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Psychological Management of Chronic Pain

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Psychological Management of Chronic Pain Top six medical problems associated with Chronic Pain Degenerative disc – 13.10% Fibromyalgia – 19.70% Based on: Cognitive Therapy for Chronic Pain Beverly E. Thorn, Ph.D. (2004). Osteoarthritis – 21.30% The Pain Survival Guide; How to Reclaim Your Life Dennis Turk, Ph.D. & Fritz Winter, Ph.D. (2006). Managing Pain Before It Manages You; Revised Edition Margaret A. Caudill, MD, Ph.D. (2002). Neck pain – 26.70% Comorbidity of Chronic Pain and Mental Health Disorders: The Biopsychosocial Perspective Robert J. Gatchel, Ph.D. (2004). Psychological Approaches to Pain Management; A Practitioner’s Handbook Headaches – 33.30% Second Edition Dennis C. Turk, Ph.D. & Robert J. Gatchel, Ph.D. (2002). Chronic Pain in America: Consequences, Addiction and Treatment Back pain – 55.90% Betty Ford Center, (2014). DSM-V; Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders; Fifth Edition American Psychiatric Association, (2013). taken from: Betty Ford Center (2014) – National U.S. survey U.S. Department of Health and Human Services National Institute of Mental Health Science Writing, Press & Dissemination Branch of chronic pain patients, ages 18-65. Understanding Pain The Biopsychosocial Perspective Various meanings of pain: At the time of the Renaissance, scientific Biologically – Pain is a signal that the body has been harmed. knowledge increased in anatomy, physiology, and Psychologically – Pain is experienced as emotional suffering. biology, and a Biomedical Reductionism viewpoint was adapted. Behaviorally – Pain alters the way a person moves and acts. Cognitively – Pain calls for thinking about its meaning, its cause, and This dualistic perspective developed from the possible remedies. premise that mind and body function separately Spiritually – Pain is a reminder of human mortality. and independently (somatogenic versus Culturally – Pain has been used to test people’s fortitude, or to force psychogenic). their submission. The Biomedical Reductionism model dominated In summary: Pain is a very complex process and people’s medicine until quite recently, strongly influencing perceptions can alter their pain experience. the understanding of the relationship between pain and mental health. The Biopsychosocial Perspective The Biopsychosocial Perspective Research indicates that physical and psychological In (1965), Melzack and Wall introduced the Gate symptoms increase together. Control Theory of Pain, a theory that began to emphasize the potentially significant role that Other studies have shown that patients with depression or psychosocial factors play in the perception of pain. anxiety have more physical symptoms, and as physical Gate Control Theory included psychological symptoms increase, so does the likelihood of an factors as integral aspects of pain experience. anxiety/depressive disorder. Pain is now seen as a complex set of phenomena In one larger study in 2001, 22% of patients who versus a specific, discrete entity. reported persistent pain for longer than 6 months, there During the 1970s and 1980s, Engel introduced the was a fourfold increase in associated anxiety and depressive Biopsychosocial perspective in relation to pain disorders. medicine. 1 The Biopsychosocial Perspective The Biopsychosocial Perspective More recently (1999) Melzack expanded the GCT to Neuromatrix theory contends that prior stressors or include Selye’s (1950) theory of stress: Neuromatrix concomitant current stress may explain the variations Theory among individuals in what objectively appears to be similar Injury = alteration/disruption of body’s homeostatic physical pathology. regulation = the body’s normal state is stressed = this Thus, the theory incorporates the pain sufferer’s prior initiates a complex reaction of neural, hormonal, and learning history as forming the neuromatrix by influencing behavioral mechanisms to restore homeostasis. cognitive and interpretive processes, as well as influencing Selye and Melzack hypothesized that prolonged stress and individual physiological and behavioral response patterns. ongoing efforts to restore homeostasis could suppress the immune system as well as activate the limbic system; which Predispositional factors interact with an acute stressor has an important role in emotional, motivational, and (pain) – resulting in multivariable individual responses. cognitive processes. The Biopsychosocial Perspective The Biopsychosocial Perspective Disease versus Illness Disease versus Illness Disease is defined by Turk and Monarch (2002), as “an “ To heal does not necessarily imply to cure. It can simply objective biological event” involving the disruption of mean helping to achieve a way of life compatible with their specific body structures or organ systems caused by either individual aspirations – to restore their freedom to make anatomical, pathological, or physiological changes. choices - even in the presence of continuing disease”. Illness, on the other hand, is defined as a “subjective (Dubos, 1978). experience or self-attribution” that a disease is present. Biopsychosocial model focuses on both disease and illness, Illness refers to how a sick individual (and his/her family) with the latter being seen as a complex interaction of lives with and responds to, symptoms and disability. biological, psychological, and social factors. The Biopsychosocial Perspective The Biopsychosocial Perspective In the past, organic pain was viewed as different from Pain: the subjective perception that is the result of the psychogenic pain. transduction, transmission, and modulation of sensory Psychogenic pain was considered psychologically caused input. and not “real” pain, as no specific organic basis could be Nociception: Involves the stimulation of nerves that convey found. information about tissue damage to the brain. With the DSM-IV (1994), psychogenic pain was no longer Suffering: Emotional responses that are triggered by listed as a diagnostic entity. nociception or some aversive event associated with it, such Currently, DSM-V (2013) describes Somatic Symptom as fear or depression. Disorder With Predominant Pain (previously pain Pain behaviors: Things that individuals do (overt disorder). behaviors) when they are suffering due to pain. 2 The Biopsychosocial Perspective Psychological Factors Biopsychosocial/Interdisciplinary Approach to Treatment: Depression: Most common psychiatric diagnosis within Mental health needs of the patient are carefully evaluated, along with the chronic pain population. concurrent physical pain problems. Patients with chronic pain are at increased risk for: depression, suicide, Due to ongoing, sometimes progressive and consistent anxiety disorders, and sleep disturbances. chronic pain experience, an increase in thoughts of suicide As pain becomes more chronic, emotional factors take on an increasingly as a means to ending one’s suffering may appear to be a dominant role in maintaining dysfunction and suffering. viable solution. Affective disorders, anxiety disorders, and substance abuse disorders are the three most common psychiatric concomitant disorders associated Turk & Colleagues (2000)- Looked at pain patients who with chronic pain. were not as depressed: patients who believed they could Untreated Posttraumatic Stress Disorder is specifically related to yet function and who felt a sense of control in spite of pain chronic physical and other mental health problems. had less depression, or did not experience depression. Underlying Personality Disorders may be a strong influencing factor. Psychological Factors Psychological Factors Depression: Studies have shown that people with severe Anxiety: A normal reaction to stress, perceived threat, or depression feel more intense pain (NIMH). to experiencing an adverse situation. Individuals with depression have higher levels of cytokines Chronic pain is a stressor in itself: – proteins that send messages to cells that influence how Worry that chronic symptoms signal serious or disabling the immune system responds to infection and disease; disease. including the strength and length of the response. Feelings of losing control over one’s health or life. Cytokines may promote inflammation (the body’s response May adversely affect interpersonal interaction with friends to injury or infection) – which may, in turn, trigger pain. and family. Recent studies hypothesize that inflammation may be a May impact work productivity and general quality of life. link between depression and illnesses that often occur with May become so distressing that it keeps people from doing depression. the things they want to do or need to do. Psychological Factors Psychological Factors Anxiety: Pain-related fear and ongoing concerns about Post-traumatic Stress Disorder: Some more harm/avoidance appear to increase physical symptoms. current research shows the prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder is higher among chronic pain patients (as Anxiety is an affective state that is strongly influenced by high as 35%) versus the general population (3.5%). appraisal (cognitive and interpretive) processes: fear of With PTSD: The person becomes both emotionally and pain and anticipation of intense pain are not driven solely physically distressed when reminded of, or when thinking by the actual sensory perception of pain. This can be about the traumatic experience. There is increased anxiety- powerful negative reinforcement for consistent avoidance sensitivity: the fear of arousal-related sensations due to behaviors and
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