The picturesque and the homogenisation of Empire Author(s): Jeffrey Auerbach Source: The British Art Journal, Vol. 5, No. 1 (Spring/Summer 2004), pp. 47-54 Published by: The British Art Journal Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41614516 . Accessed: 12/09/2014 11:57

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The and the of picturesque homogenisation Empire

JeffreyAuerbach

is morethan a centurysince JR Seeley remarked in The Expansionof England (1883) thatthe BritishEmpire It developedin 'a fitof absence of mind'.1The reasonsfor and motivesunderlying its expansion,whether political, diplomatic,economic, social, intellectual, or religious,are fairlywell known,however much theycontinue to be debated.2In recentyears scholars have also begun to explore theimpact of the empire on theso-called metropolitan centre, especiallypolitically,3 and have even questionedthe very boundariesbetween metropole and periphery, particularly in the culturalrealm.4 Yet serious and fundamentalquestions remainabout the place of the empire in the British mind. How didBritons conceive of and represent their empire, especially duringthe 19th century, the period of its greatest expansion? Howdid they come to regardit as beingmore unified than it actuallywas at the administrative level?5 What, if anything, gave theempire coherence, especially in the half-century before the steamshipand theelectric telegraph? How did theindividual regionsof the empire - 'onecontinent, a hundred peninsulas, fivehundred promontories, a thousand lakes, two thousand rivers,ten thousand islands'6 - becomepart of an imperial whole?What were the vectorsof empire,and if,as many scholarshave recentlysuggested, they should not be characterizedinmetropolitan-peripheral terms, then on what basis? TheVictorian imagination constructed the British Empire througha variety of cultural forms. The most famous of these weresurely the maps of the world with the territories ofthe empire coloured pink, of which manyversions were publishedbeginning as earlyas Victoria'scoronation in 1837 to promoteimperial unity.7 In recentdecades scholars have amplydocumented the role of literature - especially fiction, 1 TahitiRevisited byWilliam Hodges, cl776. © National Maritime Museum, London. butalso children's and travel literature and political speeches MinistryofDefence ArtCollection - in constructingan imageof the people and regionsof the empireas backward,uncivilized, irrational, feminine, exotic, 2 CapeTown, from the Camp's Bay Road by George French Angas, from The Kaffirs Illustrated(1849) decayed,impoverished, and irredeemably 'other'.8 But most ofthe literary analysis that has followed in the wake of Said's path-breakingOrientalism (1978) has focused on theMiddle cultureis transformedinto something that is aesthetically East and India,and to a lesser degreeA fricaand the pleasingand morallysatisfying'.12 Others have focused on Caribbean,neglecting, most glaringly,the whitesettler the constructionof the (noble) savageand the mythof colonies,which were central components of the 19thcentury emptylands.13 But one limitationthat has affected almost all BritishEmpire. Photography, too, has received some ofthese studies, especially those preoccupied with imperial attention,for constructing an empirebuilt around racial lands(as opposedto the peopleof theempire), has been hierarchies,big-game hunting, pristine mountain views, and theirfocus on eithera singleartist or a singlegeographic efficientmilitary campaigns, but photographyadmittedly area.14Without a comparative lens, however, there can be no drew on earlier pictorial traditionsand imagery.9 comprehensiveanalysis of British imperial art, and therefore Advertisements,especially those produced under the no understandingof how thatempire was constructed directionof the state-supportedEmpire Marketing Board, visuallyand pictorially. also playeda role,largely by commodifyingthe empire, The argumentoffered here is thatthe picturesque,the thoughnot until the late 19th and early 20th centuries.10 literaryand visualaesthetic which developed during the Arttoo was criticalin helpingBritish men and women second halfof the 18th century,helped to unite and constructand visualizetheir empire.11 This was especially homogenizethe many regions of the British empire. For the trueof the picturesque idiom, which had a powerfulimpact betterpart of a centurybeginning around 1775, British artists on almostall subsequentforms of imperialrepresentation, who travelledthe empire frequentlyconstructed and includingphotography and advertisingfrom the mid-19th depictedwhat they saw through the lens of the picturesque, centuryonwards. Most of the recent studies in this area have presentingregions as diverseas SouthAfrica, India, Australia, emphasizedthe 'ideologicalwork' of paintings,through and the PacificIslands in remarkablysimilar ways. In the which'the appropriationof land, resources,labour, and processthey integrated the far-flung regions of the empire,

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providinga measureof coherenceand controlthat were WilliamHodges employed when he paintedTahiti Revisited clearlylacking on theground at a timewhen it couldtake (PI 1) around 1776, dividedthe landscapeinto three anywherefrom three to sixmonths to travelfrom London to distances:a darkenedand detailed foreground, a strongly lit Calcutta,a time lag which delayed the circulation ofnews and and deep-tonedmiddle-ground, and a hazybackground. made virtuallyimpossible the executionof government Featuressuch as treesand ruins were to be positionedso as policy.15Although there was, withinthe picturesque to createa balancedcomposition that provided a senseof framework,some freedomto captureand conveylocal bothharmony and variety,and to pushthe viewer's eye to differences,everywhere itwas deployed it served to conceal themiddle distance, as ina stageset. In a typicalpicturesque the hardshipsand beautifythe frequentlyunpleasant scenethere would be a windingriver; two coulisses , or side surroundingsthat characterized life in the imperialzone, screens,which are the opposite banks of the river and which, refractinglocal people and conditionsthrough a single, inconjunction with some hills, mark the perspective; a front formulaiclens.16 screenwhich points out the winding of the river; and a hazy, Moreover,in so faras the picturesquehad initiallybeen rugged,mountainous background. There was also an used to representthe English landscape, depicting imperial identifiablepicturesque tint, the softgolden light of the landscapesin thesesame termsmeant that British artists RomanCampagna, which, as a numberof scholarshave travellingoverseas ended up portrayingso-called peripheral suggested,artists transposedfirst onto the English territoriesas similar to, rather than different from, so-called landscape,and thencarried to thefurthest reaches of the metropolitanterritories. In short, the picturesque was about BritishEmpire.22 thecreation of sameness rather than difference, though this But while scholarsof the picturesquehave generally is a pointthat requires some clarificationas 'sameness' focusedon itsEnglish origins, in thewritings of Knight and carriesa numberof differentmeanings. In the late 18th Price,it is importantto note thatmany of its foremost century,Richard Payne Knight and UvedalePrice, two of the practitionersdrew their inspiration as much from the empire foundingtheoreticians of the picturesque,challenged the itselfas fromthe English Lake District. Hodges, for example, fashionablestyle of landscape gardening exemplified by the wasa studentof Richard Wilson, the Welsh landscape painter workof Capability Brown. They accused him of creating only who was stronglyinfluenced by Claude and one of the 'eternalsmoothness and sameness'in place of whichthey foundersof the Englishlandscape school, but insteadof wantedto see 'roughness',meaning features such as moss- completinghis art education with a GrandTour to Italy as his grownterraces and other intricatedetails to break up teacherhad done,he insteadbecame the draughtsman for otherwisesmooth vistas.17 Cookon hissecond voyage to the Pacific, and carried to India The analysisthat follows, however, uses samenessas an tropicalideas of light and vegetation, in additionto English antonymnot of roughness but of strangeness and difference, ideasabout picturesque composition.23 in orderto takeinto account a certaintension between the Thisexplains, in partat least,a numberof the tensions in picturesqueand the exotic. The artist's purpose in travelling to TahitiRevisited. 24 The paintingcertainly illustrates the India or the South Seas was oftento reporton their essentialelements of the picturesque,but it also reveals strangenessordifference, but as GilesTillotson has put it in his Hodges' struggleto combineclassical idealism, scientific book on WilliamHodges, 'the applicationof an English accuracy,and Bougainvillianexoticism. He has replaced aestheticto Indianscenes served rather to restrainthan to conventionalclassical motives - olivetrees, cypresses, and revealtheir exotic nature'.18 The imagesdiscussed here will Arcadianshepherdesses - withbreadfruits, coconut palms, also demonstratethat sameness can be used to describethe and Tahitiangirls bathing near the water.25 In theinterest of substantiveand stylisticsimilarities between paintings and empiricalrecording, he has paintedthe girlsnot as ideal aquatintsexecuted across the manyregions of the British beauties,but with characteristic tattoo markings.26 And, the Empire.To be sure,difference (whether in the linguistic or the clouds aroundthe mountaintopsreflect not an idealized postcolonialsense) and sameness(meaning identification, Italian countryside, but are the outcome of Hodges trying to mimicry,mimesis) are complementaryopposites and cannot renderfaithfully the atmosphereof the tropics.Hodges' trulybe divided.19But the analysis that follows is an attemptto opennessto new environmentsand cultures,his (modest movethe discussion of sameness and difference from its focus and occasional)questioning of the supremacyof classical on languageand people, which is nowwell-trodden terrain, to prototypes,and his concernfor scientific truth - itselfof thatof place.20This is especiallyimportant because the course a problematicand culture-boundnotion - were picturesquewas not simply carried from England overseas, but alwaysin conflictwith the Claudean, picturesque principles ratherdeveloped as muchoverseas as inBritain, and therefore demandedof the landscape artists of his day. But because he movednot unidirectionally from the imperialcentre to the had in effectcompleted his artisticeducation in theSouth periphery,but frequently around the periphery. This in turn Seas, he had some freedomfrom contemporary academic suggeststhe importance of envisioning the British Empire not practices,and was able to capturefor the firsttime the so muchas a 'spokedwheel' - imperialcentre and periphery brilliantlight of the tropics. What this painting reveals - and - butas a 'web'built around 'multiple centres' or 'bundlesof itneeds to be underscoredhere that this is obviouslynot a relationships',not leastof whichwere horizontallinkages preliminarysketch, but a finishedoil painting,and that betweencolonial sites, regions, experiences, and cultural Hodgeswas paid£350 per year by the admiralty to produce products.21 paintingsof his journeys that would promote commerce and empire- is Hodgesat onceboth capturing the light and feel picturesquetook as its startingpoint the idea that ofthe South Pacific and introducing an elementof exoticism, Thenature was imperfectand neededto be organizedwhen transformingTahiti into a sensualand evensexual paradise, itwas painted. Artists, frequently using a Claudeglass, a small but at the same time subsumingthat differenceand convexmirror that brought every scene within the compass exoticismbeneath the familiar structure of the picturesque. ofa picture,employed a formulaicmethod of composition A remarkablysimilar picturesque frame can be seen in thatwas based upon certain rules of classical proportion, and Cape Town,from the Camp's Bay Road (PI 2), by.George whichproduced images with an identifiablepicturesque FrenchAngas, an artist,geologist, and explorerwho later structure,composition, and tint.The picturesque,which becamedirector of the Government Museum in Sydney,and

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whopublished a bookcalled The Kaffirs Illustrated in 1849 fromwhich this plate is taken.As Angas himself wrote, 'Cape Town.. . is mostpicturesquely situated on theshores of Table Bay',and he claimedthat nothing could exceed the beauty of thescene, with 'bold, abrupt, rugged mountains, the fertile plainsand gardens,and the deep blue watersof the Bay'. Thisimage illustrates the picturesque use ofthe foreground, withthe steps and stone building and minuscule figure in the left-cornercreating an impressionof grandiosity; the slopes ofthe hills on eitherside thatserve as framingdevices and channelthe viewer's eye towards the middle-ground, which is Cape Town;the rich blue colour of the water, contrasting withthe greens and brownsof the landscape;and, in the distance,the faded grey mountains and the pale blue sky. The sceneis in perfectharmony, in termsof perspective, colour, and relationshipbetween the human world and thenatural world.Angas has also pointedlyincluded, in the foreground, 3 HobartTown, taken from the Garden where I lived by John Glover, 1832. Dixson a numberof kniphofia,more commonly known as red hot Galleries,State Library ofNew South Wales pokers,perennials which have strikingred flowersin the winterand are nativeto SouthAfrica, although they have 4 ViewofPort Bowen, Queensland byWilliam Westall, 1811. © National Maritime Museum,London. ofDefence ArtCollection sincebecame identified with English cottage gardens and Ministry have also been widelyimported to Australiaand New Zealand.They providejust a touch of local colour and underlyingAngas' work, was to present regions of the empire flavour,but without ever threateningthe formal as safeand familiar for potential European settlers.29 Inshort, requirementsofthe picturesque. withinthe picturesqueaesthetic the artof empireserved Hodges and Angasin these two paintingsused similar importantand changing strategic purposes. techniquesto turnthe distantand unfamiliarinto the knowableand thefamiliar, to makewhat was a foreignand almostidentical yet oddly mirrored version of Angas' fundamentally'different' landscape, with unusual flora and An paintingis HobartTown , taken from the garden where I fauna,appear remarkably 'similar' to thoselandscapes with lived(PI 3), byJohn Glover, who arrived in Tasmania in 1831 whichthey and theiraudiences would have been familiar. and executedthis work a yearlater. The paintingwas made Thereare, however,important differences between these in frontof Glover'sresidence, Stanwell Hall, a two-story two paintings.Hodges has presentedTahitian society as stonestructure that had been builtin 1828in theGeorgian pristineand untouchedby Europeans;nowhere is there style,featuring the plainand symmetricalfacade found in evidenceof Cook's visit.27 Angas has done theopposite: his manydomestic dwellings in Englandat thetime. The house paintingmaps the linear streets of Cape Town and the extent and gardenoverlook the town,a thrivingsettlement of of Europeansettlement. Angas' paintingalso lacks the 10,000that was thesecond largest in size in Australia,with elementsof the sublime,which are presentin Hodges' theDerwent River, named after its Derbyshire counterpart, mountains.Yet both theseimages reflect certain imperial beyond,dotted with sailing vessels. Also visible is a white intereststhat were pervasive at the time they were produced. church,with Government House just to its leftand the In the late 18thcentury the idea was to findpreviously Barracksto itsright, suggesting that beyond the boundaries undiscovered,Edenic lands that would stimulate interest in of personalproperty implied by the painting's subtitlç, the explorationand exploitation.28By the mid-19thcentury,as church,the executive, and the military remain the dominant emigrationand settlementbecame paramount,the idea, featuresof the colonial scene. Despite the obvious

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picturesquestructure and elements,its needs to be beautifulcountry nor curiosityfrom their singularity'. acknowledgedthat the painting is somethingof an anomaly Westall'spaintings are especiallyimportant because they are withinGlover's Australian oeuvre , arguablybeing concerned so clearlyat odds withhis writtendescriptions of the morewith informational topography than with picturesque landscape.In his 1811View of Port Bowen, Queensland (PI viewmaking.30 AsJohn McPhee has pointedout, behind the 4), he depictsthe triumvirateof Australian novelty - flora, screenof the artist's house and garden, the picture marks the fauna,and Aboriginal people - butthe jungle setting conflicts achievementsand expansion of the colonial settlement 'with withhis description of the coast as 'barren',and it is alsonot severalview-points incorporated... so thatthe whole of the in keepingwith his description of the general appearance of townmay be shown,and thelandscape rather flattened so Australiaas 'differinglittle from the northernparts of thatall streets and buildings could be included'.31 England'.38And so hereis an artistwho initially was unable to HobartTown also illustrates what Alfred Crosby has termed findthe picturesquein Australia,yet ended up depicting 'ecologicalimperialism', the processby whichEuropean Australiaas a landvery different from his native England, but carriedflora, fauna, and disease around the globe.32 doingso throughfamiliar picturesque devices. Regardless, Geraniumsand roses, paintedin meticulousdetail and whenhe accepteda commissionin 1809for a seriesof oil mentionedin Glover'sinscription, dominate the foreground. paintingsof Australian landscape views and exhibited them in Geraniumswere especially popular in the new colony because London,there was considerableinterest in hisdepictions of theycould thriveon verylittle water. Several varieties are placesthat had never before been seen by Europeans.39 indigenousto Australia, but others arrived on boardone of the Norwas Westall the only early artist who shared the view firstships from England in 1788,and additionalvarieties, that the Australianlandscape lacked beauty.40Thomas nativeto southernAfrica, were unwittinglycarried into Watling,a young painter from Dumfries who was transported Australiainseed formon thecoats of animals taken on board to Australiafor forgingBank of Scotlandguinea notes, shipsthat called at Cape Town.33 By the time Glover arrived in famouslydecried his inabilityto find or mould the whatwas then called Van Dieman's Land, settlers had already picturesquefrom the landscape of the penal colony Watling attemptedto cultivatevirtually all Europeanvegetables, and had been trainedin the picturesquemode of landscape theGlovers in factbrought with them a rangeof northern painting,and it was the absenceof typicallypicturesque hemisphericseedlings, although not all survivedthe journey features- old and gnarledtrees, winding mountain paths, Glover'sson recordedthat their tangerine saplings died en peasantcottages, and jagged and rocky cliffs - that depressed route, but enough of the plants survived that the Land Board, him.'The landscapepainter', he wroteto hisaunt, 'may in in endorsingGlover's application for a landgrant, recorded vainseek here that kind of beauty which arises from happy- approvinglythat 'he has importedEnglish song birdsand opposedoff-scapes. Bold rising hills, or azure distances would shrubs'.34In thispainting, therefore, the flowerscreate an be a kindof phenomena. The principaltraits of the country impressionof homeliness,familiarity, and connectedness are extensivewoods, spread over a littlevaried plain'.41 But betweenthe regionsof the BritishEmpire. Not onlydid Watlingknew well enough that picturesque paintings were immigrantsimport English vegetation in orderto acclimatize not simplytranscripts of naturebut arrangementsof it, theirenvironment; they refashioned that environment - both incorporatingmotifs culled from a numberof sketches. As he physicallyand representationally- in orderto resemblethe putit, 'I confessthat were I to selectand combine,I might typicallypicturesque English landscape.35 avoidthat sameness, and find engaging employment,' which Elsewherein this painting,however, Glover has made is exactlywhat he did withworks such as A directNorth concessionsto a vastlydifferent environment. He has toned general view of SydneyCove , whichBernard Smith has downthe rich greens of the English countryside, and has shown discussedin terms of its application of Gilpin's theories about the treesas distinctentities, befitting the somewhatsparse and drawingsof the LakeDistrict, but whichalso bearsa Australianforests, rather than as partof the dense foliage that strikingresemblance to Wilson'sRome from the Villa characterizedEuropean forests. And, the large areas of greenery Madama (1753).42 Wilson's painting, executed for the Earl of presentin Hobart Town constitute a marked departure from the Dartmouth,portrays one of the mostfamous prospects of closelypacked villages and towns of rural England.36 Ultimately Rome,the point from which pilgrims had traditionally caught thispainting is similarto Angas'Cape Townin termsof the theirfirst sight of the city, and thus was an appropriatemodel overallpicturesque structure ofthe work; the ways in which it forWatling, who had to do littlemore than substitute some reproducesfamiliar English elements, such as the Georgian newly-builtcottages for the famousloggia of the Villa StanwellHall, the roses and geraniums, and the river Derwent; Madama,designed by Raphaelfor Pope ClementVII, that and,simultaneously, itsincorporation ofindigenous Australian appearsin the lower-right corner of Wilson's work.43 characteristics,butsubsumed within the picturesque. Perhapsno artistpainted Australia to look more like Atleast in the earlyyears of the 19thcentury, however, Englandthan Conrad Martens, who arrivedin New South translatingthe Australianlandscape into the picturesque Walesin 1835after having sailed on theBeagle with Charles provedquite challenging, as it occasionallydid forGlover.37 Darwin.His Viewfrom Rose Bank (PI 5), paintedfor the WilliamWestall, who accompaniedthe mapmakerMatthew commoditiesmerchant Robert Campbell, shows a garden Flinderson hiscircumnavigation ofthe continent of Australia piazzalooking over the newly established villas surrounding from1801-3, was disappointed by his search for scenery from WoolloomoolooBay. Martenshas skilfullyrendered the whichto makeoil paintingsto be displayedin Londonafter housesof the wealthy colonists as thoughthey were Italian the fashionof his colleagueWilliam Danieli, who had villas (which is how they were often described in successfullyshown his views of India at theRoyal Academy. contemporaryliterature), but he givesno hintthat these For Westallthe coastlinedid not yieldthe exoticsubject houses lackedantiquity; in fact,none of the housesthat matterhe hadhoped to find,and he consideredAustralia to couldbe seen fromthe terrace at RoseBank in 1840when be pictoriallyunpromising. Shortly after leaving Australian Martensproduced this work was morethan a decadeold. shores,he summedup hisyears on theFlinders voyage as a Thispainting illustrates the process not so muchof creating barrenexperience, and he waspessimistic about the drawings 'New Worldsfrom Old', as an exhibitionof 19ih-century he hadmade, about which he wrote:'When executed [they] Australianand Americanlandscape paintings put it, but can neitherafford pleasure from exhibiting the face of a ratherof creating old worldsfrom new.44

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5 Viewfrom Rose Bank by Conrad Martens, 1840. National Gallery ofAustralia, Canberra 6A view ofBenaras byWilliam Hodges, 181 1. By Permission ofThe British Library,F94 7 ViewinGaur by Thomas Danieli, cl791. Private Collection. Courtesy of CharlesGreig, Esq

carriedmany of these same picturesque principles Artistswith them to India, where, as elsewhere,they representedthe landscape as harmonious,with great emphasis placed on intricatelydetailed foregrounds, irregularhills and buildings,and some referenceto man's presencein the landscape,along witha ruin thatwas picturesquelyirregular as well as a reminderof man's transience.Artists who made picturesque paintings of India also removed,or at leastsoftened, what many Europeans would have regarded as its exotic features.Indian architecture,forinstance, was either shown in conventionally picturesqueruins, or had its (to Europeaneyes) startling lack of symmetryreduced to symmetricalforms. The first professionalBritish landscape painter to visitIndia was WilliamHodges, in 1780,and hisView of part ofthe city of Benaras(sic) (PI6) datedthe following year shows a number ofthese elements, notably in the varied and irregular outline formedby the buildings, further enlivened by tufted trees; in thesense of movement,created by small, scattered details such as the figuresand boats;and in the brokendabs of colour.45But as withhis Tahiti painting, this one is also rife withcontradictions. In his SelectViews in India (London, 1775-8),Hodges wrote that the artist's responsibility was to eschew'fanciful representation' and keep the imagination 'underthe strictguidance of cool judgment',yet his own Indianpaintings contradict this very aim, composed as they are accordingto Europeannotions of the picturesquethat emphasizedthe loftiness of monumentsthough the use of foreshortenedperspective and exaggeratedproportions. Despitehis timein theSouth Pacific, Hodges' finished oils are firmlywithin the picturesque tradition, and remaintrue to the Claudeanprinciples of his teacherRichard Wilson, whosework he so oftenimitated.46 AlthoughHodges was the first,the mostfamous British landscapepainters to visit India were Thomas Danieli and his nephewWilliam, who, after seven years of travels,brought backwith them to Englandsome 1,400 drawings, which they used to produce six sumptuousvolumes of aquatints. Although the Daniells repeatedly disparaged their predecessor'swork for containing all sortsof inaccuracies, byan artistin an imaginaryarrangement - and share the same theirgoal of fidelitywas continuallyundermined by the basicstructure and features:ruins on theleft, trees on the constraintsofthe picturesque aesthetic. Searching always for right,a riverwinding through the centre towards a distant the Sublimeand the Beautiful,the Daniells generally mountainthat is roundedrather than steep and craggy,and portrayedgrandiose views carefully framed with palm and severalfigures in theforeground, though there is a greater banyantrees, and, on at leastone occasion,enhanced the senseof stasis in Daniell'spainting, whereas in Claude'sthe beautyof a scenewith the addition of a temple.47Part of the figuresare turning and gesturing, giving those works a greater lureof India was its strangeness, and in fact a fascinationwith senseof movement. A much more immediate link, however, theexotic was a partof the picturesque repertoire, and yet as in thecase withHodges, was RichardWilson, as Daniell's the treatmentof Indiansubjects in a picturesquemanner paintingboth recalls and develops fromsuch Wilson tempered,rather than exaggerated,their exoticism, by imitationsofClaude as KewGardens, the Ruined Arch (1762), makingthem conform to a set of supposedlyuniversally a picturewhich for a longtime was thought to show an actual applicablevalues derived from European art. Romanruin somewhere in Italy.49 Atthe hands of Thomas Danieli, for example, the Muslim tombat Gaurwas transformedinto a Gothicfolly in an picturesquenot only tendedto homogenizethe Arcadianpark. View in Gaur (PI 7) is in facta strikingly Theregions of the British Empire; it also blurredall sortsof Claudeanwork, similar to several of the 17th-century master's boundariesbetween Britain and itsempire, between home paintingsincluding Pastoral caprice with the Arch of and abroad,metropole and periphery,even self and other.50 Constantine(1651) and Landscape with the father of Psyche Thereare, for example, some important similarities between sacrificingat theTemple of Apollo (1662). 48 All of these make ThomasDaniell's watercolour of The Falls of Poppanassum use ofarchitectural capricci - actualbuildings put together (1804)and theScottish landscape painter Jacob More's The

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Falls of Clyde(Cora Linn) (1771), both in theirformal simultaneousaddition of the Indian subcontinent and loss of elements- thelushness of vegetation, the direction in which the thirteenAmerican colonies, became increasinglya thewater is flowing,and theangle of the trees hanging over tourist'sempire, not just symbolized but made possible by the theriver - and in theirapproach to composition(Pis 8, 9). concomitantdevelopment ofthe picturesque. Although some Both paintingsemphasize the grandeurof the scenes by scholarshave argued that the English picturesque was mainly placingseveral small figures in theforeground, tourists who a late-18th century aesthetic which supposedly fell out of arein each case dwarfedby the thundering falls above them. fashionduring the first half of the 19th century, itshould be Butone hasto look very closely at Daniell's painting to locate mentionedthat, contrary to suchconclusions, the aesthetic twoslender palm trees, the only indication that these falls are frameworkcontinued to prevail so thatthe picturesque mode not locatedin Europe,and even the two figuresare of is easilyrecognizable in late-19th-and even 20th-century indeterminateorigin, and thusif they are Indian,they have photographyand advertisements.56 beenstripped of their 'otherness'. The paintingsby Danieliand More also share certain are, of course,numerous other aspects of the fundamentalsimilarities with Wilson's Lydford Waterfall Therepicturesque in the colonialcontext that need to be Tavistock(c 1771-2), and all threeprobably drew on the explored,including its relationship to labour,an issuethat writingsof AlexanderCozens, who made extensive was oftendiscussed in picturesquetexts even as it was observationsof naturein orderto clarifythe link between frequentlydisavowed in picturesque images.57 There are also landscapephenomena and aestheticfeeling, and to identify somelimitations to theanalysis and approachoffered here, whatit was about naturalevents that stimulated specific whichhas subsumed beneath the broader picturesque rubric emotionalresponses in theviewer.51 In TheVarious Species the subtle differencesbetween the topographical,the ofLandscape Composition (1759), Cozens identified sixteen beautiful,and the natural,or whatAnn Bermingham has 'compositions'or basic landscapethemes, the eighthof called landscapesof sense, sensibility,and sensation.58 whichwas 'a waterfall'.Daniells and More, like Wilson before Althoughthere are topographicalelements in thework of themand theAmerican Thomas Cole afterthem, took wild, Angasand Glover,and althoughthe Daniellswere highly seeminglyinhospitable scenes and made them less accomplishedtopographical artists, landscape engravings frightening,rendering the naturaland the sublimemoving such as theirswere not intendedto functionsimply as a ratherthan terrifying, with escape alwaysassured.52 While topographicalrecord. As notedearlier, the use of formal perhapsowing more to theromantic than the picturesque structure,figures, and atmospheric effects transformed a real tradition(though the relationshipbetween the twois too andvisitable site into a picturesquerepresentation, elevating complicatedto discusshere), the paintingsby Danieliand it to the statusof a visualsouvenir. And, there was a More illustrateyet again the extentto whichlate- 18th- naturalisticelement in Britishand continentalpicturesque centuryaesthetics homogenized the empire and de- viewsthat is, for the most part, not characteristic ofimperial emphasizedits difference from the British and the familiar. art.59Nevertheless, Bermingham's rationale for adopting Giventheir similarities in terms of elements and approach thesenew terms, however, to 'shiftthe focus from style to to composition(if not in actualcomposition), these two themoral, political, and social values each type of landscape imagesraise the important question of how colonial sites can was intendedto awaken',as wellas to providea framework be differentiatedfrom the non-colonial. This point takes on thatcould accommodate works that traditionally do not fit additionalurgency because the picturesque form represented into the traditionalcategories, including amateur a widerange of tourist sites both inside and outside of Britain production,is exactly the argument being made here. andits empire, including Spain, Italy, and the German Rhine. Itis hoped,however, that the examples offered above - and It hardlyneeds to be pointedout, however,the above theEgyptian work of DavidRoberts would fit as well- are waterfallexample notwithstanding,that there were representativeenough to suggestthat the picturesque was a substantialdifferences between so-called picturesque views of dynamicforce in thecreation of the British Empire. One of touristsites in Britain and on theEuropean continent on the theimplications ofEdward Said's work is thatOrientalism - 'a one hand,and thoseof the BritishEmpire on the other.53 Westernstyle for dominating,restructuring, and having Whereasin late-18th-century Britain the picturesque implied authorityover the Orient'60 - made colonialism possible. But the avoidance of anythingprecise or tame, instead one of thelimitations of theOrientalist approach is thatit emphasizing,variety, novelty, ruggedness, and wild, unkempt focuseslargely, though no longerexclusively, on theMiddle beauty- Gilpinspecified that 'ideas of neatand smooth... East.Scholars have applied Said's thesis to India, but have not stripthe objec... of picturesquebeauty'54 - imperialart, appliedits tenets to SouthAfrica and Australia,and would especiallyin India,consistently softened, regularized, and havedifficulty in doing so. The picturesque,on the other beautifiedthe natural landscape.55 Consequently, a potentially hand, was a much more comprehensivetrope than dangerouscuriosity about colonial people and places,one Orientalism,and unifiedthe empireby refractinglocal thatmight involve violence, conflict, and oppression,has differencesthrough a singlelens. And it is revealing,in this been divertedinto the quest foraesthetic novelty. It is context,that the picturesquebecame popular at the very importantto recognize,therefore, the particularityof the momentwhen the British empire was undergoingits most picturesquein thecolonial environment and thepleasures it massiveexpansion, and thatthe picturesque lost its vogue - offered,even while noting the general similarities between andvalue - as theempire became more physically integrated thedomestic and the imperial picturesque. duringthe second half of the 19th century, when the electric Whatthen does itmean when colonial sites are subjected telegraphand the steamshipallowed for greater levels of to a formof visual representation so closely associated with communicationand control.61 tourism?Given the primary function of the picturesque in the The paintingsdiscussed here also makethe pointthat establishmentofboth domestic and foreign tourism, itwould imperialrepresentations were not exclusivelyconcerned seemthat the colonial and thetouristic gaze havecollapsed withthe creation of 'otherness', on thepresumption that the intoeach other,normalizing the imperial experience. If the imperial peripherywas differentfrom thes imperial so-calledfirst British empire was a commercialand trading metropolis.62Rather, artists were also engagedin what empire,the second British empire, beginning with the near- culturalanthropologist James Boon has called 'the

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construction of affinities'.63Indeed, picturesque representationswere in large part about what David 8 TheFalls ofPoppanassum byThomas Danieli, 1804. The British Museum, Cannadinehas identified as 'thedomestication ofthe exotic': DepartmentofPrints and Drawings regardingand reorderingthe foreign to lookvery much like 9 TheFalls ofClyde (Cora Linn) by Jacob More, 1771. The National Gallery of Englanditself.64 And this point needs to be underscored:the Scotland exoticis stillvery much present in the picturesque,but largelystripped of its difficult otherness, allowing the viewer Hodgestravelled through the SouthPacific before he ever to remainin his or hervisual comfort zone, secure in the went to India,and numerousscholars have noted that knowledgethat the Ganges looked basically like the Wye. Not influence;the Daniellswere in SouthAfrica before their onlywere British artists in India,South Africa, and Australia journeyto India;and Angasmoved several times between neververy influenced by indigenous artistic traditions; their England,South Africa, and Australia. In short,the picturesque stylewas onlyminimally affected by the landscape itself, in wasnot simply an aestheticthat was carried from the English contrastto thatof European artists working in theso-called LakeDistrict to Table Bay and the Ganges River, but developed Orientalworld.65 In fact,there is considerableevidence to throughcontact with non-Englishregions, and moved suggestthat painters sought out landscapes that looked - or throughoutthe British Empire without, attimes, England even couldbe madeto look- likeEngland itself. as a referencepoint. And in this way it did its part to integrate Finally,itshould be clearthat the vectors of imperialism did the Britishempire, by blurringboundaries, tempering the not worksolely (or perhapseven largely)in a binary, exotic,providing a measureof familiarityfor would-be metropole-periphery,home-abroad, fashion. As notedearlier, travellers,and most of all, homogenizing differences. 1JR Seeley, TheExpansion ofEngland , Houghton'sTheVictorian Frame of Constantine,' "Bringing the 1995.Both Elizabeth Johns etal., London,1883, p8. Mind,1830-1870, NewHaven, 1957, EmpireAlive": The Empire NewWorlds from Old: 19th Century 2The literature onthis point is exceptbriefly inchapters on'anti- MarketingBoard and Imperial Australian&American Landscapes, voluminous.Themost intellectualism','theworship of Propaganda,1916-23', in Canberra,1998, and Tim Barringer, comprehensivesummation maybe force',and 'patriotism'. JohnM MacKenzie,opcit, ppl92-231, and 'ImperialVisions: Responses to foundinWilliam Roger Louis, ed, MacKenzie,ed,Imperialism and idem,Buy &Build. The Advertising India and Africa inVictorian Art TheOxford History ofthe British PopularCulture, Manchester, 1986, Postersofthe Empire Marketing andDesign', inMacKenzie, ed,The Empire, 5vols, Oxford, 1998-9. For focusesonthe age of high Board,London, 1986; Anne VictorianVision, pp315-33, focus on a briefsurvey outlining thevarious imperialism,after1880, asdoes McClintock,Imperial Leather: Race, tworegions. methodologicalapproaches is JamesMorris, PaxBritannica. The GenderandSexuality inthe Colonial 15 On the difficulties ofadministering AndrewPorter, European ClimaxofEmpire, New York, 1968, Contest,NewYork, 1995, pp207-31. theempire from London, seeDM Imperialism,1860-1914, London, whowrites ofthe Diamond Jubilee 11 The most comprehensive overview Young, The Colonial Office inthe 1994.On pre-modern conceptions having 'crystallized thenew ofthe field ofimperial artis Jeffrey Early Nineteenth Century, London, ofthe British Empire, seeDavid conceptionofEmpire', p37. Auerbach,'Artand Empire', Oxford 1961;John WCell, British Colonial Armitage,TheIdeological Origins of 6 GPGooch, Under SixReigns, Historyofthe British Empire, voly Administrationinthe Mid-Nineteenth theBritish Empire ,Cambridge, 2000. London,1958, pl23. edRobin WWinks, Oxford, 1999, Century,NewHaven, 1970. On the 3Andrew S Thompson, Imperial 7John MMacKenzie, 'Empire and the PP571-83. challengesofrunning theempire Britain:TheEmpire inBritish Politics GlobalGaze', in The Victorian 12See especially Beth Fowkes Tobin, fromthe periphery, seeWilliam c.1880-1932, Edinburgh, 2000; Vision:Inventing NewBritain, PicturingImperial Power: Colonial Denison,Varieties ofVice-Regal Life, AntoinetteBurton, ed,Politics and London,2001, pp 241-2. SubjectsinEighteenth Century British 2vols, London, 1870; James Pope- EmpireinVictorian Britain, New 8 Heretoo the literature borders on Painting,Durham, NC,1999, p2; Hennessy,Verandah: SomeEpisodes York,2001; Jonathan Schneer, theunmanageable, butin the wake PratapadityaPaland Vidya Dehijia, inthe Crown Colonies. 1867-1889, London1900: We Imperial ofEdward Said's Orientalism, New FromMerchants toEmperors: British NewYork, 1964. Metropolis,NewHaven, 1999. York,1978, a selection ofrecent ArtistsandIndia, 1757-1930, Ithaca, 16On the sanitizing effects ofthe 4Antoinette Burton, Atthe Heart ofthe workswould have to include Sara 1986,16. The most influential picturesqueinBritish India and Empire:Indians and the Colonial Suleri,The Rhetoric ofEnglish India, worktaking this approach, though elsewhere,seeSuleri and Nochlin. EncounterinLate-Victorian Britain, Chicago,1992; Deirdre David, Rule notfocused onthe British Empire, 17 Uvedale Price, AnEssay onthe Berkeley,1998;Michael Fisher, The Britannia:Women, Empire, and isLinda Nochlin, 'The Imaginary Picturesque,London, 1794, pp9, 20; TravelsofDean Mahomet, Berkeley, VictorianTravel Writing, Ithaca, Orient',Artin America, 71(1983), RichardPayne Knight, The 1997;Edward WSaid, Culture and 1995;Inderpal Grewal, Home and ppll8-31ff. Landscape:ADidactic Poem inThree Imperialism,NewYork, 1993; Ann Harem.Nation, Gender, Empire, and 13Bernard Smith, European Vision Books,London, 1794, pp23, 31. LauraStoler and Frederick Cooper, theCultures ofTravel, Durham, NC, andthe South Pacific, 2ndedn, New 18Tillotson, p55. 'BetweenMetropole andColony: 1996;Nancy LPaxton, Writing Haven,1985. 19Jacques Derrida, OfGrammatology, Rethinkinga Research Agenda', undertheRaj, New Brunswick, NJ, 14For example, Jane Carruthers and trans.Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, TensionsofEmpire: Colonial Cultures 1999.More generally, seeMary MarionArnold, TheLife and Work of Baltimore,1998. ina BourgeoisWorld, edFrederick LouisePratt, Imperial Eyes: TYavel ThomasBaines, Vlaeberg, 1995; 20On issues of identity andalterity, Cooperand Ann Laura Stoler, WritingandTransculturation, GilesTillotson, TheArtificial seeMartin Daunton and Rick Berkeley,1997,ppl-56; Julie F London,1992. Empire:TheIndian Landscapes of Halpern,ed,Empire andOthers: Codelland Dianne Sachko 9James RRyan, Picturing theEmpire: WilliamHodges, Richmond, 2000. BritishEncounters withIndigenous Macleod,Orientalism Transposed: Photographyandthe Visualization of Onceexception, though itmakes Peoples,1600-1850, Philadelphia, Theimpact ofthe colonies onBritish theBritish Empire, Chicago, 1997. noattempt toarticulate a unified 1999. culture,Aldershot, 1998. 10Thomas Richards, TheCommodity imperial vision, isMichael Jacobs, 21The idea of the empire asa web 5It is telling that the empire figures CultureofVictorian England, ThePainted Voyage-. ArtTravel and comesfrom Tony Ballantyne, almostnowhere inWalter E Stanford,1990, ppl 19-67; Stephen Exploration1564-1875 ,London, OrientalismandRace. Aryanism and

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theBritish Empire ,Houndsmills, 27 In fact, Europeans areabsent from 'muchofthe Ulswater [sic] Gilpin.HisDrawings, Teaching and Basingstoke,2002,ppl-17. The thevast majority ofHodges' character'anddescribed the Theoryofthe Picturesque, Oxford: phrase'bundles ofrelationships' is paintingsofthe South Pacific, massesofhills as 'strong and ClarendonPress, 1963, plOO. On fromEric Wolf, Europe and the People notableexceptions being Aview of striking,andvery like the theIndian picturesque, seePal and withoutHistory, Berkeley, 1982,p3. MatavaiBay in the Island ofOtaheite, management ofGaspard Poussin's Dehejia,pp97-129. Recentwork suggesting thelimits of 1776,View inPickersgill Harbour, landscapes,iegood school for the 55On the 'truth' claims that can be the'spoked wheel' model includes DuskyBay, New Zealand (cl773), chiaro-scurolightand shadowing'. associated with the topographical RichardGrove, Green Imperialism,: and The landing at SeeJohn Richardson Glover to panorama,seeSvětlana Alpers, The ColonialExpansion, Tropical Island Erramanga(17l6),allat the MaryBowles, 20February 1831, ArtofDescribing: DutchArt in the Edens,and the Origins of NationalMaritime Museum, MitchellLibrary, Sydney, and SeventeenthCentury, Chicago, 1983. Environmentalist,1600-1860, London. Hansen. 56Jeffrey Auerbach, 'Art,Advertising, Cambridge,1995,and SB Cook, 28Barbara Maria Stafford, Voyage into 38Westall toBanks, 13January 1804, andLegacy ofEmpire', Journal of ImperialAffinities: Nineteenth Century Substance:Art,Science, Nature, and quotedinSmith, Australian PopularCulture, 35(2002), ppl-23. AnalogiesandExchanges between theIllustrated TravelAccount, 1760- Painting,pl3. 57On labour and the picturesque in Indiaand Ireland, Newbury, CA, 1840,Cambridge, MA,1984. 39Andrew Sayers, 'The Shaping of thedomestic asopposed to 1993.On the problematic concept 29Ged Martin andBenjamin EKline, AustralianLandscape Painting', imperialcontext, seeJohn Barrell, • of'metropole', seeStoler and 'BritishEmigration andNew NewWorlds from Old, p55. TheDark Side of the Landscape: The Cooper;Thomas Metcalf, 'Empire Identities',TheCambridge Illustrated 40See also Baron Field, Geographical Rural Poor in English: Painting 1730- Recentered:Indiain the Indian Historyofthe British Empire, pp254- MemoirsonNew South Wales (1825), 1840,Cambridge, 1980;Christiana OceanArena', inGregory Blue, 79;Lawrence James, TheRise and Fall inBernard Smith, ed,Documents in Payne,Toiland Plenty: Images ofthe MartinBunton, andRalph Croizier, ofthe British Empire, New'brk, 1997, Artand Taste inAustralia 1770-1941, Agricultural Landscape inEngland ed,Colonialism andthe Modern 307-11;CABayly, Imperial Meridian: Melbourne,1975,36. 1780-1890,NewHaven, 1993; Nancy World,White Plains, NY,2002, pp25- TheBritish Empire andthe World 1780- 41 Thomas Watling, Letters froman Armstrong,'ThePicturesque 39;Douglas MHaynes, Imperial 1830,London, 1989, ppl57-8; ExileatBotany Bay, tohis Aunt in Effect:Landscape andLabour in Medicine:Patrick Manson andthe BernardPorter, TheLion's Share, 2nd Dumfries,Penrith [179418-9. VictorianPhotography', exh,Yale ConquestofTropical Disease, edn,London, 1984, pp7-8. 42Watling, 9;Bernard Smith, BritishArtCenter, 1992. On labour Philadelphia,2002;Alan Lester, 30David Hansen, John Glover (1767- AustralianPainting 1788-1960, andempire more generally, See ImperialNetworks: Creating identities 1849) and the Colonial Picturesque, Melbourne, 1962,11-15, and MadhaviKale, Fragments ofEmpire. innineteenth-century South/frica and Hobart,2003. EuropeanVision and the South Capital,Slavery, andIndian Britain,London, 2001; Catherine 31John McPhee, TheArt ofJohn Pacific,182-5. IndenturedLaborin the British Hall,Civilising Subjects: Colony and Glover,Melbourne, 1980,p27. 43David HSolkin, Richard Wilson: The Caribbean,Philadelphia, 1998. Metropoleinthe English Imagination, 32Alfred WCrosby, Ecological LandscapeofReaction, London, 58Ann Bermingham, Learning to 1830-1867,Chicago, 2002. Imperialism:TheBiological 1982,pp 184-5. Draw:Studies inthe Cultural History 22Malcolm Andrews, TheSearch for ExpansionofEurope, 900-1900, 44Sayers, p59. ofa Politeand Useful Art,New theñcturesque, Stanford, 1989, Cambridge,1986. 45Tillotson, ppl-4, provides an Haven,2000, p78. pp29-30,89;Pheroza Godrej and 33Arthur Bowes Smyth, thesurgeon excellentformal analysis ofthis 59On the relationship between the PaulineRohatgi, Scenic Splendours: aboard the Lady Penryhn, oneof painting. topographicalandthe picturesque, Indiathrough thePainted Image, theships of the First Fleet that 46Jacobs, pp60-2; WG Constable, seeAndrew Hemingway, Landscape London,1989, pp 19-20; Mildred sailedto Australia in1788, wrote in RichardWilson, Cambridge, MA, ImageryandUrban Culture inEarly Archer,British Drawings inthe India hisjournal: '5th January 1788. A pl39.According toEK Nineteenth-CenturyBritain, OfficeLibrary, volI, London, 1969, veryfine breeze. This night was so Waterhouse,Hodges was 'probably Cambridge,1992,ppl63-8. pl9;John MMacKenzie, 'Artand veryhot that I was obliged to themost accomplished painter of 60Said, Orientalism, p3. theEmpire', Cambridge Illustrated throwoffthe bedclothes. There fakeWilsons'. Seehis Painting in 61This argument iscomplementary to, Historyofthe British Empire, edPJ arenow in the cabin geraniums in Britain1530-1790, London: Penguin, ratherthan incompatible with,that Marshall,Cambridge, 1996.In the fullblossom and some grapevines 1953,pl78. putforward byAnn Bermingham, interestofnot being whichflourish verymuch, there 47Jacobs, pp67-8. See also Mildred LandscapeandIdeology: TheEnglish overdeterministic,itshould be arealso myrtles, bananas and Archer,Early Views ofIndia: The RusticTYadition, 1740-1860, Berkeley, emphasizedthatthe picturesque othersort of plant brought from PicturesqueJourneys ofThomas and 1986,esp pp73-83, inwhich she washardly a stable orunitary Riode Janeiro.' SeePaul G Fidlon WilliamDanieli, 1786-1794, New arguesthat the picturesque wasan aesthetic.Although Christopher andRJ Ryan, ed, The Journal of York,1980; Jagmohan Mahajan, 'ideologicalresponse' tothe HusseyinThe Picturesque ; Studies in ArthurBowes Smyth: Surgeon, Lady PicturesqueIndia:Sketches and changingrelationship between a PointofView, London, 1927, Penryhn,1787-1789, Sydney, 1979. travelsofThomas andWilliam landlordsandpeasants andthe establishedthepicturesque asan 34Sharon Morgan, Land Settlement in Danieli,New Delhi, 1983. attendantsegregation ofsocial 'interregnumbetween classic and EarlyTasmania, Cambridge, 1992,p 48H Diane Russell, Claude Lorrain classesduring theagricultural romanticart,necessary inorder to 99.Foreign plants were brought to 1600-1682,Washington, DC,1982, revolution,andthat its 'anti- enablethe imagination toform the VanDieman's Land at such a rate andHumphrey Wine, Claude: The industrialism'wasin response tothe habitoffeeling through theeye' thatby the time Revd W Spicer PoeticLandscape, London, 1994. earlyyears ofthe industrial (p4),there were debates about tookhis weed census in1878 Moregenerally, seeElizabeth revolution.Itis also not incompatible whatitwas at the time, asthere morethan one hundred exotic WheelerManwaring, Italian withSara Suleri's argument inThe havebeen ever since. See specieshad become naturalized. LandscapeinEighteenth Century RhetoricofEnglish India, Chicago, Andrews,p239; Stephen Copley SeeWW Spicer, 'Alien Plants', England,NewYork, 1925. 1992,that women deployed the andPeter Garside, ed,The Politics Papersand Proceedings ofthe Royal 49Michael Rosenthal, British picturesqueinorder tominimize the ofthe Picturesque, Cambridge, 1994, SocietyofTasmania, Hobart, 1878, LandscapePainting, Oxford, 1982, threatsposed by life inthe imperial espppl-2, 178; Kim Ian Michasiw, p64.John Richardson Glover to p64;Constable, pl79. subcontinent(pp75-6). 'NineRevisionist Theses on the MaryBowles, 8 September 1833, 50See Tobin, esp pp81-138; Jill 62David Cannadine, Ornamentalism. Picturesque',Representations, 38 MitchellLibrary, Sydney; Land Lepore,TheName ofWar: King Howthe British SawTheir Empire, (1992)pp76-100. BoardReport 753, 11 May 1831, Philip'sWarand the Origins of London,2001, pxix. 23Tillotson, esppp43-53. ArchivesOffice ofTasmania; AmericanIdentity, NewYork, 1999; 63James ABoon, Affinities and 24It should be pointed out that Hansen. Dauntonand Helpern. Extremes:Crisscrossing theBittersweet Hodges'Tahiti Revisited doesnot 35Tim Bonyhady, TheColonial Earth, 51Constable (pl84; pi 52b) identified Ethnology ofEast Indies History, fallexclusively orperfectly within Melbourne,2000,pp69, 90-9. LydfordWaterfall, Tavistock as'A Hindu-BalineseCulture,and Indo- thepicturesque tradition. 36Johns, pl22. WelshWaterfall (Pistyll Cain, EuropeanAllure, Chicago, 1990. For Especiallyinthe context ofthe 37The most 'unpicturesque' of Merionethshire)'.SeeSolkin, a discussionofthis point otherpaintings heexecuted for Glover'spaintings isCawood from PP135-6. concerningpeople, rather than the theAdmiralty afterhis return from theOuse River (1838), which is 52Rosenthal, pp56-64; Thomas Cole, landscape,andin the Romantic theSouth Seas, there isa almostanti-Claudean inits 'Essayon American Scenery', The period,see Harry Liebersohn, historicisingqualityto his work structure,featuring a convex AmericanMagazine 1(1836), ppl- 'DiscoveringIndigenous Nobility: thatnarrated thevoyage, ratherthan concave foreground, 12;Andrew Wilton and Tim Tocqueville,Chamisso, and contributedtothe debate over anabsence ofcoulisses, andalmost Barringer,American Sublime: RomanticTravel Writing', American humanorigins and civilization, barrenhills in the distance. In LandscapePainting inthe United HistoricalReview 99:3 (1994), and,in the absence ofany heroic mostother instances, however, States,1820-1880, Princeton, 2002. pp746-66. figures,elevated thelandscape to Glover'swork iscomfortably 53See Brian Dolan, Exploring 64Cannadine, p xix; on the complex prominentstatus. picturesque.TheRiver Derwent and EuropeanFrontiers: BritishTravellers intersections ofthe domestic and 25Smith, pp62-4. HobartTown (cl831), for example, inthe Age ofEnlightenment, London, theexotic, see Guest. 26Harriet Guest, 'Curiously Marked: providesa view, appropriately 2000-,Jeremy Black, The British 65MaryAnne Stevens, ed,The Tattooing,Masculinity, and enough,ofSalvator Rosa's Glen, Abroad:TheGrand Tour inthe Orientalists:Delacroix toMatisse, NationalityinEighteenth-Century andis loosely based on Poussain's EighteenthCentury, NewHaven, NewYork, 1984, 15; John BritishPerceptions ofthe South AbrahamandIsaac (1655-60). Itis 1997;Edward Daniel Clarke, Sweetman,TheOriental Obsession: Pacific',Painting andthe Politics of alsoworth noting that Glover's Travelsinthe Various Countries of IslamicInspiration inBritish and Culture:NineEssays onBritish Art, son,John Richardson Glover, Europe,Asia, and Africa, 6vols, AmericanArtand Architecture 1500- 1700-1850,edJohn Barrell, Oxford, characterizedthecoast near London,1810-23. 1920,Cambridge, 1988,pl35. 1992,ppl01-34. Launcestonwhere they settled as 54Quoted inCP Barbier, William

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