West Coast National Park

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

COMMON SNAKES OF THE WEST COAST NATIONAL PARK VERY DANGEROUS MILDLY DANGEROUS VENOMOUS HARMLESS Has caused Painful bite, but does Not thought Not dangerous human fatalities not require antivenom to be harmful to humans VERY VERY VERY VERY DANGEROUS DANGEROUS DANGEROUS DANGEROUS Cape Cobra Cape Cobra - juvenile Cape Boomslang - male Cape Boomslang - female (Naja nivea) (Naja nivea) Photo Marius Burger (Dispholidus typus typus) (Dispholidus typus typus) VERY MILDLY MILDLY MILDLY DANGEROUS VENOMOUS VENOMOUS VENOMOUS Puff Adder Cape Grass Snake Karoo Sand Snake Cross-marked Grass Snake (Bitis arietans arietans) (Psammophis leightoni) Photo André Coetzer (Psammophis notostictus) (Psammophis crucifer) MILDLY MILDLY CAN INFLICT CAN INFLICT VENOMOUS VENOMOUS A NASTY BITE A NASTY BITE Spotted Skaapsteker Herald or Red-lipped Snake Mole Snake Mole Snake - juvenile (Psammophylax rhombeatus) (Crotaphopeltis hotamboeia) (Pseudaspis cana) (Pseudaspis cana) Photo Tyrone Ping HARMLESS HARMLESS HARMLESS HARMLESS Aurora House Snake Common Brown Water Snake Rhombic Egg-eater Common Slug-eater (Lamprophis aurora) (Lycodonomorphus rufulus) Photo Tyrone Ping (Dasypeltis scabra) (Duberria lutrix lutrix) © Johan Marais African Snakebite Institute Snakebite African © Johan Marais JOHAN MARAIS is the author of various books on reptiles including the best-seller A Complete Guide to Snakes of Southern Africa. He is a popular public speaker and offers a variety of courses including Snake Awareness, Scorpion Awareness EMERGENCY PROTOCOL and Venomous Snake Handling. Johan is accredited by the International Society of Zoological Sciences (ISZS) and is a IN THE EVENT OF A SNAKE BITE Field Guides Association of Southern Africa (FGASA) and DO NOT ww Travel Doctor-approved service provider. His courses are 1 Keep the victim calm, immobilized and ... apply a tourniquet. also accredited by the Health Professions Council of ... cut and suck the wound. transport the victim to the closest South Africa (HPCSA). ... use ice or very hot water. hospital without delay. ... give the victim alcohol. ... apply electric shock. 2 If the victim stops breathing, resort to ... inject antivenom randomly. artificial respiration or make use of a Antivenom (if required) must Johan Marais | African Snakebite Institute Bag Valve Mask. be administered by a doctor +27 82 494 2039 | [email protected] 3 Call the Poison Information Centre help- in a hospital environment. www.AFRICANSNAKEBITEINSTITUTE.com line for further advice: 0861 555 777..

Copy Link

Recommended publications

Freshwater Fishes
WESTERN CAPE PROVINCE state oF BIODIVERSITY 2007 TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 1 Introduction 2 Chapter 2 Methods 17 Chapter 3 Freshwater fishes 18 Chapter 4 Amphibians 36 Chapter 5 Reptiles 55 Chapter 6 Mammals 75 Chapter 7 Avifauna 89 Chapter 8 Flora & Vegetation 112 Chapter 9 Land and Protected Areas 139 Chapter 10 Status of River Health 159 Cover page photographs by Andrew Turner (CapeNature), Roger Bills (SAIAB) & Wicus Leeuwner. ISBN 978-0-620-39289-1 SCIENTIFIC SERVICES 2 Western Cape Province State of Biodiversity 2007 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Andrew Turner [email protected] 1 “We live at a historic moment, a time in which the world’s biological diversity is being rapidly destroyed. The present geological period has more species than any other, yet the current rate of extinction of species is greater now than at any time in the past. Ecosystems and communities are being degraded and destroyed, and species are being driven to extinction. The species that persist are losing genetic variation as the number of individuals in populations shrinks, unique populations and subspecies are destroyed, and remaining populations become increasingly isolated from one another. The cause of this loss of biological diversity at all levels is the range of human activity that alters and destroys natural habitats to suit human needs.” (Primack, 2002). CapeNature launched its State of Biodiversity Programme (SoBP) to assess and monitor the state of biodiversity in the Western Cape in 1999. This programme delivered its first report in 2002 and these reports are updated every five years. The current report (2007) reports on the changes to the state of vertebrate biodiversity and land under conservation usage.
[Show full text]
Field Notes from Africa
Field Notes from Africa by Geoff Hammerson, November 2012 Africa! Few place names are evocative on so many levels and for such diverse reasons. Africa hosts Earth’s most spectacular megafauna, and the southern part of the continent, though temperate rather than tropical, has an extraordinarily rich and unique flora. Africa is the “cradle of humankind” and home to our closest living primate relatives. Indigenous peoples in arid southern Africa have learned to live in one of Earth’s most extreme environments. For early sea-going explorers, Africa was both an obstacle and a port of call, and later the continent proved to be a treasure-trove of diamonds, gold, and other natural resources. Sadly, Africa is also a land of human starvation, deadly disease, and genocide, and grotesque slaughter of wildlife to satisfy the superstitions and greed of people on other continents. It was a target for slave traders and a prize for imperialists. Until as recently as 1994, South Africa was a nation where basic human rights and opportunities were Our experience was greatly enhanced by the truly apportioned according to the melanin content of exceptional quality and efforts of our South African one’s skin. Africa’s exploitative and racist history guide, Patrick Cardwell, who was frequently and has made it a cauldron of political and social superbly assisted behind the scenes by Marie- turmoil. Given this mixture of alluring and Louise Cardwell. Patrick’s knowledge and repugnant characteristics, many potential visitors experience repeatedly put us in the right place at to Africa first pause and carefully consider the just the right time.
[Show full text]
Addo Elephant National Park Reptiles Species List
Addo Elephant National Park Reptiles Species List Common Name Scientific Name Status Snakes Cape cobra Naja nivea Puffadder Bitis arietans Albany adder Bitis albanica very rare Night adder Causes rhombeatus Bergadder Bitis atropos Horned adder Bitis cornuta Boomslang Dispholidus typus Rinkhals Hemachatus hemachatus Herald/Red-lipped snake Crotaphopeltis hotamboeia Olive house snake Lamprophis inornatus Night snake Lamprophis aurora Brown house snake Lamprophis fuliginosus fuliginosus Speckled house snake Homoroselaps lacteus Wolf snake Lycophidion capense Spotted harlequin snake Philothamnus semivariegatus Speckled bush snake Bitis atropos Green water snake Philothamnus hoplogaster Natal green watersnake Philothamnus natalensis occidentalis Shovel-nosed snake Prosymna sundevalli Mole snake Pseudapsis cana Slugeater Duberria lutrix lutrix Common eggeater Dasypeltis scabra scabra Dappled sandsnake Psammophis notosticus Crossmarked sandsnake Psammophis crucifer Black-bellied watersnake Lycodonomorphus laevissimus Common/Red-bellied watersnake Lycodonomorphus rufulus Tortoises/terrapins Angulate tortoise Chersina angulata Leopard tortoise Geochelone pardalis Green parrot-beaked tortoise Homopus areolatus Marsh/Helmeted terrapin Pelomedusa subrufa Tent tortoise Psammobates tentorius Lizards/geckoes/skinks Rock Monitor Lizard/Leguaan Varanus niloticus niloticus Water Monitor Lizard/Leguaan Varanus exanthematicus albigularis Tasman's Girdled Lizard Cordylus tasmani Cape Girdled Lizard Cordylus cordylus Southern Rock Agama Agama atra Burrowing
[Show full text]
Meerkat Survival Audience Activity Designed for 8 Years Old and Up
Meerkat Survival Audience Activity designed for 8 years old and up. You need at least two people to play. Goal Students will appreciate the important role that meerkats play within their ecosystem as well as gain a better understanding of the predator/prey relationship. Objective • To learn predator/prey relationship. • To understand the important role a meerkat serves. Conservation Message Meerkats are an important part of the ecosystem and can also help shape habitats. They create burrows that act as underground tunnel systems. Once the meerkats move on, they are used as homes for small rodents and reptiles. Meerkats are also import prey species for predators in deserts and savannas of Africa. Background Information Meerkats are native to desert habitats in Botswana, Namibia, and South Africa. These animals live in large communities and abide by the idea that there is safety in numbers. They will often assign a community member, or sometimes multiples members, as a lookout, called the sentinel. The sentinel is looking out for predators such as jackals and eagles. Occasionally meerkats will have a run in with venomous snakes such as the Cape Cobra. When the sentinel sees a potential danger, they will let out a sharp very high-pitched call to warn others to take cover and hide. While there are a few guarding the community, other meerkats will forage for foods and are good hunters that work together to catch rodents, insects and small reptiles. Materials Needed • 10 cups • Small light-weight ball such as ping pong ball • Pen/pencil/marker • Counters (buttons, pennies, beans, etc.) • Sticky Notes or Small Pieces of Paper with tape on back • Scenario Cards Length of Activity 40 minutes Procedure • Read the background information and gather the necessary materials.
[Show full text]
Cobra Risk Assessment
Invasive animal risk assessment Biosecurity Queensland Agriculture Fisheries and Department of Cobra (all species) Steve Csurhes and Paul Fisher First published 2010 Updated 2016 Pest animal risk assessment © State of Queensland, 2016. The Queensland Government supports and encourages the dissemination and exchange of its information. The copyright in this publication is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Australia (CC BY) licence. You must keep intact the copyright notice and attribute the State of Queensland as the source of the publication. Note: Some content in this publication may have different licence terms as indicated. For more information on this licence visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0/au/deed.en" http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/au/deed.en Photo: Image from Wikimedia Commons (this image is reproduced under the terms of a GNU Free Documentation License) Invasive animal risk assessment: Cobra 2 Contents Summary 4 Introduction 5 Identity and taxonomy 5 Taxonomy 3 Description 5 Diet 5 Reproduction 6 Predators and diseases 6 Origin and distribution 7 Status in Australia and Queensland 8 Preferred habitat 9 History as a pest elsewhere 9 Uses 9 Pest potential in Queensland 10 Climate match 10 Habitat suitability 10 Broad natural geographic range 11 Generalist diet 11 Venom production 11 Disease 11 Numerical risk analysis 11 References 12 Attachment 1 13 Invasive animal risk assessment: Cobra 3 Summary The common name ‘cobra’ applies to 30 species in 7 genera within the family Elapidae, all of which can produce a hood when threatened. All cobra species are venomous. As a group, cobras have an extensive distribution over large parts of Africa, Asia, Malaysia and Indonesia.
[Show full text]
A Molecular Phylogeny of the Lamprophiidae Fitzinger (Serpentes, Caenophidia)
Zootaxa 1945: 51–66 (2008) ISSN 1175-5326 (print edition) www.mapress.com/zootaxa/ ZOOTAXA Copyright © 2008 · Magnolia Press ISSN 1175-5334 (online edition) Dissecting the major African snake radiation: a molecular phylogeny of the Lamprophiidae Fitzinger (Serpentes, Caenophidia) NICOLAS VIDAL1,10, WILLIAM R. BRANCH2, OLIVIER S.G. PAUWELS3,4, S. BLAIR HEDGES5, DONALD G. BROADLEY6, MICHAEL WINK7, CORINNE CRUAUD8, ULRICH JOGER9 & ZOLTÁN TAMÁS NAGY3 1UMR 7138, Systématique, Evolution, Adaptation, Département Systématique et Evolution, C. P. 26, Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, 43 Rue Cuvier, Paris 75005, France. E-mail: [email protected] 2Bayworld, P.O. Box 13147, Humewood 6013, South Africa. E-mail: [email protected] 3 Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences, Rue Vautier 29, B-1000 Brussels, Belgium. E-mail: [email protected], [email protected] 4Smithsonian Institution, Center for Conservation Education and Sustainability, B.P. 48, Gamba, Gabon. 5Department of Biology, 208 Mueller Laboratory, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802-5301 USA. E-mail: [email protected] 6Biodiversity Foundation for Africa, P.O. Box FM 730, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe. E-mail: [email protected] 7 Institute of Pharmacy and Molecular Biotechnology, University of Heidelberg, INF 364, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany. E-mail: [email protected] 8Centre national de séquençage, Genoscope, 2 rue Gaston-Crémieux, CP5706, 91057 Evry cedex, France. E-mail: www.genoscope.fr 9Staatliches Naturhistorisches Museum, Pockelsstr. 10, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany. E-mail: [email protected] 10Corresponding author Abstract The Elapoidea includes the Elapidae and a large (~60 genera, 280 sp.) and mostly African (including Madagascar) radia- tion termed Lamprophiidae by Vidal et al.
[Show full text]
Botswana Has Fifty Eight Different Types of Snakes
DANGEROUS SNAKES OF B OT SWA NA Botswana has fifty eight different types of snakes. Twenty two species are not venomous, while seven can inflict rather painful bites. Nine VERY DANGEROUS species are considered potentially deadly. DANGEROUS Has caused Painful bite, but does human fatalities not require antivenom VERY VERY VERY VERY DANGEROUS DANGEROUS DANGEROUS DANGEROUS Black Mamba Black Mamba Snouted Cobra Snouted Cobra - banded phase (Dendroaspis polylepis) (Dendroaspis polylepis) (Naja annulifera) (Naja annulifera) VERY VERY VERY VERY DANGEROUS DANGEROUS DANGEROUS DANGEROUS Anchieta’s Cobra Cape Cobra Cape Cobra Cape Cobra - juvenile (Naja anchietae) (Naja nivea) (Naja nivea) (Naja nivea) Photo Marius Burger VERY VERY VERY VERY DANGEROUS DANGEROUS DANGEROUS DANGEROUS Mozambique Spitting Cobra Common Boomslang - male Common Boomslang - female Common Boomslang - juvenile (Naja mossambica) (Dispholidus typus viridis) (Dispholidus typus viridis) Photo André Coetzer (Dispholidus typus viridis) VERY VERY DANGEROUS DANGEROUS DANGEROUS DANGEROUS Southern Twig Snake Puff Adder Horned Adder Bibron’s Stiletto Snake (Thelotornis capensis capensis) (Bitis arietans arietans) (Bitis caudalis) (Atractaspis bibronii) Photo Warren Dick © Johan Marais African Snakebite Institute Snakebite African © Johan Marais JOHAN MARAIS is the author of various books on reptiles including the best-seller A Complete Guide to Snakes of Southern Africa. He is a popular public speaker and offers a variety of courses including Snake Awareness, Scorpion Awareness EMERGENCY PROTOCOL and Venomous Snake Handling. Johan is accredited by the International Society of Zoological Sciences (ISZS) and is a IN THE EVENT OF A SNAKE BITE Field Guides Association of Southern Africa (FGASA) and DO NOT ww Travel Doctor-approved service provider. His courses are 1 Keep the victim calm, immobilized and ..
[Show full text]
Ancestral Reconstruction of Diet and Fang Condition in the Lamprophiidae: Implications for the Evolution of Venom Systems in Snakes
Journal of Herpetology, Vol. 55, No. 1, 1–10, 2021 Copyright 2021 Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles Ancestral Reconstruction of Diet and Fang Condition in the Lamprophiidae: Implications for the Evolution of Venom Systems in Snakes 1,2 1 1 HIRAL NAIK, MIMMIE M. KGADITSE, AND GRAHAM J. ALEXANDER 1School of Animal, Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. PO Wits, 2050, Gauteng, South Africa ABSTRACT.—The Colubroidea includes all venomous and some nonvenomous snakes, many of which have extraordinary dental morphology and functional capabilities. It has been proposed that the ancestral condition of the Colubroidea is venomous with tubular fangs. The venom system includes the production of venomous secretions by labial glands in the mouth and usually includes fangs for effective delivery of venom. Despite signiﬁcant research on the evolution of the venom system in snakes, limited research exists on the driving forces for different fang and dental morphology at a broader phylogenetic scale. We assessed the patterns of fang and dental condition in the Lamprophiidae, a speciose family of advanced snakes within the Colubroidea, and we related fang and dental condition to diet. The Lamprophiidae is the only snake family that includes front-fanged, rear-fanged, and fangless species. We produced an ancestral reconstruction for the family and investigated the pattern of diet and fangs within the clade. We concluded that the ancestral lamprophiid was most likely rear-fanged and that the shift in dental morphology was associated with changes in diet. This pattern indicates that fang loss, and probably venom loss, has occurred multiple times within the Lamprophiidae.
[Show full text]
Quantitative Characterization of the Hemorrhagic, Necrotic, Coagulation
Hindawi Journal of Toxicology Volume 2018, Article ID 6940798, 8 pages https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/6940798 Research Article Quantitative Characterization of the Hemorrhagic, Necrotic, Coagulation-Altering Properties and Edema-Forming Effects of Zebra Snake (Naja nigricincta nigricincta)Venom Erick Kandiwa,1 Borden Mushonga,1 Alaster Samkange ,1 and Ezequiel Fabiano2 1 School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Neudamm Campus, University of Namibia, P. Bag 13301, Pioneers Park, Windhoek, Namibia 2Department of Wildlife Management and Ecotourism, Katima Mulilo Campus, Faculty of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Namibia, P. Bag 1096, Ngweze, Katima Mulilo, Namibia Correspondence should be addressed to Alaster Samkange; [email protected] Received 30 May 2018; Revised 5 October 2018; Accepted 10 October 2018; Published 24 October 2018 Academic Editor: Anthony DeCaprio Copyright © 2018 Erick Kandiwa et al. Tis is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Tis study was designed to investigate the cytotoxicity and haemotoxicity of the Western barred (zebra) spitting cobra (Naja nigricincta nigricincta) venom to help explain atypical and inconsistent reports on syndromes by Namibian physicians treating victims of human ophidian accidents. Freeze-dried venom milked from adult zebra snakes was dissolved in phosphate bufered saline (PBS) for use in this study. Haemorrhagic and necrotic activity of venom were studied in New Zealand albino rabbits. Oedema-forming activity was investigated in 10-day-old Cobb500 broiler chicks. Procoagulant and thrombolytic activity was investigated in adult Kalahari red goat blood in vitro.
[Show full text]
A Preliminary Herpetological Survey of the Vilanculos Coastal Wildlife Sanctuary on the San Sebastian Peninsula, Vilankulo, Mozambique
Herpetology Notes, volume 3: 181-193 (2010) (published online on 31 May 2010) A preliminary herpetological survey of the Vilanculos Coastal Wildlife Sanctuary on the San Sebastian Peninsula, Vilankulo, Mozambique Niels H.G. Jacobsen1*, Errol W. Pietersen2 & Darren W. Pietersen3 Abstract. This paper reports on and discusses the findings of a herpetofaunal survey of the San Sebastian Peninsula, Vilankulo, Mozambique. A total of 39 reptile and 20 amphibian species were recorded including new records for Mozambique, range extensions and taxa previously considered endemic to the Bazaruto Archipelago. Keywords. Herpetofauna, San Sebastian Peninsula, Vilankulo, Mozambique. Introduction These islands form a northward extension of the San Sebastian Peninsula. The herpetofauna of Mozambique is still relatively A survey of the herpetofauna of the San Sebastian poorly known, especially when compared to the rest of Peninsula was undertaken as part of a larger study of southern Africa. The most recent accounts are those of the vegetation and fauna to assess the conservation Broadley (1966a, 1983), Poynton & Broadley (1985a, importance of the area. b, 1987, 1988) and Channing 2001. In addition, it appears that some early records have been overlooked The Study Site in museum collections. Apart from these, most The San Sebastian Peninsula lies south-east of the recent records often emanate from scant, sporadic town of Vilankulo, forming the mainland extension of or opportunistic collecting (Downs & Wirminghaus the Bazaruto Archipelago which includes Margaruque, 1990). As a result there is a void in our knowledge, Benguera, Bazaruto and Santa Carolina islands (Fig. 1). which also complicates the interpretation of species’ The Vilanculos Coastal Wildlife Sanctuary (VCWS) distributions and even the taxonomic status of some lies along the peninsula between 22.0833 and 22.3500° species.
[Show full text]
Annotated Checklist and Provisional Conservation Status of Namibian Reptiles
Annotated Checklist - Reptiles Page 1 ANNOTATED CHECKLIST AND PROVISIONAL CONSERVATION STATUS OF NAMIBIAN REPTILES MICHAEL GRIFFIN BIODIVERSITY INVENTORY MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT AND TOURISM PRIVATE BAG 13306 WINDHOEK NAMIBIA Annotated Checklist - Reptiles Page 2 Annotated Checklist - Reptiles Page 3 CONTENTS PAGE ABSTRACT 5 INTRODUCTION 5 METHODS AND DEFINITIONS 6 SPECIES ACCOUNTS Genus Crocodylus Nile Crocodile 11 Pelomedusa Helmeted Terrapin 11 Pelusios Hinged Terrapins 12 Geochelone Leopard Tortoise 13 Chersina Bowsprit Tortoise 14 Homopus Nama Padloper 14 Psammobates Tent Tortoises 15 Kinixys Hinged Tortoises 16 Chelonia GreenTurtle 16 Lepidochelys Olive Ridley Turtle 17 Dermochelys Leatherback Turtle 17 Trionyx African Soft-shelled Turtle 18 Afroedura Flat Geckos 19 Goggia Dwarf Leaf-toed Geckos 20 Afrogecko Marbled Leaf-toed Gecko 21 Phelsuma Namaqua Day Gecko 22 Lygodactylus Dwarf Geckos 23 Rhoptropus Namib Day Geckos 25 Chondrodactylus Giant Ground Gecko 27 Colopus Kalahari Ground Gecko 28 Palmatogecko Web-footed Geckos 28 Pachydactylus Thick-toed Geckos 29 Ptenopus Barking Geckos 39 Narudasia Festive Gecko 41 Hemidactylus Tropical House Geckos 41 Agama Ground Agamas 42 Acanthocercus Tree Agama 45 Bradypodion Dwarf Chameleons 46 Chamaeleo Chameleons 47 Acontias Legless Skinks 48 Typhlosaurus Blind Legless Skinks 48 Sepsina Burrowing Skinks 50 Scelotes Namibian Dwarf Burrowing Skink 51 Typhlacontias Western Burrowing Skinks 51 Lygosoma Sundevall’s Writhing Skink 53 Mabuya Typical Skinks 53 Panaspis Snake-eyed Skinks 60 Annotated
[Show full text]
Cobra Cannibalism More Prevalent Than Previously Thought 2 October 2018
Cobra cannibalism more prevalent than previously thought 2 October 2018 same species, known as conspecifics, has been extremely rare. Scientists have treated such reported observations as aberrant behavior. So, what caused this cape cobra to attack and eat the smaller male of its kind? How often does this happen? Do all cobras take part in cannibalism? Maritz and fellow researchers in the southern African region were studying resource competition between two African snake species when they saw the rare cobra cannibalistic display that inspired them to conduct the new study. Snakes provide a unique opportunity to examine both cannibalism and when animals hunt and eat snakes A cape cobra male consumes a smaller male of the (ophiophagy) because of their shape—prey fits same species in southern Africa, a display of easily into the predator's mouth and body for cannibalism thought to be rare among the species. consumption and digestion. Credit: Bryan Maritz. Last spring, researchers in South Africa's Kalahari Desert found a large male cape cobra devouring another smaller male of the same species. Surprised by the thought-to-be-rare event, they decided to investigate how common and widespread cannibalism was in cobras. Apart from a few species, scientific understanding Left: study co-author Robin Maritz inspects a sociable of snake diets is lacking. Snakes are elusive weaver nest for cobras. Right: a cape cobra peers down creatures that feed relatively infrequently, making from a sociable weaver nest. Credit: Bryan Maritz. feeding observations difficult to come by. Bryan Maritz, a researcher at the University of the Western Cape and lead author of the new study in the Ecological Society of America's journal "Cobras" consist of about 30 species, six of which Ecology, explains, "This work highlights a renewed were included in the study.
[Show full text]