JournalConsumption of Multidisciplinary and Expenditure Patterns Studies of Plantain-Based O. E. Ayinde, C. O. Daramola, Vol.FoodsJournal 6, inIssue Rural of No.Multidisciplinary and 1, Urbanpp. 1-16, Areas August in Studies Kwara 2017 State, J. O. Animashaun, W. O. Oloyede ISSNVol. 6, 2350-7020 Issue No. (Print)1, pp. 1-16, August 2017 ISSN 2362-94362350-7020 (Online)(Print) doi:ISSN http://dx.doi.org/10.7828/jmds.v6i1.1031 2362-9436 (Online) doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.7828/jmds.v6i1.1031

Consumption and Expenditure Patterns of Plantain-Based in Rural and Urban Areas in Kwara State, Nigeria

Opeyemi Eyitayo Ayinde, Cladius Omoleye Daramola, Jubril Olayinka Animashaun, Waliyat Olaide Oloyede

Department of Agricultural Economics and Farm Management University of Ilorin, P.M.B. 1515, Ilorin, Nigeria Corresponding author: C.O Daramola, email: [email protected]

Abstract

Nigeria is one of the largest plantain-producing countries in the world. Plantain consumption has risen in Nigeria in recent years because of the increasing urbanization and the great demand for easy and convenient foods by the non- farming urban populations. The study analyzed the consumption and expenditure patterns of plantain-based foods in Kwara State, Nigeria. Primary and secondary data were utilized in the study. The analytical techniques employed include descriptive statistics and Poisson regression model. Primary data were collected with the use of well-structured questionnaire from 120 respondents. Majority of respondents in urban area were civil servants and majority of the respondents in the rural area were farmers. The study also revealed that a higher percentage of urban respondents is aware of the nutritive value of plantain while majority of the rural respondents are not aware. Majority of plantains, however, were not domestically consumed, but instead sold for cash due to their relatively high market price thereby making the consumption of plantains high in urban areas. The regression analysis revealed that occupation of household head and the combination of plantain with other foods are the significant variables. The findings on the consumption and expenditure patterns of plantain are essential input to improve its production in Nigeria.

Keywords: cash, market, nutritive, occupation, urbanization

1 Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies Vol.Consumption 6, Issue No. and 1, Expenditure pp. 1-16, August Patterns 2017 of Plantain-Based O. E. Ayinde, C. O. Daramola, ISSNFoods 2350-7020 in Rural and (Print) Urban Areas in Kwara State, Nigeria J. O. Animashaun, W. O. Oloyede ISSN 2362-9436 (Online) doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.7828/jmds.v6i1.1031

Introduction

Plantain ( spp.) is a crop of West and Central Africa, although it is present and grown across much, if not all, of Africa (Lescot, 2008). It is one of the world’s most important crops (Ferris et al., 1997). It resembles but longer in length with thicker skin, and contains more starch. It is also a major staple food in Africa, , and Asia. Plantain production in Africa is estimated at more than 50% of worldwide production (Food and Agriculture Organization [FAO], 1990). It is estimated that about 70 million people in West and Central Africa derive more than 25% of their carbohydrates from plantain, making them one of the most important sources nutritionally. Musa spp. constitutes a rich energy source (Pereira & Maraschin, 2015), with carbohydrates accounting for 32% of its fruit weight. It is rich in vitamins A, B6, C, minerals, and dietary fiber (Chandler, 1995; Honfo et al., 2007). The dense caloric content coupled with nutritional quality makes Musa spp. one of the most important and regularly consumed staple foods in Nigeria (Ajayi & Aneke, 2002; Lusty et al., 2006). It contributes significantly to food security and provides more than 25% and 10% of the daily intake of carbohydrates and calories, respectively for more than 70 million people in sub-Saharan Africa (International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, 2000). Nigeria is one of the largest plantain- producing countries in the world (FAO, 2006) and is ranked among the 20 most important banana and plantain producing countries worldwide (FAO, 2011). Demand for plantain is increasing elsewhere, but remains substantially in greater demand than supply in its traditional West and Central African territory (Temple et al., 1996; Temple, 2006). Thus, a significant production deficit clearly exists. National per capita consumption figures show its importance relative to other starch staples (FAO, 1986). It is believed that Central and produce and consume more than 60% of the world’s plantain production (Fademi & Bayero, 1993). Previous study on consumption pattern reported that plantains are consumed in different forms including boiling, roasting, frying, as well as in combination with other staples (Ajayi & Aneke, 2002). Its consumption has risen in Nigeria in recent years because of the increasing

2 Consumption and Expenditure Patterns of Plantain-Based O. E. Ayinde, C. O. Daramola, FoodsJournal in Rural of Multidisciplinary and Urban Areas in Studies Kwara State, Nigeria J. O. Animashaun, W. O. Oloyede Vol. 6, Issue No. 1, pp. 1-16, August 2017 ISSN 2350-7020 (Print) ISSN 2362-9436 (Online) doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.7828/jmds.v6i1.1031 urbanization and the great demand for easy and convenient foods by the non-farming urban populations. A growing industry, mainly plantain chips, is believed to be responsible for the high demand being experienced now in the country. Nutritive value of plantains depends on their ripeness, variety, climatic conditions, and soil of crop production (Baiyeri et al., 2011). Accordingly, increased ash and carbohydrate contents are associated with ripeness, whereas fat, protein, and dry matter were relatively higher at unripe stages. There is a literature on high consumption pattern of unripe plantain among people suffering from diabetes mellitus (Odenigbo and Inya-Osuu, 2012). In Nigeria, up to 40% of the harvested crop can be lost during distribution (Olorunda, 1996). Organized research activities on banana and plantain were initiated by the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture in Nigeria as far back as 1973 and focused mainly on production systems in the lowland humid forest zone of West Africa. In subsequent years, the scope of research gradually increased, initially to cover germplasm collection, and the characterization and conservation of plantain and banana cultivars (Brader, 1996). In 1975 the National Horticultural Research Institute (NIHORT) was established in Ibadan with the mandate to conduct research into the genetic improvement, production, processing, storage and utilization of tropical fruits, including plantains and (Denton et al., 2000). Neoclassical economics is a term variously used for approaches to economics focusing on the determination of prices, outputs, and income distributions in markets through supply and demand, in accordance with rational choice theory (Campus, 1987). Classical economics included a value theory and distribution theory. The value of a product was thought to depend on the costs involved in producing that product. As opposed to Keynesian economics, classical economics assumes flexible prices both in the case of goods and wages. Apart from the consumption theories, the basis for estimating consumers’ demand for quality of goods is Lancaster’s (1966) model of consumption theory which regards the properties of goods and not the good itself as the direct object of utility. This is the central focus of the Hedonic pricing model which stipulates that the price of goods is a

3 Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies Vol.Consumption 6, Issue No. and 1, Expenditure pp. 1-16, August Patterns 2017 of Plantain-Based O. E. Ayinde, C. O. Daramola, ISSNFoods 2350-7020 in Rural and (Print) Urban Areas in Kwara State, Nigeria J. O. Animashaun, W. O. Oloyede ISSN 2362-9436 (Online) doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.7828/jmds.v6i1.1031 linear summation of the implicit value of its attributes (Wooldridge, 2000). Following Lancaster’s (1966) approach to consumer theory, the household derives utility from the set of intrinsic properties of the goods it consumes, rather than from the goods themselves. Different goods (or inputs) contain different relative (fixed) proportions of the various intrinsic attributes (or joint-outputs). Carr (2013) stressed that consumers’ taste and preference are reflected in the market. Product quality characteristics are the major stimuli that influence consumers’ effect, cognition and behavior. Hence, their preference level and the amount they are ready to pay for any product would depend on its quality. It was further pointed out that the price difference across different units of transaction is due mainly to quality difference that can be measured in terms of the physical factors found in a good. Edmeades et al. (2006) had also argued that because the attributes of goods affects the price, the attribute of goods traded in the market are an integral part of market price determination. Delisle (1990) has found that traditional diets that are mainly found in low income households in consist of grains (such as maize, millet, and sorghum) or roots and tubers. The people in in West Africa mainly consume roots, tubers, yam, cassava, and plantain. The economic theory of household decision reveals the household model in which households uses their resources (labor, skills, land and equipment) to achieve the highest level of utility (satisfaction) possible. Model revealing determinants of plantain consumption starts with household model where consumption pattern of plantain is determined by the combination of occupation and nutritive knowledge. Nutritive awareness is affected by the composition of the household, its members, knowledge and education. Husbands and wives often have unequal control over resources, that they may not pool income, and that their consumption priority may differ. Other models assume a non- cooperative solution in which each partner maximizes utility (satisfaction) subject to the decision of the other. In either case, the consumption pattern depends partly on the legal and socio-economic status of each partner and their ability to monitor each other’s behavior (Quisumbing, 2003).

4 Consumption and Expenditure Patterns of Plantain-Based O. E. Ayinde, C. O. Daramola, FoodsJournal in Rural of Multidisciplinary and Urban Areas in Studies Kwara State, Nigeria J. O. Animashaun, W. O. Oloyede Vol. 6, Issue No. 1, pp. 1-16, August 2017 ISSN 2350-7020 (Print) ISSN 2362-9436 (Online) doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.7828/jmds.v6i1.1031

Anchored on these theoretical and conceptual frameworks, this study examined the various forms in which plantains are consumed, the frequency of consumptions and the factors affecting the expenditure of plantain in Kwara State, Nigeria. The findings on the consumption and expenditure patterns of plantain are essential input to improve its production in Nigeria.

Materials and Methods

The research was carried out in Kwara State, Nigeria. Four local government areas were randomly selected, and in each of the local government areas, four rural areas and four urban areas were selected randomly. Fifteen households were randomly chosen across the selected towns and villages. Head of each household was chosen for the study making a total of 120 respondents who were interviewed using a structured questionnaire. Secondary data were collected from past research works, internet, and journals. Descriptive statistics was used and included the use of frequency distributions, averages, tables and percentages to analyze the socio- economic characteristics of the respondents and the forms and frequency of plantain consumption. The factors influencing the consumption of plantain were analyzed using regression.

Poisson regression Count data are usually modeled by assuming a Poisson distribution (Cameron and Trivedi, 2005; Washington et al., 2010). The Poisson distribution is appropriate for a dependent variable that takes only nonnegative integer values and can be used to model the number of occurrences of an event. Poisson regression is also appropriate for rate data, where the rate is a count of events occurring to a particular unit of observation, divided by some measure of that unit. In spite of its recent wide application, Poisson regression model remains partly poorly known, especially if compared with other regression techniques, like linear, logistics and Cox regression models. The Poisson regression model assumes that the sample of observations, yi are observations on

𝑛𝑛 5 Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies Vol.Consumption 6, Issue No. and 1, Expenditure pp. 1-16, August Patterns 2017 of Plantain-Based O. E. Ayinde, C. O. Daramola, ISSNFoods 2350-7020 in Rural and (Print) Urban Areas in Kwara State, Nigeria J. O. Animashaun, W. O. Oloyede ISSN 2362-9436 (Online) doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.7828/jmds.v6i1.1031 independent Poisson variables with mean . If this model is correct, the equal variance assumption of classic linear regression is violated, since the have means equal𝑌𝑌 to𝑖𝑖 their variances.𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖 Then, the generalized linear model was fit, 𝑌𝑌𝑖𝑖 Log = ′

The Poisson𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 𝛽𝛽regression model is a generalized linear model with Poisson error and a log link, so that = exp⁡ ( ′ )

This𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖 implies𝑥𝑥 𝑖𝑖 that𝛽𝛽 one unit increases in are associated with a multiplication of by exp⁡ ( ). 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 Model specification𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖 𝛽𝛽𝑖𝑖 The primary equation of the model is

( = ) = − , = y1, y2, y3… 𝜇𝜇 ! 𝑌𝑌 𝑦𝑦𝑖𝑖 𝑒𝑒 𝜇𝜇 Where Y = factors affecting𝑦𝑦𝑖𝑖 the consumption of plantain in the study area, = the unknown coefficients, y1 = consumption of plantain, y2 = knowledge of the nutritional value of Plantain, y3 = Attitude and knowledge𝑒𝑒 to plantain, y4 = region (urban/rural area), y5 = gender, y6 = age of household head (years), y7 = marital status, y8 = household size, y9 = highest education, y10 = occupation of household head, y11 = type of farming, y12 = form of consumption,13 = combination with other foods, X14 = income spent on all food stuffs, X15 = monthly income, µ = mean

6 Consumption and Expenditure Patterns of Plantain-Based O. E. Ayinde, C. O. Daramola, FoodsJournal in Rural of Multidisciplinary and Urban Areas in Studies Kwara State, Nigeria J. O. Animashaun, W. O. Oloyede Vol. 6, Issue No. 1, pp. 1-16, August 2017 ISSN 2350-7020 (Print) ISSN 2362-9436 (Online) doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.7828/jmds.v6i1.1031

Results and Discussion

Socio-economic characteristics of respondents In the urban area, 12.04% of the houses were headed by females while 40.74% were headed by males based on income. Modal age class is 40-60 with 24.07% respondents, 26.85% of the respondents consisted of 4 to 6 members with an average household size of 5 members. This household size may be due to the fact that people have seen the reason why they should not give birth to numerous children in the urban area. Forty-nine percent of the respondents are married. Most of the households interviewed were civil servants, 10.2% were farmers, while 15.3% and 5.9% were involved in small-scale business and formal employment, respectively. In terms of education, tertiary education was the most dominant with 35.19% of the respondents, 14.81% attained secondary education, and 2.78% attained primary education. In the rural area, 12.04% households are female-headed while 35.19% are male-headed. The modal age class is 60 and above with 20.37% respondents, 20.37% of the respondents consisted of 7 to 9 members with an average household size of 8 members. Thirty-six percent of the respondents are married. Forty five percent of the respondents had not received any form of formal education, 4.58% had received incomplete primary education, 14.45% had completed primary education, while only 35% had gone to a vocational college and none of the respondents had any college or university diploma/degree. Most of the households interviewed depended on agricultural production as the main source of income, 12% were involved as civil servants, while 6.3% and 5.3% were involved in small-scale business and formal employment, respectively.

Main forms of plantain-based foods in the households Plantains are processed into various forms at different ripening stage and the main forms are presented in Table 1. Kouamé et al. (2015) also showed that plantain is used in several food preparations. In the two regions, boiled and represented the most important consumption form preferred by households because these forms could

7 Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies Vol.Consumption 6, Issue No. and 1, Expenditure pp. 1-16, August Patterns 2017 of Plantain-Based O. E. Ayinde, C. O. Daramola, ISSNFoods 2350-7020 in Rural and (Print) Urban Areas in Kwara State, Nigeria J. O. Animashaun, W. O. Oloyede ISSN 2362-9436 (Online) doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.7828/jmds.v6i1.1031 be easily accompanied by many other foods such as stew, vegetable sauces, beans, etc. Ajayi and Aneke (2002) also observed that boiled, roasted, and fried plantain combined with other staples were the different forms of consumption. In this study, fried ripe plantain and plantain chips were mostly consumed in urban area compared to the rural area. Roasted and boiled plantains were more consumed in rural compared to urban area. The less preferred forms in all households surveyed in the two regions were pounded plantain, plantain porridge, and plantain flour paste.

Table 1. Forms in which plantains are consumed. Form of meals Rural (n=60) Urban (n=60) Plantain porridge 1 0 Pounded plantain 1 1 Boiled ripe plantain 39 30 Unripe boiled plantain 4 8 Fried ripe plantain (dodo) 11 20 Plantain chips 1 9 Plantain flour paste 3 1

Table 2 shows that in the rural area, boiled ripe plantain and roasted plantain were consumed regularly by the respondents. Unripe boiled plantain is eaten occasionally and plantain porridge is rarely eaten. In another study, consumption of unripe plantain among people suffering from diabetes mellitus in rural area is high (Odenigbo & Inya-Osuu, 2012). Respondents from the rural area claimed that unripe roasted plantain and the porridge made from plantain flour are useful for diarrhea. In urban area, unripe boiled plantain, plantain chips, boiled ripe plantain, and fried ripe plantain are consumed regularly while plantain porridge is rarely eaten. Food consumption patterns vary according to socioeconomic level and household characteristics (Delisle, 1990).

8 Foods inRuralandUrban Areas inKwaraState,Nigeria Consumption andExpenditurePatternsofPlantain-Based

Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies Vol. 6, Issue No. 1, pp. 1-16, August 2017 ISSN 2350-7020 (Print) ISSN 2362-9436 (Online) doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.7828/jmds.v6i1.1031

Table 2. Frequency of plantain consumption among households in the two regions.

Area Rate Boiled ripe Unripe boiled Fried ripe Plantain Plantain Roasted plantain plantain plantain chips porridge plantain Rural Frequently 10 2 7 0 0 0 Regularly 40 9 15 10 0 30 Occasionally 6 27 8 1 1 2 Rarely 5 20 3 40 50 1 Urban Frequently 7 1 4 2 0 4 Regularly 11 35 38 30 0 11 Occasionally 10 4 5 4 0 1 Rarely 13 5 4 1 57 0

J. O. Animashaun, W. O.Oloyede

*Frequently: once/day; regularly: 2-3 times/week; occasionally: 3-4 times/month; rarely: once or less than once/month. O. E. Ayinde, C.O.Daramola, 9 Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies Vol.Consumption 6, Issue No. and 1, Expenditure pp. 1-16, August Patterns 2017 of Plantain-Based O. E. Ayinde, C. O. Daramola, ISSNFoods 2350-7020 in Rural and (Print) Urban Areas in Kwara State, Nigeria J. O. Animashaun, W. O. Oloyede ISSN 2362-9436 (Online) doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.7828/jmds.v6i1.1031

Table 3 shows that majority of the respondents consumes plantain. More than 90% of the households in the urban area indicated having obtained the plantains from the market. Consumers’ preference is reflected in the market and product quality characteristics which are the major stimuli that influence consumer’s preference level (Carr, 2013). More than 90% of the households in rural area obtain the plantains from their farms. Consumption pattern of plantain is also determined by occupation (Quisumbing, 2003). Plantain is the preferred staple for most households, but family income may constrain its consumption (Dury et al., 2002). Hence, few respondents from the rural area may want to sell plantain from the farms for money causing them to consume less plantain. In other areas, farmers (producers) cannot sell their products directly to plantain consumers because of the dispersal of the production zones (Kouamé et al., 2015).

Table 3. Consumption of plantain by respondents.

Plantain consumption Rural Urban Pooled Percentage Consume 50 56 106 88.33 Does not consume 10 4 14 11.67 Total 60 60 120 100

Table 4 shows that many of the respondents from the urban area are aware that plantain is nutritious. However, most respondents of the rural area are not aware that plantain is nutritious which may be due to the lack of literacy except those people with diabetes mellitus who consume the unripe plantain to treat the disease as shown in the study of Odenigbo and Inya-Osuu (2012). Pattern of plantain consumption is also determined by the nutritive knowledge of the respondents (Quisumbing, 2003). This awareness is affected by the composition of the household, knowledge of the family members, and education.

Table 4. Awareness of the nutritive value of plantain.

Awareness Rural Urban Pooled Percentage Aware 18 55 73 60.83 Not aware 42 5 47 39.17 Total 60 60 120 100

10 Consumption and Expenditure Patterns of Plantain-Based O. E. Ayinde, C. O. Daramola, FoodsJournal in Rural of Multidisciplinary and Urban Areas in Studies Kwara State, Nigeria J. O. Animashaun, W. O. Oloyede Vol. 6, Issue No. 1, pp. 1-16, August 2017 ISSN 2350-7020 (Print) ISSN 2362-9436 (Online) doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.7828/jmds.v6i1.1031

Table 5 shows that a higher percentage of the respondent does not pay for the purchase of plantain but produce it instead or obtains it as gift. Those who purchase it at ₦ 200 and below buy it in unit. Those who purchase at ₦ 400 and above might buy it in bunch. Expenditure on plantain is high in urban area and very low in rural area because plantains are produced in the rural area. Plantain is one of the most expensive products in terms of price per energy unit (kcal), compared to rice, cassava or maize (Dury et al., 2002).

Table 5. Plantain expenditure. . Price Rural Urban Pooled Percentage - 44 12 56 46.67 ≤200 16 20 36 30 201-400 0 16 16 13.33 ˃400 0 12 12 10 Total 60 60 120 100

Table 6 presents the parameter estimates of the Poisson model for the factors affecting the consumption of plantain in Kwara State, Nigeria. The AIC of this model was 343.726, the null deviance was - 171.3091 on 6 degrees of freedom and residual deviance of -165.863 on 6 degrees of freedom following the chi-square distribution ( 2) with one degree of freedom. The goodness of fit test shows that the model is good. The dispersion parameter was found to be 10.89 and𝜒𝜒 P-value of 0.0536 which indicates that the model is significant at 5% −level. As shown, only occupation and combining plantain with other foods are positively significant. These two factors 𝛼𝛼are the most significant variables affecting the consumption of plantain in the study area. Respondent’s occupation affects consumption as farmers consume more of plantain because it is readily available, whereas, civil servants consume more because it requires less time and easy to cook. Teachers consume more because of their awareness of its nutritive value. These results support the study of Quisumbing (2003) showing that consumption pattern of plantain is determined also by the occupation of the consumers.

11 doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.7828/jmds.v6i1.1031 ISSN 2362-9436(Online) ISSN 2350-7020(Print) Vol. 6,IssueNo.1,pp.1-16, August 2017 Journal ofMultidisciplinaryStudies 12

Consumption and Expenditure Patterns of Plantain-Based O. E. Ayinde, C. O. Daramola, Foods in Rural and Urban Areas in Kwara State, Nigeria J. O. Animashaun, W. O. Oloyede

Table 6. Poisson regression estimate of factors affecting the consumption of plantain.

Consumption of plantain Coefficients Standard error z P>|z| [95% Conf. Interval]

Marital status -0.1252422 0.1017089 -1.23 0.218 -0.324588 0.0741037 Occupation -0.0983613 0.0505708 -1.95 0.052 -0.1974783 0.0007557 Forms of plantain consumption 0.0338528 0.0668817 0.51 0.613 -0.0972329 0.1649384 Combining with other foods 0.4502812 0.2205442 2.04 0.041 0.0180226 0.8825399 Region (urban/rural area) -0.082931 0.1320721 -0.63 0.530 -0.3417876 0.1759257 Constant 0.3651026 0.465441 0.78 0.433 -0.5471449 1.27735

Consumption and Expenditure Patterns of Plantain-Based O. E. Ayinde, C. O. Daramola, FoodsJournal in Rural of Multidisciplinary and Urban Areas in Studies Kwara State, Nigeria J. O. Animashaun, W. O. Oloyede Vol. 6, Issue No. 1, pp. 1-16, August 2017 ISSN 2350-7020 (Print) ISSN 2362-9436 (Online) doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.7828/jmds.v6i1.1031

Conclusion and Recommendation

Plantains were mostly fried or boiled in urban area. Majority of the urban respondents preferred ripe plantain. Plantains were mostly boiled in rural area. Apart from boiling, the plantains were also dried and ground into flour. Only those who were aware of the nutritive value of the unripe stage or may have health challenges like diabetes consumed unripe boiled plantain. Occupation and combining plantain with other foods governed consumption of plantain among households. There was a similarity between the two regions in the consumption of diverse forms of plantain-derived foods. Some variations were observed in their frequencies of consumption such as in roasted plantain and plantain chips. Overall, the study showed that plantain-derived foods were more consumed in urban area than in rural area. There is a need to establish relevant agencies and research institutes to create awareness on the importance of plantain as regard to its nutritional significance.

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