-The Power of the Mother

The Violent Nurturer in Indian Mythology and Commercial Cinema

By Jawahara K. Saidullah

L'article etablit un lien entre les re­ Commercial Indian cinema ligions anciennes et les images cinematographiques modernes de Indian fIlms descended from folk l' educateur violent. La femme theatre, travelling troupes perfonn­ traditionnelle hindoue est le symbole ing religious and mythological plays de l'energie et de la puissance a in villages and towns. Naturalism in l'etat pur, « Shakti » qui detruit les acting and staging was impossible. mauvais esprits pour proteger ses The voice had to be raised to be proches et les eduque parle biais de heard, the gesture grand to be seen. ses actes de violence. Cette femme This style was transferred directly to physiquement forte est reapparue film, where it was modified only dans les films commerciaux en Inde marginally. Religiousandmythologi­ remplal;ant ainsi l'heroi"ne passive. cal melodrama formed cinematic animee d'un esprit de sacrifice. La themes. The most striking contribu­ nouvellefemmefait ce que peutfaire tion of folk theatre was in the fre­ tout heros male. sinon mieux. On quent interpolation of songs and l'appelle souvent la deesse « » dances in Indian fIlms. (Das Gupta, qui venge toute injustice contre sa 1989) On July 7, 1896, a Times of personne, safamilieetsa collectivite. India advertisement invited Bombay residents to witness "the marvel of I grew up in India, amidst giant cin­ the century, the wonderofthe world." ema posters and street corners blar­ This was the first fIlm show in India: ing popular film music. In the morn­ the cinematography of the Lumiere ing, the temple bells clang and the brothers of France. Attracted to the pundits chant, as they worship the revolutionary potential of this mass statuesofthe female goddess mother: thedestroyerandrejuvenator medium, D.G. Phalkereleasedthefirst Indian feature fIlm, Rajah ofthe universe. Evenasdevotees throng tothe templesto worship Harishchandra, in 1913. (Bamouw and Krishnaswamy ) In the mother, cinema addicts queue up to box offices to watch 1931, Alam Ara. the first film with sound made by A.M. lrani, celluloid dreams unfold. This marriage of religion and fIlm is a was released. Both these films used mythological melodrama to palpable reality in India. Mythology and religion fonn strong become popular. thematic bases for Indian films. Even when the fIlms are not India's commercial cinema developed under British colonial­ mythological as such, religious imagery often appears in them. It ism, the only national cinema to do so. It emerged in its classic is particularly interesting that the images ofwomen portrayed in fonn as the "all talking, all singing, all dancing Bombay talkie." religious texts are transferred to the cinema screen. Women are Cinema is one oflndia's ten largest industries. About two films worshipped as powerfulgoddessescarved in stone while they are are made every day. (Binford) Nine hundred odd films are stereotyped as silent and self-sacrificing. Then a new woman produced annually by this prolific industry. I refer specifically to invaded the Indian screen. Butwas ita new image ora reinterpre­ "commercial" cinema as distinct from the "realistic" cinema tation ofthe old? The violent nurturer, the mother goddess ofthe which is often referred to as parallel, art, and new cinema. Art Indian screen is interesting, cathartic, and offers a sharp contrast fIlmmakers are linked by their rejection of commercial cinema to her predecessor. values, themes, and stylistic approaches.

VOLUME 13, NUMBER 1 37 Audiences for commercial Indian cin­ able shackles on Indian women for count­ Rahman describes the traditional fe­ ema do not complain if the plots are too less succeeding generations.... Manu for male characters in Indian films as either improbable or too fantastic. Perhaps that the first time legally assigned to woman "the simple village girl who was content is what they pay for. a temporary escape her defmite place in the scale ofsociety." dancing around mustard fields with the into a fantasy world. far removed from (Monier-Williams) poetry spouting hero," or the "devoted reality. Economist Tariq Ali (Das Gupta However. even Manu elevated the sta­ city woman who was willing to sacrifice and Hoberman) says that these "escapist tus ofwoman as mother. He wrote that a everything for her beloved." For centu­ extravaganzas" are reminiscent of the teacher "is ten times more venerable than ries. women had been told that their Hollywood musicals during the depres­ a sub teacher. the father a hundred times strength lay in their quiet servitude. their sion. The difference is that in India. there more than the teacher. but the mother a self sacrifice and their suffering. The im­ is an almost permanent depression. and thousand times more than the father." age ofa woman as a physically dominant thus an unending stream of such fIlms is (Das) Needless to say, a woman who is being, violent and revengeful, was un­ produced. not a mother is worthless. and the only common. For centuries, people wor­ Das Gupta and Hoberman summarized way to gain societal status is to become a shipped the goddess Kali in all her awe­ the basic ingredients of a commercial mother. The biological mother is never­ some power. while Indian women stood Indian fIlm: dances and songs. cabarets theless related to the great cosmic mother, on the fringes of society. and car chases. rape and mother worship. the creator and rejuvenator of the uni­ fights and love scenes (inevitably played verse. as we shall read later. The violent nurturer: the mother in the copious lap ofnature), high pitched For decades. commercial Indian cin­ goddess melodrama with outrageous finales. Thin ema has prescribed the roles of the ideal story lines and sturdy actors connect all woman as the self-sacrificing. all-forgiv- India has recently generated a spate of the dots. A typical advertisement for a woman-oriented fIlms with a violent. al­ commercial Indian fIlm reads. "Aglossy. most bloodthirsty. avenging woman as spectacular human drama with tantaliz­ the central focus. Hers is not a senseless ing songs. nerve-splitting fights. superb violence: violencesurfaceswhen herloved suspense and heartbreaking subtle senti­ For centuries ones are threatened. She is a ferocious ments." (Binford) nurturer who does not let anyone harm people worshipped those she loves. This woman is simply the Female representations the goddess Kali reinterpretation of ancient goddess im­ ages of women. The mother goddess is Mythology and religion have formed in all her awesome perceived as the creator of the universe. the themes both directly and insidiously power while Indian She is the primal energy that created the for Indian films. Since religious and women stood on the universe. Baig quotes a famous tantric mythological themes have been trans­ prayer. "Only when I am conjoined with ported to the silver screen. traditional fe­ fringes ofsociety. thee, 0 Shakti, have I the power to be male representations persist. The mother absolute Lord. otherwise God would not has been venerated in Hindu tradition. In even be able to move....'· Shakti means 1928. Ghosha wrote that the essence of power, which is female energy in its pur­ womanhood lies in motherhood. The tra­ est form. The believed in the en­ ditional Indo-Aryan attitude is that ofMa ingmartyr. The 'cryingmother' and 'dewy ergy of the female. Shakti exists to give or mother. even for her husband. "The eyed heroine' were common depictions power to the male gods in the guise of idea of all encompassing motherhood as (Das Gupta. 1985). The message for their female consorts. However, her role the highest principle was fmnly accepted woman in Indian films is that the pinnacle is enabling. not merely supportive. in Vedic times. transmitted to all other of her ambition is marriage. If she has (Robinson) The numerous female con­ periodsandhas throughoutallages formed different desires. ifshedeviates from it, it sorts are manifested in the preeminent the basis of the exceptional degree of is seen as a betrayal ofher biological and goddess herself. "the . as primary reverence paid to the mother." (Das) functional role and she pays for it in embodiment ofshakti." Ancientpre-Ary­ Ancient Indian religion was strangely humiliation and defeat. (Vasudeva and ans (2,000 RC. and before) also wor­ liberal in its treatment of women. Only Langlet) Even if the heroine's husband shipped a female goddess. That is. "Life later. as civilization developed. did the mistreats her or has extra-marital affairs. came from food. Food came from soil. Manusmriti appear to crystallize the fate it is her duty to forgive him, for he is her man camefrom woman. woman gave life. ofIndian womanhood into subordination. 'lord.' In fIlms like Pati Parmeshwar It is not astonishing that God was a Manu. the author of Manusmriti wrote (Husband is God. 1988). Naseeb Apna woman." (Baig) down edicts of behaviour for all classes Apna (Different Destinies. 1986). and All the independent. lower goddesses and types of people. He was largely re­ Daasi (Female Slave. 1981). the martyred are fused into her persona. In her most sponsible for the diminished social status traditional wife who wins her man from violent form, she is Kali-the demon of women. "Manu's code...has had the the 'bad'. modern. ambitious woman is slayer. who rides a tiger. has eight arms. most negative effects. forging unbreak- celebrated. wears a necklace ofskulls. and holds aloft

38 CANADIAN WOMAN STUDIES/LES CAHIERS DE LA FEMME the bloodied head ofa slain demon. In her fer. Everybody now wants the heroine to Robin Hood, who beats up men. Her vil­ benevolent form, the goddess is , behave like Jhansi ki Rani on the screen." lage is often raided by the bandit, Uma, and . When she becomes a de­ The lastreference is to the youngqueenof Changeza. She antagonizes one of his stroyer and summons all her powers and Jhansi, one of the leaders of the Indian followers. Toteachhera lesson,Changeza the violent forces ofnature, she is referred mutiny of1857. Sherode to battleagainst rapes her younger sister on her wedding to by many names. Some of these are the British and was killed. Women, once day (she commits suicide) and brutally , Bhavani, Bhairavi, Amba, symbols for peace and silent suffering on murders her brother-in-law. Bijli vows to ,andChandiMahatmya(Spratt). screen, now portray images of destruc­ avenge them and challenges him to a Whichever form she takes she is pure tion. The new violent goddess revels in fight. She destroys his hideout and kills Shakti (power). directphysical violence. In Pratighat, the him singlehandedly. Sprattdescribesthe violentmothergod­ female lead hacks the villain to death in a Sherni (Lioness) dess further. She fights evil on behalf of public political meeting; her revenge is Durgais a young village woman whose the gods. She uses many weapons, includ­ more satisfying because of the extreme family is massacred and she herself is ing her teeth, while blood flows unceas­ violence. (Rahman). nearly raped by the village landlord. She ingly."Sheis alternately hideous andbeau­ manages to escape to herfather. Her fami­ tiful, and alternately terrifying and lov­ The movies ly's last moments haunt her, and she leads ing." She is again described as having a a band of bandits to avenge them and rid "hideous face, staring eyes, protruding Zakhmi Aurat (Wounded Woman) her village of the landlord's dominance. teeth and bloodstains, skulls, corpses, The heroine, Kiran, is a gutsy police Khoon Baha Ganga Mein (Blood flows snakes, etc." Herworshippers offerblood officer, impetuousandbrave. She israped into the Ganges) sacrifices. However, even in this form, by four men, butthey are acquitted due to Ganga is the central character of this she is loved. For her devotees, the mes­ insufficient evidence. Frustrated by the fIlm. Her mother is raped and killed, and sage is clear: she kills and destroys to judicial system, she organizes a group of her father murdered by the village land­ protect them and to usher in a new and women as rape vigilantes. They lure the lord. She is chased, but is rescued by a better world era. She is their mother who acquitted rapists, and a doctor in their gang ofbandits. She grows up to become wants only good for her children and who group castrates them. Kiran fmally con­ the leader of the gang. Her childhood is enraged when they are threatened. fesses to her crimes and her fiance prom­ sweetheart (also the landlord's son) is a Kali is not just a violent destroyer, she ises to wait for her ifshe serves time. The policeman on her trail. She takes revenge is called KaliMa (Kali the mother). She is film leaves her in court; the verdict is not on her enemies. In the end, she and her the slayer of demons and her role is to yet in. Presumably it is left to the audi­ lover are both killed. restore the social order. For her worship­ ence's discretion. Kahani Phoolvati Ki (The Story of pers, her children, she is merciful and Mera Shikaar (My Prey) Phoolvati) bountiful-a mother. She reserves her The central character is Bijli, a viva­ This is the largely fictionalized version terrifying wrath for the powers of evil. cious, talkative village woman. She is the ofa female bandit who terrorized villag­ Despite similarities with her husband, breadwinnerofherfamily, which consists ers in the early 80s. Phoolan was a poor , it is interesting that she is revered of her father and two younger sisters. woman ofa low caste. She was rejectedby as mother, but he is not addressed as Unlike hersisterwho dreams ofmarriage, her much older husband. On her return to father. Anotheranomalyis thatwhen Shiva Bijli sees herselfas a hard-fighting female her parents' village, she was gang-raped performs the dance of bysomemenofa high caste. death, tandavnritya, the She ran away to the ravines world comes to an end of Chambal, a common and is totally destroyed. hideout for bandits. There Kali, however does not she led a group ofbandits to destroy thewhole world; commit mass murders of only evil is destroyed. men of the same caste who Kali is a rejuvenating had raped her. In 1983, she force, while Shiva is surrenderedtothe policeand purely destructive. is currently in prison. Some movies of the Bhrashtachar (Corrup­ mid to late 80s have been tion) based on the Kali aspect The heroine, Bhavani, is of woman. Film direc­ a fiery journalistand female tor, Malhotra, notes that activist She works against "people, including a powerful politician, who women, don't want soft is very corrupt but has an characters; they don't excellent public image. He want to see women suf- A. Ramachandran had raped and murdered a

VOLUME 13, NUMBER 1 39 blind girl she had rescued from a brothel, purposeful revenge and is a driving force and in fact, as the only female images. The and Bhavani later discovers the politician in their lives. If a rape is the angry and traditional Hindi film heroine touts her had murdered her own father. He frames violent domination ofa woman by a man strengths as her capacity for love, self­ her for a murder when she writes against ormen, the woman'srevengealmostmim­ sacrifice, submissiveness, and her ability him, and uses his influencewith the police ics its violence and anger, but without the to forgive (usually her errant husband). and the judiciary to get her a death sen­ sexual connotations. This supports the The woman worships her husband as a tence. However, she is rescued by her contention that rape is an act ofviolence god and would not divorce him even ifhe boyfriend. Both go underground and sur­ and anger. What these militant women abused herandkeptmistresses. She would face while the politicianis making adirect carry with them to spur them to violence show her strength by worshipping him televised broadcastto his electorate. They is the pain, anger, humiliation, frustra­ still, and servinghim. Eventually he mends beat him up on camera, and make him tion, and helplessness ofthe primal act of his ways, and she welcomes him back. confess to his varied crimes of murder, rape. All the women are plagued by night­ In traditional films, the woman is re­ rape, corruption, flesh trade, etc. The fIlm marish visions ofthe rape (theirs orsome­ vered and referred to as the house goddess ends with a message that it is up to the one else's) and are obsessed with these of wealth and prosperity. Conversely, if people to pay the price for democracy and images. In the final showdown, they taunt misfortune strikes her home, she is blamed freedom by being vigilant. the rapist and remind him of their own for it The traditional 'strong woman' is helplessness when he begs for mercy. one who can withstand every ill-treat­ Common themes Socio-economicstatus: Exceptfor !Gran ment and misfortune, uncomplaining and (Zakhmi Aural) and Bhavani ready to forgive and forget. Gentle and nurturing: In most of these (Bhrashtachar), the female leads in these The new physically violent woman fIlms the female is a mother, central to the movies are of a low socio-economic sta­ rebels against injustice, ill-treatment, and tus. In the fITst part of the films, the cruelty. For her, to be passive in misfor­ women arehumbleandobsequious. When tune is to be weak; for her predecessor that confronted with evil, they beg for mercy, was strength. The new heroines are re­ and cry. Their poverty targets them for ferred to as the incarnation orpersonifica­ Kali is notjust a abuse at the hands of the rich who are tion ofDurga and Kali. Thereference is to violent destroyer. usually the villains. In villages, the rich the goddess ridding the earth ofall evil. villain is usually personified by the vil­ Other common references are to dan­ Her role is to lage landlord. He is the major landholder gerous and, ferocious animals. In Sherni, restore the and traditionally the villagers are his Durga's father appoints her leader of his bonded laborers. The landlords are por­ bandits on his death. He says,"Iam proud social order. trayed as debauched, corrupt, lustful, con­ that I am not leaving behind a weak:, She reserves niving, and greedy. In the city, the villain helpless woman; but among my trusty her wrath for the is rich and is often a powerful politician. followers I leave behind a lioness." The His power is undisputed and he com­ lioness kills anyone who threatens her powers ofevil. mands the corrupt administrative, judi­ loved ones. Another common analogy is cial, and police machinery to persecute the comparison of the heroine to a she­ the heroine. cobra. Cobras mate for life. Ifthe cobra is Death: This theme is notseen in Zakhmi killed, his mate goes to any lengths to story. She is not necessarily a biological Aural. In the otherfIlms, the violentdeaths avenge his death. mother, but usually her younger siblings of loved ones adds fITe to the quest for In folklore and common culture, are virtually her children, and she is the revenge. Orphaned and totally alone, the unbound hair also has a particular signifi­ primary bread-winner and care-taker of heroine becomes an outlaw and takes up cance. When the goddess Kali possessesa her family. Her parents, if alive, are old arms. This is the traditional, eternally person (usually a woman), her hair es­ and/orfeeble. She is extremely protective popular image ofthe 'desperado'.Itis, of capes the confmes ofa braid as she dances oftheir welfare. She protects not only her course, unusual that the central character in a frenzy. Women are often advised not family but also her village. She protects is female. She is fully aware ofher situa­ to visita Kali temple with unbound hair in other women from exploitation. In all tion. She knows she cannotreturn to soci­ order to avoid possession. In all the films, these fIlms, the women take on traditional ety. Her vengeance is the only reality in the women wear braids. When they em­ male roles in India, as well as those per­ her life. When she kills, she becomescold bark on their mission, their hair is always petuated in usual Indian fIlm fare. eyed, ruthless, and blood-thirsty. unbound. One interpretation ofthis would A better world: Though the initial mo­ be that they are freed from the conven­ tivation is a personal vendetta, the heroine A departure from tradition tions imposed on women to braid their ultimately works for the larger good. hair. By taking up weapons, they break: Rape: All the fIlms deal with rape, All these female characters are, of the traditional mould. Another interpreta­ whether it be the rape (attempted or ac­ course, diametrically opposed to the tra­ tion would be that they are possessed by tual) of the heroine or her loved ones. It ditional perfect wife or perfect mother, the goddess Kali. When Kali goes into spurs the central female character toward who have been epitomized as the ideal, battle, her hair is always unbound.

40 CANADIAN WOMAN STUDIES/LES CAHIERS DE LA FEMME The central characters are all conspicu­ as to diminish the latter's status further. nalism andMass Communication in Bos­ ous by the similarity of their attire after Even though they are more real in their ton,1991. their transformation into warriors. In ad­ emotional reactions to persecution than dition to unbound hair, they dressin black, their silent suffering predecessors, they References usually leather and ride a white horse. are far removed from most women. Kali is usually shown as a dark-skinned Usually the women in these fIlms are Baig, T.A. India's Woman Power. New deity, dressed in dark and somber colors. played by actresses who have a certain Delhi: S. Chand Co., 1976. Perhaps the attire was derived from that box-office draw. Clearly, the decision to Barnouw, E. and Krishnaswamy, S. In­ source. The white horse could be a west­ make these fIlms was determined by fi­ dian Film. New York: Oxford Univer­ ern derivative. From Phantom to Zorro to nances. They are formulaic films which sity Press, 1980. the LoneRanger, the whitehorse seems to ensure that''Thecash registers do not stop Binford, M.R. The Two CinemasofIndia: represent a crusader for justice in western ringing."(Rahman) ThesefIlms havebeen Film and Politics in the Third World. legend. monetary successes, which is not surpris­ Brooklyn, New York: Autonomedia, The males in these films have changed ing because fantasy and escapism rule the Media, Inc., 1987. dramatically from their traditional coun­ Indian film scene. However, it is hearten­ Das, EM. Purdah, The Status ofIndian terparts. They do not tell the woman to ing that the strong woman genre has not Women. New York: Vanguard Press, behave like a 'virtuous woman', as their flopped. One prominent film actress, Inc., 1932. predecessors would have done. They do Rekha, applauds this genre, "Times have Das Gupta, C. "Indian Cinema: Dynam­ not trivialize the woman's revenge or her changed, thank God...For the first time ics of Old and New." India 2000: The feelings in any way. The man-woman the heroine hasemergedasa strong, tough Next Fifteen Years. J.R. Roach Ed. relationship has changed in these films. woman willing to fight back, reflecting Delhi, India: The Riverdale Co. Inc., The woman's mission is paramountin her the Indian woman of today." 1985. life, andnoteven herlovealtersthat. They It is obvious that the solutions offered -. "Seeing and Believing, Science and meet on equal terms. He is no longer her in these films are unrealistic and imprac­ Mythology." Film Quarterly Journal. protector, because she can do that herself. tical. Yet there is a definite reference to (Summer 1989): pp 12-8. In older films-and some contemporary the society. These fIlms highlight the lack -. & Hoberman, J. "Pols ofIndia." Film ones-the hero would beat up the bad of law and order, and the corruption in Quarterly Journal (May-June 1987): guys while the heroine would stand and Indiatoday. Theviolenceprovides a wish­ pp 20-23. look on proudly, as 'her man' proved ful, almost vicarious solution to prob­ Ghosha,J.Hindu Women ofIndia. Delhi: himselfto her. In all the films I reviewed, lems. This may explain the success of Bimla Publishing House, 1928. men stand around while the female pro­ these films. The weak groups of society, Monier-Williams, Sir. Brahmanism and tagonist indulges in physical violence. the poor and the low castes feel empow­ ; or, the Religious Thought in The women are not presented as extraor­ ered along with the militant woman on India. London: Murray, 1887. dinary beings. Despite the references to screen, herselfa memberofa weaksocietal Rahman, M. "Women strike back."India the goddess Durga, the women are por­ order as a female. Today. 15 July 1988. pp 80-82. trayedascommonpeople, whosnapwhen It is ironic that the land that worships Robinson, S.P. "Hindu Paradigms of they are persecuted. In this, they are more strong mother images and cheers their Women: Images and Values." Women, human than their traditional counterparts, prototypes on screen should bum women ReligionandSocialChange. New York: whose patience and pain thresholds for dowry, and debase them in countless State University of New York Press, seemed too high to be true. other ways. Perhaps, however, the break­ 1985. ing ofthe traditional mouldonscreen may Spratt,P. Hindu Culture andPersonality; A Short Critique herald the development ofmore complex A Psychoanalytic Study. Bombay, In­ female characters in Indian films. Cer­ dia: Manaktalas, 1966. Clearly this genreofmovies has broken tainly one message emerges. Do not take Vasudeva, A. & Langlet, P. Indian Cin­ the traditional submissive, self-sacrific­ woman for granted: there is only so much ema Superbazar. Delhi, India: ing, and placid mould. However, itis clear she will endure. Vasudeva, 1983. that these new images are also stereotypi­ cal. Despite their cathartic value for sup­ Jawahara Saidullah has a BA. in Eco­ pressed women and their entertainment nomics and Political Science from an value, it is doubtful that these movies will Indian university. She hasjust completed change popular perceptions of women. It an MA. in Communications at the Uni­ is clearthatthese women area new typeof versity of Kentucky where her areas of ideal, as much as their self-sacrificing, interest were Intercultural Studies and submissive predecessors were. That as­ Women's Studies. She isactive inboth the pect alone ensures that they are not real women's movement and the environmen­ women. They are goddesses incarnate, tal movement. This article isderivedfrom ideal and worshippable, but so far re­ a paper that was originally presented at moved from the flesh and blood woman, the Associationforthe EducationofJour-

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