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Human Disturbance of Breeding Golden Eagles (Aquila Chrysaetos)

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Human Disturbance of Breeding Golden Eagles (Aquila Chrysaetos) U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service Human Disturbance of Breeding Golden Eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) Photo credit: Jeremy Buck, USFWS Human Disturbance of Breeding Golden Eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Regions 1, 2, 6, and 8 Front Matter September 18, 2017 Disclaimer The findings and conclusions in this article are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily represent the views of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Suggested Citation Hansen, D.L., R.J. Spaul, B. Woodbridge, D. Leal, J.R. Dunk, J.W. Watson, and J. T. Driscoll. 2017. Human disturbance of breeding golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos). Unpublished report prepared for the Western Golden Eagle Team, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Available online at:. https://ecos.fws.gov/ServCat/Reference/Profile/112570 Acknowledgments This synthesis was authored by Dan L. Hansen, Robert J. Spaul, Brian Woodbridge, David Leal, Jeffrey R. Dunk, James W. Watson, and James T. Driscoll. The authors are grateful to the following reviewers (in alphabetical order): Joseph Buchanan, Michael Collopy, Joel Pagel, Matthew Stuber, and Hillary White. Golden Eagle Disturbance—i Table of Contents Front Matter ................................................................................................................................. i Disclaimer ............................................................................................................................................ i Suggested Citation ............................................................................................................................. i Acknowledgments ............................................................................................................................. i Table of Contents ...................................................................................................................... ii Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 1 Human Disturbance of Golden Eagles and Other Raptors .......................................... 2 Physiological Responses ................................................................................................................ 3 Behavioral Responses ..................................................................................................................... 3 Alertness or Alarm ................................................................................................................................... 4 Activity Patterns ........................................................................................................................................ 7 Habitat Associations, Spatial Relationships, or Distribution .................................................. 8 Reproduction, Survival, and Population Responses ............................................................ 9 Factors Influencing Responses to Human Disturbance ................................................... 11 Auditory vs. Visual Stimuli ................................................................................................................. 12 Mode of Human Presence ................................................................................................................... 12 Vegetation and Terrain ....................................................................................................................... 13 Proximity and Angle of Approach ................................................................................................... 14 Nutritional Status................................................................................................................................... 14 Reproductive Status and Time of Year.......................................................................................... 15 Previous Experience ............................................................................................................................. 15 Protecting Breeding Golden Eagles from Human Disturbance .............................. 17 Temporal Buffers .......................................................................................................................... 18 Spatial Buffers ................................................................................................................................ 18 Buffers Around Used Nests ................................................................................................................ 19 Buffers Based on Spatial Use ............................................................................................................. 21 Adaptation of Spatial Buffers ............................................................................................................ 25 References ................................................................................................................................ 25 Appendix 1: Elicitation of Expert Opinion Concerning Human Disturbance of Breeding Golden Eagles .......................................................................................... 33 Introduction and Methods ......................................................................................................... 33 Results and Discussion ................................................................................................................ 36 Management Considerations .................................................................................................... 43 Acknowledgments ......................................................................................................................... 44 References........................................................................................................................................ 44 Golden Eagle Disturbance—ii Introduction The status of golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) populations in the western United States (U.S.) is unclear (USFWS 2009, 2016a). Kochert and Steenhof (2002) reported that some nesting populations in the western U.S. had declined due to human activities. More recently, modeling based on count data indicated that golden eagle populations in the western U.S. were generally stable during the period 1968–2014, while analyses of demographic data suggested that they are gradually declining (Millsap et al. 2013, USFWS 2016a). Regardless, the golden eagle is a protected species in the U.S., and some populations are negatively impacted by human activities (Kochert and Steenhof 2002, Kochert et al. 2002, USFWS 2016a, b). Recognized threats to golden eagles in the U.S. include electrocution by power lines, collisions with automobiles or wind turbines, lead poisoning, intentional shooting, habitat change, prey declines, and human disturbance (Kochert and Steenhof 2002, Kochert et al. 2002, USFWS 2009, 2016a, b). The following document is concerned with human disturbance of golden eagles, as defined below. Other potential threats, such as habitat modification, may also be considered forms of 'disturbance' but are not discussed herein. Golden eagles are protected by the Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act (16 U.S.C. 668- 668c; hereafter, Eagle Act), the Migratory Bird Treaty Act (16 U.S.C. 703-712), and various state regulations and guidelines. The Eagle Act is the primary law protecting golden eagles in the U.S. (USFWS 2009). The Eagle Act prohibits unauthorized 'take' of eagles. Take includes to "pursue, shoot, shoot at, poison, wound, kill, capture, trap, collect, destroy, molest or disturb (16 U.S.C. 668c; 50 CFR 22.3)." The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (hereafter, Service) defined the word 'disturb', as used in the Eagle Act, to mean "...to agitate or bother a bald or golden eagle to a degree that causes, or is likely to cause, based on the best scientific information available, (1) injury to an eagle, (2) a decrease in its productivity, by substantially interfering with normal breeding, feeding, or sheltering behavior, or (3) nest abandonment, by substantially interfering with normal breeding, feeding, or sheltering behavior (USFWS 2007:2)." In contrast with the Service's definition of disturbance, researchers often simply define human disturbance as activities that disrupt an animal's normal physiology or behavior (Knight and Skagen 1988, Frid and Dill 2002, Romero 2004). Few studies have established a clear link between wildlife species' physiological or behavioral responses to human activities and negative effects on survival, reproduction, or population size (Bowles 1995, Gill et al. 2001, Tarlow and Blumstein 2007). The following synthesis is an evaluation of human disturbance of golden eagles. The synthesis is presented in three parts: (1) a review of what is currently known about the effects of human activities on the physiology, behavior, fitness, and population biology of golden eagles and other raptors; (2) a discussion of how the responses of golden eagles and other wildlife to human activities may be influenced by characteristics of the animal, human activity, or environment; and (3) an analysis of possible approaches to protecting breeding golden eagles from human disturbance. The purpose of this synthesis is to provide a review of currently available scientific information on these topics, rather than to recommend specific management guidelines or actions. Golden Eagle Disturbance—1 Human Disturbance of Golden Eagles and Other Raptors Disturbance of raptors is frequently evaluated through behavioral
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