Integrated Coastal Management in Campeche, Mexico; a Review After the Mexican Marine and Coastal National Policy

Ocean and Coastal Management 154 (2018) 34–45

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Ocean and Coastal Management

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Integrated coastal management in Campeche, Mexico; a review after the T Mexican marine and coastal national policy

∗ Juan Carlos Nava Fuentesa, , Pedro Arenas Granadosb, Filomena Cardoso Martinsc a University of Cadiz, Polígono Río San Pedro, 11510, Puerto Real, Cadiz, Spain b Coastal Areas Integrated Management Group, Andalusian Center of Marine Studies, Avenida República Saharaui s/n, 11510, Puerto Real, Cadiz, Spain c Department of Environment and Planning, University of Aveiro, University Campus of Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: The coastal zone of the State of Campeche provides a space where converge, in a complex interaction, numerous National policy economic activities on which the state depends. Despite its environmental, social and economic importance in Coastal management the State development, its management had been made in a sectorial and unintegrated way. In 2007, a Mexican Decalogue Inter-ministerial Commission for Oceans and Coasts was created. Its aim was to attend the diﬀerent activities Campeche that take place in the coastal zone. In 2006 the “National Environmental Policy for the Sustainable Development Mexico of Oceans and Coasts of Mexico” (NPOCM) was presented; and it was approved in 2011. After three years of its approval, it is important to identify the progress of Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) in the State. A combination of two methodologies were used: (i) the Drivers, Pressures, State, Impacts and Responses (DEPSIR) framework, broadly used in the Global Environmental Outlook reports; and ii) the Decalogue methodology to analyze government responses as the key issues in the State Public Administration. We identiﬁed that the ICZM in the State's administration is in an initial stage of execution. It was observed a change in the perception in relation of the coastal zone importance. The development and the government approval of the Campeche Bay Sanitation Zone Integrated Management Program (PMIZC-BaCam) triggered the creation and implementation of responses that are strategic to attend the coastal problematic.

1. Introduction regulates different activities. These include institutions from different sectors and, in the case of Mexico, from the three administrative levels, The coastal zone is a complex space where the atmosphere, the so their participation in the Integrated Coastal Zone Management ocean and the continents interact; giving rise to unique and dynamic (ICZM) process is indispensable for the articulation and implementation ecosystems with great ecological importance. In this area are carried of the defined strategies (Kay and Alder, 1999; Rivera-Arriaga, 2004). out different economic activities, and it provides the space and re- Mexico is divided in three administrative levels, the Federal, State sources indispensable for the development of human activities. They and Municipal government. The 44th Article of the Mexican United are strategic spaces for the economic development, food security and States Political Constitution of 1917 establishes that the municipality is subsistence of coastal countries and populations; nevertheless its man- considered the basis of its territorial division and its political-adminis- agement has been made in a sectorial and fragmented approach (UN, trative organization (DOF, 2017). Municipalities have the autonomy to 1992; UNEP/GPA, 2006; SEMARNAT, 2010). regulate, collect and administrate the resources from its territory. Economical activities have an impact in coastal environments and However, they should be governed by the provisions from the Federal generate changes in the human well-being of coastal populations. These and State laws and policies without limiting its legal powers; except for impacts have been identified as the result of the economic activities national assets with a public domain, such as coastal zones and its re- pressures and the demand of areas for urban settlements and tourism sources (DOF, 2017). In this context, and due to the jurisdiction of the developments. Also, coastal landscape homogenization had led to a different governmental levels, the coastal zone management is compe- cultural heritage loss and an inequality in the income distribution tence of the federal administration but with state and municipal actions (Arenas-Granados, 2012). and programs. Also, it is a space in which the land and marine systems converge, so The coastal zone of the State of Campeche has a length of 412,62 km there are involved a wide range of institutions that manage and (Rivera-Arriaga and Villalobos-Zapata, 2008). It provides a space where

∗ Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (J.C. Nava Fuentes), [email protected] (P. Arenas Granados), ﬁ[email protected] (F. Cardoso Martins). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2017.12.029 Received 11 May 2017; Received in revised form 11 December 2017; Accepted 25 December 2017 0964-5691/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. J.C. Nava Fuentes et al. Ocean and Coastal Management 154 (2018) 34–45

Fig. 1. Distribution of the coastal population in the State of Campeche.

b) Production and consumption patterns converge in a complex connection, numerous economic activities on final objective. In the first part we made a diagnosis of the coastal zone which the state depends. In 2012 it was obtained the 5,5% of the total of the Campeche State. We used a hypothetical-deductive methodology value of the national fishing and the 21,3% of the Gulf of Mexico ports with an 18 years' time horizon from 1995 to 2012 (4 administrations (CONAPESCA, 2012). In 2012 it was extracted the 10,4% of the na- were included). This time horizon is related to a previous research in tional production of crude oil and the 8,2% of natural gas (INEGI, which the national level was analyzed and included three national 2014). The service sector accounts for the 21,4%, of the state GDP, president administrations (Nava-Fuentes et al., 2017). being tourism one of the main components (INEGI, 2016). We used the Drivers - Pressures - State - Impacts - Responses (DPSIR) Seven of its eleven municipalities have a coastal front and despite framework for a better understanding of the coastal areas resource the environmental, social and economic importance its management management and has been driven by the Global Environmental Outlook had been made in a sectorial and unintegrated way (INEGI, 2010a). In “GEO” reports (UNEP, 2007). We recognized the driving forces (sci- 2007, during the presentation of the “National Strategy for Ecological and entific and technological innovation; political, institutional and social Territorial Planning of Oceans and Coasts” that the then President, Felipe models; demography and economic development patterns; and dis- Calderon Hinojosa, demanded the creation of an Inter-ministerial tribution processes within and between generations); pressures in Commission for oceans and coasts to attend the different activities that coastal zones (generally by human intervention: resource exploitation, take place in this important zone. pollution and human activities; and pressures with nature origin: ex- At the same time it was presented the first coastal policy draft treme events like hurricanes and floods). named “National environmental policy for the sustainable development of With these two elements (drivers and pressures) and based on actual oceans and coasts of Mexico”; which after five years of revisions and studies we established the state and trends of the coastal zones eco- public consultation it was approved for its publication in 2012, with the systems; next we used the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment official name of “National Policy of oceans and coasts of Mexico” (Millennium Ecosystems Assessment, 2003) and the Marine and coastal (NPOCM; CIMARES, 2012). ecosystems and human well-being approach (UNEP, 2006) to identify After three years of its publication it is important to analyze the the associated impacts of the environmental state in coastal commu- progress of ICZM in the State agenda, identify the gaps that should be nities and human wellbeing. reduced and propose some actions needed to be taken to achieve its For this we analyzed relevant literature from environmental, eco- improvement, considering the coastal of the State of Campeche as the nomic and social studies published by State government institutions, study object. non-governmental organizations and research institutions. In the last stage of the DPSIR framework (Responses) we com- plemented it with the Decalogue methodology which has been broadly 2. Materials and methods used in the IBERMAR network (Barragán, 1997). It analyzes the implementation of the ICZM from the perspective of the State Public This study was divided in three sections regarding the aim of the

35 J.C. Nava Fuentes et al. Ocean and Coastal Management 154 (2018) 34–45

Administration (SPA) based in ten key elements: Policy, Legal frame- and extension. They are located at high depths, ranging from 20 m to work, Institutions, Strategies, Instruments, Managers training, Knowl- 100 m, with a height of 4 m and a distance from the coast from 42,6 km edge and research; Economical resources; Education for sustainability; to 142,6 km (Villalobos-Zapata and Mendoza-Vega, 2010). and Public participation. In the next sections the results regarding the components of the GEO Subsequently we identified the successive stage of each key issue reports will be presented. and associated it to a value using the criteria of Arenas-Granados (2012). The total valuation sum from the comparative analysis served 3.2. Driving forces to determine the implementation degree of the ICZM progress. Driving forces are described by the GEO report (UNEP, 2007) as the 3. Results and discussion social processes that influence coastal activities that impact directly and/or indirectly on coastal environments and people. 3.1. Coastal characterization of the State of Campeche a) Demography The State of Campeche is located on the southeast of the Mexican Republic and on the west part of the Peninsula of Yucatan, between the In 2010 the population of the State was 822.441 inhabitants (INEGI, parallels 17° 49′ and 20° 51′ N and the meridians 89° 06′ and 92° 27′ W. 2010a). The population had a growth rate of 28% from 1995 to 2010. It On the Northeastern borders with the State of Yucatan, on the East with was concentrated in three coastal municipalities: Campeche, Carmen the State of Quintana Roo, on the South with the Republic of Guatemala and Champoton. In 1995 the population of each Municipality corre- and on the Southwest with the State of Tabasco (Fig. 1). It has an area sponded to 31,83%, 27,97% and 12,46%, respectively. In 2010 the of 57.924 km2 and a coastline length of 523 km. Of the eleven muni- percentage continued almost similar suggesting that the population cipalities that constitute the State, seven are located in the coastal zone growth was relatively homogenous throughout the state. (from north to south): Calkini Hecelchakan, Tenabo, Campeche, Nevertheless, the Municipality of Campeche registered a greater Champoton, Carmen and Palizada. population increase. In the five-year period of 1995–2000, it had a Because of the geomorphological characteristics of the zone, soils growth rate of 6%. From 2000 to 2005 it was 10% and from 2005 to have a marine and sedimentary origin, mainly composed by calcium 2010 it was 8,4%. In total, from 1995 to 2010, it had a growth rate of carbonate. Due to the karstic properties of the terrain and the absence 26,6%. of elevations; the superficial runoffs are scarce. Because of the dis- The Municipality of Carmen in the period of 1995–2000 had a ne- solution of the carbonate rocs, the underground streams are common, gative growth rate of 4,23%. In 2000–2005 it was 16% and it decreased giving place to an intricate underground water system which goes out to 10% in the last period 2005–2010. In total, the growth rate was 23%. directly into the coast. On the contrary, the Municipality of Champoton in the first five- The State is divided in four hydrographic regions and six water- year period it registered a negative growth rate of 11%. Subsequently sheds. The southeast watershed has more superficial runoffs that flow registering an increase of 8% from 2000 to 2005; and 9% in directly to the coastal lagoon called “Terminos Lagoon”. The rest of the 2005–2010. In the total period it had a growth rate of 3,6% (INEGI, watersheds (center-west and north) have scarce superficial runoffs, 2013a). their presence depends on the rainy season (Champoton, Icajao and La The population increase in these municipalities, mainly in Malinche) (Rivera-Arriaga and Villalobos-Zapata, 2008; SEMARNAP, Campeche and Carmen, is due to the importance that the City of San 1997). Francisco de Campeche as the capital of the state; and Ciudad del The Terminos Lagoon is the biggest littoral water body in the Carmen as a settlement area for the infrastructure and population country. It has a barrier island in its entrance, two openings to the sea dedicated to oil exploitation. and a 4 m mean depth. The rivers Mezcalapa, Grijalva and Usumacinta The State has the presence of an indigenous population belonging to discharge their waters in the lagoon and are the main rivers that flow in the Mayas' ethnic group, who in 2010 represented the 22,11% of the the Gulf of Mexico; as a result they conforms an intricate fluvio es- total population. In coastal municipalities the indigenous population tuarine system. had a greater representation in the municipalities of Calkiní (82,52%), Sediments from beaches have a calcareous and marly composition, Hecelchakan (73,14%), Hopelchen (71,51%) and Tenabo (46,65%). with sizes ranging from limes to gravel (Villalobos-Zapata and However from 1995 to 2010 it had a decrease of the 4% in relation to Mendoza-Vega, 2010). The continental shelf is wide, it varies between the total population (INEGI, 2010c; INEGI, 2013). 33 and 55 km; with depths from 70 to 220 m. Coasts are influenced by The percentage of illiteracy has declined from 14,7% in 1995 to the Loop Current that comes from the Atlantic Ocean (Rivera-Arriaga 9,23% in 2010. However, the proportion of women and men has been and Villalobos-Zapata, 2008; Villalobos-Zapata and Mendoza-Vega, maintained (INEGI, 2010c; INEGI, 2013). 2010). Demographic processes, such as immigration, the influence of The influence of the continental and ocean water in the coast de- communication media; as well as the inequality of which indigenous termines the existence of unique ecosystems in which the coastal po- communities are subjected, influences the loss of ethnic values. Also, pulation subsistence and other important economic activities depends the lack of appropriation and identification of new generations means on. The northern coast is characterized by the presence of mangrove that the local values essential for regional sustainability have been lost, ecosystems and an important area of petenes. Ecosystems present in the acquiring new consumption patterns which generate a greater pressure central part are low deciduous rain forest, medium subcaducifolia rain on the fragile and strategic coastal territory. forest and cultivated and induced grasslands areas. In the Champotón Consumption and production Patterns in the region are directly River there is a narrow strip of red mangrove, Rizhopora mangle. On the influenced by the resources accessibility and availability, and indirectly southern coast there are mangrove, popal, and tular ecosystems and the by the influence of markets. In the 40's decade, economic activities different low forest associations (Rivera-Arriaga and Villalobos-Zapata, were mainly focused on the exploration and exploitation of its primary 2008; Villalobos-Zapata and Mendoza-Vega, 2010). resources (Rivera-Arriaga and Villalobos-Zapata, 2008). Because of its Marine ecosystems are composed by patches of seagrass meadows geographical isolation and poor communication with the rest of the (Thalassia testudinum, Syringodium filiforme and Halodule wright) which country, led to a dependence on mono-exploitation and focused on continue into the Terminos Lagoon (Rivera-Arriaga and Villalobos- productive activities in order to meet the local market needs. Export Zapata, 2008). On the continental shelf, has been recorded the presence sector was based on basic products with a low added value; and agri- of coral ecosystems which are highly developed in diversity, abundance cultural activities continue to target the self-consumption of the

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Table 1 Table 2 Driving forces that influence the pressures and human processes in the coastal zone of Presence and tendency of the pressures identified for the coastal zone of Campeche. Campeche. Pressures Tendency Coastal physical context Line coast 523 km Human pressures Ground water extraction \ Total State territorial surface 57.924 km2 Waste water discharge + Demography in 2010 Fertilizers runoff + Population 822.441°hab Solid urban waste + Population in coastal municipalities 80,54% Hydrocarbon extraction − Population growth from 1995 to 2010 28% Fisheries − Indigenous groups 1 Land-use change + Indigenous population 22,11% Ports and maritime navigation + Human Well-being Index 0,729 Coastal construction + Population with extreme poverty 13,8% of the population living in Natural pressures Hurricanes + extreme poverty Flooding + Immigration from other states and from inside the State to the coastal zone. Tendency Economic processes Increasing tendency + Mono-exploitation and productive activities focused in meeting local market needs. Reducing tendency − Reforms to existing laws that allow the entry of foreign companies for the exploitation No change \ of oil resources. Scientific and technological innovation Technology focused on the prospection of deep-water oil. million m3 in 2010. Main sources were from domestic, services, in- Introduction of transgenic seeds, pesticides and fertilizers. dustrial, agricultural and thermoelectric activities. However, there was New medicines used in aquiculture. Cultural, social, political and institutional processes not found a rigorous record for the number of discharges on the coast Reduction in the illiteracy percentage from 14.7% in 1995 to 9.23% in 2010. (INEGI, 2013a; INEGI, 2013b). Women and indigenous population have a higher percentage of illiteracy. The number of waste water treatment plants increased from 19 Inequality of opportunities: between gender and indigenous population. plants in 1995 to 1.550 in 2010. The construction was mostly private, Decrease of indigenous population. Or indigenous identity? 12 treatment plants in 1995 and 1.229 until 2010. However, the Lack of ownership and identification of younger generations to ancestral customs. Unequal distribution of natural and economic resources. amount of the discharged water was higher than the rate of treated Multinational enterprises turned into influential economic actors. water, which indicated that the treatment plants work below their in- Centralization of government institutions in the Capital of the State. stalled capacity. This problem was accentuated due to not all houses were connected to the municipal drainage service, and discharged their wastewater into septic tanks, earth cracks or caves (INEGI, 2013a; population (Rivera-Arriaga and Villalobos-Zapata, 2008). INEGI, 2013b). Due to an increase of the shrimp exploitation in the 70's and 80's; and the oil extraction in the 80's; there was registered a redistribution of b) Municipal Solid Waste the population, from rural areas in the interior of the State towards the coastal zones. This process required an increase in basic services and Solid urban waste in coastal areas is one of the main pollutants of infrastructure supply. the marine environment (UNEP/GPA, 2006). Although in all the municipalities of the State there were recollection and final disposal ser- c) Scientific and technological innovation vices, none of them gave them prior treatment to any kind of waste. The volume of tons has increased; in 1995 a total volume of 115 The technological innovation in the State has occurred in a similar thousand tons was registered and in 2010 it was 252 thousand tons. The way that the rest of the national territory. Despite the state policy sector 88% of the total volume came from coastal municipalities. It is im- registered an increase in the agriculture and fishing investment. There portant to note that the landfill areas decreased from 104 ha in 1995 to were lags in the machinery replacement, equipment and facilities that 29 in 2010. However, uncontrolled sites (open-pit disposal) increased have quickly become obsolete in a continuous regional, national and to 76 ha in 2010, of which 51,3% were found in coastal areas (INEGI, international technological change. 2013a; INEGI, 2013b). Investments in oil exploitation have been used in the technology improvement and the prospection for deep-water oil extraction. In c) Hydrocarbon extraction 2000, Petroleos Mexicanos (PEMEX) built a nitrogen-eliminating plant in the Atasta Peninsula (Rivera-Arriaga and Villalobos-Zapata, 2008). Activities for hydrocarbon extraction were the most relevant in- Driving forces described before influenced the incidence of pres- dustry of the State. Nevertheless the volume of oil production decreased sures in the coastal zone. Highlights of this section are presented in from 715,6 to 293,6 thousand barrels per day which represented the Table 1. 27,3% in 1995 to the 10,45% in 2012; in relation to the national production. Also the natural gas production decreased from 819,1 ft3 in 3.3. Pressures 1995 to 523,6 ft3 per day in 2012, which represented the 21% and the 8% respectively, of the national production (INEGI, 2014). Pressures on coastal zones include human activities such as tourism, While Cantarell's oil well production was declining, it was expected urban growth, resource extraction and land use change; as well as its that the production continue for the next 10 or 11 years. Also, new emissions and pollutants (UNEP/GPA, 2006; UNEP, 2012)(Table 2). investments in new platforms were expected to improve the Ku-Maloob- Zap oilfield production, with the exploration of deep-water oil (Rivera- a) Continental water Arriaga and Villalobos-Zapata, 2008; INEGI, 2014). The oil crisis meant the loss of more than 30 million jobs. To attend this, the strategy of the Aquifers were considered under-exploited and groundwater is re- state was the intensification and offer of tourism activities. latively abundant. However the pressure to which they are subject is The approval of an energy reform (in 2013) opened the opportunity due to pollution rather than by its exploitation. From 1995 to 2010 to private productive enterprises for the exploration and extraction of permits for wastewater discharges increased more than 50%. In 1995 it oil and other hydrocarbons (DOF, 2013). This will lead to an increase in was recorded a discharge volume of 173 million m3 per year and 265

37 J.C. Nava Fuentes et al. Ocean and Coastal Management 154 (2018) 34–45 its exploration and exploitation; an increase in the infrastructure ne- Seybaplaya); also by three offshore terminals: Arcas Key, Ta'kuntah and cessary for its extraction and transportation (both on land and in the YúumK'aakNáab. sea); the arrival of new workers from private companies; and an in- Port activities increased from 1995 to 2010 and the construction of crease in the demand for coastal resources and space for housing (in a new ports dispersed the number of ships that reached the main ports. In limited space like Ciudad del Carmen). 1995, 32.188 thousand tons were transported, which increased to 49.725 thousand tons in 2010; Cayo Arcas reported an increase of 90%. d) Fisheries The hydrocarbons transportation was reported as the main activity; Isla del Carmen port also reported fishing and commercial activities; while Although fishing is carried out along its entire coast, the largest Seybaplaya was used for the transportation of commercial agricultural fishing activity is concentrated in “Isla del Carmen”, in the Municipality and mineral products. Offshore terminals were used exclusively for oil of El Carmen, and “Isla Arena”, in the Municipality of Champotón. exportation activities (INEGI, 2010c). Total state fishery yields had a negative trend from 1995 to 2009 (from 66.388 t to 39.651 t, respectively), with a slight recovery of the g) Natural pressures 72% in 2010, compared to 2009. The main fishery products were: a) mackerel fishing, which re- The main natural pressures came from hurricane and flood events. corded an increase from 1993 (896 t) to 2010 (6.937 t); b) the shrimp Hurricane events do not frequently goes directly to its coasts, but it is fishery had a decline in its production from 1993 to 2005 (from 7.614 t influenced by the amount of water discharged and the wind speed to 2.730 t respectively), with a subsequent recovery of 8.155 t in 2010, (CONAGUA, 2011; CONABIO, 2008). which corresponds to the 15% of total production; c) the extraction of From 1995 to 2010 there were six hurricanes that affected the State sea snail decreased from 8.311 t in 2001 to 2.815 t in 2008 which re- of Campeche causing material and economic losses. The localities of presented a 50% less. In the following two years the fishery recovered San Francisco de Campeche, Los Petenes and Champoton were con- and in 2010 had a production of 5.718 t; d) the octopus fishery had a sidered as prone areas to flood and storm tide events (Posada-Vanegas maximum production of 7.268 t in 2001 with a decrease in 2003 with et al., 2013). 4.613 t, and a recovery in 2010 with 5.718 t, which represented 7% less than in 2006 (Flores-Hernández and Ramos-Miranda, 2004; INEGI, 3.4. State and trends 2009; SAGARPA, 2015). fi fl ff The shing eet was composed by specialized larger o shore vessels Reviewed studies of coastal ecosystems reported an alteration in the fi fi for shrimp and sh shing; located mainly in the ports of Campeche majority of the different ecosystems present in the Campeche coasts. fl and El Carmen. The eet decreased by about its half (from 454 vessels Main problems were referred to waste water discharges and land-use in 1994 to 235 in 2010), but shrimp production continued to decline. change (for agricultural and urban) and the resulting coverage decrease fl fi fi The eet for sh shing remained relatively constant, from 27 in 1994 and habitat fragmentation of mangrove ecosystems (Table 3) to 23 in 2010. (CONABIO, 2008; CEPAL, 2005; Rodríguez-Zúñiga et al., 2013; Benítez- fi fl The small shing eet was composed by small boats with a greater Pardo et al., 2013). fl distribution. The eet had a maximum of vessels in 1997 with 5.362, Campeche's coastal ecosystems revealed high concentrations of number that remained until 2010. hydrocarbons and pesticides in sediments which highlight the persis- fi Relatively new is the sea cucumber shery, which since 2009 it was tence of these contaminants. However, impact studies in species po- requested to the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock Rural Development, pulation and trophic relationships are needed (PNUMA, 2004; Fisheries and Food (SAGARPA) the exploitation of four commercial Rodríguez-Zúñiga et al., 2013; Benítez-Pardo et al., 2013). fi species. In 2011 the rst permit was granted without previous studies Even that census reflect an increase in sewerage systems, the pre- neither of maximum exploitation nor extractions periods. Permits were sence of fecal coliforms and municipal solid wastes in the sea water fi approved for 300 shermen and 290 vessels (Espinoza-Tenorio et al., stills being an indicator of its contamination (PNUMA, 2004; Botello 2012). et al., 2005). The increase in the discharges of organic matter and nu- trients in coastal waters and lagoons has leaded on its eutrophication e) Land-use change and the presence of anoxic environments which affect mangroves, sea grasses and demersal and benthic ecosystems (PNUMA, 2004; Botello fi Agricultural activities in the State were identi ed to be the main et al., 2005, 2010). causes for land use change. The coastal municipalities that registered a Also, forestry and dredging activities had affected the balance of greater percentage of sown area were the municipalities of Champoton, sediments that reach the coast which had contributed the coastal ero- Carmen and Campeche. The sown area in coastal municipalities in- sion in sandy beaches (Villalobos-Zapata and Mendoza-Vega, 2010; creased from 66,164 ha in 1995 to 127,542 ha in 2010, corresponding Posada-Vanegas et al., 2013; CONABIO, 2013). to an increase of 48%. In the relation sown-area/municipal-area, the Municipality of Palizada had a greater percentage, in 2010 reached the 65%. 3.5. Impacts Irrigated agriculture is the most used technique, which since 1995 increased (in 2010 it represented 90% of production). Likewise, me- Impacts from coastal environmental state in coastal population were fi chanized agriculture represents about 50% of the total area. classi ed into the environmental services that they provide (Table 4). Finally, the forest activity is also an activity with a high importance The table gives an idea of how the state of coastal ecosystem services in the State (INEGI, 2013b; INEGI, 2010b). Due to the existence of impacts in the well-being constituents. precious woods, the forest production had a positive trend, it increased from 27,225 m3 in 1994 to 189,882 m3 in 2008; however in 2010 it was 3.6. Responses dropped to 72,385 m3, 61% less (INEGI, 2011). In this section will be analyzed the ten key aspects of the State f) Ports and Maritime Navigation Public Administration (SPA) that constitute the responses of the government in order to address the problems described before. Each aspect The State port system is composed by three main ports, in “Ciudad was valuated depending on its implementation state in order to obtain del Carmen” (Isla del Carmen); and two in Campeche (Lerma and the improvement degree in ICZM.

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Table 3 Pressures, state and trends of the coastal ecosystems in Campeche.

Ecosystem Principal pressures State Trends

Mangroves Increase of the agricultural frontier Mangrove ecosystems coverage Roads, marinas, and thermoelectric facilitations construction Habitat fragmentation Sea level increase Extraction of wildlife species Biodiversity

Water eutrophication

Fertilizers, pesticides, hydrocarbons and municipal solid waste pollution Beaches and coastal dunes Urban and tourism growth Loss of sandy beaches due to coastal erosion Roads, marinas, and thermoelectric facilitations construction Jetties and breakwaters construction Alteration of sedimentary cells balance Sediments and rocks extraction for construction Urban solid wastes and oil pollution

Coastal wetlands Urban and tourism growth Water column eutrophication Roads, marinas, and thermoelectric facilitations construction Increase of the agricultural frontier Presence of contaminants, fecal coliforms and municipal solid Increased areas for aquaculture wastes Sea level increase Sedimentation processes Extraction of wildlife species Habitat fragmentation

Coral reefs Marine traﬃc increase Loss of diversity and resources Deep sea hydrocarbons extraction Seagrass Discharge of untreated urban, industrial and agricultural waste Species population decline water Coverage Oil exploration and exploitation Water column eutrophication Construction of ports, dikes, canals, etc. Dredging increase Contaminants, fecal coliforms and municipal solid wastes Diversity and resources

Demersal and benthic ecosystems Oil exploration and exploitation Organisms population decrease and alteration of food chains Trawl ﬁshing Marine traﬃc increase Hydrocarbon contaminants

Increase: Decrease: Missing information:

Table 4 been included within the economic growth and furthermore in the in- Coastal ecosystems services state impacts in coastal population well-being. frastructure axis. However, in the 2009–2015 administration and after the urge of the Cultural services - Cultural changes of coastal indigenous populations. Institute of Ecology, Fisheries and Oceanography of the Gulf of Mexico - Population displacement due urbanization growth. (EPOMEX) one of the then Governor's notarized commitments, was the - Coastal privatization. Sanitation of the Campeche Bay. The main causes identified were the - Social inequality increase. social backwardness observed in the State of Campeche, mainly of the - Tourism revenues decrease. scarce coverage of the public services. This determined that the estab- Supply services - Contamination of species for human consumption. lished policies were focused on its improvement. - Diseases caused by the proliferation of pathogens. - Sea food cost increase to meet regional needs. b) Legal framework - Search and exploitation of other food sources. Regulation services fi - Increased investment in barriers against natural events. There was not a coastal or a speci c law focused in coastal and - Occurrence of new diseases. marine resources management. The range of laws that regulate the - Increase in the cost of sanitation and health campaigns for disease prevention. coastal zone were broad and sectoral. The legal framework that had a - Infrastructure and agriculture area loss. direct or indirect impact on the management of coastal zones is de- - Cost Increase in the provision of basic services. scribed below: The aims of the “Campeche Sustainable Fisheries and Aquaculture ” fi a) Public policy Law were: to regulate, promote and manage the shery and aquaculture resources utilization (P.O., 2008a). “ The State of Campeche did not have an explicit policy of integrated Regarding environmental regulation, the Campeche Ecological ” management for the coastal zone. The environmental management, Equilibrium and Environmental Protection Law , established the basis Because of the centralized nature of the Mexican political system, and for the preservation, conservation and restoration of the ecological therefore coastal zones, depends on the policies derived from the fed- balance. Also for the protection of the environment; it is the State's eration and the priorities of each administration at both the federal and Government responsibility the development of appropriate measures to state levels (Fraga et al., 2008). prohibit polluting emissions that exceed the maximum permissible le- New State's government administrations must present their “State vels. Regulate the sustainable use, prevention and control of the water Development Plan” which serves as a guideline for policies, goals, contamination (in rivers, basins, marine waters and other deposits in- strategies and priorities of each administration (P.O., 1985). However, cluding underground waters). Also prevent and control assigned federal in the analyzed administrations environmental issues (much less coastal waters contamination throughout the provision of public services (P.O., management) have not been recognized as a strategic axis. They have 1997).

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Other laws, while did not directly affects coastal resources man- investment. In sustainable development terms, one of the main strate- agement, manage and regulate other activities that affect the coastal gies was to promote the development of Ecological Spatial Planning at zone state. The “Campeche Agricultural Law” (P.O., 2011a) regulated state and local level; and design and implement the State Climate agricultural activities of the State, which affect the coasts. The “Cam- Change Mitigation and Adaptation Plan; c) social development and peche Drinking Water and Sewage Law” (P.O., 2012a), established the welfare, d) responsible and modern government, e) public security services needs and regulated the institution's activities in the provision (PED, 2004; PED, 2010). of drinking water and sewage public services, including sanitation. The Even though Campeche is a coastal State, none of the established “Campeche Human Settlements Law” (P.O., 1993), as well as the strategies had been focused on the integrated management of its coastal “Campeche Public Works Law” (P.O., 2008b) established the actions zones, being addressed on a sectoral basis (Table 6). Programs derived needed for the improvement and implementation of the Urban Pro- from the former Ministry of Ecology (SECOL) were focused on the en- gram; besides the infrastructure, equipment and services needed. vironmental development programs with a high terrestrial component, The “Campeche Health Law” (P.O., 2013) established the measures addressing the coastal zone with programs focused on the fishing sector needed to protect human health in case of risks and damages that de- and protection of the sea turtle. In contrast, it was possible to observe pend on the environmental conditions. The “Campeche environmental the progress in terms of Ecological Territorial Planning (ETP) and cli- education Law” (P.O., 2011b) aimed to incorporate environmental mate change, the last one with three specific programs in the subject sustainable development education to all levels, modalities and edu- with resources designated from the federation. cational systems on the State. The EPOMEX Institute, with participation of government institutions, developed the “Campeche Bay Sanitation Zone Integrated c) Institutions Management Program (PMIZC-BaCam)”. As a result, a Specialized Working Group for the Sanitation of the Bay of Campeche (GE- By law, the responsibilities of the State Executive's agencies and SABACAM) was installed in 2010. It's aim was the transversality and entities are to plan, program, coordinate and execute their activities in integrality among the three government levels (Rivera-Arriaga et al., accordance with the policies and guidelines determined by the State's 2012). The group reported directly to the Water National Commission Governor (P.O., 2012b). In the State of Campeche, the Ministry of the (CONAGUA) and the State Governor. There were celebrated 120 ses- Environment and Sustainable Use (SMAAS) had competence in coastal sions and the results were: zones. However, this refers to the cooperation in the administration of the Federal Maritime Zone (ZOFEMAT). During the period of 1) Mega Project Business Project which included: a) pluvial drainage, 2009–2015 the SMAAS was responsible for the coordination of the b) sanitary drainage, c) drinking water system and d) water treat- “Group for the Sanitation of the Campeche Bay” (GE-SABACAM), which ment plants was integrated and established in 2010. Other ministries involved in the 2) A Campeche Water Law project (with the reform of the Mexican ICZM are presented on Table 5. Constitution 4th Article); 3) Environmental Education Programs orientated to the correct gar- d) Strategies bage management and reforestation of the coastal zone; 4) Construction of a landfill to avoid leachate; and the collection im- In the State Development Plans (SDP) it is establish the strategies to provement of urban solid waste by trucks; be followed in each of the administrations to the implementation of the 5) Tariff and water leakages studies in the city; proposed policies. The administration in turn must present annual op- 6) Strengthening of the Municipal water operator. erational programs, sectoral programs and special programs (P.O., e) Instruments 1985). Strategies that were implemented in the State have been focused on the growth and development of local economy, human training. There were two decreed Municipal ETP's derived from the strategies The main axes established in the analyzed administrations were: a) at federal level: ETP of the Municipality of Campeche (POETMC, 2011) education for progress, b) economic growth, through enhancing the and the ETP of the Municipality of Champoton (POETMC, 2012). De- primary activities of the State, such as livestock, fisheries, agriculture spite the SMAAS initiatives to enact municipal ETPs, the rest of the and beekeeping; to consolidate the tourist promotion and private coastal municipalities have not decreed their ordinances and were

Table 5 Functions of the state's ministries that inﬂuenced the coastal zone management.

Name Acronym Principal functions

Ministry of the Environment and Sustainable Use SMAAS - Promote the protection, restoration and conservation of ecosystems, natural resources and environmental goods and services in the State. - Cooperate with the federal agencies and entities, in relation to ZOFEMAT and the promotion of the use of the salt flats in National spaces. - Promote the Ecological Spatial Planning of the territory in coordination with the three government levels. Ministry of Fisheries and Aquaculture SEPESCA - Supervise and control the programs for the development and improvement of the fishing and aquaculture sector. - Cooperate, with federal administrations, the monitoring and enforcement of fishing and aquaculture laws and regulations; - Create legal and economic instruments for the fishery resources protection. Ministry of Health SS - Participate and collaborate, with the SMAAS, in the formulation and conduction of Sanitation policies Ministry of Urban Development and Public SDUOP - Design, execute, maintain and operate public works; as well as plans for an adequate water treatment, Works drainage and sewerage services. State Drinking Water Commission CAPAE - Propose and execute policies for the hydraulic infrastructure development; - Drinking water and sewerage services provision - Operate, maintain and rehabilitate public services. Ministry of Tourism ST - Propose policies and programs related to the promotion of tourist activities; - Propose the construction of hotel and tourist infrastructure. 1 In administrations prior to 2009, it was called the Secretariat of Ecology (SECOL).

40 J.C. Nava Fuentes et al. Ocean and Coastal Management 154 (2018) 34–45

Table 6 Sectorial programs developed by the last two state administrations.

Sector Administration 2003–2009 Administration 2009–2015

Environment SECOL SMAAS - Ecological culture program - Ecological Culture Program (ETP and environmental education - Marine turtle conservation and protection program programs) - Environmental protection - Economics of Climate Change (CC impacts identification) - Fishing - Campeche's CC mitigation and adaptation plan - Studies and projects related to the “Terminos Lagoon, Flora and - Natural resources inspection and monitoring Fauna Protected Area” - Campeche's CC center for education, training and communication - Development and strengthening of a state system of environmental - Environmental information system information. - Marine turtle conservation and protection program Fisheries and Aquaculture SEPESCA SEPESCA - Replacement of ecological marine engines. - Investment in equipment and infrastructure - Strengthening of the coastal fishing sector program - Replacement of ecological marine engines. - Shrimp farms program - Strengthening program for the coastal fishing sector - Shrimp fishing program - Aquaculture program and its components - Control and evaluation of fishing effort (fisheries management) Tourism ST ST - Consolidate the tourist promotion - Consolidate the tourist promotion - Evaluate viable support tourism projects - Promotion of Campeche as a business tourism destination - Alternative tourism (fishing, underwater archeology, cruises and yachts) - National tourism registry for a tour diving operator Public Services CAPAE CAPAE - Construction of the sanitary sewer system - Disinfection of water for human consumption and use - Construction of sanitary sewer system (urban areas drinking water and sewerage system) under review. Due to the establishment of research centers, with national im- Likewise, local and regional regulations should be aligned with the portance in the State, the knowledge of coast natural resources was strategies established in the “General Ecological Territorial Planning” enhanced. The Institute of Marine Sciences and Limnology of the (DOF, 2012a) and the “Marine Ecological Regional Planning of the Gulf Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM), had research areas in of Mexico and the Caribbean” (DOF, 2012b). However, the State of aquatic biology, marine geology, limnology, aquatic chemistry and Campeche didn't have an ETP. physical oceanography. Its Carmen Station was specialized in ecology, It had three management programs of Natural Protected Areas invasive species, population dynamics and coastal wetlands. (NPA), in the north of the State “Ria Celestún Biosphere Reserve” (DOF, Because the economic importance of hydrocarbons to the federa- 2009) and the “Los Petenes Biosphere Reserve” (DOF, 2002) and in the tion, PEMEX had an investigation and development area in which southeast the “Laguna de Terminos Flora and Fauna Protection Area” marine prospection studies were carried out. Also, due to the social (DOF, 1997). In total the 50% of the coastal zone was almost included. impact that this activities had, it collaborated in studies in environ- The three programs had the international category of RAMSAR Site - mental impact and effects of hydrocarbons in marine species. Convention of Wetlands (Zárate-Lomelí, 2004). The EPOMEX Center had researches, whose area of study is There were Clean Beach Committees Programs (in the munici- throughout the State, both on the coast and within the peninsula. Its palities of Campeche, Champoton and Carmen). The main objective was research areas were aquaculture, pollution and environmental impact, to monitor the quality of seawater according to the criteria described by coastal ecosystems management, tropical fish resources and coastal the World Health Organization (WHO) (SEMARNAT, 2015). processes. It worked in conjunction with other research centers of the Operational instruments in all administrative levels were those es- Autonomous University of Campeche in different areas such as social, tablished by the federation. For fisheries exploitation, there were underwater archeology and economics. Likewise, it has been char- quotas and fishing seasons established by the Ministry for Agriculture, acterized by meeting the state government interests in some specific Livestock, Rural Development Fishery and Food (SAGARPA). The State data required. signed a cooperation agreement with the Ministry of Finance and was responsible for the concession of the ZOFEMAT and collect the rights of h) Economical resources use; there were also the Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA) for the activities development. The state's public finances available were from 2008 to 2015. The federal financial supports in 2010 accounted the 88% and came from f) Managers training different secretariats, entrusted on environmental matters such as: CONAGUA, Secretariat of Agriculture, Livestock, Rural Development, The academic courses available for managers training related to Fisheries and Food (SAGARPA) and National Forest Commission ICZM, were limited to three academic degrees with a disciplinary ap- (CONAFOR); which respectively contributed with the 4,56%, 0,21% proach in biology and aquaculture. The Multidisciplinary Master and 0,20% (SF, 2010). Program for the Coastal-Marine Management, provided by the UAC- Public expenditure designated for coastal municipalities was 73%, EPOMEX in the City of Campeche, was the only master degree in the municipalities of Carmen, Campeche received the largest con- Mexico with the needed integrated scope. tribution. Also, in 2010 the state granted funds for the ZOFEMAT administration to municipalities that signed agreements with the federa- g) Knowledge and research tion and the state. Only three municipalities (Carmen, Campeche and Champoton) received these resources, which were used in their

41 J.C. Nava Fuentes et al. Ocean and Coastal Management 154 (2018) 34–45 administration. However, the highest percentage of public expenditures affect them. Nevertheless, in the last administrations responses started was granted for the modernization of the government, to cover social attending also the pressures and the impacts in human well-being. The needs and reduce the lag in basic public services (SF, 2010). lack of attention to this resulted in an unequal distribution of natural The Ministry of Urban Development and Social Development re- and economic resources to the population and indigenous groups, ceived the highest percentage of the State's resources. The ST, as (Fig. 3). tourism being proposed as a state priority, it received a greater share in This has led to an increasing pressure on natural coastal resources 2010, compared to that destined to Social Development. The SECOL mainly because of the coastal and marine resources exploitation for an since 2008 had a larger budget line, increasing from $27.395.204 in increasing population and meet increasing international demand for 2008 to $44.371.914 in 2015 (being in that time the SMAAS). The in- marine products; and oil extraction to meet domestic and international crease was due to the incorporation of Climate Change programs and demand. the development of Municipal ETP's in the secretariat's agenda, whose approved resources corresponded to 17% in 2011. However, by com- 4. Conclusions parison, in 2014 it received the equivalent of 21% of what it’s destined for tourism (SF, 2010). Conclusion will be presented following the methodological framework to understand the linkages between the different aspects. i) Education for sustainability It was recognized that the State population trend is towards the increase and growth of coastal cities and a decrease of the rural po- From 2009, SMAAS had environmental education programs that pulation. Work and a better life quality search are the main factors. In focus on coastal zones: “Adopt a Beach Campaign” and garbage col- this respect, demographic processes are one of the main driving forces lection campaigns and coasts cleaning. It also included raising aware- that influence the pressures exerted on the coastal zones. ness activities for people of all ages through courses, lectures, work- Another important aspect is the population structure; the population shops and trainings on different topics, including “Protection and is mostly young, which is translated into the need for job search, living conservation of marine and coastal resources” (SMAAS, 2015). In ad- space and basic services demand; and resources for their subsistence. dition, in conjunction with the Marine Ministry, there were held lec- The job offered by the oil industry in “Ciudad del Carmen”, as well as by tures, exhibitions and events to highlight the importance of coastal government institutions and the availability of better services in the areas. State's Capital are the main reasons for its population increase. In a regional level there was an “environmental education alliance The presence of ethnic groups and the inequality to which they are of the Gulf of Mexico committee”, but it has not been in session for subject is important. Although illiteracy has declined, the highest per- several months, there had even been a president change, at the regional centage still corresponds to indigenous population. The Human level, but no meetings have been held with the new members (SMAAS, Development Index is high; however the highest percentage of people 2015). with extreme poverty corresponds to these groups. This reveals the current inequality and marginalization in which these ethnic groups j) Public participation live; and the importance of recognizing the inhabitant of the coastal zone as an object of the ICZM and their incorporation in the coastal There were not organized citizens groups focused in the manage- resources management. ment of the coastal-marine environment. There were groups of orga- Inequality causes indigenous people to abandon their traditional nized fishermen who have protested for the effects of oil exploitation in way of life in pursuit of a better quality of life, which leads to a cultural the region. This has led to the development of preventive studies for the identity loss, the modification of their traditional production and con- reduction of activity's negative effects. Also in the Yucatán Peninsula sumption patterns, which exacerbate the exploitation of Coastal natural Region there was the presence of PRONATURA, a civil association fo- resources. cused on the conservation of flora, fauna and priority ecosystems. From The economic processes that influence the exploitation of the State's 2013, it has focused on coastal marine conservation issues, such as good coastal space obey to international and national processes. They are practices programs for wetlands, coral reefs and some marine species, based on a dominant economic system that has created unsustainable such as whale sharks (PRONATURA, 2015). coastal-marine resources overexploitation problems, creating scenarios Also, the SMAAS, through its website announced the progress and with increasingly environmental problems. These processes have fo- objectives of its management programs' drafts; and invited all actors in cused, with the exception of the oil sector, on meeting the needs of the society to participate on its development through the online consulta- local market. However, the new adopted reforms for the oil exploitation tion. and extraction; and the fisheries' resources management, as well as the increased demand on coastal resources with high economic value on 3.7. Integrated Coastal Zone Management: integrated analysis international level. For example the sea cucumber extraction that have caused an increasing social problem. The stage of coastal management was identified by taking into ac- Innovation and introduction of new technologies can have a bene- count the SPA's progress on ICZM in the last 18 years. The stage of each ficial effect on the productivity of economic activities. Nevertheless, the aspect was classified using the Arenas-Granados methodology (Arenas- lack of studies and information regarding their application in certain Granados, 2012) the main aspects' stage are presented in Table 7 and vulnerable areas can cause problems in coastal ecosystems. For example they were associated with a value (Fig. 2) which total sum determines species introduction and the use of agrochemicals and fertilizers that the state in the implementation of ICZM. seep into the subsoil and are transported by underground currents to Due to the lack of an explicit public policy, the integrated sectorial the coastal zone. This is the case of the presence of DDT and fertilizers approach of the legal framework and because the institutional sectorial in State's coastal sediments, usage of which was prohibited due to its management of the coastal resources; its values had a low score. The negative effects on the environment and human health. total values sum from all management aspects was 48 points. Human pressures on the State's coastal ecosystems have an incre- Ranges go from 0 to 25 to a pre-initial, 26–50 to an initial; 51 –75 to mental tendency. They could be classified into two main groups. The a transitional; and 76–100 to an advanced stage. Campeche, depending first as a result of a lack of adequate municipal services: low sanitary in this classification, is in an initial stage of SPA in ICZM. drainage and drinking water coverage; and a lack of a suitable muni- Responses in the first administrations were orientated to attend cipal solid-waste management. This problem stems from a lack of environmental state and trends problems and not in the pressures that planning or from a later planning of a constantly increasing urban

42 J.C. Nava Fuentes et al. Ocean and Coastal Management 154 (2018) 34–45

Table 7 Stage of the coastal management Decalogue in Campeche. In-house according to Arenas-Granados (2012).

Management aspect Stage

Public policy There is not an explicit public policy process related to the ICZM. Legal framework With an integrated sectoral approach without a coastal space perspective. Institutions Sectoral institutions involved in the coastal resources intersectoral management. Strategies Early stage for the execution of an ICZM public strategy. Instruments Early stage of implementation of ICZM regional/subregional plans. Managers training With capacity to train their managers/administrators with responsibilities oriented to the ICZM. Existence of training shortcomings between managers. Knowledge and research Appropriate and up-to-date level of knowledge. Medium availability of information. Economical resources There is an incremental trend of resources allocated to ICZM. Education for sustainability Increase on environmental education programs focused on ICZM. Public participation With regular mechanisms of public participation for the ICZM.

frequency and intensity increase of meteorological events such as hurricanes and floods has led to an increase in the coastal population vulnerability. At the same time ecosystems that serve as natural barriers against these events, are being deteriorated. Increased pressures have affected the coastal ecosystems state, being coastal water pollution the main problem. The topography and the intricate groundwater system characteristic of the area, combined with the lagging of water and solid waste collection system, have caused that wastewater discharges are an important aspect to solve. Likewise, water demand from agricultural activities, land-use change and the construction of infrastructure in land or directly on the coast have caused habitat fragmentation and thus a diversity and resources loss. On the other hand, the presence of oil extraction activities in the area threatens the conservation of coastal ecosystems. Fig. 2. Campeche's SPA improvement degree rank of each key aspect in ICZM. The state of coastal ecosystems has had an impact on the coastal population well-being, affecting mainly in the regulation and supply services provided. This, when they lose their importance in the coastal population, result in the loss of cultural services and, in the case of Campeche, cultural changes in the coastal populations. As can be seen Campeche is a state where coastal space has been important for its economy and development. However, the lack of an explicit coastal policy denotes a fragmented vision of the administrations analyzed. This caused that in the State Public Administration (SPA) had a deficiency in ICZM issues. However, the collaboration between the EPOMEX Institute and the State Government contributed to the creation of the PMIZC-BaCam. This was accepted in the administration of 2009 and based its framework agenda on the management program, which contributed to the progress towards an ICZM. Likewise, in the last administration the presence of trained personnel in the public administration contributed to increase economic resources in coastal issues. The presence of the EPOMEX Institute in the State and its Master in Coastal Management has contributed to enhance the qualification of Fig. 3. Relationships between the State Public Administration responses and the elements people which are involved in coastal subjects. However, it is still im- of the DEPSIR framework. portant a continuous training of public administrators in coastal management issues. Also, it is necessary instill the importance of coastal- system. The second group includes pressures derived from economic marine ecosystems throughout the different academic courses. activities carried out in the coastal zone, such as increased fertilizer Research and knowledge have been linked to both, research centers runoff. Hydrocarbon extraction trend is negative due to a decline in oil in the State and by PEMEX which has contributed to an important reserves, which resulted in the government's urgency to find new re- scientific base on coastal issues in the State. But it is still necessary to serves at deep waters. On the other hand fisheries of the state are develop a georeferenced inventory of the coastal natural resources. overexploited while fishing effort has been maintained. In addition as a Public participation and education for sustainability have been in- result of the international trade growth, maritime navigation for pro- creasing and positioning as an important base in the SMAAS education ducts and oil transportation has increased. programs. This implies the importance of including the society and Derived from the demographic processes and the increase of the increasing its awareness of coastal issues. Especially in a coastal society food demand, the land use change to satisfy those needs is a constant. whose identity is detached to its reality. Similar situation is for the coastal infrastructure construction which is The last State's administration, took an important step in relation to necessary for coastal and port activities. ICZM. Nevertheless, it is necessary to continue with the process in Within natural pressures, the combination of an increasing coastal following administrations and avoid it could remain in a sexennial population and, as a result of the effects of climate change, the exercise. The commitment of following administrations and the

43 J.C. Nava Fuentes et al. Ocean and Coastal Management 154 (2018) 34–45 creation of a declaration for the coastal zone is imperative to maintain México. In: Rivera Arriaga, E., Villalobos, G.J., AzuzAdeath, I., Rosado May, F. (Eds.), and improve the MIZC and the quality of inhabitants' well-being. El Manejo Costero en México. Universidad Autónoma de Campeche, SEMARNAT, CETYS-Universidad, Universidad de Quintana Roo, pp. 541–550. There still are some needs to be developed, it is necessary to ela- Fraga, J., Villalobos, G., Doyon, S., García, A. (Eds.), 2008. Descentralización y manejo borate and decree the ecological territorial ordinances of all coastal ambiental Gobernanza costera en México. Plaza y Valdés, México, pp. 392. municipalities with coherence and coordination with the national INEGI, 2009. Pesca y acuicultura: Censos económicos 2009. Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía, México, pp. 80. strategies of marine coastal regulation. 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