The Lesson of Latimeria: a False Missing Link That Convinced Many

The Lesson of Latmneria

A FalseMissing Link ThatConvinced Many of the Realityof Evolution LaurenE. Brown

INCE the publicationof On the Originof Speciesby Dar- win (1859), the theory of evolution has become the foundation of the entire field of biology and has had far-reaching impacts on the physical and so- Downloaded from http://online.ucpress.edu/abt/article-pdf/57/4/202/47115/4449971.pdf by guest on 28 September 2021 cial sciences. In spite of the great importance of evolution, much of the public has been uneducated and unconvinced of its reality. There are several Figure 1. Drawing of the coelacanthLatimeria chalumnae by D.P. Voorvelt. (Courtesy reasons for this. Undoubtedly J.L.B. Smith Institute of Ichthyology and StanfordUniversity Press.) the opposition of fundamental- ist religions has played an important role. In addition, the great length of On the The Huixley-WilberforceDebate Originof Speciesand Darwin's complex style of writ- This famous debate occurred on June 30, 1860 (six ing make the treatise difficultto read. The complexity months after publicationof On theOrigin of Species);at of advances in the field and failure of evolutionists to a meeting of the BritishAssociation for the Advance- adequately communicate their findings to the public ment of Science at Oxford, England. Professors, are also contributingcauses to this lack of education. scientists, undergraduates, amateur natural histori- Furthermore,many textbooks give inadequate cover- ans, and clergy were among the 700 people attend- age to evolution. Lastly, there has been the reluctance ing. Accounts of the confrontation have been given or inability of elementary and secondary school by various authors (e.g. Clark 1968; Gould 1986; teachers to give proper attention to evolution in Himmelfarb 1962; Irvine 1955; Moorehead 1969; biology and science classes. Peterson 1932), which I summarize as follows. The public, however, has been quite aware of the The two protagonistswere Thomas Huxley, Profes- existence of the theory of evolution. Three major sor of Natural History, Royal School of Mines, and historical events in the century following the publi- Samuel Wilberforce,Bishop of Oxford. Darwin was cation of On the Originof Specieshave been responsi- absent because of illness. At 35 years of age, Huxley ble for a considerable amount of this awareness: (known as Darwin's bulldog) was one of a group of 1. The Huxley-Wilberforcedebate men who were associatedwith Darwin. Earlier 2. The Scopes trial young in his career,Huxley had participatedin a fourand one- 3. The popularization of the discovery of living coelacanths (Latimeria). half year naturalhistory survey aboardH.M.S. Rattle- The objective of this paper is to discuss these events snake in the Aushalianregion. His subsequentpublica- and their impact. Particularattention will be placed tions earnedhim a respectablereputation as a scientist. on the discovery of the coelacanth (Figure1), as I feel Wilberforce(known as Soapy Sam) at 54 years old, that this fish has had the greatest significance in was at the prime of his career and a formidable convincing the public of the reality of evolution, and orator. However, his only scientific accomplishment consequently has importantimplications for teaching was as an undergraduatewhen he excelled in math- evolution. ematics. Prior to the debate he had been tutored by Sir Richard Owen, well-known comparative anato- mist and rabid anti-evolutionist. Several speakers were scheduled to participate in Lauren E. Brown, Ph.D., is Professor of Vertebrate Zoology in the the meeting. Thus, it was some time before the Bishop Department of Biological Sciences at Illinois State University, Campus Box 4120, Normal, IL61790-4120. took the podium. As his sarcastic talk progressed, it became clear that Wilberforceknew nothing about

202 THEAMERICAN BIOLOGY TEACHER, VOLUME 57, NO. 4, APRIL195 evolution. Finally, bloated with presumed success, defeat for Bryan. Shortly after the trial he died, with the Bishop turned to Huxley (who was seated on the stress undoubtedlybeing a contributingfactor. platform)and stated "was it through his grandfather As could be expected, Scopes was found guilty of or his grandmotherthat he claimed his descent from teaching evolution and was assessed a fine of $100. a monkey" (Clark,p. 58, 1968;there is some question However, the verdict was later overturned on a as to his exact words-Gould 1986). This resulted in technicality. The conclusion was that the evolution- an uproar among the audience. Huxley slapped his ists had won a great victory. knee with his hand as he turned to a colleague next to Throngs of evangelists and religious zealots had him and stated "The Lord hath delivered him into converged on Dayton to participatein activities out- mine hands!" (Clark,p. 58, 1968). When Huxley rose side the courthouse. Additionally, more than 100 to speak, he gave a clear but brief account of evolu- newspaper reporters covered the trial (including the tion. He then proclaimed: well-known H. L. Mencken, columnist for the Balti- more Evening Sun). Thus, the trial received wide- If. . . the questionis put to me 'wouldI ratherhave a miserableape for a grandfather,or a manhighly endowed by spread publicity. The evolutionary scientists who natureand possessedof greatmeans and influence,and yet were denied the opportunity to testify at the trial who employsthese faculties and that influencefor the mere wrote voluminous statements in support of evolution purposeof introducingridicule into a gravescientific discus- which were published in many newspapers (Tomp- Downloaded from http://online.ucpress.edu/abt/article-pdf/57/4/202/47115/4449971.pdf by guest on 28 September 2021 sion'-I unhesitatinglyaffirm my preferencefor the ape kins 1965).The effect these statements had in educat- (Clark,p. 59, 1968). ing the public is conjecturalbecause the circus-like This again resulted in chaos in the audience and one atmosphere of the trial received emphasis in the woman even fainted. The last speaker was Joseph newspapers (Mencken referred to it as a religious Hooker (botanistand supporter of Darwin) who gave orgy-Tompkins, p. 39, 1965). Consequently, it is a particularlyeffective rebuttalto Wilberforce(Gould doubtful if the public absorbed much informationof 1986). substance about the validity of evolution. And so ended the first and most famous public As a postscript to this case, de Camp (1968) indi- debate on evolution. Although Huxley was enthusi- cated that Scopes' only association with a biology astically congratulatedby many, including the clergy course was as a substitute teacher for two weeks, and (Irvine 1955), it is questionablewhether he or Wilber- he confessed to friends after the trial that he never force won the confrontation (Gould 1986). However, taught evolution in that course. However, it is clear little information was offered to the public about the that Scopes strongly believed that biology could not realityof evolution. Thus, the public was for the most be taught without covering evolution, and he did part uneducated about evolution. briefly cover the topic in his general science course.

The Scopes Trial The Discovery of LivingCoelacanths The second major historical event of evolutionary On December22, 1938, a large, heavily scaled, blue significance to the public transpired 65 years later fish was caught by Captain Hendrik Goosen's (1925) far across the Atlantic in Tennessee. Detailed trawler,Nerine, at about 40 fathoms off the mouth of accounts of this trial have been given by a number of the ChalumnaRiver on the coast of South Africa.This authors (e.g. Allen 1925; Berra 1990; de Camp 1968; animal was to become the most famous fish ever Ruse 1982; Tompkins 1965) and are summarized as captured, and as a supposed "missing link" was to follows. In 1925the state of Tennessee established the play an importantrole in convincing the public of the ButlerAct which prohibitedthe teaching of evolution reality of evolution. Events that transpiredhave been in public schools. John T. Scopes, a young high school reportedin detail by Smith (1956a,b)which I summa- science teacherfrom Dayton, Tennessee, let himselfbe rize as follows. prosecuted(with the urging and support of the Amer- When the trawler reached port in East London, ican Civil LibertiesUnion) for teachingevolution. This South Africa, MarjorieCourtenay-Latimer was con- resulted in one of the more renowned trials in this tacted. She was a young curator of the small East century(Ruse 1982). The brillianttrial lawyer and noted London Museum, who had earlier asked several agnostic, Clarence Darrow, defended Scopes. Three- commercial fishing firms if they could supply her times unsuccessfulpresidential candidate, William Jen- museum with any unusual fish they might capture. nings Bryan, assisted in the prosecution.Bryan was a When Latimer arrived at the dock, she realized she noted oratorwith fundamentalistreligious views. had a problem because of the large size of Goosen's The judge refused to allow the expert testimony of fish (5 ft [1.5 m], 127 lb [57.6 kg]) and its oily evolutionaryscientists for the defense. Consequently, condition (the fish continued to ooze oil for many Darrow cross-examinedBryan as an authorityon the years after its capture). However, she managed to Bible. The result was a devastating and humiliating convince a reluctant taxi driver to transport the

LATIMERIA203 I4 4 This astonishing discovery was formally announced to the scientific world in a paper read to the Royal Society of South Africa (Smith 1939a), and was closely followed by a paper in the prestigious international journal, Nature (Smith 1939b). In the next year a monograph was published (Smith 1940). Unfortunately, the outbreak of World War II temporarily de- layed scientific endeavors per- taining to Latimeria. On December 20, 1952, a second coelacanth (Figure 2) was Downloaded from http://online.ucpress.edu/abt/article-pdf/57/4/202/47115/4449971.pdf by guest on 28 September 2021 caught near the Comoro Islands (then governedby France),to the northwest of Madagascar(Smith 1953). Smith also became ob- Figure2. The second living coelacanth(Latimeria chalumnae) collected on December20, sessed (1956a, p. 111) with this 1952 off the coast of Anjouan in the Comoro Islands northwest of Madagascar.J.L.B. Smith is pictured with his hand on the head of the fish. (Courtesy J.L.B. Smith specimen. He managed to ob- Institute of Ichthyology.) tain it through the assistance of the South African Prime Minis- smelly animal back to the museum. Unfortunately, ter who supplied an airplane. In France, Smith was there was no container at the museum large enough denounced as a robberbecause the second specimen to store the fish, nor were there adequate preserva- was caught in French territorial waters. In subse- tives or deep-freeze facilities. Consequently, Latimer quent years at least 170 additional captures were took the animal to a taxidermist to be mounted, made near the Comoro Islands (Bruton & Coutouvi- which regrettably resulted in all the soft internal dis 1991)and one off the coast of centralMozambique organs being discarded. (Bruton,Cabral & Fricke1992). These specimens have Latimer wrote to J.L.B. Smith, faculty member in been studied in depth by many scientists (Musick et chemistry and part-timeichthyologist of Rhodes Uni- al. 1991). versity College, Grahamstown, South Africa, about The discovery of Latimeriareceived phenomenal her unusual find. She enclosed drawings of the fish publicity. Bruton, Coutouvidis & Pote (1991) pro- and asked for assistance in classification. Upon re- vided a selected bibliographyof this publicity as well ceipt of the letter, Smith became extremely excited as other publicationson the coelacanth. They listed a because he recognized that the fish was a coelacanth total of 823 publicationswhich included 490 papers in (Sarcopterygii:Actinistia: Coelacanthidae). The Ac- scientific journals, 166 popular articles from maga- tinistia (which contains 120 extinct taxa) arose in the zines and newsletters, 60 newspaper articles, 45 Middle Devonian and was formerly thought to have scientific book chapters, 37 books, 22 reports, and 3 died out during the Late Cretaceous, some 65 million theses. This list included only those publicationsthat years ago (Cloutier& Forey 1991).Latimer's drawings incorporatednew information. If all publicationsthat (Smith 1956a,b) clearly showed the fleshy, limb-like, refer to the coelacanth were induded (repetitive basal portions of the fins, characteristicof the group, newspaper articles, hundreds of additional popular which enabled Smith to identify the coelacanth. He articles, almost all biology and zoology texts, etc.), made arrangements to borrow the fish from the East the bibliographywould have to be greatly expanded. London Museum and became quite obsessed with An initial surge of publications occurred in 1939 the issue of its ownership ("One curious feature of and the early 1940simmediately after the discovery of this whole affairwas that at no time did I look upon the first living coelacanth (Bruton, Coutouvidis & it as anything but my own."-Smith, p. 36, 1956a). Pote 1991). In the archives of the J.L.B. Smith Insti- He carried out an in-depth examination of what tute of Ichthyology, there are 53 newspaper articles remained of the coelacanth and named it Latimeria written in 1939alone. The WorldWar II years resulted chalumnae(after MarjorieCourtenay-Latimer and the in a slump, but following the finding of the second capture locality). After several months, the East Lon- Latimeriain 1952 there was a second, even greater don Museum demanded the return of "Old Four- outflow of publications.J.L.B. Smith's obsession with legs" and it was put on public display. the coelacanthand its importance(publicly confessed

204 THEAMERICAN BIOLOGY TEACHER, VOWME 57, NO. 4, APRIL195 in Smith 1956a,b)was undoubtedly a driving force for Chicago (1959);and development of moleculargenet- much of this early publicity. His popular book Old ics. Although all of these were of great significance Fourlegspublished in 1956 (released in the U.S.A. as academically,they had little or no impact in educat- The SearchBeneath the Sea) went through 11 editions ing the public about the reality of evolution. and was translated into eight languages. The flow of The exciting discovery of "Lucy" (Australopithecus publications since the 1950s has continued to grow afarensis)by Donald Johnson and related fossil "ape with a high point of 59 publicationslisted by Bruton, men" by other anthropologists(summarized by Berra Coutouvidis & Pote (1991) for both 1988 and 1989. 1990) might be considered by some to have had an The animal has also appeared on film. Recently, importanteffect in educating the public more recently when watching a video of the classic, animated about the reality of evolution. The transitionalnature Fantasiaintroduced by Walt Disney in 1940, I recog- of these fossils in the ancestral lineage of Homo is nized a clear-cut example of a coelacanth in the clear, and thus they have profound evolutionary evolutionarysequence. The coelacanthhas even been significance. However, the public has been much featuredin children'sbooks, poetry, plays, and songs more reluctantto accept evolution when it is applied (Bruton et al. 1991). Thus, a diverse and abundant to humans, and the public has been particularly literature on this extraordinaryfish developed. Few prone to fabricatethe necessity of additional"missing other species of vertebrates have received as much links" when it comes to the ancestry of Homosapiens. Downloaded from http://online.ucpress.edu/abt/article-pdf/57/4/202/47115/4449971.pdf by guest on 28 September 2021 attention (Bruton, Coutouvidis & Pote 1991). Life magazine was among the more influential Implications for Teaching Evolution periodicalsin the U.S.A. to publicize the discovery of Latimeria.That magazine was at the height of its The lesson of Latimeriahas ramifications for the popularity from 1930-1950sand was found on many teaching of evolution to people with little or no coffee tables across the country. Life published two scientificbackground (in large, university-level, non- major articles in the April 3, 1939 and January 19, major courses in introductory biology, or in public 1953 issues which covered the discovery of the first lectures). The visual impact of "Old Fourlegs" is and second living coelacanths. Prominentlyfeatured obvious, and I thus suggest that evidence for evolu- in each article was a large, two-page photographic tion be emphasized using illustrativematerials (other spread of each coelacanth. There in black and white than coelacanths)that have or had clear-cutexistence the public could clearly see the large, protruding, (e.g. fossil ancestry of the horse, evolution of jaw lobed fins. Many readers undoubtedly perceived that articulationand ear ossicles in reptiles and mammals, scientists had at last produced a true "missing link" artificial selection of animals under domestication, between the fishes and the tetrapods. (The caption etc.). Lengthy theoreticaldiscourses on the processes for the 1953 Life photo even indicated that Latimeria by which evolution occurs are probablyless effective was closely related to a "missing link.") Variousother in convincing the nonscientificpublic because of their periodicals also reported that the living coelacanth complexity, their nonobjective nature, and the diffi- was indeed a "missing link" (see Smith 1956a,b; culty of using illustrations with which nonscientists Thomson 1991). This was vigorously denied by J.L.B. can easily relate. Natural selection, the struggle for Smith (1956a,b)but his reply was not widely dissem- existence, and survival of the fittest definitely need to inated through the press. Many specialists agree be covered, but it is beneficial to accompany these (L0vtrup 1977) that the ancestors of the amphibians topics with objective examples such as co-evolution occur in another group of extinct fishes, the Rhipid- of the European rabbit and the myxoma virus in istia. A number of other researchers see the Dipnoi Australia, or evolution of industrial melanism in the (lungfishes) as the sister group of the tetrapods, and peppered moth in England. a few workers even prefer other groups of fishes. The public has long been preoccupied with "miss- Nonetheless, it is probablethat much of the nonscien- ing links," although most evolutionists do not con- tific public viewed the coelacanthas a "missinglink." sider this a hot topic because evolution is viewed as a continuum. Nonetheless, valid transitional forms Discussion (not coelacanths) or fossil lineages can be used to advantage in teaching evolution because they are A number of other important advances and events simple to understand and easily illustrated. have occurred in the development of evolutionary theory since Darwin. Some of these include: redis- covery of Mendelian genetics at the turn of the Conclusions century;publication of Geneticsand theOrigin of Species In the century after the publicationof On theOrigin by Dobzhansky (1937);development of the biological of Species,there were three major historical events species concept; the rise of population genetics; the that played a role in increasing public awareness of Darwin Centennial Celebration at the University of evolution:

LATIMERIA205 1. The Huxley-Wilberforce debate Tools for learning science ... 2. The Scopes trial as a way of knowing 3. The discovery of living coelacanths. The first two of these events, however, probably had relatively little effect in educating laypersons about the reality of evolution because little informa- BioQUE$7 Librar tion of a factual nature was convincingly conveyed to the public. For both events, publicity was primarily of nonscientific nature. Discovery of living coelacanths,

; with their large, protrudent, lobed fins, popularized '44A.'A$<-, the myth that evolution's "missing link" had been found, while in reality, the ancestors of the tetrapods are probably from the extinct Rhipidistia or the Dipnoi (lungfishes). Nonetheless, the visual repre- sentation of the fins and phenomenal publicity about the coelacanth undoubtedly convinced many layper- Downloaded from http://online.ucpress.edu/abt/article-pdf/57/4/202/47115/4449971.pdf by guest on 28 September 2021 sons of the reality of evolution. Consequently, it is suggested that when teaching evolution to the non- The BioQUESTLibrary is a compendiumof computer- scientific public, evidence be emphasized using illus- based tools, simulations,and textual materialsto support trative material (other than coelacanths) that has research-likeinvestigations in your biologyclassroom. clear-cut, valid existence and is relatively easy to These resources, now in use at hundredsof institutions comprehend. across the country,have been designed for use in cooperative learningenvironments that emphasize Acknowledgments BioQUEST's3P's: the scientificprocesses of Problem- posing, Problem-solving,and peer Persuasion. I thank: T. Berra,J. & L.N. Brown, M. Bruton, B. Burr, P.H. Greenwood, E. Mockford, G. Paukstis and M. & J. The core of the Libraryis the BioQUESTCollection, a set Peyton for criticallyreading the manuscript;J. Brown, M. of peer-reviewed,field-tested modules addressing issues Bruton and M. Peyton for enthusiastic encouragement; in evolution,genetics, ecology, molecularbiology, and J.L.B. Smith Institute of Ichthyology (primary copyright physiology. This Collection,together withadditional holder) and Stanford University Press for permission to CollectionCandidates and supplementalmodules provide reproduceFigure 1 (see Berra1990, and Musick et al. 1991); more than 25 simulationsand tools for addressing a wide and J.L.B. Smith Institute of Ichthyology for permission to 2 range of issues in bio-science teaching and learning. reproduceFigure (see Smith 1956a,b). The BioQUESTLibrary is distributedon CD-ROM. References Individualuser licenses for the full Libraryare availablefoi $99 (payable to the Universityof Maryland).For site Allen, L.H. (1925). Bryanand Darrowat Dayton.New licenses, upgradepricing, and/or other ordering York:Russell & Russell (1967 reissue). information,contact: Anonymous. (1939). Century's most amazing scientific find is this live fish of 50,000,000 years ago. The ePress Project' ComputerScience Center Life,6(14), 26-27. Universityof Maryland Anonymous. (1953). A new 300-million-year-oldclue College Park,MD 20742 to evolution. Life,34(3), 82-84. 301-405-7600 [email protected] Berra, T.M. (1990). Evolutionand the mythof creation- To receive BioQUEST Notes, the newsletterof the BioQUEST ism. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. CurriculumConsortium, contact: Bruton,M.N., Cabral,A.J.P. & Fricke,H. (1992).First captureof a coelacanth, Latimeriachalumnae (Pisces, BioQUEST Latimeriidae),off BeloitCollege Mozambique. SouthAfrican Jour- 700 College Street nal of Science,88(4), 225-227. Beloit,WI 53511 Bruton, M.N. & Coutouvidis, S.E. (1991). An inven- 608-363-2743 [email protected] tory of all known specimens of the coelacanth Latimeriachalumnae, with comments on trends in BioQUESThas received majorfunding and supportfrom ... the catches. In J.A. Musick, M.N. Bruton & E.K. Balon (Eds.), Thebiology of Latimeriachalumnae and ^i TheAnnenberg/CPB Project evolutionof coelacanths(pp. 371-390). Dordrecht, Withadditional support from the NationatScience Foundation, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers. AppleComputer, Foundationtor Microbiology, Bruton, M.N., Coutouvidis, S.E. & Pote, J. (1991). andothers Bibliographyof the living coelacanth Latimeriacha-

206 THEAMERICAN BIOLOGY TEACHER, VOLUME 57, NO. 4, APRIL1995 lumnae,with comments on publication trends. In J.A. Musick, M.N. Bruton & E.K. Balon (Eds.), The Announcing biologyof Latimeriachalumnae and evolutionof coelacanths(pp. 403-433). Dordrecht, Netherlands: Klu- wer Academic Publishers. The Bio VS3T Library Clark,R.W. (1968).The Huxleys. London: Heinemann. 2nd Edition Cloutier, R. & Forey, P.L. (1991). Diversity of extinct and living actinistian fishes (Sarcopterygii).In J.A. Musick, M.N. Bruton & E.K. Balon (Eds.), The The second editionof the BioQUESTLibrary is now biologyof Latimeriachalumnae and evolutionof coela- available. The core of the Libraryis the BioQUEST Collection,a set of peer-reviewed,fully field-tested canths(pp. 59-74). Dordrecht,Netherlands: Kluwer modules (markedwith an * below). The Collection, Academic Publishers. CollectionCandidates, and supplementalmodules Darwin, C. (1859). On the originof speciesby meansof providemore than 25 tools for addressing issues naturalselection or the preservationof favoredraces in across the bio-science curriculum.These include-- the strugglefor life. London: John Murray. de Camp, L.S. (1968). Thegreat monkeytrial. Garden GENETICS AND EVOLUTION City, NY: Doubleday & Company. Genetics Construction Kit*- a simulatedlaboratory Downloaded from http://online.ucpress.edu/abt/article-pdf/57/4/202/47115/4449971.pdf by guest on 28 September 2021 Dobzhansky, T. (1937). Geneticsand the originof spe- forMendelian genetics. cies. New York:Columbia University Press. Evolve - a simulatedlaboratory for the study of selection, migration,and genetic drift. Gould, S.J. (1986). Knight takes NaturalHis- bishop? Inherit- a tool forexploring human genetics. tory, 95(5), 18-33. Himmelfarb, G. (1962). Darwin and the Darwinian ECOLOGY revolution.Garden NY: City, Doubleday& Company. Biota* - a tool formodeling and analyzingpredator and Irvine,W. (1955).Apes, angels, and Victorians. New York: prey relationships. McGraw-HillBook Company (1972 paperbackre- Environmental Decision Making*- a visual issue). programmingtool formodeling and analyzing L0vtrup, S. (1977). The phylogenyof Vertebrata.Lon- ecosystems. don: John Wiley & Sons. Demography - a graphicalexploration of population Moorehead, A. (1969). Darwin and the Beagle.New dynamics. A Tripto a Forest - a multimediavisit to a forest with York:Harper & Row, Publishers. analyses of species compositionand density. Musick, J.A., Bruton, M.N. & Balon, E.K. (Eds.).

(1991). Thebiology of Latimeriachalumnae and evolu- PHYSIOLOGYAND ANATOMY tion of coelacanths.Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Isolated Heart Laboratories*- a graphicalexploration of pressure-volumerelations in the Peterson, H. (1932). Huxley-Prophetof science.Lon- heart. Cardio-VascularConstruction Kit- a tool for don: Longmans, Green and Co. circulatorysystem modelingand analyses. Ruse, M. (1982). Darwinismdefended. Reading, MA: Axon - a simulatedlaboratory for neural physiology. Addison-Wesley. Smith, J.L.B. (1939a). A surviving fish of the Order MOLECULARBIOLOGY Actinistia. Transactions of the Royal Societyof South Sequencelt!* - a simulationof the experimentalprocesses Africa,27(1), 47-50. used forprotein sequencing. Smith, J.L.B. (1939b).A living fish of Mesozoic type. MicrobialGenetics Construction Kit - a simulatedlab Nature,143(3620), 455-456. withauxonography, complementation & conjugation. Smith, J.L.B. (1940). A living coelacanthid fish from South Africa. Transactionsof theRoyal Society of South GENERAL TEXT AND TOOLS Africa,28(1), 1-106. Biometrics* - a textualexploration into commonquestions Smith, J.L.B. (1953). The second coelacanth. Nature, in the applicationof statisticsin biology. 171(4342),99-101. Data Collection & Organization*- a textualintroduction Smith, J.L.B. (1956a). Thesearch beneath the sea. New to scientificobservation. York:Henry Holt and Company. Model Building*- an introductionto basic philosophical Smith, J.L.B. (1956b). Old fourlegs. London: Long- and practicalissues in biologicalmodeling. mans, Green, and Company. Thomson, K.S. (1991). Livingfossil. New York:W.W. Inaddition, all 1994-95 site license holders may Norton & Company. participatein the Spring 1995 BioQUEST TownMeeting. Tompkins, J.R. (Ed.). (1965). D-daysat Dayton.Baton For more information,contact the BioQUESTsupport line Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press. at The ePress ProjecfrM.

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