 but we observed ratio 1.5:1. This phenomenon can be caused by low purity of dyes or because both reagents contain double azo groups, which could form ionic associate with molecule itself by creating protonated nitrogen from azo group. Probable reaction mechanisms of two reagents are proposed to proceed as shown in Appendix 3.

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1,0

0,9

0,8

0,7

0,6

0,5

Absorbance 0,4

0,3

0,2

0,1

0,0 0,0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1,0 Stoichiometric ratio analyte/reagent+analyte

Acid Blue 40 Acid Blue 80 Acid Blue 120 Ponceau SS Acid Red 151

Figure 7. Job’s method of continuous variations

4 CONCLUSIONS Remifentanil has a unique position among group of incapacitating agents, because it can be as well as other opioids used or misused in many different ways. The need for simple, prompt and reliable method is obvious. This paper proved that selected method enables a prompt and accurate identification of remifentanil. Total five chromogenic reagents were selected for measurements and all of them can be used for identification of remifentanil. Their absorption maximum was determined and effects of pH and reagent concentration was also studied. Linear relations were obtained between absorbance and concentration of remifentanil. According to Job’s method of continuous variations using variable dye and remifentanil concentrations, stoichiometric ratios and reaction mechanism of formation of ionic associates were proposed. Because of the highest signal obtained, therefore the lowest limit of detection, reagent Acid Red 151 is our recommended choice for spectral analysis of ionic associates of remifentanil. The calibration curve is the steepest thus it provides the most accurate results. Acid Blue 40 has lower absorbance and the calibration curve is less steep but it would be our second choice. We do not recommend reagent Acid Blue 120 because in some concentrations, it can form bubbles in organic layer.

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REFERENCES

1. Fentanyl in Europe. EMCDDA Trendspotter Study. 9-10. 10. 2012 [vid. 12 Nov. 2012]. Online: http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/www/advancedsearch.cfm > 2. BODDIGER, David. Fentanyl-laced street drugs “kill hundreds”. The Lancet. 2006, vol. 368, issue 9535, s. 569-570. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(06)69181-2. Online: http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0140673606691812 3. RICHES, J. R., R. W. READ, R. M. BLACK, et al. Analysis of Clothing and Urine from Moscow Theatre Siege Casualties Reveals Carfentanil and Remifentanil Use. Journal of Analytical Toxicology [online]. 2012-10-12, vol. 36, issue 9, s. 647-656 [cit. 2014-03-05]. DOI: 10.1093/jat/bks078. Online: http://jat.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/doi/10.1093/jat/bks078 4. COUPLAND, Robin M. Incapacitating chemical weapons: a year after the Moscow theatre siege. The Lancet. 2003, vol. 362, issue 9393. DOI: 10.1016/s0140-6736(03)14684-3. 5. PSOTOVÁ, Jitka et al. Journal Chromatography B. 2006, 830(165). 6. ABSOLINOVA, Helena et al: Spectrophotometric study of time stability and acid-base characteristics of chelerythrine and dihydrochelerythrine. Central European Journal of Chemistry. 2010, 8(3), 626-632. 7. KIRSCHBAUM, Katrin M., Frank MUSSHOFF, Ansgar WILBERT, Jörg RÖHRICH a Burkhard MADEA. Direct ELISA kits as a sensitive and selective screening method for abstinence control in urine. Forensic Science International. 2011, vol. 207, 1-3, s. 66-69. DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2010.09.002. Online: http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0379073810004366 8. SKOOG, Douglas A, F HOLLER a Stanley R CROUCH. Principles of instrumental analysis. 6th ed. /. Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole, c2007, xv, 1039 p. ISBN 04-950-1201-7. 9. ROBINSON, James W, Eileen M FRAME a George M FRAME. Undergraduate instrumental analysis. 6th ed. /. New York: M. Dekker, c2005, xix, 1079 p. ISBN 08-247- 5359-3. 10. Seeing the Light: An Overview of Visible and UV-VIS Spectroscopy. 2012. Cole-Parmer [online]. [cit. 2015-04-01]. Online: http://www.coleparmer.com/TechLibraryArticle/1396 11. BELICKÝ, L, J SOUČEK a E HALÁMEK. Extraction of the Ionic Associates of the Azo Dyes with Strychnine. Chem. Papers. 1992, č. 46. 12. JELÍNKOVÁ, Romana, Emil HALÁMEK, Zbyněk KOBLIHA. The possibility of identifying selected opioids by spectral analysis. Vojenské zdravotnické listy, 2013, roč. 82, č. 4, s. 172-179. ISSN: 0372-7025. 13. MÁLEK, Jiří. Praktická anesteziologie. 1. vyd. Praha: Grada, 2011, 188 s. ISBN 978-802- 4736-426. 14. LINCOVÁ, Dagmar, Hassan FARGHALI. Základní a aplikovaná farmakologie. Praha: Galén, 2005, 601 s. ISBN 80-726-2168-8. 15. HAMPL, František a Jaroslav PALEČEK. Farmakochemie. 1. vyd. Praha: VŠCHT, 2002, 413 s. ISBN 80-708-0495-5. 16. WAX, Paul M., Charles E. BECKER and Steven C. CURRY. Unexpected “gas” casualties in Moscow: A medical toxicology perspective. Annals of Emergency Medicine. 2003, vol. 41, issue 5, s. 700-705. DOI: 10.1067/mem.2003.148. Online: http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0196064403001094

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17. WAGNER, Robert. Kardioanestezie a perioperační péče v kardiochirurgii. 1. vyd. Praha: Grada Publishing, 2009, 336 s. ISBN 978-802-4719-207. 18. BURKLE, Hartmut, Stuart DUNBAR, Hugo VAN AKEN et al. Remifentanil. Anesthesia. 1996, vol. 83, issue 3, s. 646-651. DOI: 10.1097/00000539-199609000-00038. Online: http://content.wkhealth.com/linkback/openurl?sid=WKPTLP:landingpage 19. LIM, Lan Fern Michele a Serene LEO. Role of remifentanil in labour analgesia. Trends in Anaesthesia and Critical Care [online]. 2013, vol. 3, issue 3, s. 152-156 [cit. 2015-04-23]. DOI: 10.1016/j.tacc.2013.03.005.

APPENDIX Appendix 1: Characteristics of opioids including fentanyl derivatives [16]. Table 1. Characteristics of opioids including fentanyl derivatives

Appendix 2: Chemical structures of selected reagents

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Figure 1. Acid Blue 80 Figure 2. Acid Blue 120

Figure 3. Acid Red 151 Figure 4. Acid Blue 40

Figure 5. Ponceau SS

Appendix 3: Probable reaction mechanisms of formed ion-pairs

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Scheme 1. Formation of ionic associates (Acid Blue 80 with remifentanil)

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Scheme 2. Formation of ionic associates (Acid Red 151 with remifentanil)

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

EMR Electromagnetic radiation ESI-MS Electrospray ionization - Mass spectrometry GC-FTIR Gas Chromatography Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy GC-MS Gas Chromatography – Mass spectrometry HCl Hydrochloric acid HPLC High Performance Liquid Chromatography IR Infrared NaOH Sodium Hydroxide UV Ultraviolet

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WEIGHT OF WAR LEAD BY EXAMPLE OF TECHNOLOGICAL SUPERIORITY PARADOX – SOLUTION ENDEAVOURS

Aron WACHNIO104

SUMMARY: Mainstream of war nowadays and in the future is driven mostly by USA and is based on warfare operations being lead 24/7. Swift and continuous operations involve broad scope of units and equipment providing our forces security and an upper hand over enemy. DARPA – agency of the U.S. Department of Defence is major, worldwide entity inventing and developing new either civil and military technologies. More highly advanced equipment ensures more advantage, safety etc. On the other hand the more things you have the more things you have to carry. As a result very important factor during operation which is movement and manoeuvering might be restricted.

Key words: war, DARPA, technology.

Over the course of centuries development of any kind of military technologies was making clashes less and less direct. We can notice it on the example of Toffler’s wave theory. Alvin Toffler in his book entitled ,,The Third Wave” described three types of societies:

 The First Wave is the settled agricultural society which prevailed in much of the world after the Neolithic Revolution, which replaced hunter-gatherer cultures. Fighting in this civilization was held mostly face to face by means of cold steel.  The Second Wave is Industrial Age society. The Second Wave began in Western Europe with the Industrial Revolution, and subsequently spread across the world. Key aspects of Second Wave society are eg. the nuclear family, mass production, mass distribution, mass consumption, mass media, weapon of mass destruction etc. In this Industrial age fighting looked differently than in the previous wave because soldiers started wielding firearms which entailed exchange of fire on distance.  The Third Wave is post-industrial society called also an Information Age. Toffler says that since the late 1950s most countries have been transitioning from a Second Wave society into a Third Wave society. On the battlefield of post-industrial era turned up new advanced systems of information and conventional weapon/technology as well as digital and network communication105. War is gathering blistering pace: ,,Network Centric Warfare is the best term developed to describe the way we will organize and fight in the Information Age. […] We define NCW as an information superiority-

104Master degree student Aron Wachnio, Faculty of National Security, National Defence University, Warsaw, Poland. E-mail: [email protected] 105 A. Toffler, The Third Wave, New York, 1989.

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enabled concept of operations that generates increased combat power by networking sensors, decision makers, and shooters to achieve shared awareness, increased speed of command, higher tempo of operations, greater lethality, increased survivability, and a degree of self- synchronization”.106

Mainstream of war nowadays is driven mostly by USA and is based on warfare operations being lead 24/7. Swift and continuous operations involve broad scope of units and equipment providing our forces security and an upper hand over enemy. More high-tech equipment ensures more advantage, safety etc. On the other hand the more things you have the more things your troops will have to carry. As a result very important factor during operation which is movement and maneuvering might be restricted. As Sun Tzu said ,,Nothing is more difficult than the art of maneuver. What is difficult about maneuver is to make the devious route the most direct and to turn misfortune to adventage.”107 Moreover war nowadays imposes on soldiers insane pace of operating in various conditions sometimes even forcing them to go way beyond their natural capabilities as a result generating injuries or disabilities.

Scientific and technological develompent allowed people to change hefty armors and arms on more and more effective and advanced elements. At the same time brought about paradox, namely, contemporarily in accordance with confining risk of own losses policy, soldiers are enforced to carry the burden of their new armament, ammunition or communiciation devices. S.L.A. Marshall, in his classic The Soldier’s Load and the Mobility of the Nation said: „combat load of a soldier should vary with body weight: foot soldiers should train with gear no more that one-third of their body weight, and that load should be reduced by 20% in combat. Field Manual 21-18 (1990) postulated a combat load of 40 pounds, and cited experimental data to show that for every ten pounds in excess of 40, distance traveled in a 6 hour approach march would be reduced by 2 kilometers, and time over an obstacle course would be slowed by 15%. Yet infantrymen in DESERT STORM, OIF, and OEF marched with loads two or three times as heavy“108.

Overweighing soldiers with gear like: body armors, radios, flashlights or night vision devices, cameras, laptops, GPS, batteries, rifles, ammunition (interestingly U.S. General Accounting Office reported that in Afghanistan and Iraq the United States forces have fired an estimated 250,000 rounds for every insurgent killed109) etc. is recurrent problem nowadays, lowering units effectiveness and mobility during warfare. On the other hand can we imagine

106 D.S. Alberts, J.J. Garstka, F.P. Stein, Network Centric Warfere, Developing and Leveraging Information Superiority, 2nd Edition, February 2000, page 16. 107 M.R. Mcneilly, Sun Tzu and the art of business, Oxford 2012, page 264. 108 S.L.A. Marshall, The soldier’s Load and the Mobility of a Nation, Marine Corps Association, Quantico, VA 1980, page 3. 109 A. Buncombe, US forced to import bullets from Israel as troops use 250,000 for every rebel killed. Independent, http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/us-forced-to-import-bullets-from-israel-as- troops-use-250000-for-every-rebel-killed-314944.html [cit. 2016-04-10]

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21th century soldier venturing out on patrol without such basic equipment? Envisage that you are on mission in Iraq which involves you to run, squad, dive on the ground, crawl in boiling hot conditions. Some of infantrymen had got such possibility to take part in war operations in such harsh environment and this was the paradoxal result of it: ,,Nearly one-third of all medical evacuations from Iraq and Afghanistan from 2004 through 2007 resulted from musculoskeletal, connective-issue or spinal injuries, according to a study led by a Johns Hopkins University researcher. That was more than double the number of evacuations from combat injures“110. Moreover such situations generated also tremendous costs for U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs. Disability benefits for Afghanistan and Iraq veterans exceeded 500 million dollars annually. To sum up the problem of overweighing soldiers’ shoulders, spines, and knees mostly in order to protect them I will cite certain part of Sean Rayment article about British soldiers in Afghanistan „Taliban have dubbed British soldiers "donkeys" who move in a tactical "waddle" because they now carry an average weight of 110lbs worth of equipment into battle. […] our infantry find it almost impossible to close with the enemy because the bad guys are twice as mobile. […] by the end of a routine four hour patrol, soldiers struggle to make basic tactical judgements because they are physically and mentally exhausted”111. That is why such ,,organizations” like DARPA should shoulder the burden of developing new ways and means to help troops achieve coveted mobility and effectiveness during warfare.

Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) is an agency of the U.S. Department of Defense and is major, worldwide entity inventing and developing breakthrough either civil and military technologies. The genesis of DARPA dates at 1957 after on 4th October 1957 happened the launch of first human-made Earth satellite, Sputnik 1. This move of USRR caused real consternation and fear in USA because from now on their territory could have been reached by USSR ballistic missile equipped with nuclear warhead. In order to brighten the situation Americans created ARPA (Advanced Research Projects Agency, later changed the name on DARPA), namely, agency assigned to administer projects and researches of governmental agencies, private companies, educational and scientific federal or state institutions across the country. From then on DARPA was the initiator, not the victim of strategic technological surprises. The ultimate results of Agency so far have included not only game-changing military capabilities such as precision weapons and stealth technology, but also icons of modern civilian society such as the Internet (ARPANET), automated voice recognition and language translation and Global Positioning System (GPS). In short DARPA mission can be aptly described by words of 3rd President of United States Thomas Jefferson who said: ,,I like the dreams of the future better than the history of the

110 H. Berton, Weight of War: Gear that protects troops also injures them. Seattletimes, http://www.seattletimes.com/nation-world/weight-of-war-gear-that-protects-troops-also-injures-them/ [cit. 2016- 04-10] 111 S. Rayment, Britain’s ‘donkey‘ soldiers are losing the war in Afghanistan. The telegraph, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/afghanistan/8455741/Britains-donkey-soldiers-are-losing-the- war-in-Afghanistan.html [cit. 2016-04-10]

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Picture 1. Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) Source: Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, http://www.darpa.mil/

Exoskeleton in biology means the hard outer structure (skeleton) of an animal (insect such as grasshoppers or cockroaches, crustacean such as crabs or lobsters) that provides support and protection. But in terms of military research labs, popular fiction or movies, the term has come to mean a ,,supersuit," i.e. a system that can highly augment a person's physical abilities creating superhuman strength, speed and stamina or provide a higher level of protection from enemy fire or melee attack, also allow wearers to stay active longer and carry more food, ammunition and field supplies. A powered exoskeleton consists primarily of an outer framework worn by a person coupled with a powered system of motors or hydraulics that delivers part of the energy needed for limb movement. The main function of a powered exoskeleton is to assist the wearer by boosting their strength and endurance114. Exoskeletons can be also useful for disabled people, thus paraplegics may be able to stand and walk again.

Of course organization, which had undertaken the project of creating exoskeleton for humans was DARPA. In year 2000 launched program named Exoskeletons for Human Performance Augmentation and voted for this cosmic and ambitious goal over 75 million dollars. DARPA wanted to create a mechanical Ironman-like suit, designed mostly to help soldiers to carry their gear115. Result of this project was incredibly fruitful and drew near Agency to achieve its sci-fi vision. Consequently in 2004, funded by Defense Advanced Research Project Agency, U.C. Berkeley’s Human Engineering and Robotics Laboratory introduced BLEEX - Berkeley Lower Extremity Exoskeleton. BLEEX is first field-optional exoskeleton and is comprised of two anthropomorphic legs powered by power unit and a

112 TH: Jefferson, Dreams of the future...(quotation). Thomas Jefferson Encyclopedia, http://wiki.monticello.org/mediawiki/index.php/Dreams_of_the_future...%28Quotation%29 [cit. 2016-04-10] 113According to: Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, About us, Budget. DARPA, http://www.darpa.mil/ [cit. 2016-04-10] 114 E. Guizzo, H. Goldstein, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, The Rise of the Body Bots, Exoskeletons are strutting out of the lab – and they are carrying their creators with them, 1 October 2005. IEEE Spectrum, http://spectrum.ieee.org/biomedical/bionics/the-rise-of-the-body-bots [cit. 2016-04-10] 115 G. Mone, Man of Steel, „Popular Science“, May 2008, Vol. 272, Issue 5, page 47.

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CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016 backpack frame. Allows its user to walk, squat, swing, bend, twist freely even when carrying equipment and supplies up to 34 kilograms. BLEEX’s unique design offers an ergonomic, highly maneuverable even on inclined terrain, mechanically robust, lightweight and durable outfit to surpass typical human limitations. The basic principle for the control of an exoskeleton rests on notion that the exoskeleton shadows the pilot’s voluntary and involuntary movements without delay but dependently of its sensitivity exoskeleton is either robust or smooth so fitting appropriate sensitivity of the system was very complex. It may sound like a serious problem, if for instance, the pilot of BLEEX would receive motion from the exoskeleton unexpectedly and would have to struggle with it to avoid unwanted movement. That is why the key aspect is to find stable and effective system sensitivity116.

Picture 2. Berkeley Lower Extremity Exoskeleton (BLEEX). Source: BLEEX. Berkeley Robotics & Human Engineering Laboratory, http://bleex.me.berkeley.edu/research/exoskeleton/bleex/

In 2002 DARPA has developed a prototype of a wearable robot, a powered exoskeleton (XOS) that provided the human inside a significant strength/endurance multiplier. the XOS, was the latest and arguably most advanced exoskeleton in existence, developed by Steve Jacobsen company and the engineers at Sarcos, later purchased by the defense giant Raytheon. In 2000, Sarcos applied for a piece of the DARPA money and in 2002 built the first

116 H. Kazerooni, Robotics Handbook (chapter), Exoskeletons for Human Performance Augmentation, Lower- Extremity Exoskeleton, Part D, Springer-Verlag, 2008, page 780-782.

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CEFME Students’ Scientific Conference 2016 University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic 18 – 19 May 2016 suit. Unfortunately it didn't even have any power unit. The Sarcos team constructed it to prove that the exoskeleton would be able to move like we humans do. Afterwards, Sarcos began working on hydraulically driven actuators to function as mechanical muscles. Despite its prowess, the XOS hasn't hit all the goals of the DARPA program. But one of the objectives of DARPA's rigorous list of demands, was simply to see whether any of them would be possible. Of the three teams that took part in the project (Sarcos, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, and the University of California at Berkeley), the XOS emerged in 2005 as the suit closest to the agency's initial vision117. XOS project was being continuously developed and modified and as a result second-generation robot suit XOS-2 has been made by Raytheon for the US Army.

Raytheon's second-generation Exoskeleton - XOS 2 - was demonstrated for the first time in September 2010 in Salt Lake City in Utah. XOS-2 is a 95-kilogram support system that enables the wearer to effortlessly lift about 23 kilograms with each arm. The second generation XOS-2 robotic suit uses lighter material and is about 50% more energy efficient than the XOS 1. It utilises a combination of controllers, sensors, high-strength aluminum and steel which allow structures and actuators to perform the tasks. The soldier wearing the suit can walk, run and can readjust to keep the load off the wearer, even upon stumbling. The exoskeleton is robust and allows punching through three inches of wood. It is also highly agile and does not bog down the wearer while climbing stairs, ramps, using a punching bag or kicking. The company expects its exoskeletons to become available and useful for the military purposes chiefly but it still needs some of modifications like cables reduction to make it more wireless or fuel-carrying backpack to provide longer suit endurance. That’s why the untethered version is not expected to be operational until 2020. The exoskeletons are expected to be used initially to help soldiers carry heavier loads farther, whether they are performing combat or logistical operations118.

117 G. Mone, Man of Steel, „Popular Science“, May 2008, Vol. 272, Issue 5, page 50-52. 118 Raytheon XOS 2 Exoskeleton, Second-Generation Robotics Suit, United States of America. Army- technology.com, http://www.army-technology.com/projects/raytheon-xos-2-exoskeleton-us/ [cit. 2016-04-10]

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Picture 3. XOS – 2 Source: Raytheon XOS 2 Exoskeleton, Second-Generation Robotics Suit, United States of America. Army-technology.com, http://www.army-technology.com/projects/raytheon-xos-2- exoskeleton-us/raytheon-xos-2-exoskeleton-us3.html

Another project originally developed in 2008 by Berkeley with funding from the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency was HULC – Human Universal Load Carrier, which is the third generation anthropomorphic exoskeleton system. In 2009 Lockheed Martin company took the lead of working on this project so HULC became a joint effort between Lockheed Martin and Berkeley Bionics. ,,This is a robot that you can wear. When you move, it moves, and it will do everything you do,"119 said Keith Maxwell, business development manager for Lockheed Martin at that time. The HULC is designed to mirror a Soldier's body and support the lifting of loads up to 200 pounds (about 90kg). The HULC system is an untethered, hydraulic-powered anthropomorphic exoskeleton–where normal movement is not inhibited . It enables rapid movement and preserves combat mobility while reducing combat fatigue. ,,We started looking at the causes of injuries in the field and found 53 percent of all combat injuries were back injuries. So we took the initiative to look for ways to solve these problems. We came up with the HULC,"120 Maxwell explained. The system, primarily,

119 M. Chavez, The Official Homepage of the United States Army, Exoskeleton enhances Warfighter strength, reduces injury, 6 January 2011 The Official Homepage of The United States Army, http://www.army.mil/article/50144/exoskeleton-enhances-warfighter-strength-reduces-injury/ [cit. 2016-04-10] 120 Ibidem.

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Picture 4. Human Universal Load Carrier(HULC) Source: HULC. Lockheed Martin Corporation, http://www.lockheedmartin.com/us/products/exoskeleton/hulc.html

121 J. McHale, Exsoskeleton Technology Reduces Soldier Fatigue and Injury, “Military and Aerospace Electronics”, Vol. 20, Issue 6, June 2009, page 6,12; T. Withington, The Incredible Hulks, “Armada International”, Vol. 34, Issue 5, October-November 2010, page 33. 122 Lockheed to deliver HULC robot to US Army. Army-technology.com, 24 May 2012. Army-technology.com http://www.army-technology.com/news/newslockheed-deliver-hulc [cit. 2016-04-10]

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Another noteworthy alternative to alleviate physical weight on troops is developed by DARPA, rough-terrain robot called Legged Squad Support Systems (LS3). Robot with the look similar to horse was created for military use, with the ability to operate in hot, cold, wet, and dirty environments. LS3 is designed to go anywhere Marines and Soldiers go on foot, helping carry their load up to 400lbs (about 180kg). The robot could also serve as a mobile auxiliary power source to the squad, so troops can recharge batteries for radios etc. Robot automatically follows its leader (similar to a trained animal), using computer vision or travels to designated locations using terrain sensing and GPS. On December, 2009 Boston Dynamics was awarded a contract for the Legged Squad Support System (also known as AlphaDog or Robotic Mule). DARPA continued to support the program and carried out the first outdoor exercise on the latest variation of the LS3 in February 2012, with it successfully demonstrating its full mobility and perception capabilities during a planned hike encompassing tough terrain. The LS3 was used by Marine Corps Warfighting Lab during Exercise RIMPAC (Rim of the Pacific) in 2014 in Hawaii. After five years of development, the system had reached a level of maturity for it to operate with India Marines from the 3rd Battalion, 3rd Marine Regiment in a realistic combat exercise. Operators were surprised at the level of stability and reliability it had walking; although it was able to traverse 70-80 percent of terrain. When it did fall over the hill, the system was able to right itself most of the time, and even when it needed assistance it only required one person because it is designed to be easily rolled upright. Controls, like joysticks, were similar to those for video games, making them simple to learn in addition also voice recognition was interfaced with time. Due to loud noise during movement and difficulty traversing certain terrains as well as challenges in repairing it if brakes and difficulty in integrating it into traditional Marine patrol, the LS3 was used as a logistical tool rather than a tactical one. As a result by late 2015, the Marines had put the LS3 into storage. Nevertheless conception of LS3 provided important insights about autonomous technology and still shows real DARPA’s striving for enhancing soldiers’ mobility and operating speed123.

123 Boston Dynamics, LS3 - Legged Squad Support Systems. Boston Dynamics, http://www.bostondynamics.com/robot_ls3.html; Ch.Orlowski, Legged Squad Support System (LS3). Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, http://www.darpa.mil/program/legged-squad-support-system; H.H.Seck, Marine Corps Shelves Futuristic Robo-Mule Due to Noise Concerns, 22 December 2015. Military.com, http://www.military.com/daily-news/2015/12/22/marine-corps-shelves-futuristic-robo-mule-due-to-noise- concerns.html; T.Eshel, Innovative robotic systems supporting Marines during warfighting experiment in Hawaii, 1 August 2014. Defense-Update, http://defense-update.com/20140801_ls3_guss_robots_at_awe.html [cit. 2016-04-10]

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Picture 5. LS3 - Legged Squad Support Systems Source: Boston Dynamics, Robots, LS3 - Legged Squad Support Systems. Boston Dynamics, http://www.bostondynamics.com/robot_ls3.html

Conclusion

Alvin Toffler described three waves of civilizations. Meanwhile another ,,wave” is emerging, namely, wave we can call ,,post-human”. In this phase human factor during the combat as well as soldier’s distance from the battlefield will recede as significantly as most of them will not be taking physical and direct part in combat. Troops on the battlefield will be replaced by drones or robots. Nevertheless, as long as soldiers are on battleground we need to provide them as many security and advantage measures as possible. On the other hand we can not forget about very important dimensions of warfare which are movement and maneuvering. Finding golden mean is of the essence – new ammunition, new liaison tools etc. should entail new means of solving problems of carrying it. According to Boyd, decision-making occurs in a recurring cycle of observe-orient-decide-act. An entity (whether an individual or an organization) that can process this cycle quickly, observing and reacting to unfolding events more rapidly than an opponent can thereby ,,get inside" the opponent's decision cycle and gain the advantage124. There is always the other side of the coin. If we are not able to notice some problems we have, our adversary will (like Talibans in Afghanistan), and as a result of our negligence he will gain the advantage. Thanks to DARPA not only soldiers but also civilians have a lot of high-tech equipments making our lifes easier which is natural direction because humanity have never got stuck in stagnancy, we always develop. Even new technology potentially simplifying certain aspects of life or in terms of military giving an upper hand over enemy might become quite the opposite, our own trap. Having it in mind new technology should be developed more rationally, otherwise referencing to overburdened soldiers in Afghanistan or Iraq, we will not be able to employ it appropriately and effectively.

124 R. Greene, OODA and You, Power Seduction&War, 24 February 2007, http://powerseductionandwar.com/ooda-and-you/ [cit. 2016-04-10]

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REFERENCES

[1] According to: Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, About us, Budget. DARPA, http://www.darpa.mil/ [2] Alberts D.S., J.J. Garstka, F.P. Stein, Network Centric Warfere, Developing and Leveraging Information Superiority, 2nd Edition, February 2000. [3] Berton H., Weight of War: Gear that protects troops also injures them. Seattletimes, http://www.seattletimes.com/nation-world/weight-of-war-gear-that-protects-troops- also-injures-them/ [4] BLEEX. Berkeley Robotics & Human Engineering Laboratory, http://bleex.me.berkeley.edu/research/exoskeleton/bleex/ [5] Boston Dynamics, LS3 - Legged Squad Support Systems. Boston Dynamics, http://www.bostondynamics.com/robot_ls3.html; [6] Buncombe A., US forced to import bullets from Israel as troops use 250,000 for every rebel killed. Independent, http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/us- forced-to-import-bullets-from-israel-as-troops-use-250000-for-every-rebel-killed- 314944.html [7] Chavez M. , The Official Homepage of the United States Army, Exoskeleton enhances Warfighter strength, reduces injury, 6 January 2011 The Official Homepage of The United States Army, http://www.army.mil/article/50144/exoskeleton- enhances-warfighter-strength-reduces-injury/ [8] Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, http://www.darpa.mil/ [9] Eshel T., Innovative robotic systems supporting Marines during warfighting experiment in Hawaii, 1 August 2014. Defense-Update, http://defense- update.com/20140801_ls3_guss_robots_at_awe.html [10] Guizzo E., H. Goldstein, IEEE Spectrum, Institute of Electrical and electronics Engineers, The Rise of the Body Bots, Exoskeletons are strutting out of the lab – and they are carrying their creators with them, 1 October 2005. IEEE Spectrum, http://spectrum.ieee.org/biomedical/bionics/the-rise-of-the-body-bots [11] HULC. Lockheed Martin Corporation, http://www.lockheedmartin.com /us/products/exoskeleton/hulc.html [12] Jefferson Th., Dreams of the future...(quotation). Thomas Jefferson Encyclopedia, http://wiki.monticello.org/mediawiki/index.php/Dreams_of_the_ future...% 28Quotation%29 [13] Kazerooni H., Robotics Handbook(chapter), Exoskeletons for Human Performance Augmentation, Lower-Extremity Exoskeleton, Part D, Springer-Verlag, 2008. [14] Lockheed to deliver HULC robot to US Army. Army-technology.com, 24 May 2012. Army-technology.com http://www.army-technology.com/news/newslockheed- deliver-hulc [15] Marshall S.L.A., The soldier’s Load and the Mobility of a Nation, Marine Corps Association, Quantico, VA 1980. [16] McHale J., Exsoskeleton Technology Reduces Soldier Fatigue and Injury, “Military and Aerospace Electronics”, Vol. 20, Issue 6, June 2009; T. Withington, The Incredible Hulks, “Armada International”, Vol. 34, Issue 5, October-November 2010. [17] Mcneilly M.R., Sun Tzu and the art of business, Oxford 2012. [18] Mone G., Man of Steel, „Popular Science“, May 2008, Vol. 272, Issue 5.

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[19] Orlowski Ch., Legged Squad Support System (LS3). Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, http://www.darpa.mil/program/legged-squad-support- system; [20] Rayment S., Britain’s ‘donkey‘ soldiers are losing the war in Afghanistan. The telegraph, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/afghanistan/8455741/ Britains-donkey-soldiers-are-losing-the-war-in-Afghanistan.html [21] Raytheon XOS 2 Exoskeleton, Second-Generation Robotics Suit, United States of America, army-technology.com, http://www.army-technology.com/projects/ raytheon-xos-2-exoskeleton-us/ [22] Seck H.H., Marine Corps Shelves Futuristic Robo-Mule Due to Noise Concerns, 22 December 2015. Military.com, http://www.military.com/daily- news/2015/12/22/marine-corps-shelves-futuristic-robo-mule-due-to-noise- concerns.html; [23] Toffler A., The Third Wave, New York, 1989.

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DESIGN 3D PRINTER DEDICATED TO CONFECTIONERY BRANCH

Patrycja WLIZŁO125,

SUMMARY: One of the most significant technological developments of the last decade is 3D printing which is commonly used for rapid prototyping. By looking at the current availability of 3D printers on the market we can see that there are a few different technological solutions used in their design. 3D printing has been introduced into the food industry for creating semi-solid chocolate sweets. The use of this technology in the confectionery industry highlights a few problems which would need to be overcome for their successful use in the manufacturing process. As the melting temperatures of white, diary and dark chocolate could slightly vary there would need to be a very precise temperature control of the printing material in order to allow the material to flow yet maintain its desired shape. The use of chocolate as a printing material is an innovative idea and as such there is currently a lack of design solutions available.

Keywords: 3D printer, Chocolate, Rapid prototyping

1 Introduction Analysing the idea of 3D printing in the confectionery branch, we can say that it creates sweets. Sweets and cakes with complex shapes, made using the intermediates in a state of semi-liquid as eg. chocolate. By looking at the current availability of 3D printers on the market we can see that there are several different design solutions. In Poland, only one company offers a 3D printer which allows production of sweets with chocolate. It is fundamental to solve a problems of this technical nature: a very precise cycle of heating and cooling and controlling the temperature of the printed material. Depending on the type of chocolate: white, dairy or bitter is represented by diffrent dissolution temperature of the material. Another argument to take this work further is the innovative nature of the device using the process of 3D chocolate printing and so far the lack of design solutions.

2 Literary analysis concerning the possibility of using 3D printing in the confectionery branch Analysing the overall construction of the 3D printers dedicated to the confectionery industry it can be said that they are similar. 3D printers use the modified FDM. Currently designed and developed structures are made by different solution extruder. It is a component in charge of semi-solid chocolate extrusion to a built platform and to give a specific shape. The construction of the extruder can be divided into the following solutions with:

125 Patrycja Wlizło, Faculty of Mechatronics, Military University of Technology, Sylwestra Kaliskiego 2, 01-476 Warsaw , Poland. E-mail: [email protected]

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 syringe,  progressive cavity pump.  gear pump. In order to analyze the differences between those three types of devices a detailed characterization has been made .

2.1. Choc Creator Printer Choc Creator 3D was the world's first commercial 3D printer to print off objects with chocolate. 3D printer is equipped with a printing system controlled by a stepper motor. It is extruding melted chocolate with the help of syringe. Bars of chocolate are first dissolved and then placed in a syringe prior to printing. This means that the print can be completed in a few minutes. Printer files are transferred via a standard USB [3]. A general view of the device is shown in figure 1.

Fig.1: Printer Choc Creator V2 [4]

2.2. Zmorph Another example of a 3D printer design solution for the food industry is made by company Zmorph. This is a Polish company that developed the extruder for 3D printing designed to extrude the dough and chocolate.

In the extruder worm's pump cavitation was used . Caused by the rotation of the special design of the screw, cavitation zone push another portion of fluid along the pumo and at the same time to give a rise to a large underpressure zones, which are taking another portion of the fluid. The extruder is not heated, and the user himself must heat the chocolate and put it in a special tank. In figure 2. Shows the 3 D printer's Zmorph .

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Fig.2: General view of the printer's Zmorph [5]

2.3. Schokostruder Another example of a device which uses the concept of 3D printing in the confectionery industry is Schokostruder printer, it is using an extruder with a gear pump design. The printer is based on the RepRap project. The extruder comprises two cooperating gears of the same diameter and shape, placed on shafts. Wheels and rollers are closely matched wihch the housing chamber, which is closed on one side by the front cover, and on the other side - by the back cover. During rotation of the gear fluid is locked in notches between the teeth of the wheel and is forced from the inlet to the pump outlet, flowing continuously and almost without pulsation. The body of the extruder is heated ceramic heater, but the user before printing process must dissolve the chocolate and put it in a special container. Figure 3. presents the components of the extruder printer.

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Fig.3: The building blocks of the extruder Schokostruder [6] 1. a stepper motor 2. the gears and shafts 3. the back cover 4. the cover including the sealing body 5. the front cover

2.4. Comparative analysis of the extruder used in the available devices A characteristic feature is the use of feeder piston in its construction of a syringe.

Pointing to the advantages of this solution it should be mentioned that it can :

 make simple and durable design,  eliminate leaks during pump operation,  outgrow the possibility of heating and temperature control,  easy assembly and disassembly for manual cleaning. Pointing disadvantages of this solution should be mentioned:

 impossibility of adding chocolate to the syringe during printing,  relatively large dimensions, which limit the output.

A characteristic feature is the use of pump cavitation in their structure of the stator and the rotor.

Pointing to the advantages of this solution it should be mentioned that:

 it is simple and durable design,  it is a smooth operation, without any pulsation  it can eliminating leaks during pump operation,  there is a possibility of self-priming liquid. Pointing disadvantages of this solution should be mentioned:

 difficulty in cleaning the stator  large dimensions.

A characteristic feature is the use of a gear pump in a construction of gears disposed rigidly on the rollers in the body.

Pointing to the advantages of this solution should be mentioned:

 compact design,  relatively high service life,  eliminating leaks during pump operation,  the possibility of self-priming liquid,  ease of assembly and disassembly of hand washing,  small size. Pointing disadvantages of this solution should be mentioned:

 difficulty of ensuring a steady flow of mass.

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3. The formulation system of construction to build a 3D printer that is in confectionery branch Based on the analysis literature it was possible to draw conclusions for my own project. The basis for the development of the project will be the MONKEYFAB printer , which will be modified for the 3D chocolate printing.

3.1. The construction and operation of a 3D printer company MONKEYFAB 3D printer MONKEYFAB is a type of 3D printer RepRap. This 3D printer You can build yourself at home on the open source license. It is a device that can be improved according to your needs. The workspace of 3D printer is 200 x 200 x 180 mm. It has a built-in cooling system print by fans. Fig.4. shows a general view of a printer's MONKEYFAB.

Fig.4: General view of a 3D printer MONKEYFAB [7]

The MONKEYFAB 3D printer is composed of the following components:

 X-axis,  extruder,  frame (Z-axis).  Y-axis

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3.2. Assumptions for the development of the extruder print chocolate After analyzing the current design solutions on the market with an extruder it stated that its construction will be based on the structure of the gear pump. Subassembly extruder will consist of two functional systems: the heating and extrusion.

The main role of the extrusion is the transportation of semi-liquid chocolate from the container to the nozzle calibration. The system heaters will be equipped with a container, which will be delivering and the dilute the chocolate. The concept of a heating system involves the use of heating elements in the tank, and the body of the chocolate. On fig.5. the concepts of extrusion in the extruder can be seen.

Fig.5: The concept of the construction of the extrusion in the extruder

In fig.6. shows a general view of the concept of heating system in the extruder.

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Figure 6. General view of the concept of heating system in the extruder

Requirements for extruder chocolate are:

 supply of semi-liquid material to the nozzle,  limit the width and length dimensions for the housing of 42x42mm.  in relation to the dimensions of the stepping motor of the extruder and the maximum height of 45 mm, due to restrictions for the length of the screw (M3x50)  components made of materials approved for contact with chocolate,  safe to use and environmentally friendly,  construction easy to maintain hygiene - quick and easy installation  and dismantling extruder aim of cleaning it,  no leaks during operation,  work in certain temperature ranges,  the ability to self-priming liquid,  the possibility of adding a continuous material into compartment during printing.  possibility of heating and temperature control,  low weight,  aesthetic appearance.

3.2.1. Characteristics of chocolate Chocolate is made mainly with cocoa mass, cocoa butter and a small amount of sugar. It is the second ingredient that makes chocolate and requires. tempering. Cocoa butter fat is dissolved at a temperature lower than the temperature of the human body. Chocolate tempering involves heating and cooling of chocolate appropriate, the fixed temperature, so that the cocoa butter in the chocolate is crystallized in a controlled manner. Thanks to tempering the chocolate obtains a smooth texture and shiny surface.

A measure of the level of chocolate tempering it shows in fig.7. and calculated from the angle of the tangent to the curve of cooling chocolate in the area of crystallization. The area is the central portion of the crystallization curve point.

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Fig.7: Charts for chocolate: 1.over-tempered, tempered 2. 3. under-tempered[36]

3.3. Assumptions on the selection of materials To ensure safety, the components of the extruder should be made by materials that do not adversely affect the taste and smell of chocolate by direct or indirect contact. They must also be corrosion resistant. Additional assumption made by the body is that, the nozzle and the container should have a good thermal conductivity.

Because of the assumptions using aluminum is the most economical and effective material for structural design. One of the aluminum alloy is PA11, which is used in the food industry [1]. The material that will be used for bushings elements is PTFE [2].

4 Design a model of extruder I created a model 3D construction of the 3D printer and the extruder in SolidWorks. Figure 8. shows a general view of a 3D printer with of the extruder, which is designed with heating elements and an adapter for attachment to the truck the axis X.

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Fig 8. General view of a 3D printer together with the extruder chocolate

In fig.9. shows an exploded view of the extruder.

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Fig.9. Exploded view of the extruder

Components of the extruder are:

1. stepper motor,

2. the roller

3. protection,

4. the O-ring 14x1.

5. nozzle,

6. body front,

7. heater patrons,

8. glass thermistor 100k,

9. a container of chocolate,

10. ceramic heater banded together,

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11. bushings 4 pcs.,

12. The active gear and shaft,

13. passive gear and shaft,

14. o-ring 21x1.

15. body back,

16. allen screw with cylindrical head M2,5x4,

17. allen screws with cylindrical head M3x50 4 pcs.

18. washers M3 6 pcs.

19. the self-locking nuts M3 4 pcs.,

20. allen screws with cylindrical head M3x20 2 pcs.

21. allen screws with cylindrical head M3x25 2 pcs.

22. allen screws with cylindrical head M4X30 3 pcs.

23. adapter.

5 Execution of a 3D printer that produces objects with chocolate The first step in performing a 3D print is to produce objects with chocolate with mounting kit to assemble it yourself, which was purchased as part of the student programme. The components of the extruder were made by using the technology available at my faculty. The initial phase of the body front and rear has been printed on a 3D printer. The device is adapted with constructed extruder. This solution was not sufficient to perform experiments, because when heated body warmer patrons was melting plastic. Fig.10. shows the general appearance of a 3D printer for chocolate. In fig.11. the general appearance designed extruderhas been shown, and in fig.12. component parts can be seen.

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Fig.10. General view of a 3D printer together with the extruder to chocolate

Figure 11. General view of the extruder chocolate

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Fig.12. Components extruder chocolate

In a next step machined components have been used. The software code has been changed in such a way that the extruder can operate at low temperatures of approx. 30 degrees and to be able to connect the heater patrons and a band at the same time to rumba.

In the process of 3D printing the chocolate is used in form od pellets white chocolate, dairy and bitter , which is arranged in the container which brings printed material to form a slurry.

Conclusions Analyzing the literature of idea of using 3D printing technology in the food industry we can say that is innovative and is still in the development stage. Based on information contained in the literature of trade and industry portals, you can find a few examples of the use of this technique for the print sweet meals in the confectionery industry.

Currently existing design solutions differ by the components of the extruder. Based on the results of this analysis, I formulated an assumptions construction - technology for developing the concept of your device with this solution it is possible to print 3D objects with chocolate. The basis for the project is a RepRap 3D printer company MONKEYFAB. I developed a complete designed 3D printer with detailed construction of an extruder in which it is possible to adapt it to the 3D printer. I formulated assumptions concerning the construction and operation of the extruder, and the selection of materials and processing technology. Also I developed a heat system for the extruder. Based on the developed 3D extruder model the individual components were made . It is very important is analyzing physico-chemical properties of chocolate, in order to determine the parameters of the injection of semi-liquid chocolate to the printing nozzle and shaping 3D models.

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The last step would be to perform the tasks of making a fully functional technology demonstrator device to print 3D objects with chocolate, calibration and testing in order to determine the optimum operating parameters.

References [1] A. CISZEWSKI, T. RADOMSKI, A. SZUMMER, Materiałoznawstwo, Wyd.9, Warszawa, Oficyna Wydawnicza Politechniki Warszawskiej, 1998, Aluminium i stopy aluminium, s. 207-208. [2] A. CISZEWSKI, T. RADOMSKI, A. SZUMMER, Materiałoznawstwo, Wyd.9, Warszawa, Oficyna Wydawnicza Politechniki Warszawskiej, 1998, Przemysłowe stopy żelaza, s. 166-170. [3] http://chocedge.com/ [cit. 2016-04-01] [4] http://centrumdruku3d.pl/choc-creator-v2-pierwsza-drukarka-drukujaca-czekolady- drukujaca-3d/ [cit. 2016-04-01] [5] http://www.makerwise.com/3d-printer/zmorph-3d/zmorph/ [cit. 2016-04-01] [6] http://3digitalcooks.com/2014/07/new-chocolate-extruder-gear-pump/ [cit. 2016-04-01] [7] http://www.monkeyfab.com/?product=monkeyfab-prime3d [cit. 2016-04-01]

Publication did not undergo language revision.

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UNIVERSITY OF DEFENCE – rectorate Kounicova 65, 662 10 Brno www.unob.cz

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