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Levitt Sample.Qxd Detailed Table of Contents Foreword xviii Preface xx Acknowledgments xxiv Dedication xxv Section I. Introduction and Overview of Crime and Criminology 1 What Is Criminology? 2 What Is Crime? 2 Crime as a Moving Target 2 Crime as a Subcategory of Social Harms 3 Beyond Social Construction: The Stationary Core Crimes 4 Criminality 5 A Short History of Criminology 6 The Role of Theory in Criminology 8 What Is Theory? 9 How to Think About Theories 10 Ideology in Criminological Theory 11 Connecting Criminological Theory and Social Policy 13 A Brief Word About the Section Readings 15 Summary 16 Key Terms 17 Exercises and Discussion Questions 17 Useful Websites 18 How to Read a Research Article 19 The Use and Usefulness of Criminology, 1751–2005: Enlightened Justice and Its Failures 20 READING 23 1. The Use and Usefulness of Criminology, 1751–2005: Enlightened Justice and Its Failures 23 Lawrence W.Sherman A short history of criminology and a cry to make it useful and experimental. Section II. Measuring Crime and Criminal Behavior 32 Categorizing and Measuring Crime and Criminal Behavior 32 The Uniform Crime Reports: Counting Crime Officially 33 Cleared Offenses 36 Problems With the UCR 36 NIBRS: The “New and Improved”UCR 37 Crime Victimization Survey Data and Their Problems 38 Areas of Agreement Between the UCR and NCVS 40 Self-Reported Crime Surveys and Their Problems 40 The Dark Figure of Crime 41 What Can We Conclude About the Three Main Measures of Crime in America? 43 The FBI’s Ten Most Wanted 43 Summary 44 Key Terms 45 Exercises and Discussion Questions 45 Useful Websites 46 READINGS 46 2. Gender Gap Trends for Violent Crimes, 1980 to 2003: A UCR-NCVS Comparison 46 Darrell Steffensmeier, Hua Zhong, Jeff Ackerman, Jennifer Schwartz, and Suzanne Agha Examines the “masculinization of women”versus “police policy change”hypotheses to determine the reason for decreasing male/female arrest ratios for assault. 3. Race and the Probability of Arrest 57 Stewart J. D’Alessio and Lisa Stolzenberg Uses UCR and NIBRS data to examine the “differential offending” versus “police bias”hypotheses to determine the reason for differential black/white arrest rates. 4. Methamphetamine Use, Self-Reported Violent Crime, and Recidivism Among Offenders in California Who Abuse Substances 66 Jerome Cartier, David Farabee, and Michael L. Prendergast Illustrates criminologists’ use of self-report data using data from paroles. Section III. The Early Schools of Criminology and Modern Counterparts 71 Preclassical Notions of Crime and Criminals 72 The Classical School 72 Cesare Beccaria 72 Jeremy Bentham and Human Nature 73 The Rise of Positivism 74 Cartographic Criminology 75 Biological Positivism: Cesare Lombroso and the Born Criminal 75 Raffaele Garofalo: Natural Crime and Offender Peculiarities 76 Enrico Ferri and Social Defense 76 Neoclassicism: The Return of Choice and Deterrence 77 Rational Choice Theory 77 Routine Activities Theory 78 Deterrence and Choice: Pain Versus Gain 78 Evaluation of Neoclassical Theories 79 Policy and Prevention: Implications of Neoclassical Theories 80 Summary 83 Key Terms 84 Exercises and Discussion Questions 84 Useful Websites 85 READINGS 85 5. An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation 85 Jeremy Bentham Bentham’s classical statement of the principle of utility. 6. A Crying Shame: The Over-Rationalized Conception of Man in the Rational Choice Perspective 88 Willem de Haan and Jaco Vos Takes rational choice theory to task for overestimating the power of rationality and underestimating the power of emotion in criminal decision making. 7. The Economics of Crime 97 Gary S. Becker Becker sees criminals as rational beings who respond to reward and punishment as well as everyone else. Section IV. Social Structural Theories 103 The Social Structural Tradition 104 The Chicago School of Social Ecology/Social Disorganization 104 Evaluation of Social Ecology/Social Disorganization Theory 107 The Anomie/Strain Tradition 107 Robert Merton’s Extension of Anomie Theory 108 Institutional Anomie Theory 109 Robert Agnew’s General Strain Theory 110 Subcultural Theories 111 Walter Miller’s Focal Concerns 112 Evaluation of the Anomie/Strain and Subcultural Tradition 113 Gangs Today 115 Why Do Young People Join Gangs? 115 Policy and Prevention: Implications of Social Structural Theories 116 Summary 119 Key Terms 120 Exercises and Discussion Questions 120 Useful Websites 120 READINGS 121 8. Community Correlates of Rural Youth Violence 121 D. Wayne Osgood and Jeff M. Chambers The concepts of social disorganization theory apply to rural communities also. 9. Social Structure and Anomie 128 Robert K. Merton People adjust to cultural and structural imperatives in different ways, some of which are criminal. 10. Gangs and Social Change 135 Martin Sa´nchez-Jankowski Exploring American gangs from a macro social structural point of view. Section V. Social Process Theories 143 Differential Association Theory 144 Evaluation of Differential Association Theory 145 Ronald Akers’ Social Learning Theory 146 Evaluation of Social Learning Theory 147 Social Control Theories 148 Travis Hirschi’s Social Bonding Theory 148 Gottfredson and Hirschi’s Low Self-Control Theory 150 Integrating Social Control and Self-Control Theories 151 Evaluation of Social Control and Self-Control Theories 151 Labeling Theory: The Irony of Social Reaction 153 Sykes and Matza’s Neutralization Theory 154 Evaluation of Labeling and Neutralization Theories 155 Policy and Prevention: Implications of Social Process Theories 155 Summary 158 Key Terms 158 Exercises and Discussion Questions 159 Useful Websites 159 READINGS 159 11. A Social Learning Theory of Crime 160 Ronald L. Akers Akers applies operant conditioning to differential association theory. 12. The Nature of Criminality: Low Self-Control 168 Michael R. Gottfredson and Travis Hirschi The main feature of criminals is that they lack self-control, and they lack self-control because of poor parenting. 13. Social Control in China: Applications of the Labeling Theory and the Reintegrative Shaming Theory 175 Xiaoming Chen Chinese culture relies on shaming to reintegrate antisocial individuals after they have been punished. 14. Gender and Crime Among Felony Offenders: Assessing the Generality of Social Control and Differential Association Theories Leanne Fiftal Alarid, Velmer S. Burton, Jr., and Francis T. Cullen 182 Is there a general theory of crime? This article says that there is. Section VI. Critical Theories: Marxist, Conflict, and Feminist 191 The Conflict Perspective of Society 192 Karl Marx and Revolution 192 Willem Bonger: The First Marxist Criminologist 193 Modern Marxist Criminology 193 Left Realism 194 Conflict Theory: Max Weber, Power, and Conflict 194 Situating Conflict Theory in Relation to Marxist and Labeling Theory 195 Peacemaking Criminology 196 Evaluation of Critical Theories 197 Feminist Criminology 198 Women’s Liberation and Crime 200 Anne Campbell’s Staying Alive Hypothesis 201 Evaluation of Feminist Theories 203 Policy and Prevention: Implications of Critical Theories 203 Summary 204 Key Terms 205 Exercises and Discussion Questions 205 Useful Websites 206 READINGS 206 15. Marx, Engels, and Bonger on Crime and Social Control 206 Ian Taylor, Paul Walton, and Jock Young Historical background of Marxist theory—capitalism is criminogenic—via the work of Willem Bonger. 16. Crime, Punishment, and the American Dream: Toward a Marxist Integration 213 Barbara A. Sims Institutional anomie theory is correct: America is organized for crime, but it is not Marxist enough.Also addresses America’s“imprisonment binge.” 17. Patriarchy, Crime, and Justice: Feminist Criminology in an Era of Backlash 222 Meda Chesney-Lind Feminism is suffering a backlash. To counter this, feminist criminology must prioritize its research agenda around sexism, racism, and punishment. Section VII. Psychosocial Theories: Individual Traits and Criminal Behavior 231 The IQ/Crime Connection 232 Temperament and Personality 234 Conscience and Arousal 236 Glen Walters’s Lifestyle Theory 238 The Antisocial Personalities 238 Evaluation of the Psychosocial Perspective 241 Policy and Prevention: Implications of Psychosocial Theories 241 Summary 242 Key Terms 243 Exercises and Discussion Questions 243 Useful Websites 243 READINGS 244 18. Feeble-Mindedness 244 H. H. Goddard The classical statement about intelligence and crime. 19. Temperament, Environment, and Antisocial Behavior in a Population Sample of Preadolescent Boys and Girls 248 Rene´Veenstra, Siegwart Lindenberg, Albertine J. Oldehinkel, Andrea F.De Winter, and Johan Ormel The risk-producing and risk-buffering interactions between temperament and various other measures on antisocial behavior. 20. Psychopathy: Theory, Measurement, and Treatment 256 Anh Vien and Anthony R. Beech An overview of the concept, theory, measurement, and treatment of psychopathy. Section VIII. Biosocial Approaches 265 Behavior Genetics 266 Gene-Environment Interaction and Correlation 267 Behavior Genetics and Criminal Behavior 268 Molecular Genetics 268 Evolutionary Psychology 269 The Evolution of Criminal Traits 270 The Neurosciences 272 Softwiring the Brain by Experience 272 Reward Dominance and Prefrontal Dysfunction Theories 273 Some Other Biosocial Risk Factors 274 Evaluation of the Biosocial Perspective 276 Policy and Prevention: Implications of Biosocial Theories 277 Summary 278 Key Terms 279 Exercises and Discussion Questions 279 Useful Websites 280 READINGS 280 21. Behavior Genetics and Anomie/Strain Theory
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