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ED 442 942 CE 080 331

AUTHOR Gorard, Stephen; Furlong, John; Rees, Gareth; Fevre, Ralph TITLE The Learning Society. Patterns of Participation in Adult Education and Training. Working Paper 5. INSTITUTION Bristol Univ. (England).; Cardiff Univ.(Wales). School of Education. SPONS AGENCY Economic and Social Research Council, Lancaster (England). ISBN ISBN-1-872330-06-1 PUB DATE 1997-00-00 NOTE 45p.; A Cardoff and Bristol University ESRC-Funded Learning Society Project. Also funded by the Gwent, Mid Glamorgan, and West Wales Training Enterprise Councils. For other working papers see CE 080 328-341 and CE 080 402. CONTRACT ESRC-L123251041 PUB TYPE Information Analyses (070)-- Opinion Papers (120) EDRS PRICE MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS *Access to Education; Adult Education; *Attendance Patterns; Developed Nations; Economics; *Educational Opportunities; Elementary Secondary Education; Foreign Countries; Higher Education; Job Training; *Lifelong Learning; *Outcomes of Education; Vocational Education IDENTIFIERS *Great Britain; *Learning Society; Wales (South)

ABSTRACT This working paper is a product of a regional study in industrial South Wales of the determinants of participation and non-participation in post-compulsory education and training, with special reference to processes of change in the patterns of these determinants over time and to variations between geographical areas. It examines the notion of a learning society in Britain, suggesting that markedly different interpretations of the term are in common use among politicians, economists, policymakers, and educationalists. The paper outlines chief arguments currently being used to advocate the establishment of a learning society in Britain. These arguments have two strands--the claim that the standard of education and training in a country has a direct impact on its economy and that, therefore, expenditure on learning by the state and employers will be recouped, and the claim that there is a lack of justice in the distribution of education and its rewards in Britain today. Since this involves a brief description of the availability of education and training in Britain, the paper allows a preliminary consideration of the extent to which a learning society already exists or can be said to have existed in the past. It concludes that to some extent the "learning society" is used as a term of convenience. Appendixes include definitions and acronyms. Contains 103 references.(YLB)

Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original document. CE EDUC IONAL RESOURCESOffice of,Educational INFORMATION ResearchU.S. DEPARTMENT and Improvement OF EDUCATION CENTER (ERIC) improveMinororiginatingreceived changes reproduction from it. thehis have persondocument beenquality. or made organizationhas tobeen reproduced as officialdocumentPoints OERI doof viewpositionnot necessarily or opinions or policy. representstated in this PATTERNS OF PARTICIPATION IN ADULT EDUCATION AND TRAINING A Cardiff and Bristol University ESRC- funded WORKING PAPER 5 Learning Society Project Stephen Gorard, John Furlong, Gareth Rees, and Ralph Fevre The Learning Society 1997 SCHOOL OF EDUCATION PERMISSIONDISSEMINATE TO REPRODUCE THIS MATERIAL AND HAS BEEN GRANTED BY University of Wales TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES Cardiff ISBN 1 872330 06 I 1 INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC) PATTERNS OF PARTICIPATION IN A Cardiff and Bristol University ESRC-funded LearningADULT Society EDUCATION Project AND TRAINING IntroductionLIST OF CONTENTS PAGE NUMBER1 WORKING PAPER 5 2.1. TheEducation economy in Britain of Britain TheAn unproved availability case? of training 13 842 THE LEARNING SOCIETY 3. What is a learning society? PreviousThe twobarriers trackdefinitions to system learning of training 221816 INTRODUCTION Stephen Gorard, John Furlong, Gareth Rees and Ralph Fevre WhatAProgressionLifelong less is agreeable a learning learning towards interpretation society an ideal? (revisited) 32302724 Thispoliticians,markedly somepaper of examines thedifferenteconomists, chief thearguments interpretations policy-makersnotion of a andof the term are currently being used to advocate the learning society in Britain suggesting educationalists. The paper also outlines in common use among strands - the claim establishment of that AcknowledgementsConclusionAppendicesReferences 35334135 willeconomythata learning thebe recouped, standard andsociety that of andin therefore education Britain. the claim and that training there in a expenditureThese arguments on learning have two by main the state and is a lack of justiceSince in thisthe distributioninvolves a brief descriptioncountry has a direct impact on employers itsof orpreliminaryofeducation "learningthecan availabilitybe andsaid considerationsociety" its to rewardshave of iseducation used inof Britainasthe a andextent term today. of to existed in the past. It concludes that to some training in Britain, the paperconvenience. also The Learningwhich Society a learning is an society already exists extent the allows a compulsion.public",whichideal notion helps combined mask(but one the with withlack veryofsuggestions real prosaic progress targets of in some economic exploitation andcouched social in terms of certification) respects towards an "educated ISBN 1 872330 06 1 The Learning Society - Gorard et al. One1. THE strand ECONOMY of arguments OF BRITAIN behind the current push for a new learning society is failingoccupational to train categories adequately such according as craft to some and technician grades in industry, (Cutler 1992), and this is leading to Britain is educationalbasedonly(Istance upona matter outcomes. anand ofapparent Rees social Raising1994). justice. It may be goodBritain's relativelyrelationship good between the standards of low for economic efficiency asperformanceperformerseconomic performancein ineducation terms of is high not welland of firstAshtonskills mathematicscentury shortages, 1992). in which Askills particularlyparticular thefor jobsmulti-skilled problem has been seen as inan manufacturingavailable and will construction be jobs that robots cannotworkers. "We are hurtling towards a increasing demand for (Green and appliedtwenty-do and workers,leveleconomiceducation qualifications at theandgrowth techniciancompetencies. is in Britain outweighed by a failure to and craft islevel, primarilyIt withis a common, due to the though provideadequate a sufficient standardsCoupled number of withinadequacy thecontested, defects of education opinion that and slow general in England(Sirintelligence,where Geoffrey our Conference survival, enterprise, Holland, 1995). both formerinitiative, The economically and socially,Permanent dependsnotion Secretary on of a job at flexibility thefor DIE,life and at and a career ability company to survive ley 1996) and continuous re- rapid change"the North of are BritishtrainingofBritain £10 education system billion,is reportedly (McNabb andwhile one trainingFrance outlined for example below,£5,960 has a ofp.a. lowest in 1994, in Europe. but and Whitfield 1994). Britain therecently national had per a capita surplusthe ofequivalent £26 billion. was trade deficit£15,000income in in A state 29).trutheducationnowemployment Workersapparentlyis that is there needed may obsoletewith will face ifbrief be people theno periods work are to of concepts (Ashley and Walk possibility of more part-time and more for the unskilled inunemployment the future"lead fruitful and earlier and enjoyable retirement. lives. (Jones 1996 p. short-term"The blunt They GermanypensionSirwhile Geoffrey in (Hugill BritainBritain Holland, and has was Narayan slipped at from fourteenththe toNorth of England 1995). eighteenth place in a league Conference 1995, claimed of global that attitudewould(Ashleysuitability therefore to andwork for Walk employmentand need leyan to1996).individual be educatedis Initial a continuous requirement and schoolingnotresponsibility a is considered for training inadequate and to realise for "employability", to have a one-off event preparation flexible that competitiveness,hasthewith workbeen a force,fallingsuggested and the share from that of world quality of education is now Britain is facing a balancetwenty-first to twenty-fourthexports, and economic rated thirty-fifth in the of paymentsgrowth crisis, markedly less thanin terms of the skill of world. Itcoupled forcheaperspecialismsadapt later lifeand to (Edwards not fundand continue static than et work,creating al. preparing1993). presumably more In this version schoolspeople and forpermanent an old-fashioned full-time jobs.because this is easier to envisage and colleges need to However, the world of and Therethatgovernment ofBritain iscompetitors also (e.g. agencya weakness DE such 1988, as CBI publications and others have now in 1989,Germany,British DES initial France 1991, and DE and Italy 1994)continuing and much education. of the Many reported skill shortages in(Edwards et al. 1993). Bosworth 1992, blame dangerarrangementsflexible may to be employers, (Istancethat although and high Rees loose turnover of 1995). employment contracts are attractive staff may weaken existing training high level forHaskel thisOne has aimand been Martinof educationlaid 1993, on might be to encourageIFFthe education1994). and training system (e.g. the creation of a highly educated based ofIn Thereandthisskill ataccount, in isall the a levels, prevalent workforce, a modern as well concept noteconomy as anjust that increased use of technology (Scottishtrainingin is manufacturing, a determinant of butand success, also the increation and service of wealth needs a Office 1991). industries, that this highwork-force,andredefine technology to encourage the multi-skilled notion economy a ofhigh or "skill" in a learning society,capacity to face new re-trainablelikely where in the possible, twenty-first challenges and orientations to include the ability to for thecentury. knowledge Another is to in learn,the is oneproduction.market,terms reason (in competition Rees whyThese 1997).the challenges Pacific from The South rimcurrent are so great Easteconomies Asia, aretechnology performingchallenges and so new well to the economy are the that they could even lead to the methods ofin relative1996a). In collapse global Theworkplace. Learning Society Despite - Gorard et a newly al. developed demand for multi-skilled intermediary 2 of Thesome Learning western Society democracies- Gorard et at with their post-1945 compacts (Coffield 3 the next 20 years it has been estimated that 1.2 billion workers in developing level of wages todomestic de-skilling service, in some so the areas gap (NIACEmay be growing, 1994). There is no evidence with increased technology leading that increased elsewhere.countriestechnically-educatedtechnology, will A poor move making standard into managers, them production, conservative in the use of newof vocational equipment education who find it difficult to see in Britain is poorly therefore depressing the and training leads to poorly maintained, leadingthe toadvantages a of new (Keep 1991). expenditureshiftof 1991).the fromhighest Thereon careers education spending is a gapto nationsemployability, between have the worst to and training leads to any improvement. what is supposed to be happening in terms education-led economies,outcomes and (Smithers the and Robinson In fact several of a highLackeconomycompanies educationproportionof skills is means inand of low training. that cost machinery high In said to depend largely on down time. Low skill addition, the acquisition volume production (Keep the skills of the workforce levels in the workforce can of skills is seen in prevalent 1991). Therefore the created by their also trap disputable,globalisationsector,perhaps remain especially training of competition. firmly in in transferable Britain, The degree local and these are often the current growth areas while many industries, such as those in the skills is not generally available to employees of change on length of job tenure is services (Keep formshaveper(Greenhalgh hour, ofhad human training, and capital Stewart while theory those in the lowest paid occupations in one study 65%1987). of those If occupational status as a key determinantshow far ofhigher career mobility success with no training were still is estimated by payment if they in offEven1997). in for strictly the individual, economic there terms. is someAlthough a common goal doubt whether education and training pay their findings are not clear-cut of many economic thespentinvolvedSimilarly, lowest the ininitialpaid in YTS another categoryperiod of any study, sort were unemployed (Main and Shelly 18after months 10 years after (Greenhalghleaving much more likely to be in a job school1990). those who had been and Stewart 1987). than those who susceptibleleads(McNabbstudies to of greater andtraining to Whitfield the productivity issame to relate 1994). criticism. learning Other in firms to earnings,(Maguire advent of training controlled? For individuals, Howkinds is the of productivitystudies have suggested of the firm that as training a et al. 1993),, but these are the absence WhileAntraining unproved it remains right case? will axiomatic have very great for many politicians economic benefits, the suggestion that getting education requires a lot that poor and jobandofcausatory satisfaction 1993),qualification training but agent maythese (Maguire in may lead theindividuals be to et aimproved al.barrier 1993),may to have promotion employmentor greater prospects, (Mid been trained because they were already on social mobility (Edwards et al. Glamorgan TEC better1996), pay and greater toeducational beeconomicestablish consistently it. performanceimprovement Establishing related isover is a very cause time causaland across link nations,from a curriculumdifficult change (Yeomans 1996). The of poor economic performance in economic indicators.but with a time lag so two measures must for example to In the that monthsaccepta trajectorytraining unemployment later element to in relative the (Whitfield Main economic and and Shelly success. work? after school for the same reasons that they were Bourlakis 1991) and was anyway found to be Did the YTS trainees decideYTS not todid not contain much of a in a job 18 less changesabsenceeducation.might in of educationalbe such that The evidence, it assumptionis an equally that easier for countries with a healthy economyoutcomes preface variations advanced economies need highly parsimonious explanation economic reasons can of any relationshipto afford quality educated and school-leavingsignificant1990). The than equivalent qualifications background study variables in has explaining not the other hand, some studies already suggest been done with pairssuch matchedas father's in employmentterms status and later employment (Main and Shelly that of employmentanywaytrainedassociated populations be exaggerated. whatever jobs are and inhappens a factskilled "low-tech", Most people will probablywhile not there get is a demand (Edwards et andal. 1993).flexible workforce for in areas such as retailing for high tech and high Most new businesses secure highly and traditional skilled skills, and post-compulsoryemploymenttrainingbackgroundthose making and characteristics. rates. education a education, traditionalIn the makeshort-term, On or transition undertakingno to the differencethe to employment economic outcomes rates of those such staying as on labourYouth Trainingmarket at are16 (Robertsno better etthan al. in servicesThethere Learning are(Keep Society still 1991), -plenty Gorard andet al.of unskilled and low skilled jobs, especially in personal 4 The1991). Learning Most Society vocational - Gorard ct al. qualifications, and academic examinations such as GCSE S opportunity(NIACEanytaken qualification after 1994), costs the (Roberts andage noof lifelong16 et produce return no less than HNC/HND compared to al. 1991). There is no personal in earnings on any vocationalreturn on qualificationthe investment those with no qualifications economic return on of time and has any judges(whichemployersIn light of they theof the to skillsprobably become above needed aren't)it more is nowironic andinvolved (which eventhat thethoughin they education, advent probably many of have TECsas are)though previously impliesand they for the shownare needfuturethe little best for at hadearningsimpactall.low Invalue fact,(Keep for and initially. Greenhalgh the promotion. 1997) first The and quality, any recent level four weeks after its completionThe value of trainingand Stewart depreciates (1987) rapidly estimate that training only increase in the numberand of duration of much training in terms of individual recorded training over time, if it remains very promptedskillsBritishthisinterest implication and employersin investingtoso train running is workers unwarrantedare in skillsworriedthe riskin (Istance order (Hickoxofabout losing toand providing maintain 1995,Rees them 1995).Spielhofer to competitivenesstheir competitors, There workers 1996). is some with asAlmost in evidence reporttheirtransferable as market being many that episodesvocationalPart of could the training,reason be easily for still negatedthese preferring findings by a to may use Bourlakis 1991). Those who have been successfully decrease in their length alone. be that academicBritish employers prowess undervalue as a predictor of Pavloviantheirsincefewer(Deloitte success.the had vast Haskins responsetraining majority When and concerningtargets asked of Sells employers or about1989). had that comparedskills much-airedsimplyFew shortages,had do theanot realisticmonolith costsee employers training and training "numeracy'n'literacy", benefits as givebeing plan of an andcentraltraining, almost even to educated"trainability"basedapplicablesee training on in technicalthe (Whitfieldfuture aspast an should (Deamer overhead,competencies and be cheaper1996). they as to concentratemuch Selectiontheir as effortssocial for attributeson employment the immediately such asis age, gender train in the future, and since employers therefore not numeracy,employerspassingwhich upon vocational and could examination none specify certificates expected is an usually actualjob with applicants restricted needoutside within to agencies to have problems the any job (Spielhofer more for faced either specific by 1996). literacytrainees skills Few inorin canandmanufacturinggrowth ethnicity,be judged. of semi-skilledand Despite jobs on the now applicant's require only very talk of the paceand of unskilledtechnical jobschange, in South Wales, brief period of on-the-job training (Reesattitude to work (Rees et al. 1989) as limited skill. Almost anyone would there has been asuch that most far as it et al. be addition.great,In fact, it ifbecomes the problems perverse posed for tothe the government British economy or agencies by globalisation such as CBI are(with so capablecaution.appropriateapplicants1989). of Itdoing Claims is notforskills them ofalwaysjobs wishesskill after because shortagespossible ato apply they to by distinguish employers for the conditionsdo on not offer. exist, The or because no one should anywaybetween be treated a shortage with of skilled skills needed to with the andindependenttheirmaypay their notion forbe lackattractivetheir careers ofof own transferableskills financiallytrainingguidance, or training, (Coffield and butcore trainingsuffersor skills, to 1996a). bemoan two credits) personal mainIncreased the to defects. fact concentrate profiles, marketisationthat Firstly, few action onare Britain individuals willing of plans, training may to be inductionspringreliabilityget a job to mind tonowand the commitment,when encompassjob inculcates politicians further butthe behaviourthese are not of labour,the kinds andincluding of economists punctuality, talk of skills shortages. desirable (to the employer) attributes transferred (Rees et al. 1989). skills that usually In-house but Reeskindleavingsuffering appearing1995). things more A to marketin fromthe South market lack in Wales, training ofwill skilled inevitablypolarising cannot jobs overcometend accessibilitythan to a alack low-skills the of towariness skilledtraining equilibrium workers,of (lstance employers of andthe correctingFewdoes firmsnot certify forfind them much them to weakness sowork that effectively they in are not easily the basic education of their recruits (Pettigrew et al. 1989). that needs inindividualformerbalancewith the regard present (Greenhalgh between will to study leadtraining general whereto and situations and Mavrotas(transferable) a majority staff of turnover the1994). of kind femaleand Secondly, andobservedspecific school-leavers it cannot skills,infreedom one therefore under-financingof went ofthe choice researchinto maintain training for sites the a The Learning Society - Gorard et al. 10 6 The Learning Society - Gorard et al. 7 InformationApprenticeshipfor hairdressing Technology Scheme, (see Gorard (Coffieldten times et 1996a). asal. many 1997b). 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Examples ofPupilsStudents all Over the ofin 2. overcountriesItEDUCATION ismeasure difficulttime, for and the to compare.yet sameassesIN qualifications BRITAIN reason the Qualifications true that value areit is difficult ofin British to assess used because they seemthemselves relatively are not easy education to or training. education compared to other changes in qualifications ofoldMathematics,20% Britishcompulsory (Pyke of 16 population1996). year and full-time In oldsare fact, is thus doonly althougheducation not in attheachieve the pupils middle in level Europe, evenin of Britain theproficiency a the GCSE11 go standardcountries through grade of theof forthe Geducationaverage which longestin English figures12 period of year the or are Theyandthem"sharp-pencilled"grades are grading. is certified not should evidence Where public be(finding of similarpublic portable lack from of examinationsbetween education. evidence present two ofstudy)There education. largeare isor countrieseven norm-referencedambiguity aboutthe resultant their marking bought,In some and not cases having they arewith similar ability years,highertoavailable a59, figure who morefor (Eurostat females,ofare slowly less only than 1995).haseducatedthan 20% been many The for improvingto Germany, otherproportionlower member secondary (reducing) for of example.the states, levelpopulation very and isThe aroundslowly given figure, in the the50%,over which agefact the compared range that islast even the 2025 comparisonthedifferencepopulations, grading is of isthat by the criterion-referenced, definition.the criteria. proportions For If example, they used are culturalin in not,norm-referencing a recent the simplest speech by are disparities do not allow easy in Korea were ableexplanation to for thethe Prime Ministerdifferent. Where education,Comparativegreatest decreasethe relative studies has figures been have in forfound the males proportion a particularly may actually of females "British be getting with distribution" no worse. post-compulsory of pupil correctlyratios,doesEuropeit was not claimedsince multiplyas mean a learningwhole that that two whereaswas thereto numbers multiply 55%, are 70% andnot with without of otherfor 13 fractional England year-old theskilled aid it ofcomponents,taskschildren was a calculator is not a necessarywhich13%. Such might a comparisonreverse the the figure for achievementbetweeneducationmedianscores. value,There the are achievementsis rising and isclearly a ahigh slowly,fuller linked average longerof except tothe poverty "best"tailperformance perhaps than (Hugilland many inthe Mathematics andamong"worst"countries. 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(1996)the as benchmark an dofound Veryengine not thatstayfew figureof only ofinclass full-timethem of10% reproduction. five achieved of oreducation black more a children AtpassGCSEs afterleast in TheformaldeclinedGross real education levelDomestic to 4.8%of governmentin Britain.Productby 1990/91 in expenditure 1970-71,(Hartley 1994).to on reach Now, a peak education has gone from 5.2% of while Britain spends 32 ecu of 6.6% in 1975/6, but faithbadlycoursesMathematics, in in schoolsin international business without and studies,truancy whichcomparisons forrises they example. tocannot of50% competencies. be inIn somelawyers,general, classes teachers,10Many and (Smithers children14 accountants year and oldsseem Robinson perform orto losetake The Learning Society - Gorard et al. 12 8 The Learning Society - Gorard et al. 13 9 Thecomprehensiveschool 1991).traditional population, There schools. view is effectively of since education A levels no inmainstream Britaincater for is aeducationas minority a "two track post-16only, system". particularly for most The of in the tostates,andbetween Higher the is standard notthe Education. justhigh infor standard the the It absolute isrest. also of The the reflectedproportion educationdifference in of the providedbetweenthe longer, school theforand population UKa more privileged and frequently otherthat minority,continues member part- achievementsaresystemeducational used as toa whole experienceseparate of studentsis selective out for thosein some andBritain whospecialised.has arcalways are as qualified good been,The examinationsas and thoseto still anywhere is, excellent,at ages in Europe but the continue. 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Since andmore In theof thisfact equitable,theexpansion may the qualifications UKhave but hasof broadened thishigher the mayobtained. second education havethe range lowest beenThe (HE) ofaverageaccompanied figurepeople in 1992, degree inentering Europe bythere award inflation HE arein making which thismore and coherencealternativessecondaryEducationtake general and catch thancourses credibilityacademic somein any in whoBritain other (Smitherscourses have country are apparentlyin terminal, and Britain, in Robinson Europe inbutfailed the fewer(Eurostat 1991). senseat schooling, of thatMore these1995). they students continuethese Since are theroutes mosttherefore tolast Higher lack upperto be asor 1996).hadthatthe B.Sc.previouslythe Of teaching course,in engineering been isthis any doesa better.grade which not 2.iiSomemean is had, not thatsubjects professionallyby the 1994/95 students now have becomeare accredited,a necessarilytwo atier grade system unlike any 2.i brighter such(Scott the less.vocationaltaken before - inentering comparison the workforce, to other member it might states,make sense such asfor Germany more of them - and to not be population?higheruniversityuniversities,B.Eng., and or (Scott higherthey with have1996). levelssome four ofThejob qualificationyear advertisementsScottish courses. Office in Therethe (1991)asking UK. may Does pointsfor be athis evendegree out mean thatbe from aathere hierarchymore a are"good" skilled now of Thetheeducationin UKeducation onlylowest has member a inin unique 1992,(EurostatEurope, country whetherplace and1995). in inexactly the atwhich Forschool, educational thehalf fewer UK,in that higher than this of"league Germany halffigure education, oftable" ofthe 42%and 18of or theyear-oldsEurope, stillfull-time figures participating since participatetraining for itthose is inis education,(DfEeThe proportion 1996b). 19% of wereBy some the on ageendgovernment groups of 1985 in training education47% of schemes. 16 has year increased By olds the were fromend ofin1985 1995 full-time to 71%1995 relativelytheaged lowestaverage 21 are lowproportions similar. figure qualification Offor of all Europeits the standardstudent member (11%). population of muchstates, This of the inmay the Higher UK population, be had partlyEducation, until arecentlyand result wayof the ofbelowone split the of andthefiguresschemes,were 7% level in(DfEe forfull-time of and 17educational 1996b). yearanother education, olds This 5% attainmentin may 1995 were a dramatic have were on of ledemployer-funded the59% increase, to majority some and 14%, complacencywith of theandonly or population. forother11% 18 in on schemes.yearBritain government In olds a overrecent 40%The The Learning Society - Gorard et al. 14 10 The Learning Society - Gorard et al. 11 secondarypercentageGlance",OECD publication the educationof theUK overall wascomparing (Rafferty in population second 261995). education position, who Such had comparisonssystems behindcompleted world-wide, Germany, upper between (post-compulsory) in"Education attainments terms of atthe in a People,Bybe aiming 1996 as all 50%forassessed employees qualifications of medium-sized by TECs will within take(Employment part organisationsthe inNVQ/GNVQ training Department asshould theframework. Groupnorm, qualify 1994).of which as Investors 50% will in exampleeducation,thesystems,different UK has (Raffertyeducationand treatedwhich different 1995) thesystemsputs agesGCSE GCSEsto whichareof examination transfer always onit clearly a pardifficult,between withasnot a equivalent.characteristic schools,becausethe French ofbut different inBaccalaureate,of the upper OECD examination secondary report for trainingmayProgress"access" be onehas towards tobeenof trainingthe reducedthe reasons National (Istance to that the Targets the rhetoricaland original Rees has equivalentbeen1995). target mixed ofThe all (seenumber employees Appendix of qualifications taking A) and part this in is all employees should have problemsmissingforAt thethis HE to are such belevel, disabled a asrandom therediabetes, students, areeffect, farasthma, tooparticularly currently few epilepsy students only in and the 2% ofof older certaincourseand universities.mostly dyslexiacategories those (Young Among withrepresented unseen1996). those qualifications,theincreasingperhaps same (DfEe 16,000but thewhich 1995). differentproportion is A understandable lot qualifications of of employers the workforce consideringaccording are confused qualified to that the by to theDearing theNVQ UKvariety level hasReport of a3 mazeremainsmodem on 16-19 of thoseextentvisuallyOf 27,000 without are challenged thosedisabled traditional with andpeople working-class 1500qualifications in haveHE, onlyhearing occupational such 2,500 difficulties.as Ahave levels, backgrounds. mobility Alsoand those missingproblems, The of recent toposition any1000 ethnic great arefor employerseducationremainedarescheme indications (Pykesuchhad in educationeven as 1996). that GNVQ heard the This after situationthanof NVQmay compulsory considered mean inis improving.1992 that school necessary(Maguire employers Overleaving etby twoal. areits age 1993). thirds devisors.less in 1994,involved Howeverof the Only and age in a 60%there furthercohortany of womenalthoughminorityParticipation of background somerecent groupsin Pakistani education has such andimproved isas Bangladeshi notyoung the and sameblacks is origin significantly as of achievement arerecent still Caribbeanunder-represented.better however. (Young origin Although 1996), and year,people20%1995). wentand in nearlythe on workforce to halfsome of form allin employedUK of have government a people qualification havetraining an and A plan levelthis (DfEe figure or equivalent 1995).is rising 80% (DfEeevery of andofparticipation 1996).18 Robinson year-olds At the is 1991),often maygraduate be cited but undertaking level halfas being ofthere these low someare mayinsimilar formBritain, fail ofrates to training,86% get of anyvocationalof 17 suchqualifications year-olds as qualificationsYT (Smithersand (Pyke 69% in familyThetheyFigures availability dependundertook for the on availabilitywhatapprenticeships, of training is considered of training and to abe latermay a training beone misleading, took episode. a succession Ifsince one togeneration of some one-day extent in a of 50%qualificationratethemiddle UK is are much aslevel educated France, lower, attechnical all Germanyto (Smithersand only qualificationsthere lower and areand the many secondaryRobinson Netherlands, (Greenhaigh more 1991). levelpeople but (Eurostat andThere in at Britain Mavrotasthe is intermediate a1995). particularwith (1994). noThese vocational shortagelevel Over are theall severalmostactuallyInformation organisations surveyshad moreTechnology mention training, are motivated only courses, despite the tonumber theit appear is number not of toclear organisations beof trainingcoursesthat the attended. theiryounger providing employees, Inperson addition,a type andhas of Bylevelway 19972000 short 3 or 80% 50%equivalent.of the of of Nationalyouths the Theemployed attain Targets:figure NVQ workforcefor level1994 2was or should above.39.2%. have a qualification at NVQ mostlyHowever,thatdifferencestraining training lasting without the in has themainless specifying increasedinterpretation than growth a week, how isfrom in manyofwith off-the-job 1980the only recipientsterm to 3.6% 1994,"training". training, areof but cases involved. with onThe involvingemployers DfEea plateauThere (1995) training are premises, in further1992.claims for The Learning Society - Gorard et al. 16 12 The Learning Society - Gorard et al. 17 13 healthfrequently.moreunclear thanand for safetyAmonga howyear. training, many mediumTraining individuals. and to in 40%large small provide establishments,The same management 80% establishments takes place much less of medium to large employers80% provide some form of training, although it is Department(GreenhalghHaskins10.7% andby theGroup Sells and government Mavrotas1989). 1994), Thewith or 1994), majoritylocal 14.5% agency.currently paid of training forSimilarly, 67.2%by the is paid learneroftwo fees forthirds orby family, (Employmentof job-related employers and significantlymorethirdsprovide thanclaimed off-the-job half by to hadsector have training a atrainingof training employment lasting budget plan, more but (Greenhalgh onlythan a year (DfEe 1995). Training rates also vary half had it written down. Slightly correlatesand Mavrotas withfor 1994) some more but,employees. short as Two employerfullytrainingforin work.paid by is the funded whileprovided An employer. additional it episodes takes by the Addedplace. 18%(41%),employer Parktogetherof althoughepisodes (1994)(DfEe these these 1995),foundwere two were described awith figures slightly still 90% theare aslowerof majoritycomparable "free"employees proportion but arranged to other for those being of differentcoursesnotedfor women.one above, sosectors. month it isthe not orPark higher less. clear (1994) In incidence thatfact, found actualmost thatin episodes some 50% areas ofwere skill changes are very different in the employer-arrangedpart-time, most study of lastedwhich were schemeOfrecent those findings. (Park learners 1994). Similarly not 32% in work, of17% all 37% oftraining episodes were took at were least place fundedpartly at work. funded by a government solely by the employee. orA 1982proportionsametraining, surveyfigure or washadofsuggested the 30%been workforce (Harrison so that in 22% the 1993). receivingof UK adults training were rose last three years. An estimate in 1990 for theThis is confirmed by the finding that the in some form of education from 1979 to 1989 Thereemployedwhereasbeengovernment isconcentrated some both adult is evidence employersrising population on intraining thatreal and(Greenhalgh termsthe for employees proportioninitial (DfEe andentry 1995). expenditure Mavrotas financedand Government re-entry 1994). by is toconcentratedcentral Ifwork other (Parkand costs on1994), such the expenditure has local forreceivedwomen(Greenhalgh men were atany, that andandundertaking time Mavrotasmost was of an the formal apprenticeship.1994). rest had trainingIn aonly snapshot atoneBetween episode. in 1979, 1985 The most common that time. Most people had never with5% the ofand frequencymen 1989 and there 3% for wasof an form jointlycaseshalfincluded,as travel ofby the work-basedthe oremployeethe employee child-care clear majority traininghad and and an employer element opportunityisof initiated training of(Greenhalgh choice byepisodes costs the inemployee, such what andfor as those Mavrotasto and in inwork 1994).a further are Aroundfinanced 20% of loss of leisuredo ortime whether are to do it foundincreasedwomenincrease1994). that overtakingof Apprenticeships intwo 50% proportion. thirds in reported that had Infor been declined,a menepisodes study involved for of and theforthe in shortthoseworkforce some coursesin kind work, aged lasting 16 to first time (Greenhalgh and Mavrotas of education or training in less than a month 54, Park (1994) (Parksupervisory,Most 1994). training apprenticeships, is health and safety, and foreign induction, languages new (DfEetechnology, 1995), management,in descending previoustrainingsomethe previous previous atthree the three years. timesurveys years, ofMost thewhich(NIACE of survey, these is a 1994). substantially were and ain further work. higher The 29% other had 19% were involved in work-related figure than that found by 18% weredone involved some in the beingorder.projectwas1989. classified Togetherfar morebased An in-depth commonas theseand apprentices triggered account study than by new every byfor Pettigrew changes skills96% year, ofprovision and ettrainingin al productin (1989) 1995 in episodes. the the designagreed UK. figure Most orFewerthat wascustomer induction halfpeople that base trainingare of or later training is Inin fortraining,non-vocational1986/87, by labour which employers costs. learning. was Thereequivalent spent is a4.6% suggestionto £809 of GDP, per that person, or this 0.3% ismost a rise of whichof their is accounted turnover onsince 1984 (Deloitte qualification,managementwasnew technology,to do with and and foradministrationcomputers these example. were orIn more (Park anotherkeyboard common 1994). study, skills, 40% among 20% of and ofthe younger episodes people, led to athose in training in the workforce10% was relevant to formal The Learning Society - Gorard et al. 18 14 The Learning Society - Gorard et al. 19 15 failed7%unqualified of (Park the episodes 1994). professional were ended jobs, theearly, unemployed, and 15% ofand those those taking paying a forqualification themselves. Thosepositions,administration,process who of agriculture, arechanging alreadyeducation, and technologybetter plant and educated healthand machine(Green get or morequalified, operatives1994). training, andThose get whilepresumably less working those(DfEe inmore 1995). in technical public likely Theandproposes secondtwo that track itthatstrand is the accesssystem of same arguments to typeofeducation training of for people andthe learningtraining who have society opportunities is based uponthroughout is unfairly distributed in the UK, justice. It their the (Pettigreweducational(McGivneyto be employed et 1991, recordal. at 1989). Harrisona higheris seen In one grade,1993, as study,providing areDfEe alsoonly 1995), more evidence3% perhapsof likely those of to becausewhotheir receive left being their laterschool trainable previous training at the educationpopulationensureappropriatelives, and greater and perhapstake for training and partall, wider across andin systemany itparticipation. is generations.form the is problemofseen post-initial Whereasas In aof onegood access education,inversion one, that providing ofneeds in this Sweden toargument, bea product solved50% take to Britain less than 50% of the thewhominimumthose others. left withschool Theage immediate bestundertookwith qualified at least post-initial training one applicants GCSE ineducation the becamealso last get (Parkthree learnersthe best 1994).years comparedemployer-based compared Similarly to only 77%to training65% 50% of those ofof Thosepartemploymentunemployed every who year are or(Titmusalso employedeconomically make 1994). a difference. are inactive more 65% likely(NIACE of tofull-time 1994), receive and employees training the mode thanwere and foundthoselevel to of in morestudyMengovernment are intimidated- (Park more schemes 1994). often than such trainedIn men addition, as YTSbythan the (Banks womenthere demands have et al. of been1992). examinations, suggestions and that that women this isare a 55% versus 43% in one three year higherofhave generallypart-time undertaken grade confined employeesget trainingmore to and managers, (Parkin betterthe last1994). training, andthree Ineach years general, with tier in Human ofone those recruitment survey, Resource people as trainedopposed employed Development differently to at a 41% deterrent(Burstallqualifications,andFurther only toand 1996). thereturning Higher first thePrevious attractEducation concept to college non-vocationalfunding of Act aseducation divided ancouncil adult courses vocational formoney(Burstall leisure were if and 1996).the preciselyhas non-vocational they all Since but lead those disappeared theto that national1992courses, could common(Parktraining,(Pettigrew1989). 1994), andamongThose et al. establishedand with1989).those this supervisory in naturallyManual moreemployees prestigiousgrades, meansresponsibilities get other leastthat occupational than work-basedof all orapprentices, (Deloittehigher trainingpay Haskins generally generally is farand get get more Sells less more classes (Harrison 1993, courses.aftertobe beused employeda Gender family by women is andfull-time clearly especiallyare lessrelated as well likely to to asgain other beingto confidencebe characteristics. learners,learners before while(Tremlett Males progressingwomen et are al.more more 1995), to often assessed likely withlook Trainingemployment,class,DfEefastest, 1995). and isand thosemore Adult inthe the common ofkind learning public higher of employersectorin hassocial larger been than statusestablishments, isdescribed in linked private (McGivney to asmanufacturing the the in availabilitypreserve those 1991). that (Dcloitteof For aretheof those training.growingmiddle- Haskins in perhapsappear(Greenmaleunpaid well-qualified to1994).work of get less longerat Those thanhome training,employeescaring9 nothours yet for perwomen being children areweek thewidely may (DfEe aremost get the accredited morelikely1995). least frequent likely.to If receive(Butlertraining However, short-term 1993).further is measured while Youngertrainingtraining, men in services.attritionandgrade Sells are(PettigrewNew 1989). most recruits Training likely et workingal. to 1989), isbe stronger trained, for and a large most inparticularly firms public common with sector if high inthat financeorganisation recruitmentorganisation and businessat or isa in staffhigh the theblackmen,episodes, most whilewomen likely in forfact, employees to part-time full-timehave received (not employees women including training employees the those in situation the from previousare themore is Indianthe four frequently reverse. weekssub-continent) In (DfEetrained one 1995).study, thanwere The Learning Society - Gorard et al. 20 16 The Learning Society - Gorard et al. 2 17 toand50%Most 1995),cease training versus people at 58% the36% areundertaking ofage aged (Parklearners of over50 1994). (NIACE vocational are65 Only(Harrisonin the 1994).9% age training of 1993).range thoseThis are 25-29,Inisinvolved young reinforcedfact, and vocational (McGivneyin more post-initial by havethe training emphasis 1993, no education children seemsDfEe of paymentadditionthe1993), benefits and toof othertheandfees problem grants bydomestic instalments systems of responsibilities finding (FEU is not fees 1993) generally in (Park onewhich lumpallowable, 1994). confuse sum There the inseveral financial are anomalies learners issue. are inIn some cases since TECsInstill summary, oneconomically Youth Training, occupation, active unemployedinvolving mode teenagers, of(Istance employment, and and Rees Training 1995). status, for class,Work, industry, for the stateauthority,(Maguirecosts.surprised benefits The etby andwelfare al. the are even1993). level often system when Benefitof withdrawn. other all and entitlementof expenses the the availability Unemployedcosts such is of incompatible trainingas ofexamination people cheap are with onmetloans training fees by play theand acoursesindividual, stationeryrole here a grant from local fordecliningpermanentoforganisation, later younger training part predominantly qualifications,and of inthe higher the workforce. UK. level whitegender, Training grades.Within male and by age workers, thisThose employers are category currently groups even concentrates training though under-representedthe major is these more determinantson are full-timecommon now in a whichunemploymenteducationtherefore you penalised arecourse offered benefit or by programme, immediately.isa systemthat you which must You"one saysbe might of inthe relationnot conditions... satisfy to goingthis rule to be while entitled ... able and willing to take up any job on a training or you are are to refugees,temporaryeducationspecial ex-offenders,andneeds workers, training or disabilities unemployed, are the unskilled relatively (NIACE lone manual illiterate parents, 1994). workers, and womenAlthough innumerate, unqualified, of 14%lower and ofpart-time social allthose adults class, with and are (Nashtheirmaximumamendedon a 1996a, trainingcourses 1991). that Keep orbecause one education Currently1997). can of study General uneven course16 without hours knowledgeinterpretation or perprogramme..." losing week ofbenefit. (21 theof thesebeforeincentives (TheIn 1995,rules OctoberEmployment availableby20,000 benefits 1996) people to Service, trainoffices quit are the TheasResearchrecorded wellbarriers as as hasmerely disabled, to suggested learning increase, only several 0.3% the access ofbarriers these to thatpost-compulsoryparticipated potential in learners HE education in 1990. face andand totraining, widen, manythecontinuingis sketchy situation were (Taylorto over isHE worse has£7,000 and been for Spencer theinaccompanied debt mature 1994). already students. byThe (Garneran much-lauded increase In 1995 and in of 'mesonthe those increase number 1996) in studentsdebtand andthe over 26 in HE institutional,barrierspresagedthese barriers neatly by theto into needdo determinants withsituational, to thebe recognisedstructure of to adultdo withof learning. opportunities,and the faced. lifestyle Harrison To ofand a the large(1993) dispositional, prospective extent categorises they learner,relating arethe Thewhichgeneral,situation loss toof adult economise time,will education getparticularly worse when is facedwith the for easiest athewith social ending financial sector life ofis for stress anotherthe government/local older (Kelly cost students 1992).of learning allowance. in In government in ofPerhapsto thelearning learners' the ismost the own obviouscost attitudes. (McGivney obstacle that1991, most Maguire people et face al. 1993).when envisaging This cost couldepisodes be educationalcasesleastlongest (McGivney (CERI average force, 1975). 1991, workingat least FEUFor potentially, week everyone, 1993), in Europeespecially and television a forstimulant inmales a country has into theemerged withmanufacturing a tradition of the new interests, but it can as a powerful sector at some withforthosetransport,of the the the withdirect poor greater child-care,families (NIACEkind, burden such (Hand 1994),foregone asof fees,child-care,et andal. or income,1994). to more some for Thesecommonly time whichextent costsand supportfor even indirect, arewomen, clearly theis generally emotional suchwho more asare the poor restrictivestill cost costs (FEUfaced for of dependantswhichtimelackalso beof(Kelly may leisureseen or be 1992). asin possibletime disruptive. long-term butTaking for from an Adult relationships.a individual,thecourse multiplicityeducation often but Relationshipsinvolves is of nowmore opportunities suffering of an a adjustmentproblem not available for inthose lifestyle for with that can be strained, so much from The Learning Society - Gorard et al. 22 18 The Learning Society - Gorard et al. 23 19 moreaparticularly male likely partner forto -bewomen the employed "Educating taking part-time, courses Rita" syndrometo less progress likely - beyond(FEU to be 1993).aware the educational Womenof opportunities who level are of especiallyreturners anfor easy women entry who route may back be into education (Maguire more intimidated by examination demands, et al. 1993), disadvantagedandparticipationstemming generally from backgrounds (Maguirepoorer the work-place transport et face al. 1993). the and facilities, most have The barriers domesticmost therefore vulnerable(Burstall and child-care face 1996). women many responsibilities, from threats the mostto populationavailable,accreditedinvolvementaccording knowledge continuing(Taylor to one in studyreadingand learning of Spencer (Burstallopportunities schemes (Hunter-Carsch 1994), 1996). for giving Itchildren, is often may be patchy for some parts of the many a1996). feeling Even that where"youvery are simpleprovision on thatprovision, is can eventually perhaps lead to TheFE,scaleproviding institutional for of example, provision, organisations, barriers still and assume general toin termstraining a 17lack of year ofadvertisement,often flexibilityold comenorm which from(McGivney entry theis procedures,fast procedures changing,1991). Collegestiming ofand the theyand of generationsproblemsdifficultyyour"reproductive" own". with with of In thewriting addition, basic determinantsame or literacy.families numeracy an estimatedof (DfEe adultThese (NIACE non-learning. 1996c), deficiencies6 million adults in Britain 1994), and one sixthreinforcing of adults have their importance as a appear to pass through may have theywantthefromneed youngsters, cannotchildrento fitadapt learning always into since manyflexible aroundget the ways, time adults opportunities other butoff can adapting(Park tasks have 1994).of for a to equalwealth learninghaving They importance of them have relevant(FEU ininterrupted 1993).a in experience.class their couldAdults lives, patterns benefitPeople differsince of learnerswithstudentWhatever a focus (FEU may barriers only 1993).be seen areon The the faced,as lackformal they of provision younger, better educated, and from higher income publicare harder arena forespecially the less ofmotivated work prospective of learning for leisure, and at home means that theReesofcompletionparticipation the wrong 1995). quality course ofDrop andcoursesof provision(Pykeout diverse is is commonly1996), so progressionnowat all with high levels, caused nearly that routes schools, it byhalf must people (Istanceof be FE,students partlydiscovering HE, and seeninand Reesone YTas that survey an1995). (Istance theyindictment feeling areNon- and on previousseenlearning,becomesgroups as middle-class educationaland than self-realising. so they social reallyand episodes practice "not People are for that(Edwardsbecomes thewith likes these etof al. us". 1993). It To reproductive, andcharacteristics education can tend thus to bebe selected for may be a poor experience of some extent, this image availablethegeneralIstancethey institutions had inand amade choosinglow Rees in a levelnot mistake 1995). giving a of course awareness(FEU Many appropriate and1993), learners in of stayingand initialsources arepart disappointedguidance onof of theit (FEUinformation blame (Maguire 1993). forby thisthe andThereet mustlack al. financial 1993, oflieis helpinwith basicmanystudying(Taylor readingas and 6skills million Spencer (Nash such adults 1996). as1994). numeracy, in theIf initial UK this today education provides with fundamental creates the obstacle for continuing education has not leda furtherto the creation barrier. ofThere basic may be as problems concerning (BanksPartincentives of theet al.for cause 1992). training of Evenlack (Park ofthose 1994),training studying such must as may thebe thenotTraining lackhave of foundto appropriateWork what scheme. they provision actually reportacknowledgedlearnersHowever, non-material in their other the attitudes benefit studiesbenefits, ofhave to butlearning, full-time foundat least no difference althoughbetween learnersa third, mayand especially non-be moreeducation volunteer likely to(Parkself-funders 1994). Most people peopletocertifiedlearningwanted provide the(Park courses,for accreditationopportunity leisure 1994). heavily (NIACE This to backedof islearn all1994), particularly adult upnew byand education.interests the is truereinforcedincentives of and Notnon make inby onlywork-related the the new doesfunding current friends, this arrangementsemphasistraining deny it denies some and on concentratingTheprospectsand influence the (Parkunemployed, on of 1994). thelack more of motivationdid easily not visible see learning as having any positive effect on job to learn may be underestimated by literature barriers such as cost and entry The Learning Society - Gorard et al. 24 20 The Learning Society - Gorard et at. 21 consideredal.between 1994). Since themvary difficult.considerablysome of these between definitions different are very studies, loose, so themaking types comparisons of training someGivenlet the countries, thatindividual education some who iswould gainsconsuming see also lifetime pay a growing for learning the slicelearning. as of an government In Britain, expenditure the post-war in appeal to "bootstraps", to ofexample.compensatoryAdult adults education (LoweHowever, intent 1970), has in come (Cropthe both sense to formalley be that seen1977), andadult as less compareda education limited formal, activity toonlyfour recurrent mainrefers with types to recreationaleducation the have education been for or terms,settlementnearlyits1992). GNP so twiceOne that foron developing byeducatingeducationthe 1967 GNP expenditure (Crop 10%countryinvolved ofley wasits 1977). an onpopulation. reported increase education Yet however in in theTo wascost 1970seducate 5.3%muchof around to of isthembe spent,the spending 350% all thewould in pressure18% real cost GNP (Kelly of andbybeensuggested1. LEA WEA Institutionsaddressed adult classes(Squires education by primarily for the 1993). example. study class, toThese of teach whichuniversity arc adults. thethis four paperInextra-mural this main forms study types asuchclasses, part. of centreslearning Open are which University represented have sucheducationalotherfor more as states in continues the expenditure,(Yeomans TVEI and scheme Britain1996). where which isexpenditureThere still has comparedis, cost perhaps, expands £1 billionunfavourably a tokind meetby of1997, theParkinson's in moneyathis fair respect proportion available, Law with of study3.generally2. Institutions this means usually teachingteaching state-funded means adults adults companies, Higherbut in additionwhose and primaryFurther totrade teaching Education.functionunions, children. isclubs, not Ineducation. orthis voluntary study In thisthis Thereforecomplexof majoritythewhich amount computerhas others of gone thespent wouldpopulation onsystems on numerically-controlled initialsee fora - learning adultsschooling, schools society which in order aswerelathes, a tochance never putpneumatics money usedto limit (Yeomans into equipmentor eveneducating 1996).reduce and the where it may be more cost-effective (Furter Lifelonglibraries,4.associations. Independent museums, learning learning and of by course, individuals, television. perhaps with the help of friends, using populationshouldcontrary,the1977), home be so andpressurefocusing whichbreaking community is on away ageingthe education monopoly fromin (Istancepersonal the is educationofnot and development.schools coming Rees ofand 1995), fromyoung rediscovering Despite demographics. with people moresome to the thesingleclaims importance rest person toof thethe of Attention childinformalandbe"Lifelong adult seenwho learning education,learnsas learning"preparation and(Dave thea (or totality1976), adult for lifetime adult whoin from a educationlearning).wayproduces birth that to questions (Furter (seeisdeath, a combinationforthcoming 1977).including the distinction School ofbothpaper) initial can betweenformal andtherefore education as and the such Therecanandhouseholds provide areit used many a socialperhapsto goodbe community.that containingsocial so few and continued workingeconomic men their reasons or education older for women children into for adulthood to whom go to educationschool that the everyoneeducation,Lifelonguseful"should to concentrateknowledge) the learninghave ability the thuspower to lessand teachbecomes onthatmore facts oneself. education on the (usually the embodiment It skills brings,is supporteda requiredcombination and of thosethe bothto contradictory learnin byof industry false those(Crop and whowho leygoal "merely 1977).wish of all resourcesallistiming not the clear rhetoric,of thisand why continuationthis ithas continues may educational have was to been be notexpansion so.justified important Schools beenin parthaveto somost by suckedfront-loaded greater people in equityalmost(CERI and why,all1975). available despite But it of provision, job-competitionthepeople cost to to have the model employera more (Whitfield practical of any furtherandeducation Bourlakis training, (Furter 1991). which 1977), is perhapsconsidered one valuable that reduces in a standardsseriousmassificationandwell appeals into inequalities of adulthood toliteracy, of economic school-based in numeracyfor initial progressvery educationnegativelearning and (CERI behaviour. reasons,has in 1975). reallyBritain, whileStudents There worked. and more is some maylittle Studies enthusiastic stayreportevidence still in decliningeducation describe adults that the may The Learning Society - Gorard et al. 26 24 The Learning Society Gorard et al. 27 25 pupilsbeideally1975). disenfranchised to stayAssuited. early on Theat as schoolby country1968 their pursuingit age wasis shortor observed evidence academic of engineers that of studies early"there and immaturefor technicians,is atwhich present, "failure"they yet a may tendency not for engineering (CERI be areand required.respondhigher level appropriately. cognitive skillsIn these such circumstances as problem-solving rote knowledge and hypothesis-testing is of little use, as beasWalesa subject aprecisely temporary Argus ranks the 30/5/68) refuge sixteenthsame kindsfromand in it unemploymentorderof is 16/17still of true choiceyear-olds today (Fevreamong that that some the local students industry use FErequires courses for 1997), even though they mayuniversity students" (South aOneplaceTheof pseudo-progression. industrial, worldmain against reason is changingtechnologicala stable given backgroundIn bytoo this advocates quickly and version, societal (Employment for for lifelong one the change personsadvancement is Department exponential life to of be a learningconsideredGroup (Cropley 1994), society to takeand is learning is essential since the rate 1977). schoolallowingLifelongthe Modern during genuinelearning Apprenticeship childhood. equality can be It Scheme ofseenmust later astherefore access foruniversal example. even differ rather if from an individualthan more elitist traditional lacks (Dave interest forms 1976), ofin changewasmorethe rate summed and wasof more change considerably up essential by is oneincreasing toobserver longer allow over than people thus: time, that "In to ofso adaptthe a that single past (Coffieldlifelong the human learning life. Thus is becoming mankind time-span of important 1996a). The position the time-span is adultandto(or1977) leave educationrecurrent so such resistedschool that or which at lifetimeonly bythe concerned havethoseearliest of always intermittentwho opportunity doeducationalists. had well a learning) kindearlier has oftenof return. "secondshould beenHowever, In beseen creaming" fact, the as thisreverse.lifelong a sign problem (Cropley Alearning desire of of failure preparepossible.Whiteheadconsiderablywas trainedindividuals One speaking shorter tois thatadapt to face thethanin itself theatrend thatnovelty 1930s towasof fixedhuman of(p.15discernible conditions". conditions. inlife, Dave and in 19301976), accordingly Today and two the interpretations oursituation training must must are be However, as this was A.N. thisrightsmotivationlater way until adulthood, early latermight failure (CERI berecurrent willalleviated 1975). not education disenfranchise Since by allowing the also outcomes allows peoplepeople the offor to schoolingredressing lifedefer and their initial areof educational inequities.known schooling by In apparentmodelandsincemuch the byworse of changerecent thean expandingveryby past over now, nature than generations but universemore of another memory distant based has is times. that andalways on like publicthe In beenthe"big-bang" records sameneed seen forway as moretheory lifelong largethat is itfor andknown is learning, observerspossible of now inthe in a growing participationnon-learningignoresmightlifetime become the learning possibility as"identities"a less the are significantactual that that through thatitopportunities allows determinantbecome experience parents as available ofimportant more peoplelife chances,immediate to might determinantsthem. although build experienceOther up suchlearningclaims of futureawhich view for or is decryanyproportionately galaxy the instability to see accelerating and every transitory other pace, nature galaxy so it of is the movingpossible present. foraway observers in every age to from them at a ofproblemperformancerelevant a job fortoof theirobsoletelife of with children'spupils knowledgea planned (CERI education, career 1975).than a structurealwaysheavily It also seenfront-loaded dealsand asassociated more an important effectivelysystem. company Iffactor the with training notion in thethe thesuchidealInProgression several interim asstate, injustice of onecost thetowards towards toand accounts be inefficiency borne anwhich indicatedideal? in Britainthe in struggle. the above, is current or should "Sometimes a learningeducational be striving, society glimpses system while is seenmayof any that beas failures visionpartfuture of reactivequickerandscheme1993), the hasknowledgeretraining,(Rees they gone now 1997). (DfEe asrequire gained industries Rather 1996a), more at inductionthan have peoplecareer this changed transitionsable situation or apprenticeshipto according monitor arecalling becoming events, to onefor becomes theaccountdiagnose more provision obsolete frequent(Downs problems of areHowever,seembe not asto new takeold advocates (Cropley as shape, recorded of shimmering1977), greater history while educational likedemandsitself a distant(Dave equality for lifelong oasis"1976). and industrial(Cassels orIn 1973, competitivenessin a South Wales lifetime learning may Keep 1997). The Learning Society - Gorard ct al. 28 26 The Learning Society - Gorard et al. 29 27 wouldnewspaper come claimed not from that greaterlonger productivityworking hours in the or greater depressed coalfield valleys effort but better century,the oppositional education and for socialising all was not purposes of learning. underpinned so much as now by arguments of In the first part of this organisation"historicallearningtechnical society 'know amnesia".and more analysishow': "We" efficient we is are toohave truly simple,machinery. been in heresufferingthe agebefore, "Physical of from the as earlyTechnocrat".what exertion as blaming is the Yeomans (1996) calls The standard yielding to loss of leavemaineconomiclead purposetheir perhaps competitivenessworking of to workers greater community politicaleducation or even but awareness increasedto was meet not the to orsocial risingencourage fuller participatory citizenship (see mobility (Lewisaspirationsand 1993). workers ofThe labour education and to was talented individuals to centuryindustrialFurtersociety (Rees pre-eminence1977),were 1997). described although In on Britain, and a fewfailure advocated manywere of the implemented,of by educationthe the policy Smith system components Report perhaps in of the 1919 because late of a learning(Lowe 1970, nineteenth lifelong movementasGorard mobilityinitialmuch et a educational. partbetweencame 1997b). of to the beradical (Lewis Education riseaccepted of and labour1993). liberal aswas an partAlthoughadded intentions, of bonus,politics, there as a were and the post-war settlement as compulsory and although individual class- whole the tentative alliance tensions within the educationEducationeconomicplannerssociety. proposals (Furter AlthoughbenefitsCommittee 1977). often claimed there and seem Lifelongwas their by some idealistic some 1919 learning emphasis morereport, rather recent was oneducation than the not writers. economic practical perceived was For the benefitsto the askeyeducational 1917having to of a better learning, Adult the economymobilitysuccessful.of university andor Nowadays, greater intellectualswhile allequality themainstream expansionand of the inheritors political of state partieseducationof an argue opportunity, the more radical collective agenda of older autodidact tradition was has institutionalised social about an education-led reformsreportfora special the wiselycommon aloneconcern accepted - good. inwas today's that Educationthat education educationalterms should a learningwas progress havenot simply societya collective does cannotnot purpose.come be created for personal benefit alone but from educational However, the just by conformistculturalItlost is (Reestentatively and inspired 1996). intellectual suggested Theversions baby equality of mayhere education havethat, is ignored followedto for the cultural extent (Lewis the bath water. that it is correct to describeaccomplishment have been 1993). Even the non- forprovidingthebetter all; those through living more appearing conditions, learninglonger in holidaysthe - includingand new its town and recommendations the shorterof formation Cwmbran working of in urbanincludedthe hours, 1960s), housing more and estates leisureholidays (such time as closest to achieving these sufficient wages, with changesthesegroupSouth loyalties Walesloyalties which as have tohavinghave a varietybeen had had undermined far-reaching ofa learning communities -society aseffects might in on thebe occupations expectedpast, based in occupations and localities. If this was underpinned by from those structural and localities - it camepayworthwhile (Lowe closest 1970). to goals, becoming It wasin the perhapsa learningaftermath when society of societythe (Gorard post-war came et settlement that South Wales al. I997b). lifetime educationorientationsmightbe unable be expected and toappropriate trainingproduce that maythe to virtuousheirs bea learning inspired of thoseoutcomes societyby communities individualism, which (Fevre are will no popularly1997). supposed Their to approach arise to and this approach may longer exhibit the andlearningTheremeantProgress in someare societythat some towards geographical training may indications the havetoday ideal areas, been might maythat thanstronger betotherefore theyinferiora large in are the be toextenttoday past,retrograde.the craft-based(see elementsfor forsome Byexample sectionssystemsthisof a ittrue is ofnot simply Rees 1997).of the past, society outcomesproducein groupa learning loyalties,an which instrumentalistsociety. are or It a the mightpoor more substitutebeview supposedradical of education for forms that education the andindividualist of education leading to political andtraining training which inspired leads by to approach tends to areexample,or segmentthat those the between or skillsof that the of a populationthe learningbrick-layers collective societyif they andin the wantedindividualhas 1990s always it do (Coffield purposes notexisted match 1996a). offor the most prosperous educationthose of the and 1920s between for Further differences awareness.learning asIt alsopositional enhances good" what (Keep have 1997, been p. 14). described as the "insidious effects of The Learning Society - Gorard et al. 30 28 The Learning Society - Gorard et al. 3 29 competitiveA Ifless it is agreeable argued economies that interpretation knowledge need to further and automateskill becomes their processesobsolete and quickly and that production, existtrickrequirements than is ait cleveris to and provide one structures since suitable it isof generally thejobs existing for people.cheaper productive to train system people (Furter to do the1977). jobs that This andbenefitforskillingthen backed exploitation further alsoof up those byprovides.training the ofat enhancementthe for However, workforce,top all (Furter can thequiteof leading workers1977).same reasonably process In tostatus agreater similar can thatbe justifiedalso productivitythe way, bere-training seenif by it isas argued or policy-makersfor the chiefjustification multi- that probably(LowepublicIn fact, spending 1970).adult not educationsufficient Simply on it in providing tohas1966 overcome traditionally for example more this, chances interested andwas themuch through whole only less aissuethan increasedfew in probablyin other countriesBritain where funding is needs a dependencyculturaltheproceduresenhanced population norms. participation and of protectingcitizenship,individualsA push in towards education those formal on institutions, ininstitutionalising education power will lead from assisting canto greaterany also adult criticism bethe awareness seeneducation established as which of prolongs order but socialisation of democraticis free of the motivatedlikelyalmostclamouringrethink. thatinevitably Why, to adultsfor learnif greater there spent do by isnot funding certificationon huge generallychildren? unfulfilled and why Theandwant isdemandlatterpromotion anymore couldnew for"schooling" funding inlearningbe orderaltruism, voted areto and improve taxpayersbut for have by to their not it is more adults be chancecontrolpossibly1977). ofschools), hinderingAll their else own farmay the learning,from be true trivia breaking outcome to and teach falsethe ofthem schools educationknowledge. to be monopoly, independent which Lifelong is can to oflearning enabletherefore teachers all(and beto secondseentake schoolers, using similar criteria to (Furter coercion,thiscontrolwantshuman version to atcapital.may ofcontroldo, thehave but In learning of fact,informally.been one they though ofsociety, its may most Thethe notlearning extendedpowerful "society" do so is even something forcesfamily element where for (Crop thesethatchange. could leyeveryone conditions 1977) beIn thean passingattemptpast exist. Inon at does and this educationItthoseas mayan annexationthat therefore havecan help already of be with out-of-school a faileddelusion problems in schools, to territorysuch think as such unemployment,thatby as creating certifying more individuals.social and mobility more andformal the contentcontrolchildrenfalse1993). knowledge topassed in Schoolsbe order slaves to suchto schools, can underpreserve as be religious the seen which thempretext as observanceasaccordingpreparing of an teaching economic tochildrenand themCobbett denyingasset to for read(Coleman taught thelife and worldopportunities children 1990). of work to beto as write (Johnson This conditionseffect.successiveschoolingnecessarily Too of is governments workingimprovingmuchalready may too life. overallcostlybepledge Formal expected in moreconditions terms education andof of education moreits for economic may moneyall. helpItin can to termsbenefit individualsschools be arguedof (Furter remedying with thatwithout little1977) initial clear theyet forcompulsionthedefined familiesbell. by Schooling the withhas employer beendeeper mayformative regulation - tobe do marginal inas bysociety,they the are tostate, perhapsrealtold, with lifeturn leadinga for clearerup manyon totime distinction loss people, and of moveautonomy between but its with otherproblemshavingbe better things. aof job,addressed society All its ofconditions, (Gorard these to the arewhole 1997), pay, generally society careermaking structureoutside(CERI it the 1975).target workers' and division ofWorking criticism control, of life labour that whereasdepends might among on learningtodaythisadults"learning" analysis, hasand in ledchildren society (i.e.itto is a notdemand instructional)and appears surprising between by more the the thatprocess. state placeoften the and lengtheningof inIt employerswork mayor immediately andalso homeof befor adolescence that a (Johnson lengthening aftera strong periods 1993).in desire society of for theOn of agreeareKeepcurrentvoluntary often 1997).to VET a reduced training"useful" Thus,system to isittraining, the isnot odd notsingle (although organisedthat where idea current usefulofeven around"qualifying" solutions here is defined andthe to institutionalfor the the as the oneproblems framework of working of the individual to adapt and to benefit of individuals,suited chiefly to the life organisationswhymajorwidespread in social Wales, excitement change (e.g. if not Hanson as in long (Lewis Austria 1968)as people 1993). (Jahoda and have Educationpolitical et the al. free 1972),activity may time only self-teaching, toall pursuebeincreased able it. to This assistduringvoluntary may the be with The Learning Society . Gorard et al. 32 30 The Learning Society - Coiled el al. 33 31 andunemployment the creation of of the the depression welfare state 1929-36 (Gorard and et why al. 1997b). the trend continued post-1945 It would be elegant to conclude that a true learning society will exist when all bydoesAn theeven instinctively appointees more extreme andof the thereforeversion state (Frow would not something and be thatFrow learning that1990). needs is It something may to be be taught, especiallypossible for all that everyone socialtowardsgreatclearthree -componentsa control betweenpriori changing that(Simon education thearethis inworld 1990b).is harmony likely as (Frowstimulus The or (the andeven twin tointersection Frow action,possible.aims 1990), of changing education inThe and figure tensions education one's 1).are However,ownfitting may as life a be peopleprocess as justit a is step toonotfor of simplyknowledgelearningunconsciously a tochange ofbe results parsimoniously allin behaviourof (i.e. the notime. interaction produced Thereforeexplained and by any in priorno termsattempt feedback). experience of at a formalprocess In thisand education requiringaccounttaking cannot no place it isand forthe educatorssocial roles is andto overcome promoting the their inherent ability contradictions to think independently. (Fryer 1990). The challenge Figure 1 Three components of a learning society educationtransmitevenaffect here the whatis amountthe usually results is usefulof of learning canthe has teachingbe beenunpredictable. taking notgenerally place. of the It learningThe untested.can only itself affect The (Deamer quality what is1996). controllearnt assumption that teachers can of Liberal/Cultural inTheAtWhat favour, least push is three a forand learning greater strandsthe older inclusivenesssociety of liberal a learning (revisited)?view and societyof athe learning economichave arisensociety imperative, in as this a cultured brief both discussion. arena for currently educatioImpartial opportuEqual civilisedargumenttendsapproaches to life. see when and Topeople abenefitthere large as is human extent differenta shortage thesecapital, sections of differing appropriate only of touchingsociety. objectives labour, The base economicrequiredue with to the different argumentinclusive falling birth Economic LEARNINGSOCIETY Labour Inclusive classes,alsorates"impartial" beor aandseen major the as education lesswar economic formalperhaps represented anti-capitalist in(see purpose, figure by 1). bothepisodes.the Independent WEA the liberal-basedThe and inclusiveworkers university argumentsupposedly extra-mural for education can rather than shortage towardsequalrecurrentliberal opportunity rathergreater visioneducation condescending thatquality. rather isexplains based Itthan has on theequality becomecompensatory movement demand permixed for se,towards learning formsandup with what greaterof for theadult remains leisuremore equality education. liberal hasand a pleasure, tendency viewIt is the for of judgementsoneselflearningappeal and of society (Hanson marketisation, for one's is 1968),in dangerpeers, butso ofthat forthis becoming "taste, likehas alsothe standards inclusiveonebecome based one andandsolely basis economic criteria" on for individual the for ones,more making gain. arecent liberal ideal(1997b)OneCONCLUSION purposetowards that a ofwhich learning this paperwe societyprogress is to isreinforce innot a simplysmooth the asuggestionfashion. desirable Nor, futuremade as evidenced inobjective, Gorard by etor theal.an The Learning Society - Gorard et al. 34 32 The Learning Society - Gorard et al. 35 33 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS economiclibraryThisthenot Learningsimply loansis madeposition duringa Societynormative more of the complexthe may depression country.concept involve because ofIf afor betterinclusivenessit isexample, the a understandingsocial determinants isand or it of product, then understandingculturalnecessarily phenomenon relatedof what tohas andthe gone before. historical patterns of WalesTheproviders ESRC Training (Grantfor participating. Enterprise Number L123251041),Councils for funding. Gwent, MidThe Glamorganfamilies and and training West toparticipation socialSocietybe subject connections can in to be education geographically seen withinas beingand and training based specific between on- family, real, them. rather industry, Developments variations. In this way, the Learning than ideal, institutions and the availability - are likely in education and AntikainenREFERENCESBanks M., Bates A., Houtsonen I, Breakwell J., KaupillaG., Bynner J. andJ. and Huotelin Emler N.H. Learning(1992)(1996)London: CareersLiving FalmerSociety. inand a Life Histories, identities and education, Thusthesecontemporarytraining insights could may also bemight patterns givenon-linear abe clue of gained participation andto the retrograde fromfuture. havean in analysis someemerged respects for from previousof ones, the andway in which particular groups. BurstallBosworth E. 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Individuals Department Overcoming decision-making barriers toabout adult lifetime learning, learning, Disaffection London: Fryer B. (1990) The challenge to working-class education,pp.educationThetwentiethEnlightenment: in 276-319Simon Search century, inB. the (Ed.)for twentieth London:Enlightenment:the working Lawrencecentury, class London: andthe and Wishart,working adult Lawrence pp. education class 71-104 and and Wishart, in adult the HaskelHartley D.J. and(1994) Martin Mixed C. Messages (1993) The in Education causes of Policy: skill shortageSignOxfordBritishFalmer, inEconomicJournalp. 2 of Papers, Educational 45 Studies, 42, 3, pp. 230-245 of the times?, in Britain, The Learning Society - Gorard et al. 38 36 The Learning Society - Gorard et al. 39 37 HugillHickox B M. and (1995) Narayan Situating N (1995) Vocationalism, Must try harder..., in British in Observer, Journalof 19Education, 5/11/95, of Sociology p. 16, 18- 2 MainMcGivney B. and Shelly V. (1993) M. (1990) Participation The effectiveness and non-participation. of the Youth Trainingaliterature, A manpower Scheme p. policy, 11as in Edwards in Economica, R., Sieminski 57, pp. S. and Zeldin D. (eds.) Adult 495-514 review of the IstanceIFFHunter-Carsch (1994) D. and Skill Rees needsM. G. (1996) in(1994) Britain, The Education London: Eyres andMonsell Industrial training family Facts in Wales:Annualproject, and readingparadoxes Forecasting problems Conference, paper groups revisited, presented and Lancaster in atContemporary British 1996 Educational Wales, 7, Research p.7-27 Association NashMidMcNabb Glamorgan 1. (1996) R. and Labour Training Whitfield launches and K. Enterprise (1994) post-16 The cashCouncil Market study, Ltd. p.2for (1996) in TimesLabourAveburyLearners, Market Education Assessment and Training, 1995-96 London: Routledge Training, Aldershot: Mid Glamorgan Educational Jahoda'stance M., D. Lazarfeld and Rees P. G. and (1995) Zeisel Lifelong H. (1972) Learning Marienthal: in Wales: TheNIACEforof Prosperity,sociographyA an Programme unemployed a NIACE community, Cymru London:policy discussion Tavistock paper, Leicester: NIACENash I (1996b) (1994) Thousands Widening face Participation: the music on skill Routes levels, to ina TimesSupplement,NIACESupplement Policy 26/4/96 16/2/96, Discussion p. 28 Paper learning society, Educational JohnsonJohnson R. R. (1979) (1993) "Really Really usefuluseful knowledge":knowledge, 1790-1850, Radical education pp. 17-29HutchinsonWorkingclass and culturein Thorpeworking Class 1790-1848, M., Culture: in ClarkeStudies J., in Critcher history C. and and theory,Johnson London: R. (Eds.) ParkPettigrew A. and A., Tremlett Hendry C.N. and(1995) Sparrow Individual P. (1989) Commitment Training inEmployersComparative to and Providers attitudes, Employment Department findings from the surveys ofBritain.perspectives A study on Individuals, Learning. Jones G. 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A History of Adult Education inProgramme,presentedan Great individual Britain, to Bristol 2nd approach co-ordinating to creating meeting a ESRClearning Learning Society society, paper Rees G.G., (1997) Williamson Making H. a andLearning Winckler Society: V. (1989) Education The and "new workSouth Wales, Welsh Journal of Education, 7, 1 vocationalism": in Industrial LewisKlein R. R. (1996) (1993) The Leaderslost generation, and Teachers. p.3 in Times Adult Educational educationchallenge26/4/96Liverpool: Supplement andLiverpoolof labour the 2, University in South WalesPress 1906-1940, Cardiff: University Roberts K., Parse!! G. and Connolly M. (1991) Young People'sLabourPolicy,FurtherEnterprise 4, educationMarket, 3, pp. Culture, 227-244 in and Cross London: local M. labour Falmer,and markets,Payne p. 102 G. in (1991) Journal Work of Education and the Transitions in the Educational LoweMaguire J. (1970) M., Maguire Adult Education S. and Felstead in England A. (1993) and FactorsWales:of review,Individualsurvey,Wales InfluencingA Press London:Employment critical Commitment Michael Department Joseph to Lifetime Learning. A literature ScottishScott M. Office (1996) (1991) Getting Access to grips and with opportunity: inflation, a in strategy TimesandSupplement training,for Edinburgh: 22/3/96 p. HMSO17 education The Learning Society - Gorard et al. 40 38 The Learning Society - Gorard et al. 41 39 Simon B. B. (1990b) (1990a) The The struggle Search for for hegemony Enlightenment: 1920-1926, the in workingWishartadultSimon education B. class(Ed.) andThe in the twentieth century, London: Lawrence and AppendixFoundationProgress1996). towardsA - Target The four "Home I of the internationals"learning targets, by Wales, England and Scotland (figures from Jones - by 2000, 85% of young people to obtain 5 GCSE grades A -C, an Smithers A. and Robinson P. (1991) Beyond CompulsorynumericalinSearch the Schooling twentieth for picture, Enlightenment: -century, A London: London: Council the workingLawrence for Industry class and and Wishart,and Higher adult pp. Educationeducation 15-70 ScotlandEnglandWalesintermediate level GNVQ, or NVQ level 2 by age 19. 65.453.551.21991 69.867.462.21995 SquiresSpielhofer G. (1993) T. (1996) Education Attitudes for adults,of local pp. employers 87-108 in towardsThorpeandResearch M., theiryoung Edwards previous Associationpeople R. education, Annual Conference, paper presented Lancaster at British 1996 Educational ThereFoundationfirstmathematics, is languages, in addition Target a scienceas a though new3 by and target2000, they either forwere60% EnglishWales ofthe young only that or Welsh two 50%people possibilities). of (mistakenly tothe obtain cohort 2 referred shouldA levels, get to an inGCSE advancedpolicy grade documents GNVQ, A-C asor in Taylor S. and Spencer L. (1994) Individual CommitmentandEmploymentLearning:London: Hanson to Lifelong Routledge Individual'sA. Department (Eds.) Culture attitudes. and ReportProcesses on theof Adult qualitative Learning, phase, ScotlandEnglandWalesNVQ level 3 by age 21. 42.829.624.01991 49.944.043.91995 TitmusTES (1996) C. (1994) Full Steam The scope Ahead and for characteristics Apprentice Scheme, of educational in Timesadults,Supplement provision Educational in Calder 13/9/96, for J. (Ed.)p. 32 Disaffection and Diversity. Overcoming withEducationalLifetime only Greece Learningparticipation and TargetPortugal of 116-18 in the year EU. olds in Wales was 65% of the age group in 1993, on a par by 2000, 60% of workforce to obtain 2A levels, advanced GN V Q, or TremlettTooley J. N.,(1996) Park Education A. and Dundon-Smith without the state, D. (1995) London: Individual IEAbarriers Commitment to adult learning, London: Falmer, p. 68 ScotlandEnglandWalesNVQ level 3. 37.530.327.41991 47.340.439.01995 WelshUnwin L. Office (1996) (1995a) Employer-led Further Realities: and Higher apprenticeship Education pastJournalEmploymentto Learning. and of present,Training Vocational Department Further in Education findings andfrom Training, the Individuals 48, 1, p. 57 survey, EnglandWalesLifetime Learning Target 2 - by 2000, 30% of workforce to obtain NVQ level 4. 199117.214.6 23.823.41995 WhitfieldWestWelsh E. Office (1994) K. and (1995b)Education Bourlakis 1994/95 C.and (1991) the WelshState, An empirical Indianapolis: Training analysis and Liberty EducationofStatistics YTS,andCardiff: Fund earnings, employment inWelshSurvey, Wales inOffice JournalNo. 3 1995, of Economic Cardiff: Studies,Welsh Office 18, 1, pp. 42-56 ofAsScotland these far as targets it is possible (Jones to1996). estimate, other countries in the EU have qualification levels way in excess 17.2 25.8 WJECYoungYeomans (1994) S. D.(1996) The (1996) Education Disability Constructing andand Trainingclass vocational still of bar Young education: to success, PeopleEducationalGNVQ,19: from p. What'sAged 8School inTVEI Times14- Supplement,it ofall to Education: about?, Cardiff:26/4/96 University Welsh of LeedsJoint Education Committee The Learning Society - Gorard et al. 42 40 The Learning Society - Gorard et al. 43 4t APPENDIX B - Some definitions used in the study andperiods, four weeks such is as suggested half-day one-offby Schratz courses. (1996), although this study also considers much shorter (fromVETHRMHRDCommon HumanPettigrew acronyms resource et al 1989). developmentmanagement - includesdevelopment VET ofand current HRD workersand recruitment,Vocational compensation education and training - acquiring skills formally relevant to work NVQGNVQFEHE National General VocationalNational Vocational Qualification Qualification with standards - started set1987 by employers, assessingHigherFEFurther colleges EducationEducation competence -- University,Voluntary educationPolytechnic at ageand 16+,Institute similar based, to sixth-form leading to indiploma/degree schools and TEC(fromTVEJ EmploymentTechnical and Department Vocational Group Education 1994) Initiative developTrainingfor performing training Enterprise a strategiesjob, Council flexible - inan delivery employer-led and form, company open to assessall ages local training needs and BTECCPVECGLI Business CityCertificate and and Guilds Technicianof Pre-vocational Of London Education Institute Education Council - 16+ qualification of core skills,curriculumleading vocational to First compatible 16+, studies, and with .National industrial 18+ training Diploma. objectives. geared to part-time study for those in work, centres have to be approved for qualifications (fromWJECRSANCVQ WJEC WelshNational 1994)Joint Council Examination for Vocational Committee Qualifications - examining - overseesboard for vocational GCSE andpersonal qualifications, Royal1987A level todevelopment, Society co-ordinate set of up Arts andwork offering standardise. experience spread of vocational and academic courses (fromYTSMAS TES Modern 1996, UnwinApprenticeship 1996) Scheme started in 1993, less than 30,000 Youthoverapplicants 60,000 Training in in 1995, 1996Scheme and - theoriginally surge has a one-year surprised course the TECs. entered via employer or accredited TrainingOperational(from Bynner is defined 1989)definitions as formal education after entering the workforce, andwithagency is "anythinggeneric such asskills localthat and may authority. IT than narrowThen a occupationallytwo-year course based only skills.in employment. More to do completionthebetweenvocationalhave number helped initial training ( offromwith andfirms work".Dolton incontinuing anythingin which etVocational al. training else 1994).a person's (Grcenhalgh training(DIEe marginal 1995). is and that TheStewart productivity undertaken "transferability" 1987). tois No currentenhanced clear of .training distinctionor laterupon iswork. successful definedis possible Non- as priorothers.ofAs thelearners"described to cases "Learners"the study arcintoin Gorardthe (althoughtypes. are remainder. those et A al. usefulthe defined(1997a), Aperiod "learning and as the in simplehaving questionanalysis event" dichotomybeen ofis (or involvedupthe project) to results the is thatdiscretionin mustof formal thesuggested also survey learnersof have the willby aresearcher). minimumin Parkinclude the (1994)three division duration,"Non- years and BEST COPY AVAILABLE The Learning Socicty - Gorard et al. 44 42 The Learning Society - Gorard et al. 43 ce OF° 331

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