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AUTHOR Schmitt, Norbert; Schmitt, Diane Rae TITLE Identifying and Assessing Vocabulary Learning Strategies. PUB DATE Mar 93 NOTE 9p. AVAILABLE FROM Thai TESOL Bulletin, c/o Robert Burgess, Suranaree University of Technology, School of English, Muang District, Nakhon Ratchasima, Thailand. PUB TYPE Guides Classroom Use Teaching Guides (For Teacher) (052) Reports Research/Technical (143) Journal Articles (080) JOURNAL CIT Thai TESOL Bulletin; v5 n4 p27-33 Mar 1993

EDRS PRICE MFO1 /PCO1 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Adult Learning; Comparative Analysis; Foreign Countries; Grammar; Language Patterns; Language Processing; Language Research; Language Tests; Learning Processes; *Learning Strategies; Memory; Reference Materials; Secondary Education; Second Language Learning; *Second Languages; Study Habits; *Study Skills; *Vocabulary Development IDENTIFIERS Japan; *Japanese People

ABSTRACT This article discusses second language vocabulary learning strategies and includes an analysis and classification of possible strategies and the report of a study conducted among second language learners in Japan. Research on vocabulary learning strategies is synthesized into two lists of strategies: 14 methods for initial learning of a new word's meaning (use of reference materials, working with others, analyzing words from available information, creating systems to analyze words, using knowledge of other languages, and avoidance) and 28 strategies for studying and remembering a word's meaning once it is known (repetition, study of formal and grammatical aspects, creation and use of study aids, perseverance, physical actions, manipulation of meaning, association systems, working with others, imaging, and use of knowledge of other languages). The study reported used these lists of strategies to determine how 600 Japanese subjects, ranging from junior high school students to adults, ranked their use and the utility of various strategies. Strategies considered to be most helpful and least helpful are listed and discussed briefly. Contains 11 references. (MSE)

*********************************************************************** Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made * * from the original document. **********************************************************1.an********** Identifying and Assessing Vocabulary Learning Strategies

Norbert Schmitt and Diane Rae Schmitt

U S DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION "PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS Olin e of Educationat Research and Improvement MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY E DUCA TrONAL RC SOURCES INFORMA1 ION CENTER (MCI \Ifhisdocument has been reproduced as ecelyed ttorn the oerson or of ganization Originating Minor changeS nave been. made tO improve teeroduction cluatly

Points of new or Opinions staled in this docu rnent do not necessarily represent otticiat TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES OE RI position or pOi:Cy INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC) IDENTIFYING AND ASSESSINGVOCABULARY LEARNING STRATEGIES By Norbert Schmitt Minatogawa Women's CollegeSanda, Japan By Diane Rae Schmitt I.E.L.P., Temple University,Japan, Osaka, Japan

The last twenty years has seen a change in language pedagogy from A udiolingualism, mainlybased on grammar practice and drill, towardsa more communicative style of teaching. This evolution has brought with it a change in the way both teachers and learners are viewed. Where beforeteachers were considered the sole source of knowledge and studentspassive recipients, learnersare now increasingly encouraged and expected totakean active role in their own learning. In addition to this paradigm shift in teaching methodology,realization of the importance of several other factors has helped lead to a new emphasis on the learner. First, the amount of time most studentscan spend in the L2 classroom is limited and usually amounts to only a few hours a week at best. Inan ESL situation, the potential opportunities forlearning in the community at largecan outweigh those in the classroom. Second, since learnersmay have the best awareness of their own strengths, weaknesses, and personal preferences inindividual and cultural learning style, they shouldhave some voice in how their learning is achieved. Third, thelanguage teaching field has movedaway from searching for a perfect teachingmethod and towards a focuson how successful learners actually achieve their goals. Fourth, researchfrom cognitive psychology has shown that language learning "requires learners to activelyassimilate new information into their existingmental structures, thus creating increasingly rich andcomplex structures" (Oxford 1986, emphasismine). A combination of these factors pointedto the necessity of learners having the skillsto help manage their own learning, leading toan interest in learner strategies.

I his. interest in learner strategies generated empirical research which generally tendedto validate their usefulness. Bialystok (1981) found thatfour strategies (formal practice, monitoring,functional practice, and inferencing) correlated positivelywith language achievement. Zimmerman andPons (1986) observed that high achievement trackstudents reported using significantlymore strategies than the lower track students. O'Malley and Chamot (1990) have done considerableresearch on learning strategies and have found thateffective students used a greater variety ofstrategies, including both top down and bottomup types than noneffective students. In a survey of second language learning strategy research, Oxford(1986) concludes that learning strategies "improve language performance, encourage languageautonomy, are teachable, and expand the role of the teacher in significant ways

Most of this strategy research has focusedon vocabulary learning strategies, in large part because discrete point tasks (such as learninga word) are both easier to empirically validate thanmore global tasks (making an invitation politely), andbecause t hey are amenable to either classroomor laboratory research techniques. Unfortunately, studieshave almost exclusively concentratedon a limited number of vocabulary learning strategies, particularly mnemonic techniques, suchas the kevi,oi d approach, and guessing wordmeanings from reading context. So paradoxically, although the bulk of genei al learning strategy research has focused on vocabulary, vocabularystrategies taken as a group have been extremely under-researched.There have been few studies which have approached vi -abulary learningstrategies as a set, either seeking to identifyor analyze them (For an exception, ,,ee Ahmed, 1989).

MARCH 1993 27 3 BEST COPY AVAILABLE Creating a List of Vocabulary Learning Strategies

As a first step in addressing this deficiency, a project was undertaken to compilea hst of vocabulary learning strategies. Various sources were used to ensure that the list wouldbe as comprehensive as possible. First, a numberof vocabulary reference booksand textbooks were examined, the majority of the strategies listed. providing Second, Japanese intermediate-levelstudents were asked to write a report on how they studiedEnglish vocabulary words. Several gleaned from these reports. Third, additional strategies were several teachers were asked to reviewthe list and add any strategies they had gained from theirexperience.

These sources together yielded 36strategies. Since then, one additional strategy has The list as presented in this been included. paper should not be considered comprehensive, butrather a working inventory to which additional strategies will almost certainly be added in the future.However, considering the multiplesources consulted, the most commonly used cowered. strategies are likely to be

Once the list was compiled, itwas analyzed to see if naturally occurring categories The first aspect considered could be found. was the distinction between 'discovering'a new word's meaning and 'practicing' that meaning, a recurring theme in articles dealing with lexis.Cook and Mayer (1983) mention several similar categorizations,such as "storage encoding/ retrieval "addition of new information to encoding" and memory/assimilation of the new informationto existing knowl- edge". Nation (1990) formulates this distinction as "increasing vocabulary"and "establishing vocabulary" It was found that thisdistinction of mental processingwas reflected in the gathered list of vocabulary learning strategies, which are really the outwardlyvisible facilitators of those processes. The strategies generally applied toone of two major areas: 1. Initial learning of anew word's meaning 2. Studying and remembering theword's meaning once it is known There were a few strategies that seemed to 'cross over' and have valuein both areas. For example, analysis of roots and affixes can be usefulboth during the guessingprocess of learning a new word's meaning, and in helping to remember anduse that meaning later. The next step involved dividing the list into smaller categories withinthe two major areas. This preliminary categorization was done intuitively, grouping strategies togetherwhich seemed to have aspects in common. In thefuture, a more-detailed analysismay yield different or improved categorizations.

VOCABULARY STRATEGYLIST Initial Learning OfNew Word's Meaning

USE REFERENCEMATERIALS Bilingual dictionary Monolingual English dictionary

ASK OTHERS FOR INFORMATIONkVORK WITH OTHERS

28 THAI TESOL BULLETIN VOL.5NO.4 4 Ask classmates Ask teacher for English paraphrase of synonym Ask teacher for translation Ask teacher for a sentence using the new word Learn meaning during group work

ANALYZE WORDS FROM AVAILABLE INFORMATION

Look at pictures or gestures to understand meaning Check prt of speech (noun, verb, etc.) Guess meaning from reading context Check prefixes, suffixes, and word roots to discover meaning

CREA FE SYSTEM TO ANALYZE WORDS

Attempt to guess where a new word's meaning lies along a 'scale' of gradable adjective meanings (burning-hot-warm-cool-cold-freezing)

USE KNOWLEDGE OF OTHER LANGUAGES

Cognates AVOIDANCE

Skip or pass new word Studying And Remembering The Word's Meaning Once It Is Known REPETITION

Written repetition Verbal repetition

STUDY THE FORMAL AND GRAMMATICAL ASPECTS OF A WORD

Study the spelling of the word Study the way the word sounds Study the word's part of speech Study the word's root, prefixes, and suffixes

(MAKE AND) USE STUDY AIDS

Take notes in class about new words Use Word Lists to study new words Us-2 Flash Cards to study new words Use the vocabulary section in your textbook Use the configuration technique to remember word torm:

[graphics] "ellefDhaft (from Smith, 1971)

MARCH 1993 29 5 PERSEVERANCE STRATEGY

Continue to study the word often over a period oftime USE PHYSICAL ACTIONS

Use physical actionwhen studying words (do throwing action when studying the word'throw') Say the new word aloudwhen studying it

MANIPULATION OFMEANING

Use the new word insentences Paraphrase the meaningof the new word

CREATE SYSTEM OFASSOCIATIONS

Study the word'ssynonyms and antonyms Learn the new words in an idiom togetherat the same tin:ie Connect the new wordto some situation in yourmind Use 'scales' to studygradable adjective sets Associate the word withothers in the same topic (furniture: table, chair,bed) Associate the word to otherswhich are related to it (water: swim, drink,wet, blue)

WORK WITH OTHERS

Have your teacher check your word lists and flash cardsfor correctness Study words witha group of students IMAGING

Make an image of the word'smeaning Imagine the word form andits spelling in your mind Use the Keyword Approach (Think of a El word thatsounds similar to the new L2 word.Then make a single mental image combining themeanings of both words. When the new L2 word, this you hear linking image can beremembered, bringing with it a promptfor the L2 word'smeaning)

USE OF KNOWLEDGEOF OTHER LANGUAGES Cognates

Assessing the Strategiesfor Effectiveness It would be extremely helpful if thesestrategies on the working list could effectiveness. Unfortunately, be ranked for intrinsic research has shown thatstrategy et fectiveness.in general depends on an individual'spersonality and study largely traits, the type of task beingattempted, and the learning environment. Oxford(l989) surveyed the available literature and identitied several factors

30 THAI TESOLBULLETIN VOL.5 NO.4 6 which affect a strategy's usefulness, the target language being learned, the degree ofa learner's self awareness of his or her strengths, needs, study style, etc, the learner's sex, the learner'sattitudes and motivation, the learner's personality type, especially his or her lack of inhibition,the learner's learning style, the learner's nationalorigin, and the language teaching methods being employed. Even though strategy effectiveness is largely dependent on these outside factors,a principled way is being sought to assign the vocabulary strategies to at least broad characterizationsof greater or lesser utility. Such information could give teachers of culturally and individually diverseclassrooms some guidance as to which strategiesare most advantageous to teach when it is difficult to personally tailor a strategyprogram for each individual group of students.

One promising line of analysis employsCraik's Levels of Processing Model (1972, 1975). Greatly simplified, the model states that the qualityof learning directly dependsupon how involved the mental manipulation of the new information is. If new material is given to a learner and it isonly superficially processed, even fora considerable length of time, it is unlikely to becomeembedded in the mind and may be easily forgotten.Conversely, if the new material has to be analyzed, synthesized, reworked, or associated with other already-known information, the processing willbe more involved (deeper), giving the new materiala better chance to become integrated with existing knowledge in the learners mind.

Using this reasoning, a "depth of processing"continuum can be derived, such as the following:

Superficial Processing / Deeper Processing / Shallow learning Greater learning

Although empirical validation is still lacking,some strategies from the list seem likely candidates for one end of the continuumor the other. For example, written and verbal repetition,use of word lists, and studying the part of speech ofa word would initively involve relatively less processing, while the strategies involving association ofnew information with old, imaging, and manipulation of meaning imply the kind of mental activitythat leads to deeper processing. This "depth of processing" continuum was applied to the results of thevocabulary study described next. Vocabulary Strategy Ratings by JapaneseSubjects A study was recently completed in Japan utilizingthe preceding vocabulary strategy list.Six hundred Japanese subjects, ranging from juniorhigh school students to adults,were asked to complete a survey asking them to consider eachstrategy, checking if they used it or not and whether they thought it helpful. They were also askedto rate the five most helpful strategies. Preliminary analysis of the data concerning the "Studying andRemembering the Word's Meaning Once it is Known" strategy group suggest the followingresults:

Strategies considered to be the most helpful: #1 Written repetition #2 Verbal repetition Others:Continue to study the word oftenover time Say the new word aloud when studying it Study the spelling of the word Take notes in class about new words Study the word's synonyms and antonyms Learn the new words in an idiom together at thesame time Study the way the word sounds

MARCH 1993 31 7 Use the new word in sentences

Strategies considered to be theleast helpful. Have teacher check word listsand flash card for correctness Use Cognates Associate the word to otherswhich are related to it Use the Keyword Approach Use physical action whenstudying words Associate the word with others inthe same topic Image the word form and itsspelling in your mind Make an image of the wordsmeaning Study the word's root; prefixes,and suffixes Use 'scales' to study gradableadjective sets Study words with agroup of students

From these lists, it seems thatmany of the highly regarded strategies fall the processing continuum, while at the 'superficial' end of most of the poorly regarded strategiesbelong at the more effective 'deeper processing' end of thecontinuum. There are several possible 'superficial processing' type explanations for this. First, strategies can be easier to understandand use. Learners may learn some 'simpler' learning strategies initiallyand never go on to more advanced learners may be unaware of the ones. Second, many existence of any alternative strategies.If this is so, teachers need to become more aware themselves ofthe possible vocabulary strategies options to teach their students. Third, available, and choose several some cultures favor certain strategies, perhapsbecause those strategies are stressed in the culture'sschool systems. Politzer and McGroaty Orientals prefer strategies involving (1985) found that rote memorization and language rulesas opposed to more communicative strategies. Insome cases the cultural preferencesmay be so strong that teachers may have to "camouflage" new strategies underthe guise of old familiar whatever the reason, these results ones (Sutter, 1987). For indicate that there is a need forteachers to help their students develop a greater range of vocabulary learning strategies, even if it requiresfirst convincing them of the utility and effectivenessof the 'deeper processing' type. The reader should not get the impression from this discussion thatall of the strategies at the 'superficial processing' end of thecontinuum are necessarily bad. For used to introduce learners example, word lists can be to a large number of words ina short period of time. However, it is unlikely that they can lead topermanent learning by themselves. Some to be necessary to stabilize the 'deeper' processing is likely knowledge and make it available foruse in real time. A combination of strategies, beginning withmore superficial ones and leading to deeper best balance between speed of ones, may promote the learning and long term retention (Formore on this see Nation, 1990).

Language teachers will surelybe served by havinga comprehensive list of possible vocabulary learning strategies to consult when teaching. If the strategieson such a list could be ranked in principled way for effectiveness, some it would be all themore helpful. The work reported in this is just a fledgling step in that paper direction, but it can point to thetype of research that needs to be done in order to give teacherssome guidance when they are trying to show themselves learn vocabulary. their students how to help REFERENCES

Ahmed, M 0. 1989 Vocabulary Learning Strategies. In P. Meara (Ed ) Beyond WordsBritish As- sociation for Applied Linguistics Bialystok, E. 1981. The Role of Conscious Strategies in Second Language Proficiency. Modern Language Journal 65. Cook, L.K. and Mayer, R.E. 1983. Reading Strategies Training for Meaningful Learning from Prose. In M. Pressley and j. Levin (Eds.) Cognitive Strategy Research. Springer Verlag. Nation, P. 1990. Teaching and Learning Vocabulary. Newbury House. O'Malley, J.M. and Chamot, A.U. 1990. Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge University Press. Oxford, R. 1986. Second Language Learning Strategies: Current Research and Implications for Practice. ERIC. . Oxford,.R. 1989. Use of Language Learning Strategies: A Synthesis of Studies with Implications for Strategy Training. Systenz 17,2. Politzer, R.L. and McGroaty, M. 1985. An Exploratory Study of Learning Behaviors and their Relationship to Gains in Linguistic and Communicative Competence. TESOL Quarterly 19,1. Smith, F. 1971. Understanding Reading. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. Sutter, W. 1987. Learning Styles in Adult Refugees in North Jutland. Denmark: County of North Jut- land. Cited in Oxford, 1989 Zimmerman, B. and Pons, M.M. 1986. Development of a Structured Interview for Assessing Student Use of Self-regulated Learning Strategies. American Educational Research journal 23.

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