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Behavioural, Convergent and Ontogenetic Evidence for Adaptive Behavioural Manipulation in Mermithid Infected Hosts

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Behavioural, Convergent and Ontogenetic Evidence for Adaptive Behavioural Manipulation in Mermithid Infected Hosts BEHAVIOURAL, CONVERGENT AND ONTOGENETIC EVIDENCE FOR ADAPTIVE BEHAVIOURAL MANIPULATION IN MERMITHID INFECTED HOSTS By Ryan E. H. Herbison A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Masters of Science Department of Zoology University of Otago Dunedin, New Zealand December 2018 i ABSTRACT Parasite fitness is often tied closely to host behaviour, especially when transition to a definitive host or egression in a particular environment is involved. Thus natural selection has driven many parasites to control host behaviour to varying extent. How parasites alter and/or create behaviour is a fascinating question from neuroethological and physiological perspectives, and much could be gained from a complete answer. A review of the literature (chapter 2) reveals this untapped potential is offset by the difficulty involved in disentangling the host’s response to infection from the parasite’s active manipulation of behaviour. Establishing causation between the parasite and observed changes in host physiology, via the identification of manipulative factors, is the next step forward. Yet, moving from correlation to causation is a difficult step to take. Convergent and ontogenetic evidence is very rare in the literature, and while still correlational, it can provide strong evidence for adaptive host manipulation. Hairworms (phylum Nematomorpha) and mermithids (phylum Nematoda) infecting arthropods induce hydrophilia in their hosts, forcing them to water, which is essential for the worms’ survival after egression. The mechanisms behind this behavioural change have been investigated in hairworms, but not in mermithids. Using a water choice behavioural test (chapter 3) followed by a proteomic investigation (chapter 4) into the brains of Forficula auricularia (earwig) and Bellorchestia quoyana (sandhopper), infected with the mermithids Mermis nigrescens and Thaumamermis zealandica respectively, evidence for adaptive manipulation was contrasted against proteomic results from hairworm-infected hosts. ii In the behavioural test, earwigs infected by mature worms drowned themselves in water significantly more frequently than uninfected individuals or those harbouring small worms; no such pattern was found for sandhoppers. Across both hosts (and hairworm-infected hosts, from earlier studies), the general function of regulated proteins was conserved. Proteins involved in energy generation/mobilization were up/down regulated across sandhoppers and earwigs, corroborating reports of erratic/hyperactive behaviour in infected hosts, which may be involved in getting to water. Mtpalpha, a key component in energy mobilization, was regulated across all hosts suggesting it may be a crucial factor in inducing hyperactivity. Regulated proteins involved in axon/dendrite and synapse modulation were also common to all hosts, suggesting neuronal manipulation is involved in hydrophilia. Clathrin, a fundamental component of neurotransmitter release, was regulated across all infected hosts (like Mtpalpha), also suggesting neuronal manipulation. Furthermore, down-regulation of CamKII and associated proteins suggest manipulation of memory also participates in the behavioural shift. Only a subset of all neuron-related proteins were found in sandhoppers infected with long worms; combined with results of the behavioural tests, this suggests Thaumamermis zealandica may have lost this component of the hydrophilic manipulation. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Firstly, and most importantly, thank you to my supervisor Robert Poulin for his calm and patient mentorship. Always willing to engage in the discussion of any idea, crazy or not. To Torsten Kleffman, for his scientific rigour and his mastery of proteomics. Mike Algie was very helpful with the proteomics aspect of this thesis also, demonstrating patience and kindness beyond what would be expected. To Steve Evans, always willing to help, and ready to teach. His knowledge and assistance in earwig capture in large numbers was fundamental to this thesis. Stu Borland was also critical in helping source/construct the behavioural test arenas used in chapter 3, and went above and beyond. Nicky Mchugh was also a big help with the freeze-drying of host brains. Her great sense of humor didn’t hurt either. Past specific contributions to this thesis, from a support perspective, Fátima Jorge has been a blessing. This thesis would be a shadow of what is seen here if not for her support. Anyone under her mentorship in the future should count his or her lucky stars. To my flatmates and good friends: Jerusha Benett, Imogen Foote, Matt Haywood (Hayward) and Jakeb Peterson. They have seen me at likely my worst, and are still my close friends. For that I am humbled. Finally to my family whose support has always been there if needed, and that is all anyone could ask for. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract .................................................................................................................................. ii Acknowledgements .......................................................................................................... iv Table of contents ................................................................................................................. v Chapter 1: Introduction.................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Setting the stage for mind control .................................................................................... 2 1.1 The Problem ............................................................................................................................. 3 1.3 Asking the right questions .................................................................................................. 6 1.4 The right parasites for the job ........................................................................................... 9 1.5 General approach ................................................................................................................ 14 1.6 Thesis structure, aims and hypotheses ....................................................................... 16 Chapter 2: Lessons in Mind Control:Trends in Research on the Molecular Mechanisms Behind Parasite-Host Behavioural Manipulation* ..................... 18 2.2 Introduction........................................................................................................................... 19 2.3 Immunological Host Manipulation ............................................................................... 21 2.3.1 Immunological Manipulation of Vertebrates .................................................................. 21 2.3.2 Immunological Manipulation of Invertebrates .............................................................. 25 2.3.3 Tumor Necrosis Factor Family: A Key Player in Immunological Manipulation? ......................................................................................................................................................................... 29 2.4 Proteomic and Genomic Host Manipulation.............................................................. 30 2.4.1 Proteomic Manipulation ........................................................................................................... 30 2.4.2 Genomic Manipulation .............................................................................................................. 33 2.4.3 Integrating Immune and Proteomic/Genomic Pathways .......................................... 37 2.5 Neuropharmacological Host Manipulation ................................................................ 37 2.5.1 Monoamines and Hormones ................................................................................................... 37 2.5.2 Challenges in Assessing Neurochemical Behavioral Manipulation ....................... 39 2.6 Symbiont-Mediated Manipulation ................................................................................ 43 2.6.1 Viruses as Vectors for Behavioral Manipulation ........................................................... 43 2.6.2 Symbiogenesis: A Potential Evolutionary Outcome of Symbiont-Mediated Manipulation ............................................................................................................................................. 44 2.7 Trends in Host Manipulation Research ....................................................................... 45 2.7.1 The Imbalance between Identification and Mechanistic Studies ........................... 45 2.7.2 Specializing in a Sea of Host-Parasite Systems ............................................................... 47 2.7.3 Fully Realizing a Multi-Dimensional Phenomenon ...................................................... 49 2.7.4 Redefining the Term Proximate in the Host Manipulation Literature ................. 51 2.8 Concluding Remarks........................................................................................................... 54 Chapter 3: Comparative experimental test of hydrophilia in two mermithid-host systems ................................................................................................ 56 3.2 Introduction........................................................................................................................... 57 3.2.1 Hairworm vs mermithid life cycle and host ecology.................................................... 57 3.2.2 Infected sandhopper vs. earwig life-cycle and ecology..............................................
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