ANALYSIS OF RENEWABLE ENERGY PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION: BIOGAS AND IMPROVED COOK STOVES IN THE VILLAGE OF CHHALING, BHAKTAPUR DISTRICT, NEPAL
BY
MARJORIE D. ELY
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE IN FORESTRY
Michigan Technological University 2005
The thesis: “Analysis of Renewable Energy Project Implementation: Biogas and
Improved Cook Stoves in the Village of Chhaling, Bhaktapur District, Nepal” is hereby approved in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF
SCIENCE IN FORESTRY.
School of Forest Resources and Environmental Science
Signatures:
Advisor:______Blair Orr
Dean:______Margaret Gale
Date:______
ii PREFACE
After completing my Bachelors degree, I knew I was not destined for the business career it was assumed I would follow. I moved to the Sierra Mountains in California and began working outdoors. It would have been difficult for me not to become impassioned about the environment there. When I found the Master’s International Program in Forestry at MTU, it seemed the program was created for me. I was ready to learn how to make a difference in both community development and natural resource conservation…….
A Community Development Story: Once upon a time, a development office helped build grain storage sheds in a community. Field workers observed rats getting into the sheds and spoke with the villagers about killing the rats. The villagers did not believe it was worth the effort. The agency staff decided to give a small fee for each dead rat as an incentive to kill them. So, people began killing rats and getting paid by the office. With more and more rats killed, the agency allowed the villagers to bring only the rat’s tail for payment. Again, there was an increase in the number of rats killed and the agency staff was perplexed. Eventually, one development worker observed rat-tails that looked alike. He returned to the village to investigate and found they were breeding rats for the money! The moral of the story: incentives, especially financial, may not cause the desired outcome.
During my Peace Corps service in Nepal from September 2002 to September 2004, I learned lessons similar to this one, but most importantly I learned flexibility and patience. I found that some people might try to manipulate, but most are honest and hardworking. Accepting change was a lesson I tried to teach others and then realized I had to understand for myself. In September 2004, I had extended my service to complete the research for this thesis. I had the next eighteen months of my life planned. Then a bomb was dropped, literally, and I was being evacuated from Nepal. It felt like I was being torn away from my own family. All my plans were in ruins and I was devastated. However, I had to quickly accept our evacuation and coordinate with the village group so they could continue working. Two weeks later, no longer a Peace Corps volunteer, I was on a tropical island in southern Thailand still a bit dazed. Six months later, I was completing the research for this thesis. Fear of change keeps us from realizing our dreams.
And when we let our own light shine, we unconsciously give other people permission to do the same. As we are liberated from our own fear, our presence automatically liberates others. Nelson Mandela
We gain strength, and courage, and confidence by each experience in which we really stop to look fear in the face ... we must do that which we think we cannot. Eleanor Roosevelt
Life is what happens while you're busy making other plans. John Lennon
iii TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES …….….……………………………………………………………vi
LIST OF TABLES ……….…………………………………………………………….vii
ACRONYMS AND PSEUDONYMS ………..……………………………………….viii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ……….…………………………………………..………..ix
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION …….……………………………………….………...1
CHAPTER 2: NEPAL …….….………………………………………………….………6 General Background …….…………………………………………….……...…8 Geography and Climate …….………………………………………………….12 Forest Degradation of the Mid-Hills ……………….………………………….15 People of Nepal …...……………………………….…………………………..18 History of Nepal …………………………………….………………………….26
CHAPTER 3: BIOGAS AND IMPROVED COOK STOVES IN NEPAL …….……..36 Present Situation of Energy Consumption in Nepal ……….……………..……36 Traditional and Improved Cook Stoves ….…………………………………….38 Biogas Technology …………………….………………………………………43
CHAPTER 4: CHHALING, BHAKTAPUR …….…………………………………….50 Kathmandu Valley …..………………………………………………………….51 Chhaling ………………….…………………………………………………….53 Agricultural System …………………….……………………………………...56 Community Forest User Groups …………...…………………………………..60
CHAPTER5: GENERAL METHODOLOGY: CASE STUDY DESIGN AND PROTOCOL …….……..……………………………………………………………….64 Research Strategy: The Case Study …………………………………………...64 Participant Observation …….…………………………………………………..65 Case Study Design and Protocol ….…………………………………….……...69
CHAPTER 6: IMPLEMENTATION COMPONENTS OF A RENEWABLE ENERGY COMMUNITY PROJECT …….…………………………………………...84 Community and Social Issues ………………………………………….……...88 Project Management and Design …………………….……………………….106
CHAPTER 7: DATA COLLECTION METHODS ………………………………….129 Formation of the “Biogas Project” …....………………………………….……..129 Data Collection Principles …………….....……………………………..…….132 Data Collection Methods …………………………………………………….133
iv CHAPTER 8: PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION COMPONENTS IN CHHALING COMPARED TO THE PROPOSITIONS ……………………………..142 Project Implementation in Chhaling: A Three Phase Process …..……………142 Comparison of Implementation Components to the Propositions ……..……..150 Other Components of the Implementation Process in Chhaling ……………..184 Summary: Successes and Failures of the Case Study’s Propositions ….……..187
CHAPTER 9: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE DEVELOPMENT WORKERS ………………………………….………..189
LITERATURE CITED …………………………………………………………….….195
APPENDICES: Appendix A: Case Study Design and Protocol ………...……………………..206 Appendix B: Bhaktapur Biogas Renewable Energy Project Proposal ………..243 Appendix C: Study Proposal …..…………………..…………………………259 Appendix D: Documents of the Case Study ………..…………………………264 Appendix E: Community Knowledge Pre-Survey and Post-Survey Questions ..290 Appendix F: Community Knowledge Pre-Survey and Post-Survey Data Tables ……………………………………………………..304 Appendix G: Biogas Recipient Survey Questions ………………...…….……337 Appendix H: Biogas Recipient Survey Data Tables …………………………339 Appendix I: Pearson Correlation Coefficient Statistical Data Sets .…...…..…348 Appendix J: Improved Cook Stove and Biogas Recipient Cattle Information ...439
v LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1: Social context must be learned for successful project implementation …….7 Figure 2.2: Map of Nepal in Asia ………………………………………………………9 Figure 2.3: Map of major administrative and topographical regions of Nepal .……….10 Figure 2.4: River in Terai flatlands of Nepal …………………………………………13 Figure 2.5: The terraced mid-hills of Nepal …………………………………………..14 Figure 2.6: The high mountains and Himalayas ………………………………………14 Figure 2.7: Cattle dung cakes drying in the sun ……………………………………….16 Figure 2.8: Household shrine for Hindu gods …………………………………………19 Figure 2.9: Worshipping the cow as an incarnation of the Hindu goddess Laxmi ……20 Figure 2.10: This low caste tailor cannot enter the home of the people for whom she works ….………………………………………………………22 Figure 2.11: Women’s social mobilization increases by attending village meetings …25 Figure 2.12: Political protesters prepare for a rally in a busy Kathmandu area ……….30 Figure 3.1: Traditional stove with open fire used to brew alcohol ……………………38 Figure 3.2: Typical two cook-hole mud improved cook stove ………………………..39 Figure 3.3: Inside a two cook-hole mud improved cook stove ………………………..40 Figure 3.4: Bricks for four improved cook stoves drying in the sun ………………….41 Figure 3.5A and B: Building an improved cook stove ……………….……………….42 Figure 3.6: Methane flame from biogas plant …………………………………………43 Figure 3.7: General biogas plant design ………………………………………………44 Figure 4.1: Kathmandu Valley district boundaries and headquarters …………………50 Figure 4.2: The city of Kathmandu is congested due to mass internal migration ……53 Figure 4.3: Chhaling Village Development Committee ……………………………….54 Figure 4.4: Toilet, washroom, and veranda constructed from bamboo …...……………54 Figure 4.5: Village girls attend school, but are often absent to perform farm work …..56 Figure 4.6: Typical scene of agricultural terraces and homes in Chhaling ……………57 Figure 4.7: Lower, irrigated rice fields .……………………………………………….59 Figure 4.8: Leaflitter is harvested from the forest …………………………………….60 Figure 4.9: Seti Devi Community Forest User Group Committee monthly meeting …62 Figure 5.1: Working with and learning about villagers is participant observation ……66 Figure 5.2: Villagers performed work as usual as I participated and observed ……….68 Figure 5.3: Biogas recipients are intermediate players of the case study ……………..73 Figure 6.1: Girls learn their place is at home or on the farm, not in the public sphere ...92 Figure 6.2: Community assets: labor, materials, and money ………………………….98 Figure 6.3: All female groups increase girl’s skills and management capacity ……...108 Figure 6.4: Information exchanged orally while working in fields …………………114 Figure 6.5: Preparing for biogas plant construction …………………………………117 Figure 7.1: Data was collected by interviewing biogas recipients and company staff ....134 Figure 7.2: CFUG members and project managers at a monthly CFUG meeting …..136 Figure 8.1: Field workers and villagers at the mass awareness meeting ……………145 Figure 8.2: Biogas recipients assist the mason in construction ……………………..147 Figure 8.3: End construction and completed biogas plants ...……………………….148 Figure 8.4: Cooking tea on a gas stove of a newly installed biogas plant ……………148 Figure 8.5: Biogas committee informed villagers at a mass meeting ………………..161
vi Figure 8.6: Field workers met and supported the biogas committee ..………………168 Figure 8.7: Chipped inlet of a biogas plant installed during the project .……………172 Figure 8.8: Four middle caste status households received an improved cook stove ...178
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1: Standard building material amounts for a common sized biogas plant ..…...48 Table 4.1: Seasonal Farm Work Calendar of Chhaling, Bhaktapur District, Nepal …..58 Table 5.1: Necessary implementation components of a renewable energy project ……71 Table 5.2: The case study protocol ……………………………………………………76 Table 5.3: Data collection schedule …………………………...………………………..77 Table 5.4: Part A: Specific integration and participation questions for data collection ……….81 Part B: Specific implementation activities questions for data collection …………..82 Part C: Questions for each biogas management committee activity or meeting …...83 Table 6.1: Necessary implementation components of a renewable energy project …...85 Table 6.2: A Simple project design …………………………………………………...113 Table 6.3: Theoretical action plan …………………………………………………...120 Table 6.4: Success questions and indicators for action plan component ……………..125 Table 8.1: Necessary implementation components of a renewable energy project …..143 Table 8.2: Goals and objectives formed by the CFUG in the first planning meeting …155 Table 8.3: The biogas management committee’s action plan …..…………….………158 Table 8.4: Success questions and answers for the action plan component .….………164 Table 8.5 Evaluation component questions and answers …………………….………171 Table 8.6: Evaluation of the propositional implementation components of this study ...187
vii ACRONYMS
AEPC Alternative Energy Promotion Centre AET Alternative Energy Technology BMC Biogas Management Committee BR Biogas Recipient Biogas-R Biogas-Recipient BSP-Nepal Biogas Sector Partnership-Nepal (formerly Biogas Support Program-Nepal) CFUG Community Forest User Group CRT/N Centre for Rural Technology/ Nepal DANIDA Danish International Development Agency DDC District Development Office DFO District Forest Office HMG His Majesty’s Government (of Nepal) ICIMOD International Center for Integrated Mountain Development ICS Improved Cook Stove ICS-R Improved Cook Stove-Recipient IUCN The World Conservation Union Membership-R Membership-Recipient MFI Micro Finance Institution O&M Operation and Maintenance PC(V) Peace Corps (Volunteer) PRA Participatory Rural Appraisal RET Renewable Energy Technology SNV-Nepal The Netherlands Development Organisation VDC Village Development Committee
PSEUDONYMS (HUMAN SUBJECT RESEARCH)
People were studied as part of this research. Guidelines of human subject research were followed including the use of pseudonyms. Some data has been omitted to protect people’s identities and safety. The researcher and the Peace Corps volunteer are the same
person.
viii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I owe many people my thanks for their assistance with this study. The people of in the village of Chhaling, Nepal opened their homes and their minds to a foreign woman they weren’t sure just how to deal with. I thank them for their graciousness and patience, especially when our cultural understandings didn’t mesh well. I thank them for allowing me into their lives and for becoming part of mine. I appreciate their hard work and dedication to this project. But, most of all, I thank them for their friendship and loyalty. I would also like to thank my advisor, Blair Orr, for all his dedication to the Master’s International Program and especially to his students. His efforts go above and beyond the expected and I thank him for his constant encouragement and advice both in Nepal and at MTU. I would also like to thank the members of my graduate committee: Linda Nagel, Christian Giardina, and Susan Martin. I am grateful to graduate students Bharat Pokharel and Kishor Joshi for all their assistance and support at MTU in writing this thesis. In Nepal, I am thankful to the staff of Biogas Sector Partnership (BSP) – Nepal and Winrock International for their assistance in my research and the biogas project. As well, the staff members of the Bhaktapur District Forest Office and Telkot Rangepost were helpful and supported me in all my endeavors. I owe my thanks to the personnel at many NGOs in Nepal who assisted me with research on renewable energy projects. Most of all, I thank Anar Basnet, Dinesh Karki, and Sherry Russell, as well as the rest of the Peace Corps-Nepal staff for all their support in my research and work as a volunteer. They were the most dedicated and resilient people working to create change in their country. We all hope the volunteer program will re-open again soon. There were many individual and group donors from the United States and Nepal who contributed to the biogas and improved cook stove project. Without them and the assistance of Kim Sullivan, who collected and transferred funds from the United States, we would not have succeeded. Thank you. To my family and friends both in the US and Nepal, I owe you my most heartfelt gratitude for all your love and support. Finally, I would like to say thank you to my boyfriend, Nathaniel Naidich. Constantly in my heart, he was there even when he was not. I am so grateful for your unconditional love and friendship.
ix CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Biogas is called “gobar gas” in the Nepali language, literally translating to gas from cattle dung. This renewable energy technology, used for cooking and lighting, is undergoing widespread adoption in Nepal thanks to an NGO initiated by the Netherlands
Development Organisation (SNV), a Nepali government subsidy, the decreasing availability of firewood, and the increasing expense of fossil fuels. Improved cook stoves are a simple technology designed to use less firewood than traditional stoves and send smoke out of the home. Families installing biogas must own at least two cattle, whereas improved cook stoves are easily adoptable by even the poorest farmers. Renewable energy community development projects have multi-faceted benefits including natural resource conservation, health improvement, reduction of women’s drudgery, and efficiency of energy use. Installing these two technologies was the main goal of the project of this case study in the village of Chhaling, Bhaktapur District, Nepal.
Development workers must consider two broad categories of propositional components when planning and executing projects: community and social issues and project management and design. Community and social issues determine the context of the project. Managers of renewable energy projects in developing countries must balance working within the community’s traditional social structure with the promotion of modern ideas. Participation of villagers at all levels of project implementation is pertinent to its success. Project management and design defines the roles of the project leaders and participants. Creating the correct goals and plan to accomplish the vision of a project is the key to a successful project design. Overall project success is gained with the successful implementation of each propositional project component of the two
1 categories. The implementation process of a renewable energy community project in
Nepal is analyzed and its components evaluated using success indicators of the
propositional components. Conclusions and recommendations for the project, the community, and renewable energy projects in Nepal are formed based on this comparative evaluation.
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
I lived and worked as a Peace Corps volunteer for just less than two years in
Nepal. My work assignment was to give post-formation support to newly formed
Community Forest User Groups (CFUGs) in the village area of Chhaling, Bhaktapur
District. During this time, a rebel insurgency and political instability strained
development efforts in the country. In the fall of 2004, a bomb was detonated in the
complex of the American Center in Kathmandu and although there were no injuries,
Peace Corps evacuated its volunteers from the country. Before the evacuation was
announced in September, I had applied to extend my service. The project managers
planned to have the first rotation phases of the project completed by March 2005. In light
of the political situation causing Peace Corps evacuation and under the advice of my
faculty advisor, Blair Orr, a direct return to Nepal was unrealistic, as I would have to live
six months without in-country support. I decided to return to my village in February
2005. The villagers wanted to continue the project and I hoped my departure would
compel them to work on their own. I could then observe how successful they were in
2 implementing the project without my assistance. On February 1, 2005, I found myself on
a flight back to Nepal, this time without the support of the Peace Corps.
The result of my evacuation and return to Nepal gave this case study research two
distinct phases. In the first phase, I was a volunteer working in community development
and natural resource conservation and in the second, I was a returning friend and
researcher. My time was limited in the second phase as the tension between the Maoist
insurgency and the Nepali government was high. The situation in the country seemed to
be deteriorating. This was best exemplified on the day of my return flight. On February
1, 2005, King Gyanendra called a “State of Emergency,” ousted and arrested government
officials including the prime minister, and closed all international communications from
inside Nepal such as internet, phone lines, and the international airport. My flight was diverted mid-air and I arrived back in Bangkok for what became ten more days in
Thailand. Cautiously, I waited for contact from Nepal to confirm a positive situation in
Kathmandu. I received word, flew to Nepal on February 11, 2005, and resumed my research.
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
Chapters Two, Three, and Four explain the background circumstances, which affect the context of the project implementation and must be considered by development workers. Chapter Two gives an idea of the national situation in Nepal. An overview of the Nepal, its geographic and climatic zones, its forest degradation, its national culture and religion, and its history are presented. Chapter Three gives a background of the
3 technical issues of the project. I explain the present scenario of energy consumption and
the need for renewable energy implementation in Nepal. The improved cook stove and
biogas programs and their technical systems are briefly described. Project managers
must understand basic technical ideas to successfully work with the people who install the technology. Chapter Four illustrates the specific context of the project in the village
of Chhaling located in Kathmandu Valley. The high population growth in the valley and
the degraded forest near Chhaling affect the people of the project. Members of the Seti
Devi Community Forest User Group (CFUG) implemented the project of this study.
Recently formed, the people and goals of this group are presented to understand why they
conducted this project in their village.
This paper is the result of a case study of the project implementation process in
the village of Chhaling. Chapter Five explains why a case study was chosen as the
appropriate research strategy for this study and delineates the methodology of case study
research. The case study design and protocol are defined in general and specifically for
this research.
Propositions are the theoretical framework of a case study. The objective of this study was to analyze the implementation process of a renewable energy development project. The propositions are the theoretical components of the implementation process.
Chapter Six describes the propositional components as part of two broad categories: community and social issues and project management and design. The propositional components must be recognized by the project managers and incorporated into the implementation process to realize project goals. Indicators used to analyze success of the project implementers in managing the components are explained for each propositional
4 component. I hypothesized that when the villagers in Chhaling manage the theoretical
components well, they are more likely to be successful in reaching project goals. When
the project managers fail to consider these components, they will have problems in the
project implementation process.
Chapter Seven is the specific methodology of this case study. It explains how the
project began in the village and how the study was conducted. A case study uses a variety of research methods to support the data collected. Participant observation,
interviews, key informants, group meetings, document collection, and structured surveys
were all methods used in this study.
The implementation process of the biogas and improved cook stove project in
Chhaling is described in Chapter Eight. The process is compared to the propositional
components of a renewable energy development project developed for this study using
the indicators defined in Chapter Six. The resulting successes and failures of
implementation component management are discussed and a simple chart presents the
results for each propositional component. It highlights the areas in need of attention by
project managers.
The final outcomes and analysis of the biogas and improved cook stove project
for this case study are given in the conclusions and recommendations in Chapter Nine.
Relevant to the project managers in Chhaling and renewable energy projects in Nepal, the
main issues of the project are reviewed and innovations proposed for success in the
future.
5 CHAPTER 2: NEPAL
Development and conservation project implementers must consider both the
technical and contextual aspects of the project. Each region of the world, country, zone,
and village has unique circumstances in terms of politics, geography, climate, society,
religion, and economics. Development workers and project managers must conduct their work under these circumstances. Successful implementation requires they understand and work within these contexts.
When I moved from training to my site in a different region of the country, I had
to learn the situational differences specific to the region and the village. The importance
of religion in the people’s daily life was paramount. They prioritized its practice over all
other activities. The only way I was to truly understand this was to actively participate in
village life and be accepted as a community and family member.
Tihar is an annual Hindu festival in Chhaling and all of Nepal. It has five days of
worship culminating in “bhai tika” or the worship of brothers by sisters on the fifth day.
Sisters give tika, a type of Hindu blessing, to protect their brothers from Yama, the death
god. Leading up to this day, groups travel around the village in a manner similar to
Halloween. The first day, older girls and women will sing and dance, praising the
generosity of the household they are visiting. The next day, boys and men take their turn
in performing for the villagers. In return they are given rice grains, treats, and money. I
was able to meet many villagers and learn the different village areas by participating on
this day (Figure 2.1). At the end of the week, when tikas were given and received, I was
6 Figure 2.1: Social context must be learned for successful project implementation
included in the ceremony (Figure 2.1). My family said I would have to return each year for Tihar because I had become an “official” member of the family. By actively participating and being accepted into village life, I learned the social context specific to this village in Nepal. Only by working within this context, from the national to the household levels, could I be successful in implementing development projects and trainings.
The overall circumstances of Nepal’s government, physiography, and economy are described in the general background. Geography and climate are responsible for the physiographic divisions and zones of Nepal’s diverse terrain. The situation causing forest degradation in the mid-hills, the physiographic zone of this study, is pertinent. It reveals why community forest user groups (CFUGs) and conservation projects are needed. A background of the life of Nepali people is needed to understand the social context. The practice of Hinduism and how it shapes the social structure in terms of gender and caste is the main social context in which project implementers must work.
Because of women’s lower status in Nepal, development workers prioritize their
7 empowerment. The context in which women live in Nepal today has been impacted by
the strides made by these programs. Instability and uncertainty describe the history and
current politics of Nepal. This situation affects development and the livelihood of the
people. Foreign aid has been used to compensate for the resource deficiencies in Nepal,
yet Nepali people still live in poverty. Development aid and programs must be managed
properly within the context of Nepali society.
General Background
The Kingdom of Nepal is a landlocked country located in South Asia between 26°
22' N and 30° 27' N and 80° 4' E and 88° 12' E (Figure 2.2). It is surrounded by India on
its south, west, and east sides and by (the Tibetan Autonomous Region of) China on its
north side. Nepal has an area of 147,181 square kilometers, slightly larger than the size
of Arkansas (CBS 2004). Elevations range from 70 meters in the Terai or Gangaitic
River Plain in the south to 8850 meters at the peak of Mount Everest, on the northern
border with China. Including Mount Everest, named Sagarmartha in Nepali language,
eight of the ten highest peaks of the world are located here (CIA 2005). The country is
roughly divided into three broad physiographic regions based on the altitude of the
terrain: high mountains, central or mid-hills, and Terai plains (CIA 2005, Savada 1993)
(Figure 2.3). Of all land owned privately, 94.11% is agricultural (CBS 2001).
Politically, Nepal is divided into five development regions: Eastern, Central,
Western, Mid Western and Far Western (Figure 2.3). The development regions are further divided into fourteen zones and 75 districts. Each district is divided into village
8 Figure 2.2: Map of Nepal in Asia (University of Texas Libraries 2005)
NEPAL
9 Figure 2.3: Map of major administrative and topographical regions of Nepal (after Chapagain et al 2002)
10 development committees (VDC) and municipalities. VDCs are subdivided into nine wards and municipalities are subdivided into nine to 35 wards depending upon population density (CBS 2004, Chapagain et al 2002). Each development region has its own headquarters; Dhankuta, Kathmandu, Pokhara, Birendranagar, and Dipayal are the headquarters from east to west (Figure 2.3, page 10). The city of Kathmandu is also the district headquarters and capital of Nepal. It is located in the central region within
Kathmandu Valley. The country is considered a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, but constant changes in government and royal rule have prevented elections and stability. There have been about a dozen different governments since 1990, a royal massacre in 2001, and royal takeovers in 2002 and 2005.
Governments have blamed an ongoing armed rebellion as the main obstacle in holding elections (Sapkota 2003).
Nepal is one of the poorest and most undeveloped countries in the world with
42% of the people living below the poverty line in 1995-96. The unemployment rate was
47% in 2001. The economy of Nepal is dominated by agriculture, as the work of 81% of the population is agricultural production and 40% of the gross domestic product is based on it (CIA 2005). Life in the villages of Nepal is based on the crop production (60%), livestock (30%) and forest products (10%). Therefore, people spend most of their time either in the fields, in the forest, or with their farm animals. With such a high percentage of people relying on agriculture and an annual per capita income of US$210 in 2000, most people exist at a subsistence level (Manandhar 2002). Factors inhibiting economic growth are the country’s remote and landlocked location, common natural disasters such as landslides and floods, difficult mountain terrain, political instability including an
11 ongoing Maoist insurgency, and the severe lack of skilled labor and modern technology
(CIA 2005).
Geography and Climate
The country has three distinct physiographic regions or zones based on elevation,
temperature, and rainfall (Figure 2.3, page 10). The Terai or hot flatlands are located in
the southern area of Nepal, the mid-hills are centrally located, and the remote high
mountain and Himalayas are located in northern Nepal to the border of China. Although
Nepal is located at sub-tropical latitudes, altitude and aspect have a great affect on
regional climate. With such great diversity of topography, micro-climatic conditions also
vary widely with respect to temperature and rainfall (Bain et al 2000). Climate can be
divided into three categories corresponding to the physiographic zones: tropical and
subtropical in the Terai, temperate in the mid-hills, and sub-alpine, alpine, and tundra or
arctic in the high mountains (Manandhar 2002).
There are differing opinions on the altitude ranges of the three zones. The Terai
(Figure 2.4) ranges from the lowest point of 70 meters (230 feet) to somewhere between
600 and 1000 meters (about 2000 to 3200 feet) where the mid-hills begin (Figure 2.3, page 10). With an average elevation of 200 meters (about 650 feet), the Terai occupies
23% of the total land area of Nepal (Manandhar 2002, Savada 1993, Chapagain et al
2002). Most of the arable land of Nepal is also located here (about 56%), but before
1950 it was sparsely inhabited due to malaria. After the 1950s, when DDT spraying
began and major highway improvements were completed, many people migrated to the
Terai from the hills. In 2002, the Terai held 49% of the population of Nepal. With a
12 Figure 2.4: River in Terai flatlands of Nepal
warm, humid tropical or sub-tropical climate year-round, temperatures exceed 40º
Celsius in the summer months of April and May (Manandhar 2002, Chapagain et al
2002). The Terai is known as the granary of Nepal because its flat terrain is good for agriculture. Increasing demand for timber and land for farming has caused deforestation
(Savada 1993, Manandhar 2002).
The mid-hills zone occupies about 42% of the land area and holds 44% of the population (Chapagain et al 2002). It includes a broad range of elevations from where the Terai meets the hills to about 3000 to 4000 meters (about 10,000 feet to 13,000 feet) where it intermingles with the rugged mountains of the Himalayas (Figure 2.3, page 10).
Two lower elevation mountain ranges are sometimes included in the mid-hills and sometimes said to be part of the Terai because their climate is subtropical. The climate of the mid-hills, therefore, varies based on elevation. It ranges from subtropical in the lower hill areas to temperate in the upper regions. The hills and valleys of the mid-hills are the political and cultural center of Nepal. Several mountain valleys, Kathmandu, Pokhara, and Banepa, are densely settled, urbanized, and agriculturally productive (Manandhar
13 2002, Savada 1993). Humans have modified the surrounding hills for agriculture by forming complex terracing systems (Figure 2.5). Although it accounts for approximately
Figure 2.5: The terraced mid-hills of Nepal
37% of the cultivated land in Nepal, the mid-hill region only has about ten percent arable
land (Chapagain et al 2002, Banskota and Sharma 1999).
The high mountains of the Himalayas, Figure 2.6, are a source of pride for Nepali
Figure 2.6: The high mountains and Himalayas
14 people. Occupying about 35% of the total land area of the country, the mountains are also a source of income through the trekking and tourist industry. The elevation of this physiographic zone ranges from about 3000 meters, characterized by sub-alpine or alpine climate, to the height of Mount Everest at 8850 meters (29,035 feet), with a tundra and arctic climate. The high mountains only contain about two percent of the arable land
(seven percent of the total cultivated) in Nepal. The snow line occurs between 4500 and
6000 meters and settlement is limited because of the rugged topography and harsh climate. Only eight percent of the population of Nepal lives here (Chapagain et al 2002,
Banskota and Sharma 1999). The mountains act as a natural barrier between Nepal and politically powerful China to the north. This barrier is important to India, Nepal’s other powerful neighbor to the south. Nepal is seen as a strategic political buffer between India and China and thus, India supports Nepal in its effort to keep the Chinese north of the
Himalayas (Karan and Jenkins 1963).
Forest Degradation of the Mid-Hills
Nepal is predominantly an agricultural society with over eighty percent of the population dependent upon agriculture. Nepali people utilize the forest as an integral part of their farming system and so its resources are necessary in maintaining their livelihood.
In general, the culture is respectful of preservation and practices have been sustainable.
However, the Forest Nationalization Act of 1957 placed control of the forests in government hands, beginning massive exploitation as people felt they no longer had control of the land (Gilmour et al 1992). In essence, the people were harvesting all they could whenever they could because they did not know when they would have another
15 opportunity. Today, many communities have gained back the management of their
forests with Community Forest User Groups (CFUGs) initiated by the National Forestry
Plan in 1976. The key community forestry policy was developed in 1988 in the Master
Plan for the Forestry Sector when the government realized the importance of the forest
resource in the mid-hills in maintaining the people’s livelihood (Gilmour et al 1992,
Winrock International 2002).
Traditional biomass resources are the major source of energy, accounting for 91%
of energy consumed. In 1997, fuelwood was the most important source of energy (81%)
followed by cow dung cakes (6%) (Figure 2.7), agricultural residues (4%), and petroleum
Figure 2.7: Cattle dung cakes drying in the sun
products (7%). Nepal’s rural economy supports low per capita energy consumption. The problem is not the amount of consumption, but rather the reliance on one source for all energy. Firewood is being consumed at an unsustainable rate while other renewable energy resources remain virtually untapped (Banskota and Sharma 1999, WECS 1995
16 (a)). A decline in agricultural productivity due to soil erosion and loss of nutrients, as well as population growth, has intensified the pressure on the forests. Higher demand for food on less productive land results in conversion of forested land to farms (WECS 1995
(a)). The firewood deficit is increasing even with a decrease in national population growth rate from 2.6% to 2.2%. Combined with ineffective forest management, the extraction of fuelwood in excess of the sustainable supply is the primary factor leading to the degradation of Nepal’s forests (WECS 1995 (b), CIA 2005). Unmet fuelwood demand is being met by increased use of other biomass and petroleum products, as well as the rapid depletion of forest resources. In 2002, firewood was still the leading energy source (66%) followed by kerosene (13.5%), cow dung cakes (10%), and liquid propane gas (7.6%) (Winrock International 2002). Therefore, population growth, timber extraction, conversion of forests to farm land, overharvesting of firewood and fodder, and overgrazing by livestock have all caused widespread degradation to the forests of Nepal
(Bhatt et al 1997).
Community forest user groups (CFUGs) have improved the forests they manage in the mid-hills of Nepal. CFUGs with conservative operational plans limit the harvesting of forest resources. This causes increased pressure on neighboring government forests and common areas. Although the community and private forests seem to be improving in terms of number of trees and age distribution, the overall annual rate of deforestation for the mid-hill forests is still 2.3% (Winrock International 2002,
SACEP undated).
17 People of Nepal
The total population of Nepal as of July 2005 was 27,676,547 with an estimated
growth rate of 2.2%, approximately twice the world average (CIA 2005). As Nepal’s
terrain is diverse, so are its people (Acharya 1999, Manandhar 2002). Among the 102
identified castes or ethnic groups in the country, 76 different languages are spoken.
Nepali, the official language taught in public schools, is the mother tongue of 48.61% of
the population (CBS 2004). People who speak their own ethnic language and attend
school in Nepal are bilingual and many speak a third or fourth language such as Hindi or
English. Women are less educated and in rural areas may only speak their mother tongue
(Acharya 1999). Most of the castes and ethnic groups can be placed in one of the two
major categories of people: those of Tibeto-Burman descent, termed Tibeto-Nepali, and
those of Indo-Aryan descent, termed Indo-Nepali (Manandhar 2002, Hagen 1961,
Pokharel 2001). The latest arrivals to Nepal, Indo-Nepalis are the most populous and
dominate the country socially, politically, and economically (Savada 1993).
The literacy rate in Nepal was estimated at 45.2% in 2003 for the total population over 15 years of age. Estimates for male and female literacy in 2003 were 62.7% and
27.6 % respectively (CIA 2005). These statistics are indicative of the status of women in the country. Although enrollment has improved for girls at all levels of school, boys have a higher enrollment. After primary school, the enrollment and attendance division between boys and girls increases dramatically (ESCAP, United Nations 1996).
18 Religion
The people of Nepal take pride in being the world’s only Hindu state; approximately 80 percent of the population considers themselves Hindu. About eleven percent of the population is Buddhist (CBS 2004). Many Nepalese people mix these two religions (Acharya 1999, Savada 1993). In general, the people of Nepal are tolerant and
open to all religions. Household shrines are worshipped daily with the Hindu practice of
lighting incense, ringing a bell, and placing tika, a mixture of vermilion powder and
water on the images (Figure 2.8). This tika mixture is then pressed on family members
forehead to bless them and “clear their minds.” Images of Jesus are also sometimes
included in household shrines. Islam, Christianity, Jain, Sikh, and other religions
distinctive to ethnic groups in Nepal are found throughout the country (CBS 2004).
Nepal’s calendar is lunar and religious festivals often coincide with agricultural
life. “There are as many festivals as there are days in the year” is a popular saying
because different religions, ethnic groups, and villages all have their own festivals
Figure 2.8: Household shrine for Hindu gods
19 (Manandhar 2002). Although there are many important Hindu festivals, Dasain and
Tihar bring the country to a halt each year for about a month in total. Family is
especially important in both of these festivals and people will travel long distances to be with their families during this time of the year. Married women are sent to their natal families for Tihar. Dasain lasts ten days near the end of October and celebrates the goddess Durga’s triumph over evil. The male head of the family buys clothes and gives tika (this time rice and yogurt are mixed with vermilion powder) to all family members.
Dasain ends with a feast including the meat of a sacrificed goat. Extended family
members visit the houses of nearby relatives over the next few days to receive tika. The
five-day festival of Tihar is in the beginning of November. The goddess Laxmi is
important as the protector of the soul on its way to heaven and is worshipped on the third
day of this festival. Tika is given to her incarnation, the cow, households are cleaned, and
tiny oil lamps are lit to invite the goddess into their houses at nightfall (Figure 2.9).
Often the time between the Dasain and Tihar festivals is not productive for development
Figure 2.9: Worshipping the cow as an incarnation of the Hindu goddess Laxmi
20 projects, as many people take holidays throughout this time for travel to distant homes.
Farmers start to harvest the rice crop either between Dasain and Tihar or just after Tihar depending on weather conditions. All other activities cease during this period of festivals and high agricultural labor requirements.
The Caste System and Gender
Nepal’s social class system is based on the religious caste system of Hinduism.
Although, the government has officially abolished laws based on caste distinctions, it is still the main social structure and framework in which people relate to one another in
Nepal. This is especially true in the rural villages. Castes are arranged in a hierarchy based on levels of purity and pollution of people or objects (Bennett 1983, Cameron
1998, Miller 2000). Three main levels are seen in the hierarchal caste system (Caplan
2000). Food and water consumption practices display the divisions between the three caste levels (Miller 2000). Traditionally priests or scholars, the Bahun or Brahmin caste, and the original warrior caste, Kshatriya or Chhetri, form the upper caste group. Both castes wear the sacred Hindu thread. The Vaisaya form a middle caste of merchants and traders lower than Brahmin and Chhetri, but “touchable” by these upper castes. A number of lower untouchable castes are the Sudra (Savada 1993). A person’s last name reflects their status in the caste hierarchy. The upper and touchable classes are considered the “clean” castes. Based on their traditional occupations handling materials deemed impure by Hindus, such as leather, the lower untouchables are deemed “unclean” castes. Clean castes will only eat or drink water from other clean castes, never from an
21 unclean caste. Because food and water are kept inside the homes, the unclean are also
barred from entry into the homes of the clean castes (Figure 2.10). Women in general are
Figure 2.10: This low caste tailor cannot enter the home of the people for whom she works
also seen as having “bodily impurity” temporarily each month during menstruation. At
this time they are not allowed into the kitchen and other regulations include not touching
or being touched by others, especially men, not allowing something they have touched to
touch a clean person, especially a man, and eating separately from the family (Cameron
1998).
The upper castes of Nepal are generally orthodox Hindus and strictly abide by
social constraints based on religion and culture. Of all castes, the Brahmins are the most
rigid and caste or status conscious. People of this caste are also the most educated and
hold most of the government and teaching jobs (Acharya 1999, Miller 2000). The clean
lower castes follow the example of the upper castes. Religion is used to justify the
gender and caste restrictions protecting the power of the men and the upper castes in the
22 community. People follow the social rules because disobedience of them is punishable
by the gods (Cameron 1998). Upper castes prefer the birth of sons and are sad or even
fearful with the birth of a daughter. In their eyes, a son will inherit their land and high-
caste honor, while a daughter will have a difficult life. She has to deal with
untrustworthy men whose actions towards her may threaten her honor and the honor of her paternal line. Lower castes attitudes contrast this because they have no land or
“high–caste honor” to give to their sons. Although a son is still important to take care of them in old age, they also welcome the birth of daughters (Cameron 1998).
Traditional laws afforded limited rights to women and lower castes and this lower status still continues. For example, until recently women have had no rights to property inheritance and even today a women must have a father or husband’s verification to gain citizenship. Men have had birthrights to both of these (Tamrakar undated (a)). Women lose any rights to paternal inheritance after they marry (Pokharel 2001). Economically, lower caste households are dependent on upper caste households for work (Cameron
1998). Uneducated women and lower castes are not aware of modern changes in the law.
Conservative and restrictive attitudes are slowly changing, especially in urban areas. In rural villages, the traditional norms are still in place today. National policy now requires women’s representation in village political offices and CFUG groups. Village men are sometimes supportive of women’s participation. However, it is not clear if this is because of the requirement, because it means the men have less responsibility, or because the men really believe in the changes (Acharya 1999).
23 Women’s Empowerment
Women in Nepal, like other economically poor countries, are considered second-
class citizens. They are less educated, have a double role as laborers and caretakers, have
fewer work options, and are paid much less – many times half the amount – men are paid
for the same work (Birdsall 1983, Shakti 1995). In Nepal, as in other patriarchal systems,
women do most of the agricultural work on land owned by men (Sachs 1996, Shakti
1995). Shakti (1995) concluded women had achieved greater social mobility, higher
literacy rates, and more awareness of legal rights and politics in the decade preceding
1993. Yet, Nepali women were and still are limited to the traditional social roles and
second-class status in the country. They rely on men for their own social status and even
educated professional women will choose to stay home after marriage in this conservative
patriarchal society. Women’s participation in politics and knowledge of laws, rights, and
legal process are extremely low. In village areas, people follow gender biased
“customary laws” rather than national civil codes that protect human rights. Women’s
status is dependent on the patrilineal line of her father and husband, as well as her
procreation of sons for the male lineage (Shakti 1995).
Women’s empowerment is a major part of international and national development
programs in Nepal with activities in literacy, health and HIV/AIDS education, family
planning and childcare, income generation trainings, legal aid, and agricultural extension
and technology to increase the standard of living (Luitel 1992). Literacy classes are
especially empowering because the subject matter of the lessons teaches them life skills to improve their own and their families’ lives. The women come out of the classes knowing how to sign their own name and read basic words and will understand more
24 about nutrition, childcare, and the need for sanitation. Signing one’s name is prestigious; otherwise, a person must leave a thumbprint, a sign of ignorance. Women are known by their relationships to men such as “Mahesh’s mother” or “Deepak’s wife” and not by their own name. Signing their name gives them an identity of their own.
Skills trainings, literacy classes, and other NGO activities bring women out of the home and into the public arena. Based on new experiences and opportunities, the women become more confident and skillful than when they were only involved in their immediate neighborhood and family. Improved facilities in the home and on the farm such as electricity, access to alternative energy other than firewood, and improved water availability allow more time for other activities (Acharya 1999). Women may be able to choose less physically demanding tasks than before (Britt 1994, Britt and Kapoor 1994,
Opdam 1997).
Financial cooperatives targeting women have been attempted, such as the
Production Credit for Rural Women (PCRW). Improvements for women have been made in social mobilization (Figure 2.11), but not in decision-making or financial control
Figure 2.11: Women’s social mobilization increases by attending village meetings
25 because the male counterparts of the women members were the ones actually receiving
the credit (Pokharel 2001). Although, achievements have been made towards equality,
there is still much work to be done for women’s empowerment. In Nepal, education of
both men and women in gender issues is necessary, as well as improved economic
stability, health, and literacy for all.
History of Nepal
“It is said that Nepal has had as many kings as it has hilltops.” The rugged terrain
with high mountains, deep valleys, and raging rivers caused the development of small
kingdoms and settlements in the area now called Nepal. In the 17th and 18th centuries
many groups battled over territory (Manandhar 2002). At this time, Kathmandu Valley was divided into three kingdoms, Kathmandu, Patan, and Bhaktapur. In 1769, Prithvi
Narayan Shah, the ruler of the Gorkha Kingdom in western Nepal seized all of
Kathmandu Valley and soon after conquered what is now eastern and northern Nepal.
This accomplishment created the world’s only Hindu state and was important in preventing potential invasions by the British East India Company, then a political power in India, and the Ch’ing dynasty in China (Sattaur 1996, Karan and Jenkins 1963, Rose and Scholz 1980, Manandhar 2002). Nepal lost some of its territory to the British in the
Anglo-Nepali War of 1814-1815, but a portion of the land was returned in 1858 when the
Gorkha soldiers gave aid to the British in India (Karan and Jenkins 1963). Nepal was left a sovereign state (Rose and Scholz 1980).
The Shah dynasty stayed in power until 1846, when a royal court massacre occurred (Sattaur 1996, Rose and Scholz 1980). Jang Bahadur Rana took control of both
26 domestic and external affairs as prime minister. The Ranas controlled the royal family and inter-married with them, establishing a hereditary line of Rana prime ministers. The king was only a puppet; the Ranas secured themselves as rulers of Nepal (Sattaur 1996).
The Ranas were authoritarian and exploitive; the nobility’s wealth increased and the masses starved (Rose and Scholz 1980, Karan and Jenkins 1963). They rejected industrialization and maintained the “isolationist economic policy” to limit Indian and
British influence in trade and politics (Rose and Scholz 1980, Manandhar 2002).
Relations improved with the British under Rana rule and the Ranas offered Gorkha soldiers for service in the British army.
After World War II, the British withdrew from India and the Rana regime lost an important supporter in the region. Shortly after the invasion of Tibet by the Chinese in
1950, the Indian government aided King Tribhuvan in his escape from Nepal. The newly formed Nepali Congress party, the King, and Prime Minister Mohun Shamsher Rana negotiated and a new government was formed, each faction with a share of power
(Sattaur 1999, Rose and Scholz 1980). In 1951, King Tribhuvan proclaimed a constitutional monarchy and Rana resigned (Karan and Jenkins 1963).
King Mahendra ascended the throne after the death of his father in 1955. He formed a new democratic constitution and installed an election system in 1959 that failed nineteen months later. In its place a “Party-less Panchayat Democracy” was formed.
This system was intended to bring power to the people. They would elect their own village representatives who would in turn elect higher and higher levels up to the
“Rastriya” or National Assembly where the King had control. However, a traditional power elite was entrenched in village politics and they stayed in power (Sattaur 1996).
27 King Birendra took control after his father died in 1972. College educated in
more than one country and a reputed liberal, the people of Nepal expected change from
him. Violent confrontations occurred between pro-democracy demonstrators and police
from 1979 to 1989 as the situation became more and more tense. On April 15, 1990, the
King lifted the ban on political parties (Sattaur 1996), supported the creation of a new constitution, and initiated national elections for a multiparty system in 1991. It did not last and in the twelve years following the creation of the new constitutional monarchy,
the government has changed a dozen times (Gersony 2003, Manandhar 2002).
During this time, in 1996, the United People’s Front (UPF) party, presently the
Communist Party of Nepal (CPN-Maoist), declared a revolt and began an armed struggle in Nepal’s mid-western development region to “overthrow the feudal system and establish a rule of the proletariat in the country.” Since 2000, their armed resistance has become a major national problem. The government blames the “Maoist problem” for its failure to maintain elections. Peace talks have failed and successive Nepali governments have used the military to control the conflict. By 2001, thousands of Nepali people had been killed and a state of emergency was called (Sapkota 2003, Gersony 2003).
King Birendra was murdered along with the rest of his immediate family and other extended members in a royal massacre allegedly committed by his own son on June
1, 2001. The King and Queen opposed the Crown Prince’s choice in marriage and threatened to remove him from the royal lineage to the throne. They would also end his living allowance if he married the woman. After he murdered his family, he then fatally wounded himself. King Birendra’s brother, Gyanendra, became King of Nepal on June
4, 2001 and reigns today (Gregson 2002).
28 Current Political Situation
The Maoist rebel insurgency began in 1996 in the Midwest Roepa district and has added instability to a country with an already capricious and corrupt political system
(Sapkota 2003). The Maoists call their fight the People’s Movement or the People’s War.
Originally a faction of the Community Party of Nepal (United Centre), the Communist
Party of Nepal (Maoist) split off because of disillusionment with the widespread corruption and failure of the national government in delivering the material benefits of democracy to the people (Gersony 2003). Civil unrest in the name of people’s rights is not new in Nepal. In 1949, the Nepali Congress Party fought for the creation of a democratic state by denouncing the Rana oligarchy. In 1960, the same party rebelled against the King’s suspension of democracy (Sapkota 2003). In late 1989 and 1990, hundreds of thousands took to the streets demanding political reforms. These protests ended in violent and deadly confrontations with police (Sattaur 1996). Today, the political parties hold demonstrations and rallies in protest of the current government and
King’s actions (Figure 2.12).
Figure 2.12: Political protesters prepare for a rally in a busy Kathmandu area
29 The guerilla tactics of the Maoists have targeted police and army personnel and they have assassinated members of different political parties. They have looted banks, bombed government buildings, and disrupted or blocked transportation. Their original philosophy seemed to be one of intimidation. The Maoists are known to warn the workers of buildings fifteen minutes before they detonate a bomb. They wanted to attack the system, not the people. The rebels received much support in the beginning; especially from rural villagers who saw the system they attacked as corrupt and sinful. Their support seems to be waning, as the Maoists and the Nepali army have become increasingly violent. Human rights activists have criticized both sides for their inhumane treatment to prisoners of war and both have kidnapped or killed innocent people. An estimated 12,000 people have died since 1996 (Sharma 2005).
One of the favorite tactics used by the Maoists are bhands or strikes. These strikes take the form of traffic or shop closures, but the most harmful to Nepal’s economy and society is the national strike. When the Maoist announce these national strikes, the entire country is completely shut down and the government is forced to see the power the rebels hold. Villagers joke about Nepal being “closed” today when a strike occurs. It is not humorous when a person needs to be taken to the hospital and there is no way to get them there. The Maoists use the extortion of villagers, large landowners, business owners, and tourists to fund their movement. Tourists boast about their run-ins with
Maoists on certain trekking trails as a “highlight of their trip.” Trekkers pay approximately US$15 for passage through Maoist territory and the rebel gives the tourist a little something for a scrapbook - a receipt!
30 In November 2002, the King dismissed Prime Minister Deuba and took control of
the government. He appointed a new prime minister, but Deuba was again appointed the
head of an interim government in 2004. The main goal of this government was to set up
elections for a new national government. During this time, in August 2004 and following
a weeklong Maoist blockade of vehicular traffic and supplies to Kathmandu, nine Nepali
hostages were murdered in Iraq. The people of the country were overwhelmed with grief
and anger at the apathy of their government. Indian hostages had been saved by negotiations between the Iraqi captors and the Indian government. Nepalis believed their
government had done nothing to save their brothers and once again, all over the country,
people took to the streets, enraged at the government, Muslims, and the labor agencies
which sent the men abroad. Muslim businesses and the labor agencies were attacked,
looted, and destroyed. The main mosque in Kathmandu was also attacked. The
government set curfews in different cities for a week until the bodies were returned and
the people relaxed. Caught away from home, many people were detained until the
curfews were gradually reduced to a few hours in the morning and evening. The public
was being weaned back to normal life.
In a few weeks, everything returned to normal in Nepal. This changed for foreign
aid agencies on the evening of September 10, 2004. A small pressure cooker type bomb,
typical of the people’s war, was thrown over the fence of the American Center, an
education facility associated with the United States Embassy. This bombing caused
Peace Corps to be evacuated from the country. They left Nepal on September 17, 2004,
as other international aid organizations also re-evaluated, reduced, or cancelled their
programs in Nepal.
31 In February 2005, the King once again dismissed the prime minister and many
other government officers. He placed officials under arrest, declared a state of
emergency, and took over direct power in Nepal. Basic civil rights, such as freedom of
speech and freedom of the press, are now limited in Nepal. The King cited the “Maoist
problem,” and the failure of the parliament to hold national elections. The People’s War
continues in Nepal, hindering aid, development, and the formation of a constitutional
government with national elections. Presently, a one-sided cease-fire is in effect.
Declared by the Maoists on September 3, 2005, the cease-fire is to last three months, especially set for safe travel during the Dasain and Tihar holidays. The government and army have not reciprocated. In October 2005, the King declared national elections to be held by April 2007. However, restrictions on the freedom of the press will hinder the election process (Kantipur Online 2005). Also hindering the process is the political
parties’ views of this declaration. They believe the King is trying to justify his takeover
in February 2005 with the announcement of an election. A party spokesman feels the
King’s move is a ploy to get the parties to support his autocratic rule because he knows
the current insecurity in the country will bring ultimate failure to the election attempt
(Sangraula 2005).
Development is difficult at best under the current political situation in Nepal.
Although there are people who will continue to work in the aid sector, many aid
organizations have cancelled, suspended, or cut aid based on the Maoists and the King’s
actions. It is difficult to move around the country because of the unpredictable blockades
and assaults on vehicles. To bring materials or work in an area under Maoist control, aid
workers must gain permission from or pay a “tax” to the rebels. Nepali government
32 officials ban metal and other materials, which can be used to make bombs, from being carried into Maoist areas. Blockades and bhands cause sharp price increases in market goods needed for projects and infrastructure building, especially in the mid-hills and
Kathmandu Valley. Projects are then delayed or much more expensive than planned. In this way, the Maoists prove their power. Constant shifts in government leaders and the
King’s unconstitutional seize of power in February 2005 make it challenging for aid organizations to provide stable and consistent assistance to the people of Nepal.
Foreign Aid in Nepal
Although foreign aid has been an integral part of the Nepali economy since the
1950s, poverty has not been significantly reduced (Acharya 2004). Today, 81% of the people in Nepal still live on less than US$2 per day (Population Reference Bureau 2005).
Poverty in urban areas has grown due to high migration of people from rural areas to cities in search of jobs and to escape the armed conflicts between Maoists and the military. Based on the social system of Nepal, women and low castes are last to receive the benefits of development in Nepal.
In addition to monetary aid, there are innumerable community development programs initiated by aid and development organizations. Many of these organizations work directly with or provide funding to line agencies of His Majesty’s Government of
Nepal, whose goal is to alleviate widespread poverty (Acharya 2004). Projects focus on many different issues such as improving health, income generation, small business enhancement, education and literacy, women’s empowerment, and natural resource management. Aid agencies include the United Nations Development Programme
33 (UNDP), the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), the Asian
Development Bank (ADB), the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), Care/ Nepal, the Netherlands Development Organisation (SNV), the World Conservation Union
(IUCN), International Center for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), the
World Wildlife Federation (WWF), the United States Peace Corps, Winrock
International, and many other international and local NGOs.
The Nepali government has become dependent upon foreign aid. All new
development activities require aid because increased regular spending in the government
budgets leaves no resources for these activities. Economic corruption is rampant and
there is no systematic recording of the monetary assistance entering the country. Foreign
aid management has been ineffective, resulting in a situation where the majority of the
people in Nepal still lack access to basic needs, including health and education services
(Acharya 2004)
In each decade of the past 50 years, the amount of aid has tripled. As well,
development activities have become increasingly dependent upon foreign aid. Aid
composition is changing to fewer grants and more loans to the government creating a
larger future burden on the country. Foreign aid is used increasingly to finance
government activities. Presently, foreign aid is even budgeted to manage records of
foreign aid! Political instability, corruption, and poor management have led to problems
with disbursement of funds. In Nepal, foreign aid has been utilized by the traditional
power structures present to maintain their position (Acharya 2004).
When used correctly foreign aid can increase infrastructure and initiate social
change. Its proper use and management is necessary to create these changes (Acharya
34 2004). Development programs utilizing foreign aid must also utilize local funds or resources to increase local participation and commitment (Gow and VanSant 1981,
Esman and Uphoff 1984). This is true on both local and national levels. Foreign program managers must understand the social context of Nepali culture and be committed to long-term goals.
35 CHAPTER 3: BIOGAS AND IMPROVED COOK STOVES IN NEPAL
Foreign aid organizations conduct projects to improve the quality of life and the conservation of resources in Nepal. Energy consumption and sustainable energy resources are the focus of programs by the International Centre for Mountain
Development (ICIMOD), the Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA),
Winrock International, The Netherlands Aid Organization (SNV), the United States
Peace Corps, the World Conservation Union (IUCN), and many other development organizations. The focus is sustainable use of traditional biomass fuels and the creation of decentralized systems of renewable energy technology dissemination (Shrestha et al
2003). The technical aspects of the project must be understood at least on a basic level by the project implementers.
Present Situation of Energy Consumption in Nepal
Traditional biomass fuels are the main source of energy for the people of Nepal.
Imported fossil fuels are expensive and no reserves have been discovered in the country
(Shrestha et al 2003, Banskota and Sharma 1999, Rijal 1998). When people cannot meet their energy demands with fuelwood, they turn to other “free” biomass fuels such as dung cakes and agricultural residues. The costs of using biomass fuels are the collection labor and the nutrient diversion from soils (Amatya and Shrestha 1998, Rijal 1999). Wealthier farmers purchase biomass products or imported petroleum products such as kerosene and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) (Rijal 1999). The development of energy resources is necessary so Nepali people can meet their basic needs such as cooking and heating.
Reduction of human drudgery, specifically for women, the prime collectors of energy in
36 Nepal; increased economic productivity; and reduction of environmental impacts are also supported by the development of sustainable energy resources (Rijal 1998, WECS 1995
(c)).
Areas with low-density populations scattered on hillsides and in small villages require a decentralized energy supply system. Many renewable energy technologies are provided in this type of system (Shrestha et al 2003). Renewable energy technologies, termed alternative energy technologies (AET) in Nepal, use local energy resources other than commercial petroleum products in non-traditional ways. As well as the factors supported by developing sustainable energy resources, renewable energies are also cleaner than burning biomass fuels. The main sources of alternative energy are the sun, water, biomass energy, and air. The alternative technologies most important in Nepal are micro-hydro, biogas, solar energy, wind energy and improved cook stoves (WECS 1995
(c), Rijal 1998).
Widespread use of renewable energy technologies can help combat forest degradation in the mid hills of Nepal by reducing pressure on forest resources. While work can be done to increase the supply of firewood, renewable energy technologies will also decrease demand. Biogas and improved cook stoves are the two technologies most applicable to forest conservation and meeting the needs of the villagers of the central hills. Improved cook stoves are the most basic alternative technology. Using the same materials as traditional woodstoves and installed by local villagers, iron rods are the only additional material needed to support the structure of improved cook stoves. Biogas technology requires more material, financial, and technical input than improved cook
37 stoves. However, the benefits to the family and environment are also greater than
improved cook stoves.
Traditional and Improved Cook Stoves
The traditional stove in Nepal, called a chulo, is an open fire for one pot. Inside
the home, biomass fuels such as firewood, straw and dung cakes are placed in a front
opening of hardened mud used to hold the pot in place (Figure 3.1). The shape and size
Figure 3.1: Traditional stove with open fire used to brew alcohol
of the mud frame depends on the size of the pots used to cook. The traditional model is
inefficient and unhealthy. Only one part of the meal can be cooked at a time, energy from the fire is lost to the air, and all the smoke is released inside the home. The burning
of biomass fuels produces air pollutants such as particulates, carbon monoxide, and volatile hydrocarbons, all of which can cause respiratory illness (Dutt and Ravindranath
1993).
38 Improved cook stoves in Nepal follow a design that allows for two or more dishes to be cooked at once, uses the fire energy more efficiently, and includes a chimney to direct the smoke outside. In the typical two cook-hole stove, firewood is placed at an opening of a rectangular chamber (Figure 3.2). The chamber and chimney are designed
Figure 3.2: Typical two cook-hole mud improved cook stove
to create a wind tunnel. The first pothole of the chamber is placed directly over the fire opening. It receives more heat and is larger than the second cook-hole, placed between the first cook-hole and the chimney. Inside the chamber, a “baffle” or raised floor is placed 1.5 inches under the center of the second cook-hole with a side angle of about 60º from the floor under the first hole (Figure 3.3). The chimney effectively draws the fire through the chamber because hot gases rise. The baffle slows the fire’s heat so it stays longer and closer to the pot in the second cook-hole. Pots covering both cook-holes close the system. The hot gases and smoke flow out of the chimney and leave a cleaner and healthier environment for the women and their children cooking in the kitchen
(Borthwick and Howard 1988).
39 Figure 3.3: Inside a two cook-hole mud improved cook stove
The dissemination of improved cook stoves has been slow because of complicated or faulty designs. Ceramic pre-made insert stoves were widely distributed, but villagers found them slow cooking and inefficient for the needs of their large families (Borthwick and Howard 1988, WECS 1995 (c)). The Centre for Rural Technology, Nepal (CRT/
Nepal) develops and promotes appropriate rural technology. They are a major implementer of improved cook stoves through His Majesty’s Government Alternative
Energy Promotion Centre (AEPC) and the Energy Sector Assistance Program (ESAP) supported by DANIDA. The Centre for Rural Technology also facilitates trainings for network member NGOs to establish collaboration between groups and to gain support for improved cook stoves in villages (CRT/N 2005).
There are many designs of improved cook stoves. Pre-made ceramic or metal designs must be carried into the village and are constructed from external materials. The common two cook-hole mud design relies on local materials and is the cheapest option
40 costing approximately 300 to 400 Nepali Rupees (US$4.30 to $5.70) depending on labor
cost. Sun-dried mud bricks are used to construct the chamber and chimney (Figure 3.4).
Figure 3.4: Bricks for four improved cook stoves drying in the sun
The bricks for the chimney are made with a square key with a hole. The bricks must dry
in the sun for three or four days and then the improved cook stove can be built in a few
hours (Figure 3.5A and B). Although training is needed to understand the correct
dimensions, the baffle, and how to use the improved cook stove correctly, any villager
can construct this improved cook stove. Typically, training begins with a day of outside instruction with a demonstration cook stove. The next day the trainees work together to construct their own practice stoves outside where the instructor can monitor and assist.
On the final day, the trainees build stoves inside villagers’ homes intended for use by the owners. A pre-training visit to a household with an improved cook stove to learn how to cook on it may also be included.
41 Figure 3.5A: Building an improved cook stove
Figure 3.5B: Building an improved cook stove
42 Biogas Technology
Biogas technology is based on the fermentation or anaerobic digestion of cattle
manure or other organic materials. The microbes release a mixture of 60-70% methane,
30-40% carbon dioxide, and trace amounts of other gases. In developing countries, the
methane is harnessed and used for cooking and lighting purposes (Figure 3.6) (Devkota
Figure 3.6: Methane flame from biogas plant (Used by permission of BSP–Nepal, 2005)
2001, Karki et al 2003, Fulford undated, SNV and BSP-Nepal 2004, BSP-Nepal 2003 (a),
Winrock International et al 2005, Stuckey 1983, Wolfe 1983, Ke-yun et al 1988, De
Renzo, 1977, Stafford et al 1980). Countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin America have
installed biogas. Nepal’s nearest neighbors, India and China, both have successful biogas
programs. Different designs of biogas plants have been researched and used such as a floating steel drum originally used in India, a fixed concrete dome from China, and a
43 plastic bag biodigester design. Variations of the concrete dome are the designs presently
used in India, China, and Nepal (Devkota 2001). The design in Nepal includes an inlet to
add and mix equal amounts of cattle dung and water (Figure 3.7). The mixture falls
Figure 3.7: General biogas plant design, GGC Model 2047 (Used by permission of BSP –Nepal, 2004)
through a pipe into the digester topped with a concrete dome. The solution ferments and releases the gases, which rise and are released out a pipe located at the peak of the dome.
The remaining biogas slurry or muck in the digester flows into the outlet tank. High in nutrients, it can be composted and used as a fertilizer in agricultural fields. The Gobar
Gas Company perfected the fixed dome with “GGC Model 2047” (Figure 3.7) for sizes
44 four, six, eight, ten, fifteen, and twenty cubic meters feasible for use up to 2100 meters
(6900 feet) in altitude (BSP-Nepal 2004).
Biogas replaces biomass and fossil fuels used for cooking and lighting. It can
also be used to power internal combustion engines (Devkota 2001). Indoor air pollution
from burning biomass fuels is a major cause of acute respiratory infections in Nepal.
Biogas reduces this health risk in the homes it is installed (SNV and BSP-Nepal 2004,
Devkota 2001). Calculations have shown each installed biogas plant saves 4.7 tons of carbon dioxide emissions per year (SNV 2004). Improved household facilities, such as
biogas, allow more time for other activities (Acharya 1999). Because firewood is not
needed for the system, it reduces the workload of the major collectors, women and
children. Women may not necessarily have less work because the time freed will be used
for other things. However, they may be able to decide what work to perform and choose
work that is not as physically demanding (Britt 1994, Britt and Kapoor 1994, Opdam
1997). Toilets can be attached to the biogas plant improving household sanitation and safely increasing gas production. Biogas plants with attached toilets have been found to have the same number of pathogens in the resulting slurry as biogas plants fed only with
cattle manure (BSP-Nepal 2005, East Consult 2003). In Rwanda, Africa, five prisons are
using giant biogas plants (1000 cubic meters) fed with the 50,000 liters of raw sewage
from each prison per day. The prisoner’s food is cooked over the methane gas and the
slurry fertilizes gardens of fruits and vegetables (KIST 2005)
Conservation of forest resources is also an effect of reduced firewood
consumption. In 2003, each household in Nepal saved 3 tons of firewood annually
totaling 334,000 tons saved in the nation (SNV and BSP-Nepal 2004). Agricultural
45 residues and dung cakes are also saved with the use of biogas. The “slurry” or sludge
byproduct of biogas is higher in nutrients than the traditional farmyard manure used as
fertilizer by Nepali farmers. When the composted slurry is placed on fields, it can
increase agricultural production and reduce the need for chemical fertilizers.
Biogas Sector Partnership-Nepal (BSP-Nepal)
In Nepal, Father B.R. Sauboll, a Belgian teacher at Godavari St Xavier’s School,
first demonstrated biogas in 1955. In 1975/76, the designated agricultural year, the
Nepali government installed about 250 to 300 biogas plants and in 1977 the Gobar Gas
Company or GGC was formed as a collaboration of the Agricultural Development Bank of Nepal (ADB/N), the Fuel Corporation of Nepal, and the United Mission to Nepal
(UMN). The company had installed 6615 plants by 1990/91. After the 1990 establishment of a constitutional monarchy, the Netherlands Development Organisation
(SNV) formed the Biogas Support Program (BSP) (Silwal 1999, Devkota 2001).
The long term objectives of SNV/ BSP were to reduce the use of firewood and
dung cakes to decrease environmental degradation, to improve the health and sanitary
conditions of rural people, reduce the time spent collecting biomass fuels for villagers,
and increase agricultural production by the use of nutrient rich slurry (Silwal 1999). This
program has become the leader of the biogas program in Nepal, working closely with His
Majesty’s Government Alternative Energy Promotion Center (AEPC), international aid
organizations, national NGOs, private biogas companies, and villagers of Nepal.
As of 2003, the Biogas Support Program is in its fourth phase. One goal of phase
four is the strengthening of the BSP institution. In July 2003, SNV/ Biogas Support
46 Program (BSP) was transformed to Biogas Sector Partnership-Nepal (BSP-Nepal) a legal entity of its own (BSP-Nepal 2004, SNV and BSP-Nepal 2004). By June 2009, financial
support by SNV will be phased out after providing funding for another 200,000 biogas
plants (BSP-Nepal 2003 (b)). In 2004, Twenty thousand plants were planned for
installation, but only 12,000 were built because security problems in villages and
increases in the prices of cement and iron rods. As of December 2003, there had been
111,399 biogas plants installed. The total installed by 45 different private biogas
companies by the end of 2004 was 123,399. BSP-Nepal performs quality control on five
percent of the plants installed each year and places a quality rating on each company
from ‘A’ (excellent) through ‘E’ (poor). The performance indicators are production,
average feeding rates, average defaults, average penalty points, accuracy and quality of
maintenance, and maintenance progress. In 2004, 78.2% of the companies were given
either ‘A’ or ‘B’ ratings. New applications were accepted to total 57 companies
monitored by this NGO. BSP-Nepal also focuses on promotional activities, research and
design, training, slurry extension, gender mainstreaming, carbon credit arrangements, and
subsidy administration (BSP-Nepal 2005).
Promotional activities are conducted using radio, television, exhibitions, and
printed materials. Programs by regional biogas committees distribute literature and
information to villagers. The goal of these activities is to increase knowledge about and
demand for biogas. To increase the appropriateness of biogas to villager’s needs, the
research and design department has conducted experiments to increase biogas production
in cold weather. Greenhouses and compost heaps provide insulation to the digester,
although the greenhouse design has not proven cost efficient. Other recent research has
47 been conducted on different sized plants, rainwater harvesting for dry season water needs,
reducing mosquito breeding, slurry analysis for nutrients and pathogens, and reducing the
cost of biogas plants through reduction of cement and use of Indian stoves. BSP-Nepal
has listed standard amounts of materials for the construction of each size biogas plant
(Table 3.1). They have concluded biogas plants can be constructed with two to four
fewer bags of cement without affecting quality (BSP-Nepal 2005).
Table 3.1: Standard building material amounts for a common sized biogas plant (from BSP-Nepal 1994) Building Material Amount (six cubic meter plant) Bricks 1400 pieces Sand 70 bags Gravel 35 bags Cement 13 bags Six millimeter rod 60 meters Paint 1 liter
The biogas program can be included under the Clean Development Mechanism
(CDM) of the United Nations. Nepal will sell its carbon emission reductions from using
biogas for about US$5 per ton (SNV 2004). The government of Nepal recently ratified the Kyoto Protocol, the last barrier keeping the World Bank and other banks in the
Netherlands from buying Nepal’s emission reductions (Khadka 2005, BSP-Nepal 2005).
The funds from these sales will increase the capacity of the biogas sector in Nepal as funding to BSP-Nepal is being phased out from the Netherlands government. BSP-
Nepal’s successful program has gained worldwide recognition. In 2005, the organization won the Ashden Award for Sustainable Energy in Health and Welfare (Ashden Awards
2005).
48 Reducing the cost of biogas plants for farmers in Nepal is an objective of Phase four at BSP-Nepal. The most common plant, six cubic meters, costs about 24,000 Nepali
Rupees (US$240), a substantial portion of the income of people living in developing countries. Farmers with higher education and economic wealth are the villagers who become biogas owners (Stuckey 1983). To increase the availability of biogas to poorer farmers, BSP-Nepal facilitates the government subsidy distributed by the Alternative
Energy Promotion Center (AEPC). Loans for constructing biogas plants are also provided to individuals through the Agricultural Development Bank/ Nepal (ADB/
Nepal) and local micro-finance groups. The AEPC has begun to provide low rate bulk biogas loans to micro-finance institutions. Biogas technology does not directly generate income and the six cubic meter system requires at least two cattle. Therefore, farmers who install biogas must have other income to repay loans and must own cattle.
Biogas and improved cook stove renewable energy technologies improve the quality of life for the rural farmers of Nepal and other developing countries.
Dissemination of information and education about the technologies is necessary to create demand from households. Financial loan schemes provide villagers a way to purchase biogas on their own and subsidies reduce the overall cost. Biogas and improved cook stoves are appropriate technologies for adoption by the villagers of Nepal.
49 CHAPTER 4: CHHALING, BHAKTAPUR
Regional influences and village culture are the immediate contexts of a
development project. The village of Chhaling, the site of this case study, is located
within Kathmandu Valley (Figure 4.1), the center of Nepal. The conditions and culture of nearby cities in Kathmandu Valley influence the villagers’ lives. The physical, cultural, economic, and social environment of the community are the direct context in which the people conduct their daily life. Kathmandu Valley, the village of Chhaling, and the history of Community Forestry in the village will be introduced to explain the life of the people implementing the biogas and improved cook stove project.
Figure 4.1: Kathmandu Valley district boundaries and headquarters (after Chapagain et al, 2002)
Chhaling
50 Kathmandu Valley
The city of Kathmandu became the capital of present day Nepal in 1769, when the
Gorkha king Prithvi Narayan Shah captured the three kingdoms of Kathmandu Valley
(Sattaur 1996, Karan and Jenkins 1963, Rose and Scholz 1980, Manandhar 2002). The
oval shaped bowl-like basin is located in the mid-hills physiographic zone in the
administrative Central Development Region of Nepal (Figure 2.3, page 10), also the
central part of the entire east-west running Himalayan belt. The valley occupies an area
of about 650 km² (251 square miles) with an elevation between 1300 and 1400 meters
(4265 to 4600 feet in elevation) on the flat central part. Mid-hills rising to 3000 meters
(about 9850 feet) surround the valley (Sharma 1997, Shrestha et al 1999). There are
three districts in Kathmandu Valley, Bhaktapur, the smallest of the three districts,
Lalitpur, and Kathmandu. The project village, Chhaling, is located in Bhaktapur district
(Figure 4.1, page 50).
The climate of Bhaktapur district and all of Kathmandu Valley is mild with four
distinct seasons based on the monsoon cycle. Pre-monsoon is a dry summer with
maximum temperatures averaging between 25 and 30º C (about 77º to 86º F) from March
to June. Monsoon maximum temperatures average around 30º C from the end of June until September when the temperature starts to drop. The season begins with violent
lightening and thunderstorms before the onset of the monsoon rains, which are vital to the
success of the staple crop, rice. The post monsoon season starts in September with the
rainfall decreasing and finally disappearing by mid-October. This season lasts until
December with maximum temperatures ranging from 20º C to 27º C (68º F to 80º F) and minimum temperatures as low as 2º C (35º F). The winter “monsoon” in the mid-hills
51 and Kathmandu Valley is from January to March. Much needed for the winter crops,
occasional short rainfalls characterize this season. Hail may be harmful to crops and falls
once or twice in this season. The upper hill and high mountain elevations receive snow
in the winter and the spring melt-off is important for crops in the lower valleys (Savada
1993, Fusion Nepal 2004).
The capital city of Kathmandu, located in Kathmandu district (Figure 4.1, page
50), is the center of commerce, government, advanced education, and development aid in
Kathmandu Valley and in all of Nepal. Chhaling, the site of the project case study, is
located approximately 24 kilometers (15 miles) northeast of the heart of the capital city.
Buses traveling to Kathmandu are overloaded each day with villagers from Chhaling and
other valley communities. Villagers making a daily thirty-mile round trip for work and
other business find themselves with up to five or six hours of travel time. From 2001-
2003, Kathmandu and other urban municipalities had a growth rate of 5.2%, more than
twice that of the national growth rate (Poudel 2003). In September 2005 the Central
Department of Population Studies reported the population of Kathmandu surpassing two
million people, driven by internal migration (Figure 4.2). Poor facilities and lack of job
opportunities in the hill areas has caused massive migration to Kathmandu and Terai
cities. Maoist insurgent conflicts in the country have also forced peasant migration from
remote villages (Nepalnews.com 2005). Many village men working in Kathmandu opt to rent a room during the week and only return to their home on Sunday, the universal day off in Nepal. The salary of the villager then goes to paying his rent, food, and other city expenses.
52 Figure 4.2: The city of Kathmandu is congested due to mass internal migration
Wives at home in Chhaling complain the husband’s job does not benefit the family; it only supports the husband in Kathmandu.
Chhaling
Chhaling is located about five kilometers (three miles) northeast of the district headquarters of Bhaktapur (Figure 4.1, page 50). Officially called “Chhaling Village
Development Committee” (VDC), the village is located at 27º42' 30" N and 85º27'30" E.
It is on the south-facing slope of a ridge extending into Kathmandu Valley from its northeast corner (Figure 4.3). The elevation of Chhaling ranges from 1370 to 1650 meters (approximately 4500 to 5400 feet). Creeks are heavily vegetated, especially with bamboo (Dendrocalamus hamiltonii), which is used for construction (Figure 4.4). The
Telkot Forest is located above the village on the ridgeline and on the opposite north- facing slope. Pine (Pinus spp.) plantations are found only at the ridgeline while the
53 Figure 4.3: Chhaling Village Development Committee
Figure 4.4: Toilet, washroom, and veranda constructed from bamboo (Dendrocalamus hamiltonii)
remaining canopy is a chestnut-needle wood (Schima-Castonopsis) forest type (Winrock
2002).
54 The village of Chhaling is divided into nine administrative wards and small
unofficial “gau” or subvillages of people from the same caste or ethnic group. The total population in 2001 was 7674 people in 1491 households. According to a government population survey, upper caste Hindus accounted for approximately 56% of the population; ethnic groups, predominantly Newar, accounted for 37%; and lower caste untouchables accounted for only five percent of the people (CBS 2001). Similar to
Hinduism, the Newar people have their own caste system including upper castes and untouchables. Assuming the current national growth rate of 2.2% (CIA 2005), the population of Chhaling in 2005 is estimated at 8500. Using the growth rate for the valley of 5.2% cited by Poudel (2003), the population is estimated as 10,000. However, based on my observations, the population is probably close to or even below the 8500 estimate because many men leave the village in search of work in Kathmandu, the military, or abroad. These men may not be counted in the population surveys of Chhaling. Some may be included as they consider the village their home and travel from Kathmandu to the village on weekends.
The people of Chhaling are typical of Nepal in terms of social structure, caste, and gender roles. Even with the modern influences of the cities of Kathmandu Valley,
Chhaling is a farming village and traditional ideas dominate. Although girls’ education is improving, conservative gender roles in the village of Chhaling are still in place today.
Women are responsible for all household and daily farming labor. Many villagers send girls to school so they will marry a husband of higher status. They do not believe girls need a higher education. Daughters often remain at home to work in the fields when more labor is needed than older women can supply (Figure 4.5). Sons rarely miss school
55 Figure 4.5: Village girls attend school, but are often absent to perform farm work
for this reason. For about two months per year, during the labor-intensive planting seasons, upper caste men without another job help with farm work. Other times of the year these men are found at teashops playing cards or “running errands.” Traditionally, educated men do not dirty their hands. Men who have income generating jobs or who are educated and unemployed, do not work in agriculture unless absolutely necessary. Lower caste men usually assist more with farm labor than their upper caste counterparts in this village, but women are seen doing most of the farm work.
Agricultural System
The people of Chhaling practice a subsistence mixed farming system common to most rural people in Nepal (Figure 4.6). This system is a complex union of agronomic
56 Figure 4.6: Typical scene of agricultural terraces and homes in Chhaling
products, livestock, and forest products (Beets 1990, Dougill et al 2001, Manandhar
2002) (Table 4.1). In the mid hills, complex terrace systems have been created to farm the steep slopes. The villagers of Chhaling use the fertile soil of Kathmandu Valley’s floor to their advantage. Although most residents live on the hillside, their main irrigated agricultural fields are found at the lowest elevations of the valley (Figure 4.7).
Rice (Oryza sativa) is the staple crop and is planted in the lower irrigated fields during the monsoon season (Figure 4.7). It is harvested three to four months later at the end of monsoon. Wheat (Triticum aestivum) replaces rice in these fields and is harvested near the end of the dry season in April. Maize (Zea mays) is planted in upland non- irrigated fields after the work of harvesting the wheat is completed. Ethnic groups replace the corn with millet (Eleusine coracana), a crop used to make local grain alcohol.
57 Table 4.1:
58 Figure 4.7: Lower, irrigated rice fields
Upper castes Hindus do not plant millet, as they do not make or consume alcohol.
Vegetables are planted in kitchen gardens of terraced land near the villagers’ homes.
Planting begins at the end of monsoon in the months of October and November and
vegetables are continuously harvested and eaten fresh throughout December, January,
and February. In March, the remaining vegetables are dried and stored for later
consumption. Major vegetables are potato (Solanum tuberosum), Indian mustard spinach
(Brassica juncea), onion (Allium cepa), garlic (Allium sativum), chili pepper (Capsicum annuum), mustard or rape seed (Brassica napus), radish (Raphanus sativa), and turnip
(Brassica rapa).
Common livestock are cows, water buffalo, goats, and chicken. Cattle are fed fodder from agricultural by-products such as rice straw and corn stalks. Other cattle feed includes ground and boiled grains, fresh grasses, and branches or leaves from trees in forests and agroforested fields. The time-consuming and frequent activity of collecting fodder for animals is conducted by females of all ages. Besides fodder, females also
59 collect leaflitter from forests used as animal bedding (Figure 4.8). Later compost is created from the resulting mixture of manure, leaflitter and uneaten straw. Women maintain the compost pile and carry it down the steep slopes in “dhoko” baskets to fertilize lower irrigated fields. Wealthier farmers in Nepal purchase chemical fertilizers such as urea. Although pesticide use is uncommon in Chhaling, nearby commercial potato farmers do apply it to their fields.
Figure 4.8: Leaflitter is harvested from the forest
Community Forest User Groups
The forest is also important for the collection of firewood and timber. In 1996,
78% of the forest land in Kathmandu Valley had less than 50% crown cover and was considered degraded; 34% of the total forest was considered shrubland (HMG 1999).
Community Forest User Groups (CFUGs) have been established in Nepal to manage the local forest, to conserve forest resources, and to generate income for group members.
Five communities in Bhaktapur district, three of which are in Chhaling village, formed
CFUGs to manage different sections of Telkot forest. The District Forest Office (DFO)
60 facilitated their formation according to the regulations of the national forestry program.
On January 1, 2003, just after I arrived in the village, these five CFUGs were given official status by the District Forest Office. The Telkot forest had belonged to the nearby military post and it had taken three years for the military to allow the CFUGs to officially
“take over” the forest. The military only agreed with the provision that the forest could be used for military training without notifying the CFUGs. However, the CFUGs must notify the military base of all CFUG activities in the forest. Each CFUG has a managing committee with committee officers.
The main activities of the committee are to open the forest for leaflitter and firewood collection and monitor the collection activities. They collect small fees from members and use it for meetings and paying workers. The CFUG committee also works with the Forest Rangepost staff, a sub-office of the District Forest Office, to receive management trainings and other support such as materials for tree nurseries. The District
Forest Office of Bhaktapur is supported by Danish development assistance project
“Natural Resource Management Sector Assistance Programme” (NARMSAP). This project funds all trainings and activities for CFUGs given by the District Forest Office.
Seti Devi Community Forest Group
My Peace Corps assignment was to work with the Community Forest User
Groups (CFUGs). The group I worked with for this study was the Seti Devi CFUG located in administrative Wards five to nine in Chhaling. The CFUG has approximately
480 household members in total. Wards eight and nine are primarily the upper caste
Brahmin and Chhetri Hindus. Wards six and seven are a mix of upper caste Hindus also
61 including the Sanyasi caste, as well as the ethnic groups Newar, Tamang, and Magar.
The Hindu upper caste Thapa group lives in Ward five.
A CFUG committee was formed along with the group in 2001. It has fourteen to seventeen members, half of whom regularly attend meetings (Figure 4.9). The committee
Figure 4.9: Seti Devi Community Forest User Group Committee monthly meeting
worked with the Forest Rangepost staff to evaluate their forest area, create an operational
plan, and write a constitution for the group. Seti Devi’s community forest covers 67.16
hectares (approximately 166 acres), but is not satisfying the needs of the community.
The CFUG’s constitution estimated the forest had a twenty percent deficit in the supply- demand ratio of firewood and a ten percent deficit of leaflitter. The main mission in Seti
Devi’s constitution and operational plan is to conserve and use the forest in the right way, to keep the ecology of the forest in balance, and to use and produce forest resources for income generation activities, fodder, firewood, leaflitter, and timber for the CFUG members. The goal of this management is to increase the quality of life for the people in
62 the village by supplying the CFUG members with enough forest products, involving the
CFUG member in forest development, and providing the members with trainings and
employment. The Seti Devi CFUG committee members determined the biogas and
improved cook stove project would work to satisfy these goals and they designated funds and members to execute it.
63 CHAPTER 5: GENERAL METHODOLOGY: THE CASE STUDY DESIGN AND PROTOCOL
This chapter will explain why a case study research strategy was selected and how participant observation was used within this study. It will then outline the design and protocol of the study (Yin 2003). The specific data collection methods used within this
case study will be discussed in Chapter Seven, Data Collection Methods. These methods
will be used to compare the implementation process of the project in Chhaling to the necessary implementation components of a renewable energy project. These “necessary implementation components” are the theoretical framework for this study.
Research Strategy: The Case Study
The focus of this study is the implementation of a biogas project in the village of
Chhaling, Nepal. It examines the process that the managers and community members used to install the renewable energy technologies biogas and improved cook stoves.
Obstacles, successes, decision-making processes, and interactions during the process
were observed. The components of this specific project implementation will be
compared to the theoretical management components needed for successful project
implementation. The main objective was to study how the villagers acted in the project
implementation process, compare this to the theoretical process, and then evaluate both
the positive and negative outcomes of the project. A case study is the appropriate
research strategy for this project because the case study allows the exploration of all
avenues of the implementation process.
64 The process of the community implementation of the project is the data to be
collected in this case. It includes all the decisions made, activities conducted, and work
completed. This information is found using a variety of methods. The community does not exist in a vacuum where variables can be fixed. Thus, the community’s
circumstances when the project is implemented are the context in which the data must be
collected. The circumstances in the village, including social rules, economic factors, the
current national political instability, and the accepted Nepali village decision-making
process, affect how the project will be implemented. Therefore, the boundary between
the implementation process and the circumstances surrounding it are not distinct. This
case study analyzes the data within the context of this situation so it is unnecessary to
attempt separation. Both are important and should be studied together (Yin 2003).
One data collection method alone cannot ascertain a complete picture of the
implementation process. Using multiple data collection methods in this study such as
interviews of key informants and project participants, group meetings, community
surveys, document collection, and participant observation allowed me to gather more
information about the community than one method alone (Yin 2003). I was able to
obtain data about community history, personal values, beliefs, and knowledge, as well as
project decisions and activities.
Participant Observation
Upon my arrival to Nepal in September 2002, I spent eleven weeks in training
where I learned Nepali language and culture as well as community forestry topics.
During class we learned about improved cook stoves, biogas, drip-irrigation, composting
65 and other appropriate technologies for rural Nepali communities. After training, I moved to my site in Bhaktapur District within Kathmandu Valley, the most densely populated area of Nepal and consequently one extremely degraded in all environmental facets
(Shrestha et al 1999). My first few months in the village were spent getting to know the settlements of the village and the Community Forest User Groups (CFUG’s) formed within them. I assisted the District Forest Office Rangepost staff in training programs for five new groups in the area and worked closely with three of these groups during my volunteer service. I continued Nepali lessons to increase my communication skills and participated in local cultural functions such as weddings and religious festivals. I also assisted with daily household and farming activities, many times to the great amusement of my neighbors (Figure 5.1). While attending meetings in the community forest area I
Figure 5.1: Working with and learning about villagers is participant observation
66 learned local forest species and observed that the CFUG’s main function was to regulate
forest collection of leaf-litter, firewood, and timber. I was slowly being accepted as a
member of the village as my language skills increased and I drank more and more tea.
An important part of Nepali meetings and all Nepali people’s daily routine is
drinking tea. Tea grown in eastern Nepal and India is purchased and brewed by the pot in
each village house at least two or three times a day. Every meeting in Nepal includes tea
or tremendous apologies for lack thereof. When visiting a person’s house, it is important
to always accept what is offered. At least, the visitor must take tea. There are no quick
stops of two minutes to say hello. The visitor must sit down and allow the host to show
how much they appreciate a guest in their home. Another distinctive Nepali village
custom is to ask those met on the road where they are going. I learned that this is a common courtesy and meant as a greeting; an outsider might find it invasive. A foreigner to Nepal would not know a detailed or even truthful answer is not expected. A simple
‘I’m going to the market’ or ‘I’m going to the upper village’ is all that is usually replied in Chhaling whether or not this is truly the final destination. This is similar to the vague reply accepted for “How are you?” in the English language. If an answer supplies more than vague information then more details will be asked. Nepali villagers will always interrogate a new acquaintance with questions about age, marital status, and family.
These situations illustrate the lack of privacy in the life of a villager in Nepal (Miller
2000). As can be seen, it is important to keep responses short and simple or one might be in for a long conversation on the side of the road! This general lack of privacy in village
Nepal can be difficult at first. I was able to accept it in the same way Miller (2000) accepted it - as the Nepali way. We both used it to help further our own inquiries later in
67 our studies. Just as all villagers in Chhaling, I would walk into houses announcing,
“Where are this house’s people? I am here.”
A newcomer in Nepal would not understand these and other nuances of Nepali culture. These are social distinctions learned by living in and adapting to a culture. They are the basis upon which a researcher becomes a participant observer. The name itself implies the dichotomous lifestyle the researcher must follow as both the village member and the observant data collector. The longer I remained in the village, the more I was able to experience the conditions the people of Chhaling live under, such as rodent problems, constant power outages, carrying heavy loads, washing laundry by hand, and tough physical labor (Emerson et al 1995). As I came to understand their life more, the villagers began to trust me and consider me a community member. They performed their daily work without concern to my presence (Figure 5.2) (Bernard 2002, Pratt and Loizos
1992).
Figure 5.2: Villagers performed work as usual as I participated and observed
68 The Case Study Design and Protocol
The creation of a case study design and protocol are needed to increase the external validity and reliability of the research. These two important research conditions must be satisfied. The external validity or the ability to generalize the findings of the study to other cases is satisfied when the correct theory is developed. The data collected is then generalized to the theory that is used in other cases. When precise documentation of evidence is maintained, then reliability of the study is also satisfied (Yin 2003). The design and protocol developed the study’s main ideas and data collection parameters.
While raising funds for the biogas project and concluding other community projects, I began drafting the “Case Study Design and Protocol” of this research (Appendix A).
This document was completed in July 2004 before the study began. It solidified the main ideas of the study and was used to direct my data collection. In this document, I determined the data needed to answer the study’s main questions and the methods useful to collect it. Presented here is a summary of the original design and protocol of this study. The design develops the broader questions and theory of the case while the protocol focuses on the specific procedures and detailed questions to be answered in conducting the study.
Design
The case study design contains five essential parts:
• A study’s main questions
• Its propositions or theory
• Its units of analysis
69 • The logic linking the data to the propositions
• The criteria for interpreting the findings (Yin 2003)
The design of this case is presented here:
The study’s main questions are: How did the CFUG implement the biogas project compared to the propositional necessary components of a renewable energy development project? What were the successes and problems within the implementation process and causes for these successes and problems? In other words – what components were easy to manage and what components were difficult to manage? What impact did the project have on the community?
The propositions of a case study are the theoretical framework of the study.
These are the general principles believed to be true by the researcher and are tested by the data and its analysis. Theory in a case study is not normally tested using statistical analysis of the results, although surveys conducted within it can be. Instead, the findings are generalized to the propositions by qualitative analysis (Yin 2003). A proposition then is similar to the hypothesis of an experiment as they both express the theory to be tested by the study. The propositions direct which types of data to collect to answer the study’s main questions. The data is analyzed and the results compared to the original propositions to answer the questions (Yin 2003). Once the original study’s results have been concluded, supporting or refuting the propositions, similar studies can be repeated on other cases to test the theory, just as experiments are repeated to retest a hypothesis
(Kitchin and Tate 2000, Yin 2003).
The propositions of this study are the necessary components of the implementation process for a community renewable energy project in Nepal (Table 5.1).
70 Table 5.1: NECESSARY IMPLEMENTATION COMPONENTS OF A RENEWABLE ENERGY PROJECT
Community and Social Issues: Project Management and Design:
Gender Project Managing Committee Caste SOCIAL STRUCTURE PROJECT MANAGMENT Role of Field Workers Decision-making Monitoring and Evaluation
Community Assets and Resources
Optimization and Efficiency Vision, Goals, and Objectives
PARTICIPATION Stakeholders PROJECT DESIGN Action Plan/ Schedule Budget Integration
Motivation
71 These propositional implementation components are the main guidelines and considerations that must be managed for the project’s success. The components can be placed in two categories: community and social issues and project design and management principles. The following chapter will develop each of the components in these two categories. They will be discussed in broad terms and applied specifically to the biogas project in Chhaling. All of the propositional components are based on background research conducted on community development projects. These were issues documented in literature and by renewable energy program staff. The CFUG needs to manage these project implementation components to successfully initiate the biogas plants in the community as a continuous project.
The implementation of the project was done on many levels and involved the managing committee, NGOs, government offices, families, business owners, and individuals. The case of this study is the overall project implementation process consisting of multiple units, which includes all the major events and people involved in executing the project. This is the main unit of analysis of this study. The different groups and activities that are part of the implementation process are all sub-units of the case. Therefore, this study has multiple units of analysis. This is termed an embedded, single–case study design. There are three categories of subunits. The first category is
“process (sub) units” of the implementation process. These are the events and actions of the management committee and other involved in decision-making. Specifically, these are the community project meetings, committee meetings and other activities, roles of individual committee members, the committee’s time schedules or action plan, and social dynamics between the decision-makers. The second category of subunits is “intermediate
72 players.” These are community members involved in the project implementation, but not
in the decision-making. Intermediate players are the biogas recipients and their activities
or roles in the project, roles played by other individuals in the CFUG or community, and
the social dynamics between them (Figure 5.3). “Outside players” may also be involved
Figure 5.3: Biogas recipients are intermediate players of the case study
in the project implementation. This third category of sub-units includes external office staff from NGO’s, businesses, and government offices. In this project the outside players were the biogas company, Biogas Sector Partnership (BSP), Winrock International, the
District Forest Office (DFO) staff, the Telkot Forest Ranger, and the Peace Corps volunteer, as well as the activities and social dynamics between this group and the community members.
73 Pattern-matching is the main technique that will used to match the data collected
to the propositions developed in the next chapter. It is the tool linking the data to the
propositions that will show how the implementation components compare to the
theoretical ones (Yin 2003). If a propositional component is well managed in the
implementation process in Chhaling then a match is found and if all the components are
well managed then the project should be a success. If the CFUG’s implementation fails
to consider one of these criterion, then an impediment within the implementation process
will have occurred. This does not necessarily mean a complete failure of the project. It
indicates that there is some problem within it. After the comparison is completed, the
main study questions will be answered by showing what role each component played in
the project implementation, how components affected the outcome of the project, and how the community members were impacted by the project.
The criteria for interpreting the findings determine if the project managers were successful at managing each of the theoretical components. The criteria are the parameters used to evaluate if a match (successful management) or a mismatch
(unsuccessful management) is found when comparing the project implementation process to the theoretical model (Yin 2003). Each propositional necessary component has its own success indicators and trends in the indicator data will be used to ascertain how well each was considered and managed by the community. These trends in the data are the criteria to interpret the findings in this case. The indicator and success trends to be used in data analysis will be presented with each propositional component discussed in the following chapter. Data analysis will also be used to determine if issues not covered in the theoretical model have played a major part in the implementation of the biogas project. If
74 other components were pertinent to the project in Chhaling then the original propositional
components must be analyzed and possibly altered or supplemented. More studies must be conducted to determine if this new model is complete (Kitchin and Tate 2000, Yin
2003).
Protocol
In preparation for data collection, I created a protocol to use as a guide in
conducting this case study of the implementation of the biogas and improved cook stove
project by the villagers of Chhaling, Bhaktapur District, Nepal (Yin 2003). Table 5.2, the
case study protocol, outlines the protocol sections and their general guidelines given by
Yin (2003), as well as the specific information I compiled in this study’s “Case Study
Design and Protocol” found in Appendix A.
An overview of the case study project is necessary for the protocol to give the
background and the main purpose of the study (Yin 2003). The existing “Bhaktapur
Biogas Renewable Energy Project” proposal (Appendix B), used to solicit funding for the
project in Chhaling, provided information about the biogas and improved cook stove
project. It gave a short background on the village and CFUG, the need for biogas and
improved cook stoves, and a proposal to implement the project including project goals,
management and monitoring plans, and a budget. An original “Study Proposal” for this
thesis had also been written for this case study (Appendix C). It outlined the basic
questions and main objectives of the study. Together these two documents provided the
background and basic ideas of the case study for the protocol.
75 Table 5.2: The case study protocol Biogas Project Protocol Section Guidelines for the Section Implementation Protocol "Bhaktapur Biogas Renewable Energy Project" included a review of biogas and improved cook stoves in Nepal, an overview of the need in the village, and the project proposal for the village. Background information of Based on that project, a proposal for the study project, case study this study was written. References on Overview of the objectives and issues, and project implementation were case study project relevant readings. continually investigated. Access to sites and people was possible Credentials and access to because of Nepali language skills and case study sites, general my status as a member of the village. sources of information, NGOs and local sources of information procedural reminders, and a were identified and a schedule created Field Procedures data collection schedule. for data collection. The specific data collection questions were concerned with the organization of project management, the decision- Specific questions to keep in making process, the community's mind while collecting data. participation and motivation, the social Case Study Data Includes potential sources of dynamics of the project, and the effects Collection information for answering on the community. Each activity also Questions each question. generated specific questions. The outline was written for the case Outline of the report and study, which helped to facilitate the Guide for the Case specification of collection of the relevant documents Study Report bibliographical information. and other data.
The data collection schedule shown in Table 5.3 was the most important aspect of the field procedures for the protocol of this case study (Table 5.2) because it outlined all the data collection methods and the plan to execute them. Table 5.3 outlines the basic procedures planned for each method in the case study protocol. Chapter Seven of this thesis will describe the detailed methodology of this study. The data collection schedule,
76 Table 5.3: Data collection schedule
Time Frame to be Data Collection Activity Completed In Notes Research documents relevant to biogas and Throughout, but specifically to participatory community projects (for July 24 and after December 15 From NGO libraries such as BSP, ICIMOD, IUCN, PC, background and propositions/ theory.) to end Feb HMG Dept libraries, AEPC
CFUG constitution and Working (Action) Plan, Records Specifically to July 24 and after from Village Development Committee and District Archival Records Dec 15 Development Committee CFUG, biogas management committee, and mass Group Meetings Throughout community meetings
Interviews with "KEY" Informants: CFUG committee members Biogas management committee members BR individuals (maybe more than one per family) ICS recipients individuals This is an important tactic for this study as the main Membership recipients issues to affect the outcomes of the project are social Biogas company staff or BSP staff relations in the group. Thus, informal discussions with key informants provide insight into the real workings of the Ranger project that otherwise might not be obtained from a non Other Key informants in the community July 10 to end member of the CFUG.
(Continued on next page)
77 Table 5.3 continued: Data collection schedule
Time Frame to be Data Collection Activity Completed In Notes Interviews of villagers Interviews with specific questions to corroborate evidence As necessary - most probably about implementation. (Possibly also include "Key" mid August - mid December Informants, but with all involved in a particular issue/ topic. All those involved in particular topics/ issues of (with a higher rate most I want to corroborate or document previous observations interest probable mid Sept - mid Nov) and get different perspectives.)
Surveys: Structured Interview surveys One mid - project survey and one end survey to compare changes and similarities in participants’ view of the project Survey One: Two Rounds of BR, ICS-R, and its implementation. One survey will also include membership -R, CFUG committee members, First round: Sept 25 - Oct 10; questions about socio-economic status especially of BR to BMC members Second Round: Feb 1- 15 compare to status of recipients in other studies. This survey is to assess the community's knowledge of the project and project activities including biogas, ICS, Survey Two: Two rounds of entire CFUG and CFUG memberships; attendance to the awareness community random sample of 100 houses in At same time of second round event (if held), and general knowledge about biogas and village wards of the CFUG of Survey One: Feb 1- 15 ICS.
(Continued on next page)
78 Table 5.3 continued: Data collection schedule Time Frame to be Data Collection Activity Completed In Notes
Direct Formal Observations A committee member does not speak for an entire meeting or is reluctant to speak (note Every meeting mid July to mid caste and gender) December A man speaks for a woman when she is asked a question Entire study at every event Decision made without consensus achieved Meetings, outside of meetings BR family's female head not present at Every meeting with BR end Aug meeting to mid December and trainings Male BR carries materials Mid Sept - mid Dec at BR sites Female BR assists in building with biogas company Beg Oct - mid Dec at BR sites Concealment of information Entire study at every event
Gender/ caste of main actors facilitating each These formal observations can be quantified as evidence activity (i.e. managers) At every activity to corroborate or dismiss the existence of such behaviors. Monitory/ supervisory work done by BMC Other data collection techniques will try to clarify why the members Entire study at every event behavior has happened. Other observations collected throughout study that may Direct Informal Observations Entire study at every event become useful. Throughout, most relevant in As a PCV, I am assisting the implementation of the project meetings from July 10 to Oct as a way to build the capacity of the CFUG members. 13, but also in construction Thus, I will also document all that I am asked to Participatory Observation period from Oct 31 to Dec 15 participate in and how I perceive the effects of my actions. Materials from throughout study Possible copy of meeting minutes, copy of budget ledger, Physical Documents or Evidence - possibly collect at end of study copy of loan contract, copy of work contract, etc.
79 the data collection questions, and the guide to this case study report were all specifically written as part of the protocol to direct this study (Yin 2003).
The data collection questions were specific questions I wanted to answer about the main propositions of the study and specific questions about activities that related to the propositions. Answers to these questions were based on observations, documents, interviews, and surveys. Examples of these specific case study questions for data collection are given in Table 5.4 parts A, B, and C. The full set is found in the “Case
Study Design and Protocol” (Appendix A). The questions in all three tables illustrate how the protocol focused the study on the pertinent information needed, the sources of the information, and strategies to answer the question.
Table 5.4A shows an example of a “table shell.” These empty outlines are used to define data to be collected, to guarantee data is collected uniformly from different sources, and to aid in determining how to use the data collected (Yin 2003). The data collected to fill in Table 5.4B is information about project activities. These data will be used to create a timeline of events and see who the active participants were in the project.
The timeline and active participants will be analyzed to compare the project implementation to specific components of the propositions. Tables 5.4 parts A and B show questions about specific propositional components and Table 5.4C shows specific activity questions relevant to the propositions. I would enter meetings and activities with the questions in Table 5.4C in mind so I could observe what happened and collect the information pertinent to this study. Interviews conducted about management activities would also focus on collecting information relevant to these questions (Yin 2003). The information collected from the questions represented in Tables 5.4 parts A, B, and C were
80 used to determine how the components of the biogas project in Chhaling compared to the theoretical model to be developed in the next chapter.
The guide to the case study report is an outline written for this thesis before the research began. It was followed as a rough guide, although minor deviations were necessary to improve upon the presentation style. It is also found in Appendix A, the
“Case Study Design and Protocol.”
Table 5.4:
Part A: Specific integration and participation questions for data collection
¾ Is it an integrated and complete community project, i.e. was biogas installed as well as improved cook stoves and waiving CFUG fee membership for poorer community members? Was awareness included in the project to include all community members? How? Were open assemblies utilized for awareness or making decisions for the project? Were other community members interested in the project and able to become involved? How? • Sources of Data: o Informal and participatory observation of activities – meetings, awareness event, improved cook stoves and free membership activities o Meeting minutes o Community members survey of knowledge of the project activities, awareness event, and improved cook stoves/ free membership activities o Surveys of all biogas recipients and improved cook stoves-recipients, membership-recipients of socioeconomic status • Sample Strategies o Quantify percentages of community families with knowledge of the project. o List activities that included awareness efforts and community members not on the committee o List socioeconomic status of improved cook stoves and free membership recipients vs. biogas recipients o Did the project accomplish the ideal integration?
(Continued on next page)
81 Table 5.4 continued:
Part B: Specific implementation activities questions for data collection ¾ What are the (major) activities of the CFUG to implement the project? Who were the major actors in these activities? When were the activities held? Where? • Sources of Data: o Informal and participatory observations of CFUG meetings o Informal and participatory observations of committee meetings o Meeting minutes o Documents created o CFUG individual members/ committee members o BR individuals o Ranger o Biogas company staff • Sample Strategies: o Timeline o Compare activities to Ideal Action plan o Fill in chart of major activities (add other activities that occur) Activity Date Week # Where Who Achievements Goals/ Objectives Created BMC created Action plan created Awareness event BR chosen Biogas company chosen Loan contracts written Loans signed Biogas contracts signed Materials purchased Materials transported Digging Carrying Skilled labor Construction O&M training Slurry training
(Continued on next page)
82 Table 5.4 continued:
Part C: Questions for each biogas management committee activity or meeting
¾ Each Biogas Management Committee meeting: 1. Who facilitated/ ran the meeting? 2. How was it determined who ran the meeting? 3. Was a process determined for who is to facilitate meetings? 4. Did the person facilitating the meeting keep control of the meeting? 5. Did another person control the meeting? 6. Did one or two members dominate the meeting? Who? How did they control it? 7. Were all committee members in attendance? 8. Did all committee members participate? Speak? 9. Were there any issues at the meeting? Disagreements? About what issues? 10. Were all agenda items discussed? 11. Were all agenda completed? If not, why? 12. How did the meeting end? 13. Plans for next meeting? 14. What decisions were made? What were the outcomes of the meeting? 15. Were all decisions/ discussions documented in meeting minutes? 16. Were all expenditures documented in budget ledger and meeting minutes? 17. Were others beside the committee involved in the meeting and how? 18. What assistance was necessary from Ranger, PCV, or others? 19. Were there any personal issues that came up at the meeting (individual or group social dynamics)? How did they surface? What were they? Were they relevant to the meeting? How did the facilitator or other members manage them? What was the outcome? 20. Was the meeting successful? 21. Did committee members leave the meeting with a positive motivated attitude? If not, why?
83 CHAPTER 6: IMPLEMENTATION COMPONENTS OF A RENEWABLE ENERGY COMMUNITY PROJECT
The propositions of the case study design are the theoretical framework of the study (Yin 2003). In this study they are the necessary components needed to implement a community renewable energy project in Nepal. The community must successfully manage these components. This chapter explains these necessary project implementation components and discusses each, specifically with regard to this case. The categories and major subdivisions of the components will be explained in broad terms, focused on
Nepal. The components within the major subdivision will be described in terms of how they apply to the biogas and improved cook stove project in Chhaling. Indicators of success will also be discussed for each component. Table 6.1 “Necessary
Implementation Components of a Renewable Energy Project in Nepal” shows the categories, major subdivisions, and individual propositional components developed for this study.
This case study’s objective is to compare the components of the implementation process of the project in Chhaling to the theoretical components for renewable energy projects in Nepal. Each component’s success indicators will be used as the basis of the comparison to show if the component was managed in the project, if at all. Together, the comparisons will be analyzed to evaluate the overall outcome of the project. Although much of the theory reviewed here can be broadened to developing nations or community projects in general, the focus of this study is Nepal. The successes, failures, and overall outcome of the project determined in this analysis will be used to make conclusions and recommendations for renewable energy projects in Nepal.
84 Table 6.1: NECESSARY IMPLEMENTATION COMPONENTS OF A RENEWABLE ENERGY PROJECT
Community and Social Issues: References Acharya 1999 Miller 2000 Gender Bajracharya 1994 Molnar 1987 Cameron 1998 Opdam 1997 Caste Cernea 1991 Schweizer-Ries 2003 SOCIAL STRUCTURE Davies 1997 Smith et al 2003 DevPart Consult–Nepal 1996, Shakya and Tamrakar, Decision-making 1998 undated Esman and Uphoff 1984 Tamrakar (b) undated
Community Assets Anon. (a) 1990 Karki et al 2003 and Resources Anon. (b) 1995 Keizer 1994 Bajracharya 1994 Margoluis and Salafsky Optimization and Beets 1990 1998 Efficiency Britt 1994 Meilander 2003 Britt and Kapoor 1994 Miller 2000 Cernea 1991 Molnar 1987 PARTICIPATION Stakeholders Davenport et al 1989 Peace Corps 2003 Davies 1997 Peace Corps undated Dutta 1997 Sasse 1990 Integration Esman and Uphoff 1984 Tamrakar (b) undated Gow et al 1979 USAID 2005 Gow and VanSant 1981 van Vliet 1993, Motivation (Continued on next page)
85 Table 6.1 continued: NECESSARY IMPLMENTATION COMPONENTS OF A RENEWABLE ENERGY PROJECT
Project Management and Design: References
Acharya 1999 Messerschmidt 1995 Project Managing Beets 1990 Michels 1962 Committee Cernea 1991 Parks People Program
Role of Field Davies 1997 2000 PROJECT MANAGMENT Workers Esman and Uphoff 1984 Peace Corps/ Nepal 2003 Margoluis and Salafsky 1998, Monitoring and Evaluation
AEPC 2004/2005 Margoluis and Salafsky Acharya 1999 1998 Vision, Goals, and Britt 1994 Moulik 1990 Objectives Britt and Kapoor 1994 Peace Corps/ Nepal 2003 BSP 2003 Shrestha et al 2004 PROJECT DESIGN Action Plan/ Davies 1997 Silwal 1999 Schedule Karki et al 2003 Winrock International et
Budget Keizer 1994 al 2005
86 Renewable energy technology (RET) projects, specifically biogas and improved
cook stoves, have multi-faceted benefits including health improvement, reductions of
women’s drudgery, and local natural resource conservation (Anon. 1990 (a), Keizer
1994, van Vliet 1993, Molnar 1987, Tamrakar undated (b)). Community development
projects all have one main goal: to improve the living conditions of the local people.
Conservation and development projects assume natural resources and people are interdependent upon each other in the development process. The primary goal of these
projects is sustained conservation of natural resources to enhance community
development. Successful project implementation is necessary so goals can be reached
and benefits can affect the targeted population. Project managers approach
implementation in many ways because each community presents its own set of
circumstances. However, many of the procedures involved in project management
require “balancing guidelines with beliefs and experience.” Therefore, although
operational plans will vary in each community of Nepal, there are many similar project
obstacles and influencing factors, which must be managed through basic guidelines
(Margoluis and Salafsky 1998).
Research conducted on both community development and renewable energy development projects and a literature review on the design and management of these types of projects yielded a set of propositional components pertinent to their successful completion. When applied to the biogas project in Chhaling, it will be determined by comparison if the procedures followed in the implementation process successfully show
the leaders considered and managed each component. When the group manages these
factors well, the project should continue without major problems. Otherwise, obstacles
87 will hinder the progress of the project. The components are guidelines to the process, as
well as cultural norms and customs to be balanced by project implementers. The managers’ own experiences will factor into their management process in the ways they
understand and deal with these components (Margoluis and Salafsky 1998). I have divided the major components of project implementation into two broad categories. The
first category, community and social issues, explains the components based on people’s
relationship to the project and the circumstances of the community. The second category,
project management and design, contains roles of project managers and methodological
project components (Peace Corps/ Nepal 2003). Table 6.1, pages 85-86, illustrates these
categories, their subdivisions, and propositional components.
Community and Social Issues
This category is used to determine the context of the project. When evaluating
the circumstances of the community, project developers and managers must consider
these components. Evaluating the context enables insightful planning of the project
design and management. A community has been defined as a “description of the social
arrangement that make it possible to cultivate a moral order” (Mandelbaum 2000) or as a
“collectivity the members of which share a common territorial area as their base of
operation for daily activities” (Parsons 1951). Therefore, a community of people can be
seen as both a territorial and social arrangement based on basic needs and moral ideas.
Anderson (1964) refers to the term social as broadly “any behavior or attitude that is
influenced by past or present experience of the behavior of other people, or that is
oriented toward other people.” Therefore, community and social issues pertain to the
88 behaviors and attitudes of people in their relationships within the arrangement of people in the project area. Hierarchies of people within a group, differences of opinion, and accepted cultural traditions all create these issues. Two main subdivisions of community and social issues for all projects are social structure and participation. These subdivisions overlap, as social structure is the context in which participation in the project takes place.
Therefore, project managers must recognize and work within this context for participation to occur. In Nepal, gender and caste status and the decision-making process
are important issues in the discussion on social structure. Community assets and
resources, optimization and efficiency, naming the stakeholders, integration of the
project, and motivation of participants are components of participation important to project success.
Social Structure
Social structure of a community divides people into accepted roles or “statuses
such as occupations, offices, classes, age, and sex distinctions.” Each status holds a position in society with its own rights, duties, and constraints. Many people judge others
on the basis of status. The social structure of the community is the description of the
categories of people seen in the community (Hiller 1947). This is the context in which a
project will be implemented.
Participation of and benefits for the people of different social classes and both
genders is difficult to obtain in one project. This is because of the resistance of some
community members to become involved and the divisions between villagers based on
societal norms. Social dynamics between the various participants in the project can
89 enhance or block the accomplishment of project goals. Local elites may direct benefits to
themselves instead of the entire community (Esman and Uphoff 1984). Often some
members of a community feel restrained from being active in programs because the
existing social structure does not allow their voices to be heard in public affairs.
Although it is difficult, participation of many groups of people in all project levels should
be the goal because the project will be more likely to succeed socially, economically, and
ecologically (Schweizer-Ries 2003). The project is also more likely to receive outside
donor funding with greater community participation (Davies 1997). The decision-
making process is pertinent to any project’s completion and success. The working
decision-making process within the established social structure must be recognized in
order to confirm the implementation process coincides with it. This traditional process
may exclude some or many from project management. While implementing the project
within the existing decision making process, the project implementers must also balance
conflicting modern ideas. This means following the traditional process, while allowing
people to act outside accepted roles.
The existing structure in Nepal is derived from the Hindu caste system. Similar to
other developing countries in South Asia, women hold second-class citizenship in the culture and under the law (Tamrakar undated (a)). Therefore, gender and caste are issues
to be considered when looking at the context of a project to be implemented in Nepal.
Decision-making is based on consensus and is traditionally dominated in the public arena
by high caste males (Miller 2000). Project managers must be aware of this and design
decision-making processes to reflect these traditions.
90 Gender and Caste Issues
Caste position affects economic status (Smith et al 2003). Many lower caste
groups have fixed “unclean” occupations limiting their livelihood. Higher castes are
traditionally the leaders and office workers of the community. They have more time and
education because of the inequalities in caste system and the wealth imbalances and thus
dominate the political and public scene (Miller 2000). Lower castes and women of all
castes are traditionally uninvolved in public matters. In mixed meetings or other public
events it is common to see lower caste members silent or allowing the higher caste
members speak for them. Women will do the same, letting their husband, sons, or other
male relatives speak for them. Women and lower castes have constrained roles in
community projects because of the social restrictions and traditional non-involvement in public work. They may only participate through labor or other menial tasks, not in management roles where they would be making decisions important to the project
(Esman and Uphoff 1984). Positions of power are only given to them when it is mandated by an outside organization.
Village women in Nepal do not attend political or village meetings unless specifically invited. Their movements in the village are limited by culture and time allocated to domestic and agricultural duties and social visits (Molnar 1987, Acharya
1999). This is because the “patrilocal” structure of the family and village focuses on
public image. A woman must stay in the background, her actions dependent upon her
husband or father’s approval; her role is to uphold a positive image of the husband and
the entire family (Miller 2000, Tamrakar undated (a)). These practices of social
restriction must be adhered to starting in childhood (Figure 6.1). By the time she reaches
91 Figure 6.1: Girls learn their place is at home or on the farm, not in the public sphere
adulthood, a woman will lack the social skills and confidence needed to participate in the public arena (Acharya 1999). Because of orthodox religious philosophy, there are more restrictions based on purity and honor to female movements in the high Brahmin and
Chhetri castes. High caste women obey movement restrictions and perform their domestic duties or risk dishonoring their husbands, fathers, and family (Bajracharya
1994, Cameron 1998). Women of clean castes, even those of poor economic status, are constrained from forms of work and labor deemed impure or dishonorable. All women work long hours, but the domestic and agricultural work of high caste women is not deemed an economic value (Cameron 1998). “Untouchable castes” are artisans and laborers who own little or no land and are extremely poor. At least within the family, economic instability allows low caste women a more egalitarian stance because all members must work together to survive. These women must move around the village so they can trade or sell their agricultural labor or artisan. Because of her economic power, a woman of lower caste status may divorce and remarry. This is forbidden for upper caste women. They must honor even abusive husbands and mourn a husband’s death
92 their entire lives (Cameron 1998). Ethnic groups in Nepal, generally from Tibeto-
Burman descent, are given middle status (lower, but clean) in the caste hierarchy. These
groups have a more egalitarian social structure and more freedom to choose their careers
than other castes of the same status. Some may attain wealth and prestige in the
community (Gellner et al 1997, Smith et al 2003). These ethnic groups, like lower caste
women, have fewer restrictions on their movements for social and economic reasons.
Old traditions still persist in Nepal, even as some people are challenging the social
structure and modernization continues in the city areas. Therefore, project managers
must consider gender and caste status and try to balance between new and old paradigms.
This will allow those with traditional viewpoints and villagers whose ideas are more
modern to work together and allow a broad representation of the community to be involved in the project (Guggenheim and Spears 1991). A successful renewable energy project will have participation from many groups within the community and specifically targets women and those with limited access to fuel alternatives (Molnar 1987, Smith et al 2003). The managers must be able to satisfy the traditional norms of the community so the community at large accepts the project. They must also gain the support and participation from the targeted groups who traditionally are uninvolved in public affairs.
An indicator showing managers have considered gender and caste in the project is the participation levels at project activities. We can ascertain if different groups’ participation was low or high at meetings or activities. The number of women, men, low and high castes involved in decision-making and planning shows if the project succeeded in reaching its targeted groups. Women’s presence at all management meetings and low caste or poor farmers (less than two cows) participation in the project are the indicators of
93 success for this component. If these indicators are met, it shows successful consideration
of gender and caste in the social structure of the community. It shows the management
committee was able to incorporate new ideas in a traditional system.
Decision Making in Nepal
The implementation of the project must not conflict with the existing decision-
making process, values, and techniques in the village. The managers must work within
this system while also allowing for people to perform non-traditional roles. The process
of decision-making at the family level involves “sabaiko sallah” or consultation of all
with consensus. After this consultation, the household head, normally the male, announces the decision (Miller 2000). The men are seen as financially productive and thus control finances and household decisions while women have reproductive roles and are seen as caretakers and secondary persons. Women cannot make decisions (Shakya and Tamrakar undated).
Traditionally, only men in Chhaling, as in the rest of Nepal, attend public assemblies and usually one or two leaders speak to express the consensus of all (Miller
2000). The customs and beliefs surrounding this practice are slowly changing in
Chhaling. Women attend meetings, but most do not speak. Since men and the upper
castes still dominate public meetings, the biogas project managers must work within this context. A male figure should be involved in managing the project and the committee members must strategically arrange public meetings so experts in biogas, specifically male experts, dominate and give support to females in the discussions. This will give legitimacy to the project in this village setting because the project managers are paying
94 respect to the community’s cultural norms. Otherwise, male village leaders may feel
threatened by women taking on leadership roles or some traditional villagers may believe
a project led by women is trivial and will fail. All of these possible reactions to women’s leadership will threaten the success of the project because villagers who either react this way or who are guided by those who do will not participate.
Prestige or respect, “caste-centered morality”, “family-centered morality” and
“personalism,” are important values in village Nepal. “Personalism” is defined as doing no harm, causing no pain, and avoiding making others sad. All these values permeate decision-making in Nepal and must be remembered in project activities so people will participate. Treating villagers with respect so they feel their remarks are heard and are important to the decisions will encourage participation and attendance by giving prestige to those who speak. As well, if villagers believe their caste and family will be looked upon favorably and the project will cause no harm to the villagers then they will be more likely to participate (Miller 2000).
Many men in Nepal view biogas ownership as a symbol of prestige or higher social status (Opdam 1997, DevPart Consult–Nepal 1996, 1998). This could have both a positive or negative impact on the project because, although the desire of prestige may motivate families to install the technology, they might be less apt to use the plant correctly or keep it in good working condition if there are no other motivational factors.
Therefore, the benefits will not reach the family or forest. Strides must be taken so biogas plants are prestigious because they improve family living conditions, not because a family must be rich to own one.
95 Villagers in daily life utilize the technique of concealment to create private space
in village life where privacy does not exist. Although this seems to go against
“personalism,” people usually try to withhold the truth before telling a lie. Neighbors
will be told minimum information, with important details hidden to uphold the family’s
image. Other times secret activities, possibly in conflict with accepted customs, will be
performed in haste to accomplish goals beneficial to the family (Miller 2000).
Concealment is practiced in Chhaling to bring benefits to the family. My own family
misguided me when I inquired about the family’s financial situation when moving into
the house. They told me the father in the house held paid positions in a few community
groups. I later learned none of his positions were paid and the family was relying on my
rent and the grandfather’s small pension to survive. A neighbor of mine also complained
to me about her father-in-law. He had concealed the truth in wedding negotiations with
her father. Since she had married the youngest son in the family, her father-in-law gave them less property than promised. She was forced to live in a rural house when her father
had been told she would be living in the city. She has been married seven years and has
two children. Villagers use concealment to accomplish goals they otherwise would not
be able to achieve. Project managers used the technique during the planning phase of the
project to protect funds in jeopardy.
The success rate of implementing the biogas project within the accepted decision-
making process and values of the village will be evaluated. The implementers must have
balanced traditional and modern social ideas and recognized the possibility of
concealment by community members. To evaluate the success of this component, the
stability of the committee must be examined. Does the committee still exist? Are the
96 committee members still working? Has the structure of the committee changed and if
yes, why? These questions must be answered and the results will reveal if the community
accepted the managing committee’s decision-making process and values. If the community did accept it, then the managers worked well within the existing decision- making system and values of the community. Otherwise, the managers failed to consider the community’s own decision-making process and values.
Participation
Community members must be the ones to design the project. This ensures they have comprehended the project concepts and it confirms a demand for the project outputs. A sense of ownership and confidence will be instilled in the community once the project has come to successful completion. It also means the plan should be realistic with relatively simple activities (Gow and VanSant 1981, Uphoff 1991, Beets 1990). In
Nepal, impractical tasks will lead to failure and compound the lack of confidence already existing in so many villagers (Anon. 1995 (b)). The community must also participate by allocating their own local resources, either monetarily or in-kind. This also creates ownership and commitment to the project (Gow and VanSant 1981, Esman and Uphoff
1984). Within the community, optimizing participation is an important work efficiency aspect in project management (Esman and Uphoff 1984). Managers must also look at who is participating in the project, how they are involved, and why. This leads to five propositional components to be considered by project developers: community assets and resources, optimal and efficient participation, identifying the local stakeholders in the
97 project, integrating the project into the entire community, and determining the motivation
for those involved in the project.
Community Assets and Resources
Projects need material, monetary, and human resources to succeed. A good
project will incorporate both external and internal resources so the community does not entirely depend on outside assistance. The project then belongs to the community. This results in increased participation in projects of importance to villagers, as they will only give their own money, labor, or materials to projects they think are necessary and will succeed (Figure 6.2). Once they have committed to the project with their resources, they are more likely to support their commitment with positive participatory actions (Gow and
VanSant 1981, Esman and Uphoff 1984). Resource mobilization and management by the community enhances their self-reliance (Uphoff 1991).
Figure 6.2: Community assets: labor, materials, and money
98 The Japan International Cooperation Agency’s (JICA) Community Development and Forest/Watershed Conservation Project and the Peace Corps’ Small Project
Assistance and Partnership Program in Nepal all require community resource contributions (Meilander 2003, Peace Corps 2003, Peace Corps undated). Following this community contribution approach, the villagers of Chhaling have to commit resources – either monetary or “in-kind” – needed to accomplish the project. The CFUG must support the project with some of its own finances. Families must provide their own labor in the construction of the biogas plants and improved cook stoves as in-kind contributions. Families installing biogas must also pay a down payment to prove their commitment to installing the renewable technology. These families also sign a loan contract to pay for the entire cost of the plant; they have purchased the plant with their own finances – complete ownership. Along with creating ownership of the technology and project, this will also reduce the cost and loan principle amounts. Indicators of this component’s successful implementation are financial records showing inputs by the
CFUG and biogas families. Narratives of installation procedures and labor inputs of family members will also be used to indicate if the community successfully contributed to the project.
Optimal and Efficient Participation
The active participation of community members is imperative to attain a combination of leadership and participation. Each can then sustain the other as leaders accomplish group goals through participants and in turn are regulated by mechanisms such as frequent meetings and regular elections (Esman and Uphoff 1984). Participation
99 has different levels: planning, decision-making, active implementation, and evaluation.
Each level empowers or benefits individuals in different ways. People involved in
decision-making and planning will be empowered as community leaders and can accrue
project benefits as those “in the know.” If people participate in labor tasks of a project alone and are uninvolved in the decision-making process, they are working for wages and not for the benefits of the project. These laborers are unlikely to care much about the project success. They may be completely uninformed of what the project is trying to accomplish or what benefits they could attain by participating in other ways. This situation does not build the capacity of the community (Miller 2000). However, economic and time efficiency must be preserved by optimal participation, not maximum participation. Some tasks and decision-making should be done by those more able and willing to accomplish them. This will create better work quality in project activities. If group members observe others informally they can discipline unscrupulous members
(Esman and Uphoff 1984). Therefore, increasing the community’s participation in
project planning and maintaining efficiency must be balanced.
In the study of Chhaling, overall participation and efficiency must be studied separately because other factors affect both. Direct counts and estimates of people at different activities will be used to evaluate participation success. Each event or meeting has a different success rate. Some events should have a high percent attendance, close to one hundred percent, such as committee meetings, because the committee is a smaller decision-making body. Low attendance would mean one or two members were making the project decisions. Others activities have a lower success indicator of twenty-five or
even ten percent attendance such as mass community meetings. These meetings are for
100 approximately 500 households of the CFUG and rarely do large numbers attend such meetings.
Project efficiency in time and cost will be evaluated by comparing the actual timing of events and cost of materials to the scheduled times and costs. The success rate of time efficiency must be somewhat relaxed to allow for the lack of infrastructure and cultural perceptions of time and work. Carelessness of workers is caused by lack of social stability, widespread corruption, and passivity (Beets 1990). These conditions and the resulting inefficiency are seen in Nepal. People are not expected to show up for meetings or events until one half hour or even an hour after the scheduled time. A person fifteen minutes late is considered to be punctual. People come late because they don’t expect meetings to start on time. The only events I attended in Nepal starting on time were those held by Peace Corps. At my Forest Rangepost office in Bhaktapur, I was commended on being so dependable. After showing up 10 minutes late for a planned meeting, a co-worker commented how I always arrived at the time I promised and I was never late!! Therefore, projects in Nepal are expected to be inefficient compared to countries with better infrastructure such as dependable public transportation and a stronger work ethic. Considering these factors, project events should occur within a few weeks of the scheduled times for success in this component. In general, cost should be at or close to budget to meet the criteria. Costs of the project are based on building one biogas plant or improved cook stove and by building in bulk the per unit cost should be reduced.
101 Stakeholders
Women in Nepal do most of the cooking and labor in the family as well as most
of the collection of leaflitter and firewood for the household use (Keizer 1994, van Vliet
1993, Tamrakar undated (a), Bajracharya 1994, Molnar 1987). A sample of Nepali
households showed women performed 100% of the cooking and dish washing, 75% of
the water and fuelwood collection, and 63% of the fodder collection (Keizer 1994).
Women also provide 50% of farm labor and must attend to childcare on their own
(Bajracharya 1994). They are the ones who will benefit most from this project, have a
vested interest in forest resources, and will be affected most by project activities. These women are the major local stakeholders (Margoluis and Salafsky 1998). They will be the ones who use the gas in the kitchen and will operate the improved cook stoves or biogas plant daily. Benefits of improved health conditions in the kitchen and reduced labor in certain activities will accrue to them. These women should be actively involved in all areas of project design, management, and monitoring to create ownership, sustainability, responsibility and inclusiveness (Margoluis and Salafsky 1998, Peace Corps/ Nepal 2003,
Dutta 1997, Molnar 1987). Ideally women will have an equal if not dominant place in all project matters, have access to equal education about the technology (instead of relying on men for information), and will be well represented on the project’s management body
(Dutta 1997, Keizer 1994, van Vliet 1993, Anon. 1990 (a), Karki et al 2003). This will be evaluated by observing if women have an active position in the project. There must be a majority of women on biogas managing committee and most women in biogas recipient households must have signed the loan contract with the committee.
102 Integration
Biogas technology has been beneficial to mid to upper income farmers because a
substantial amount of money must be invested, the major input for the system is cattle
manure, and wealthier farmers are less affected by risk aversion. One average family-
size biogas plant (six cubic meters) in Nepal costs approximately US$300, more than the
annual income of US$279 of an average farmer (USAID 2005). With few or no cattle
poorer farmers lack the manure input needed for the system. If they do have enough
cattle, an investment into biogas by a poor farmer is still a risk many will not take. They
would need to take a bank loan using their land as collateral because they do not have
cash. This loan must be paid on time or the farmer risks the loss of their farm. Income
from farming is hard to predict and poor farmers could default easily on a loan. For all
these reasons, it is difficult for biogas technology to benefit the poorest of the poor (Sasse
1990, Britt 1994, Britt and Kapoor 1994).
When biogas only benefits a segment of the population it should be implemented as part of an integrated and complete community project targeting different members of
the village (Anon. 1990 (a)). Instead of only the wealthier, upper class farmers receiving benefit, the development of the entire community is promoted in an integrated project. A
biogas project may install plants and improve the lives of the higher income farmers in
Nepal without being integrated, increasing the disparity between the lower and upper castes. This impedes the overall development of the village. As well, donor agencies are more likely to contribute to projects benefiting a larger community including marginalized and poorer groups (Davies 1997). This project is complete when others who cannot take on a biogas loan or do not have cattle are able to install improved cook
103 stoves in their homes. This improved cook stove design reduces fuelwood needs and
smoke in the kitchen.
Another way to bring benefits to poor villagers is to waive the late fee to CFUG
membership so they can participate in CFUG forest resource collection. Non-CFUG
members are not allowed to collect forest resources. Many poor villagers could not or
did not want to pay for membership or late fees. The poor villagers of Nepal rely heavily
upon forest resources for their basic needs. Therefore, they are forced to illegally enter
the CFUG forest when they need fuelwood or other forest resources (Winrock 2002).
To evaluate the integration component the number of planned improved cook stoves will be compared to the number installed to see if the project has met this goal.
This is not a complete evaluation because it does not indicate who received the improved stoves. The number of cattle each household possesses will be used to determine wealth and the family’s ability to install biogas. Wealth of the households will indicate if the poorer community members were targeted and successfully included in this aspect of the project. A majority of the improved cook stove recipients should have less than two cows. The number of late-fee waivers for new memberships will also be counted to indicate the success of this part of the component.
Motivation
The motivation of all project participants from inside and outside the community can influence the success of the project. In Chhaling, the motivation of biogas management committee members, villagers, and external office staff should be considered. Why do they want to be part of the project? Integral to this discussion when
104 examining community member’s participation is the precedence of His Majesty’s
Government’s rural development programs in Nepal. These programs strived to improve people’s living standards for the last 50 years. However, the approach did not build community member’s capacity (Anon. 1995 (b), Davenport et al 1989). One impact of the rural development programs can be seen in Chhaling. Villagers believe the government offices and aid organizations working with the government are obligated to
improve their quality of life. Compounded with their lack of confidence in their skills or
local resources, this belief has made them dependent on outside intervention to improve their living conditions (Anon. 1995 (b)). If poor communities become dependent upon external assistance, it can weaken the resourcefulness of the community members (Esman and Uphoff 1984). There must be a balance between outside and local resources.
Although external assistance can be beneficial, it must be utilized with local resources.
Creating new groups with only outside resources is not a sound practice in community development (Gow et al 1979).
Are the villagers in Chhaling involved in the biogas project so they can work for the betterment of themselves and the community or are they looking for external aid to better their living situation for them? Aid organizations have given money to villagers of
Chhaling in the past expecting little in return. There may be difficulty in collecting loan payments from borrowers who perceive the money as a “gift” even after signing a contract. This topic is sensitive and hard to evaluate. Ideally villagers involved in the project are motivated because they want to improve their quality of life by installing the renewable energy technologies. They are looking for assistance in the process, but not a handout. Motivation to install biogas or improved cook stoves will also ideally come
105 from recognition of the declining resources in the local community forest and the need to conserve them for their children.
To examine this component, meeting attendance, observations, and interviews will be used. Besides overall motivation (attendance), this component is qualitative and cannot be displayed numerically. Motivation will also be evaluated by listening to what people say about each other. The project will be impacted by what others think an individual’s motivation is, even if this is not the person’s true motivation. To determine if the motivation of participants affected the project outcome, the problems incurred during project implementation will be examined. Those motivated by greed or fear of losing their power within the patriarchal social structure will try to accomplish their goals unnoticed. They may cause problems. These problems of the project combined with the qualitative analysis of participant’s views will be used to conclude if the motivation component was effectively managed in the project. The final evaluation will be a simple
‘yes’ or ‘no’ answer.
Project Management and Design
The leaders of a project in a community should design and manage the project.
Other participants may assist with both design and management components. Ultimately, it is the management committee members who will play the major role. The components have been divided under the subdivisions of project management and project design, although the two overlap. Project management will describe the roles of different players and project design will focus on the aspects necessary to plan a project. All components
106 will be discussed in terms of how they should be applied to the biogas and improved cook stove project in Chhaling.
Project Management
The managing committee is responsible for management decisions of a project.
In developing countries assistance from field workers from government and NGO offices
is often requested from community management committees. When assisting the community, these field workers are required to enhance the capacity of its members. In particular their assistance in project monitoring and evaluation is needed, as these are
often neglected, but necessary, components in project management (Guggenheim and
Spears 1991, Beets 1990).
Project Managing Committee
Historically, all large groups of people need leadership to make the decisions of
the collective masses (Michels 1962). A leadership committee in the community is
necessary for project management so the decisions of implementation can be made
efficiently (Esman and Uphoff 1984). The leadership committee should develop the
project design including the project vision, goals, action plan and budget. These are all
documented aspects of project design and management and are components of this
theoretical model (Peace Corps/ Nepal 2003, Margoluis and Salafsky 1998, Davies
1997). They also must determine how monitoring and evaluation should be conducted.
The formation of a biogas management committee, a subcommittee of the CFUG, is
necessary to manage the implementation of the project in the community. They are the
107 ones who will make the final decisions in the project. They will determine the
responsibilities of the technology recipients, the technical construction company(s), the
field workers of NGO or government office staff, and of themselves. Same sex female
groups in Nepal have been more successful than mixed groups at increasing the
participation of women in management (Parks People Program 2000) (Figure 6.3). Seti
Devi CFUG began this project with a leadership committee comprised of more than 75% women.
Figure 6.3: All female groups increase girl’s skills and management capacity
Since the major stakeholders in biogas and improved cook stoves are women, the
biogas management (sub) committee should also be predominantly women. However, all
villagers, men and women at all social levels, must be enthusiastic about the project for it
to be integrated into the community.
108 Role of Government and NGO Field Workers
In the biogas and improved cook stove project, the leadership (sub) committee created to manage the project must report the progress back to the larger CFUG committee and group members. Frequent meetings and other regulating mechanisms, as well as monitoring by local field office and development workers, are necessary to avoid
“monopolies of power” by this committee or individuals on it (Esman and Uphoff 1984).
In Nepal, local government agency and NGO field staff employees should do this monitoring of power dynamics. In Chhaling these are the Telkot Forest Rangepost and the Village Development Committee staff. Development field workers of local NGOs and offices aiding the project should also assist in this process. Checking documents, examining work quality, and observing the actions of members are methods to be used to monitor the project management (Peace Corps/ Nepal 2003).
Staff members of these organizations live outside the community and are treated respectfully, external to the local social structure. Unlike village members, they can criticize leaders without fear of social sanctions. Even if the field worker is living among project participants, they can do this to a lesser extent. This is true for Peace Corps volunteers like myself. Although I was integrated into the community and abided by the social rules of Nepali culture, I was able to abandon rules more than others because I was not from the village. I could criticize disruptive or dishonest behavior by contrasting it to similar situations in the United States. This did not have a negative impact on my daily life in Chhaling as I carefully weighed my remarks and gave them respectfully. As with any criticism, field workers and office staff should give it constructively or privately to avoid creating distrust of the entire leadership by the community.
109 Project Monitoring and Evaluation
Project monitoring and evaluation are integral in maintaining the progression towards project goals (Margoluis and Salafsky 1998). Any community development project must include monitoring the responsibilities, awareness, budgeting, motivation, training, and materials throughout project implementation. The committee can then manage problems as they arise. A good monitoring plan will detail where to look for this information such as in a budget ledger to find financial information or in meeting attendance records to indicate motivation or awareness. The monitoring plan must indicate in advance who monitors the activities and when they will do it (Peace Corps/
Nepal 2003).
A project evaluation is essential to examine the biogas project after the village’s biogas plants and improved cook stoves have been installed. The following are the key indicator questions to be asked by the committee members and field staff.
• Were the biogas plants and improved cook stoves built?
• Did people benefit from the project?
• Are loans being repaid?
• Is the managing committee still existing and planning to build more plants
from the repaid loan money?
• Did Biogas Sector Partnership (BSP) – Nepal conduct its low–cost technology
research?
These factors show economic success (loan repayment) is not the only indicator to be valued in the evaluation of the project’s success (Messerschmidt 1995, Beets 1990). The improvement of the standard of living (the benefits gained from the building of biogas
110 and improved cook stoves) and the sustainability of the committee formation with a plan to continue building new plants are also important success indicators. Financial success only indicates capacity of money management. The development of the organizations of the community such as the biogas management committee and the CFUG sustains the project and overall community development (Uphoff 1991). Funding will not do anything if the people cannot work together (Acharya 1999). Biogas Sector Partnership’s
success conducting low-cost research is secondary to the project success in the community because a research component is not required of all development projects.
BSP’s success in this project is important to the overall biogas program in Nepal.
If data can be collected to validate these indicators then the project can be deemed an overall success. If one indicator is not met then its corresponding part of the project failed. The project may still be partially successful as other indicators show success.
Assistance by local field and development workers, especially in monitoring and evaluating of the project, is necessary to guide villagers who may not have experience in project management. These outside workers are important in aiding the biogas committee and community in the project in such a way as to enhance the capacity of the villagers. The field workers must not do the work for the villagers or discourage people’s participation because doing so will impede project success.
The evaluation of the project management components begins by checking if committee and field workers conducted any monitoring and evaluation. To be successful in monitoring, the committee should have recognized problems early and worked to overcome them. This will be analyzed by assessing when problems occurred and how and when the committee managed them, if at all. The success of the monitoring and
111 evaluation component is found with the success of the total project. The indicator questions above will be used to evaluate the overall success of the project. The assistance given by the field workers to the community will be examined. Field workers were successful if their actions positively impacted the project. This will be analyzed by reviewing opinions of key informants. The field workers were successful if management committee members perceived them positively in project implementation. However, if some of the committee members believe the field worker is not supporting them, it undermines people’s motivation and participation. If this occurs then all the project design and management components of the entire system will be impacted. This would be seen as a failure of the field workers.
Project Design
The design of the project is important so all managers understand the concept of the project, the goals and plan of the project, and the roles of participants (Peace Corps/
Nepal 2003). A simple project design starts with a broad vision of the project and this vision is divided into long-term goals. Goals are reached by accomplishing concrete, shorter objectives and an action plan divides the objectives into smaller time oriented tasks to be conducted. Table 6.2 shows a simple project design structure as a hierarchy.
The bottom row of tasks is the action plan. All these tasks must be completed successfully before the vision of the project is met.
112 Table 6.2: A Simple project design
VISION
GOAL 1 GOAL 2
Objective 1 Objective 2 Objective 1 Objective 2
Task 1 Task 2 Task 3 Task 1 Task 2 Task 1 Task 2 Task 1 Task 2 Task 3
Vision, Goals, and Objectives
A vision, goals and objectives are the first factors to be considered in the initiation of a project design. A project vision is the dream of what the future will be with the success of the project. Goals are individual long-term results. Collectively achieved, the goals are the vision. The objectives of a project are shorter-term, realistic, and measurable accomplishments necessary to fulfill a goal (Margoluis and Salafsky 1998,
Peace Corps/ Nepal 2003). It is important for the biogas project managers to envision a community where the standard of living is improved and forest resources conserved by the installation of biogas and improved cook stove renewable energy technology. They need to see a future with functional biogas plants and improved cook stoves, as well as a functioning rotating loan system to sustain the process. To achieve this vision specific goals must include awareness activities for the community, implementing a rotating loan system, constructing the biogas plants, and integrating the project to benefit all in the community.
The project cannot succeed without awareness activities to inform and educate the villagers about the benefits of biogas and improved cook stoves. Some villagers may be familiar with these technologies, but they will still need to be convinced of the benefits.
These benefits must outweigh the financial risks for villagers who install biogas in their
113 own home. Many farmers rely on person-to-person contact with somebody they trust and
respect before they are convinced of the benefits of a technology. Some will only believe
technology is advantageous after they have observed its success for some time (Moulik
1990). Illiterate community members rely on oral communication for information, not
written announcements (Acharya 1999). Information is passed along informally during
work and in passing (Figure 6.4), as well as in formal meetings. Therefore, various types
Figure 6.4: Information exchanged orally while working in fields
of awareness activities including written announcements, mass meetings, group discussion meetings, door-to-door solicitations, and public media announcements must be conducted. Promotional materials can be given to people at these functions to read on their own later. It is essential to have those in the village who have previously installed the technologies speak at meetings. As well, it is necessary to make experts in the field available for discussions with interested villagers. Awareness information for villagers must include the benefits of the technologies and the possible detriments, risks,
114 qualifications needed, and the project’s loan system. Educating the community about the loan parameters and co-signers instead of collateral is needed to convince them of the reduced risk involved.
Biogas is a successful and widely adopted technology in Nepal. Many people have heard of the technology and may trust it works. Therefore, the most important aspect to be considered by farmers in their adoption decision is financial (Silwal 1999).
Loans and subsidies have been in use in Nepal for years to give farmers a chance to install technologies and improve their homes. Banks use different interest rates for different borrowers and loan types. Private loans can range from six to eighteen percent
(Shrestha et al 2004, Keizer 1994). Bank interest and government subsidy policies can change quickly and farmers must commit property certificates (usually their farms) as collateral (Britt 1994, Britt and Kapoor 1994, Keizer 1994). Subsistence farmers, of course, are extremely hesitant to risk their livelihood. Those who do take bank loans may later prefer to receive a loan from local lenders at higher rates, such as 36 percent, to pay back the bank and procure their property deeds from the bank (Keizer 1994). Thus, many poorer farmers will not take bank loans except during an emergency. Wealthier farmers with large sources of outside income can take advantage of bank loans because they are confident in their ability to pay the monthly installments and retain their collateral.
Micro-finance institutions (MFIs) are small local loan organizations in Nepal, many of which incorporate savings and credit functions for their members. These groups receive loans or grants from larger NGOs, government offices, or banks and have required monthly savings deposits from their members. The members are then able to receive loans from the group to finance income generating activities. Biogas does not
115 generate direct income so it is not included in these institutions’ portfolios. Today,
organizations such as Winrock International are working to promote renewable energy
technologies’ financing by micro-finance institutions. However, villagers who secure loans for biogas installation should have another source of income to ensure they can make the payments (Shrestha et al 2004).
The biogas management committee of the CFUG will essentially act as an MFI regulating the funds raised locally and internationally to give low interest, no collateral loans for biogas installation. The committee must determine the interest rate, the repayment period, the co-signer policy, the monitoring plan, and the rules for late payment or loan default. The interest rate needs to be less than the local bank rate to be an incentive for borrowers. The typical loan rate in 2005 for biogas plants in Kathmandu
Valley through the Agriculture Development Bank/ Nepal is about twelve to fourteen percent (Karki, U.B., Pers. Comm. 2005). The management committee must confirm borrowers have a source of income to repay the loan (Britt 1994, Britt and Kapoor 1994).
The loan payments are to be collected as part of an established rotating loan system and are essential to continue building biogas plants or possibly other appropriate technology
(Davies 1997).
The construction of the biogas plants involves the biogas managing committee, trained technicians, company owners, NGO staff, other field workers, and semi-skilled laborers. To complete a biogas plant the project managers must create and sign a work contract with the company and loan contract with the farmers (BSP-Nepal 2003 (a)). The committee needs to negotiate with the company for a reduced price because the purchase and transport of materials will be done in bulk. After negotiating and signing the
116 contracts, materials must be transported from city to village and from road heads to the
farmhouses. The managers must organize how the materials are collectively purchased
and transported for the biogas recipients. Laborers of the families need to begin their
digging work while waiting for material delivery (Figure 6.5). Soon after skilled masons
Figure 6.5: Preparing for biogas plant construction
can start the plant dome construction. Once construction is complete, construction staff must train household members how to operate and maintain the biogas plant. Another training to be conducted by BSP is necessary so villagers will utilize biogas slurry (a by- product of the system) in composting and fertilizer (BSP-Nepal 2003(a)). All of these
117 components of the construction must be completed to the satisfaction of the biogas
recipients so they have confidence as users of the technology. Satisfaction of these first
biogas owners will maintain demand for the biogas plants in the community. If this first
group is unsatisfied because of improper use or poor maintenance of the plants then their
neighbors will be unconvinced of the benefits and the project will not continue.
The community integration component serves to bring improved cook stoves and
CFUG memberships to poorer community members so all villagers have access to project
benefits. Poor farmers must be included in the project so the community as a whole
benefits. An improved cook stove has fewer benefits than biogas, but will improve the
health of those in the kitchen with reduced smoke emissions when compared to
traditional stoves. Its design also reduces the amount of firewood needed. Once these
benefits are achieved and the household members are satisfied, their participation in
future projects may increase. To install an improved cook stove, a mason must be hired,
materials purchased, special bricks formed and dried, and the stove constructed. The
mason must then train the family how to use the stove and clean the chimney (AEPC
2004/2005).
These project design components will be evaluated by analyzing committee
documents. The vision, goals, and objectives created by the committee will be compared
to the corresponding propositional components. Although, an exact match is not
necessary, the same ideas should be portrayed. First, I will check if the committee
created a vision, goals, and objectives or some plan for the project. Then the content will
be examined qualitatively to determine if the theoretical vision and associated goals and
objectives were met.
118 Action Plan and Budget
An action plan consists of smaller activities and tasks when completed satisfy the objectives and long-term goals. Completion of the action plan will ultimately lead to the
project’s success. The plan or schedule should be written in advance and tell how each
task will be done, who will do it, when they will do it, and where it should be done
(Peace Corps/ Nepal 2003). There are many activities to be performed before the
project’s goals are met. The most significant activities of the awareness goal are
conducting the individual awareness activities such as meetings, community campaigns,
announcements, and brochures. The activities needed to create the loan system are
setting the loan parameters, creating the criteria for and choosing the loan recipients, and
signing the loans. To construct the biogas plants the tasks include choosing the biogas
company, creating and setting the contract with the company, creating and signing a
contract with BSP about low cost research; purchasing, gathering, and transporting
materials; delegating labor tasks; and installing the biogas plants. The last goal of an integrated project is accomplished by creating criteria and choosing farmers for memberships and improved cook stoves, choosing the improved cook stove mason, signing a contract with the mason, and building the improved cook stoves. Table 6.3 shows these activities in the theoretical action plan for this project.
119 Table 6.3: Theoretical action plan Week Number Activity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Who? CFUG Plan itinerary for first president and committee meeting X treasurer CFUG Create Project Goals and committee Objectives X XX members CFUG Form Management committee Committee X members Biogas Management Create Action Plan/ Committee Schedule XX members Goal 1: "Awareness" Objective 1: Information
Activity 1: Get biogas materials from BSP and improved cook BMC to stove information from PC office? X XX delegate Activity 2: Distribute information in meetings and village BMC to canvassing XXXX delegate Objective 2: Meetings Activity 1: Schedule, Plan and Hold Awareness Meeting about biogas and ICS project XX BMC members Activity 2: Hold meetings and discussions and find interest XX BMC members
(Continued on next page)
120 Table 6.3 continued: Theoretical action plan Week Number Activity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Who? Goal 2: "Loan System" Objective 1: Arrange system Activity 1: Develop management plan for loans including loan duration, payment plans, checking procedures, etc. XXXX BMC members
Objective 2: Arrange loans Activity 1: Create criteria for first BR XXX BMC members Activity 2: Choose and meet with first BR XXXXXXXXXXXXX X XXXXXXBMC members Activity 3: Write up loan BMC to document. XXX delegate BMC to Activity 4: BR sign loan contract X delegate
(Continued on next page)
121 Table 6.3 continued: Theoretical action plan Week Number Activity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Who? Goal 3: "Building Biogas Plants" Objective 1: Contracts Activity 1: Meet with biogas companies to choose company to work with XX BMC members
Activity 2 : Choose company XX BMC members Activity 3: Write up contract with all pertinent information including itemized bill of materials and labor, repair agreement, and O & M full day training. XXX BMC members Activity 4: If low cost research is done, meet and sign contract with BSP. XXXX BMC members Objective 2: Materials
Activity 1: List materials needed - divide between "must purchase" and "locally available" XXXX BMC members Activity 2: Purchase materials for Delegated to plants XXX specific BR Activity 3: Gather local materials Delegated to for plants XXX specific BR Activity 4: Transport materials to Delegated to building sites. XXX specific BR
(Continued on next page)
122 Table 6.3 continued: Theoretical action plan Week Number Activity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Who?
Goal 3: "Building Biogas Plants" continued
Objective 3: Labor Activity 1: Determine and list all labor needed from BR XX BMC members Activity 2: Delegate labor activities and other work to BR individuals. XXX BMC members
Activity 3: Perform labor XXXXXXXX X XXXX BR
Objective 4: Construction Biogas Company Activity 1: Company constructs Technicians plants with help of BR. XX X XXXX and BR Activity 2: Company trains BR in Biogas O & M for plants. XXCompany Staff
(Continued on next page)
123 Table 6.3 continued: Theoretical action plan Week Number Activity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Who? Goal 4: "Other Community Benefits" Objective 1: Free CFUG membership Activity 1: Create criteria for eligibility for free membership (e.g. economic, caste status) and select families. XXX BMC members Activity 2: Give membership to families. XXX BMC members Objective 2: Improved Wood Cook Stoves Activity 1: Create criteria and locate members who would like Stoves built. XXX BMC members Activity 2: Create and sign contract with locally trained person(s) to build stoves. XX BMC members Locally trained Activity 3: Build stoves. XXXXXXXX X XXXXXXmason
124 The action plan and its individual activities will be evaluated using the questions and indicators in Table 6.4. The overall project evaluation questions (page 110) will be used to determine if the committee successfully implemented its action plan.
Table 6.4: Success questions and indicators for action plan component Question Indicator Was an action plan written? Check committee minutes and documents. Were events within two weeks of the Check written time schedule against actual planned time? timing of events. If timing was not efficient, did lateness Check if main goals of the project were met affect the overall outcome of the project? even if events were not on time. Were tasks delegated? Did people know Make observations and conduct interviews. what their responsibilities were and did they accomplish them?
Three important tasks of the action plan have not yet been presented. The criteria for choosing the recipients of the biogas plants are needed so the recipients are selected uniformly. The selection of the biogas company and the improved cook stove mason by the management committee must include examination of work quality and price negotiation. Contracts must be created and signed by the biogas committee managers with the biogas construction company and Biogas Sector Partnership-Nepal (BSP-Nepal).
The criteria for the biogas recipients are set to reduce bias in the selection of plant recipients. Once the management committee has set the criteria, it limits their choices.
This means the committee’s own family members or friends must also fit the criteria to be selected. The criteria are also set to ensure proper utilization of the biogas systems.
Farmers must have at least two cattle so enough dung is available to produce gas. The farmers should also normally cook with biomass resources so their technology conversion to biogas affects the local forest and land positively. Some wealthier farmers transport LPG gas to their homes. Although benefits would still accrue to them, if these
125 community members install biogas it will not help conserve forest resources. The
recipient’s criteria must include social parameters targeting lower caste families and
women’s participation. Female heads of the family must co-sign loan contract and attend meetings with male heads. By insisting on these social criteria, targeted members of the community will be represented in the project. Household women will not be dependent on their husbands for information. The women will have access to the information first- hand and be able to make informed decisions on their own. Minutes of committee meeting must be checked and the qualification of biogas recipients reviewed to evaluate this component.
Another key task in the project is choosing the biogas company and improved cook stove mason. BSP conducts quality evaluations of the registered biogas companies.
Certified biogas technicians of this NGO sample at least 5 percent of the total plants installed by all companies each year with at least two from each company. Companies are committed to the high standards set by BSP because if one biogas plant is found to be substandard then the installation company must pay a penalty to BSP. This penalty could be the subsidy amount BSP provided for the plant or approximately twenty to thirty percent of the cost of the biogas plant depending upon location. BSP also grades the companies with a “Biogas Performance Index” based on how they meet standards (Karki et al 2003). The committee has only to choose from the existing companies based on their rating by BSP and the quantity of biogas plants constructed in the area by each company. The choice of the improved cooks stove mason is actually more difficult than choosing the biogas construction company because the committee members must be the ones to evaluate the mason’s previous work. The improved cook stove masons are not
126 regulated by any agency. The committee must inspect the quality of the mason’s previous stoves. The committee’s process of hiring the mason will be analyzed to determine if they evaluated the mason’s work.
After the committee chooses who will construct the technology, they also must negotiate the cost of the service. For both technologies the fees should be reduced because of bulk construction. Work contracts must include all the details of the negotiations including costs, exact services and materials to be provided, and who is responsible for each task. The managing committee, biogas company, and the improved cook stove mason need to sign the appropriate work contracts. If BSP conducts low cost plant design research then a signed agreement is also necessary between the committee and BSP. If the low cost design fails the biogas recipient must be compensated. This component will be evaluated by checking if contracts were signed and the pertinent information included. The committee was successful if the contracts were sufficient to maintain the responsibilities of the signing parties. This is also true for the loan contracts with the farmers.
Knowing how to maintain a budget is an important skill for people and in daily life. In all projects, precise record keeping of financial matters preserves transparency of the actions of the fund managers. In this way leaders can be scrutinized and held accountable for missing funds. All transactions must be written and receipts filed to prove money has been spent the way shown in the ledger. A group bank account must be opened for large funds (Davies 1997). In this project, a project bank account is necessary so funds for the project are separate from CFUG funds. This is important to keep the management committee in control of the funds and block access by other individuals in
127 the CFUG. Payment plans for technology installers and the loan repayment must be
agreed upon in the contracts created between all parties.
The actual cost of all items will be compared to the known costs used in the budget. For example, BSP has set the average construction price of approx 24,000
Nepali Rupees (about US$340) to be the average cost of a family size (six cubic meters)
biogas plant in the mid-hills. They have also delineated the cost of the materials, labor,
the service guarantee, and other fees within the construction price (Winrock International
et al 2005). This will be compared to the actual cost of these factors in constructing the
biogas plants in Chhaling. This comparison will be used to evaluate how well the
committee managed the budget. The budget documents will also be checked for
accuracy. The committee must stay within budget for the success of this component.
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
This chapter defined the propositions or theory of this case study and explained
the indicators to be used to analyze success rates. The next chapter will describe the
specific methods used to collect data in the study. This data is analyzed using the
indicators to compare what actually happened in the implementation of the project in
Chhaling to the propositional components presented here.
128 CHAPTER 7: DATA COLLECTION METHODS
The implementation process in Chhaling must be assessed so its components can
be compared to the propositional necessary components developed in Table 6.1, page 85-
86. This chapter explains how the project in Chhaling began, defines basic principles of
data collection in case studies, and then describes the specific methods used to assess the
community’s implementation process for this project.
Formation of the “Biogas Project”
When I arrived to the village, I assisted the District Forest Office with trainings
for all five CFUGs. In these first few months in Chhaling, I also conducted Participatory
Rural Appraisal (PRA) activities creating a seasonal farm work calendars and pairwise
ranked priorities. During this appraisal period, one group asked about biogas. Wealthy
families had been building biogas plants in the village for the last five years. We
discussed the pros and cons known about the technology. Although there are many
benefits, it is also expensive for the average farmer. After promising to return to the
group with more information, I contacted NGOs in Kathmandu to learn more about how
a biogas system worked, how to reduce costs, and what would be needed to initiate a
project in Chhaling. When I returned to this original group, they continuously showed lack of motivation by canceling meetings and poor attendance. A training workshop had
to be cancelled because they were unable to perform small tasks necessary in preparation for it. For these reasons, I decided not to work with them as a group. Of the remaining
two CFUGs, members of Seti Devi were motivated and spent extra time to continue
129 projects started at trainings. Eventually this was the group I was to come to work with on the “biogas project.”
In August 2003, the president of a local NGO suggested I to write a proposal to donor agencies for assistance in financing a biogas project in my community. With the help of CFUG members, we discussed the project idea with villagers, asked if they could afford it, and asked if they would be interested in biogas for their homes. A main list totaling over seventy names was generated. We decided the community was interested and a proposal should be written. At this time, I attended a Peace Corps facilitated
Project Design and Management Training Session with the local Forest Ranger. We developed the rough draft of a plan for the “Bhaktapur Biogas Renewable Energy
Project” proposal (Appendix B).
The project proposal was completed in February 2004. It highlights the need and benefits of biogas and improved (wood) cook stoves in the community. As well, it presents goals and objectives for the project and gives a detailed action plan for attaining the goals. Our basic goals were to build biogas plants and improved cook stoves in the community and create a revolving loan fund to continue the construction of the biogas.
The rotating loan fund would be created by grants from external sources and funds from internal Nepali sources. The loans system created the sustainability for project by keeping the funds in the community. The budget shows how the community should help in financing the project in all ways possible including funds, labor, and materials. The proposal also maps out monitoring and evaluation. In February 2004, donors began committing funds and in August 2004 Peace Corps transferred all funding from the
United States to Nepal.
130 After deciding I could not work with the first CFUG, I was inclined to work with a local credit and savings group familiar with lending and loan systems. This local group proved too small and unstable. Peace Corps Natural Resources Program Officer, Dinesh
Karki, suggested discussing the project with the Seti Devi CFUG committee because
their numbers were large and motivation high. These group members were aware of the project, as word travels fast in the village. The committee decided to work on the project because it was beneficial both to the community and the forest and thus satisfied the goals of their constitution and operational plan.
In May 2004, the CFUG committee began fundraising locally for the project.
Funds were acquired from the United States through St. Marks Episcopal Church
Outreach program; generous colleagues, friends, and family; and an individual anonymous donor who doubled our budget based on the “Bhaktapur Biogas Renewable
Energy Project” proposal (Appendix B) published on the Peace Corps website. In addition to the money raised from these generous donors in the USA, the CFUG added a percentage of its own finances into the loan fund and raised other money from the
District Development Office in Bhaktapur.
Village life revolves around farm activities. In an earlier Participatory Rural
Appraisal (PRA) activity, the community women taught me the cycles of their farm work
(Table 4.1, page 58). There is a lull in farm activities after the rice transplanting is
completed and people have time to attend meetings. The CFUG president and I worked
closely to plan the first meeting about the project as we waited for the monsoon rains to
begin and rice transplanting to be completed. The CFUG committee chose a managing
Biogas Management Committee (BMC) and decided they needed training in Project
131 Design and Management in the first meeting held in July 2004. Although fundraising was essential for the project, this is the day that I chose to start my research, as it was the official day that the CFUG began managing the project. This is when the ‘case’ of my case study began.
Data Collection Principles
Appropriate principles of data collection are essential to obtain the correct data applicable to the study’s propositions. Three important principles of data collection for case studies are using multiple sources of data, creating a case study database, and maintaining a chain of evidence (Yin 2003).
Using multiple sources of evidence in data collection, termed triangulation, is useful to confirm the validity of the data collected (Margoluis and Salafsky 1998). These complementary methods and multiple data sources corroborate facts obtained (Nichols
2000, Miller 2000). Qualitative methods are essential in exploring community attitudes and priorities while quantitative methods give precise estimates. Employing both qualitative and quantitative methods was important in this study’s data collection to create a full picture of the project’s management. Information from sources such as interviews and group meetings is supported by quantitative surveys.
The two other principles of data collection, creating a case study database and maintaining a chain of evidence, are linked together and useful in evaluating the data collected. The database includes field notes, physical documents, journal entries, transcribed interviews and meetings, and tabular data. It is indexed so an individual could easily inspect the data of the case. The evidence is used to document my analysis
132 of the project managers’ implementation. By using a chain of evidence, the
documentation source supporting the results is cited so the database may be checked and
the conclusions evaluated (Yin 2003).
Data Collection Methods
After completing the case study design and protocol, specific methods were selected to cover the wide range of data necessary. The major methods used in this case study were participant observation, group meetings with project participants, document collection, unstructured and semi-structured interviews of key informants, informal and unstructured interviews of villagers, and structured interview surveys of community forest members and biogas plant recipients in the village (Bernard 2002, Kitchin and Tate
2000, Miller 2000, Nichols 2000).
Participant Observation and Document Collection
Participant observation began upon my arrival in Nepal and continued throughout the duration of this study. It enabled me to take notes during project activities and easily collect data during interviews, surveys, and even document collection with a reasonable certainty of reliability (Figure 7.1). Because I lived among the people of Chhaling, they knew about my work as a volunteer and student from our daily conversations. In fact, my work was often the subject of conversation when talk of farming and household chores grew monotonous. Because the villagers were accustomed to conversing with me about my work and research, they wanted to help me obtain correct information for my study
133 Figure 7.1: Data was collected by interviewing biogas recipients and company staff
(Miller 2000). The village of Chhaling is a large community with many small settlements and a survey brought me in contact with strangers. Often, they had already heard about me in the village. My language skills, knowledge of Nepali etiquette, and ability to discuss village ‘news’ also created a relaxed atmosphere with the person I was interviewing. Researchers unfamiliar with the village would not have access to such an atmosphere. I was confident I would receive valid responses to my questions. People also knew that as I spoke to other villagers, any incorrect information might be uncovered and most would not want to risk that embarrassment (Miller 2000). I did receive false information once during a survey from a man I did not know well. Ten minutes after his interview, this man’s neighbor informed me about false information given about his
134 income. The neighbor wanted to make sure the deceit did not harm my study. Even
though I had not met the neighbor, he knew about me, where I lived and with whom, and
my work. This knowledge is what probably motivated him to inform me of the correct
information. Interestingly, I had felt that the original respondent was untruthful during
the interview. I had been thinking of who might verify his statements when the neighbor
approached me. The neighbor gave me the correct information about the man’s income.
In this instance, living in the village allowed me to obtain better information than I might
have otherwise.
I collected literature on topics that helped shape the theoretical propositions of the
case study. Internal project documents that included official letters, meeting
announcements and minutes, contracts, and financial papers were collected, translated
into English as needed, and indexed for the database found in Appendix D. These documents were an important source for checking information given by informants about
activities and decisions in meetings. Acquiring materials at government agencies can be
long and tiresome (Barrett and Cason 1997). I was able to procure documents I might not
have received otherwise because I knew channels of communication and hierarchy within
the agencies.
Group Meetings
Participant observation was particularly important at project management
committee and CFUG meetings (Figure 7.1, page 134 and Figure 7.2). I played a support
role to the biogas committee in managing the project, but also kept a journal of
observations and discussions from all project activities. These meetings were invaluable
135 Figure 7.2: CFUG members and project managers at a monthly CFUG meeting
in the data collection of this study. I witnessed the biogas committee reach the major
decisions about the basic project design and management while their meetings were in
session. In CFUG meetings, the project biogas committee reported to the larger group
about the progress and activities of the project. In all meetings I was able to observe
people discussing their ideas and views in the decision-making and monitoring process
(Davies 1997). Social interactions were noted at meetings in terms of gender and caste hierarchy. Decision-making and motivation indicators of participants were documented.
When Peace Corps volunteers were evacuated from Nepal, this case study was interrupted at an important phase and I missed many group meetings. Fortunately, when
I returned to Nepal I was able to rely on the interviews of key informants and I continued attending group meetings to collect the necessary data to complete the study.
136 Interviews of Key Informants
Key informants were used to gain a clear understanding of the project’s activities.
These were people who I knew would be trustworthy, well informed, observant, and
articulate about the activities of the project (Bernard 2002, Margoluis and Salafsky 1998).
Many of the key informants in this study were active participants in the project and in the
community. These included project managers and CFUG committee members, NGO and
company staff. Although they were the ones being studied, they also provided critical
observations and interpretations. Sometimes, informants would also tell me about others
I should interview or places to find more information (Stake 1995). Both unstructured
and open-ended semi-structured interviews were conducted with key informants.
Unstructured interviews were used to allow the informant to direct the flow of a
conversation even as the project participant knew they were being interviewed (Bernard
2002, Nichols 2000). The topics of concern in these interviews were past circumstances,
events, or statements of others that needed further discussion. I asked questions about
meetings, project activities, or statements of others, as well as about their views of these
subjects. This sometimes led to new information that I needed to investigate (Yin 2003).
Especially upon my return to Nepal, I used interviews with key informants to open my
study up to new information.
A semi-structured style was also used in interviews to guide key informants to the
ideas and questions that were of concern to me for the study. Many questions were set up
before the interview based on information needed to compare the biogas project implementation to the propositional management components. However, the questions were open-ended in nature and left room for additional inquiries and responses.
137 Questions could be rephrased from their original format depending on the circumstances
and the person being interviewed (Margoluis and Salafsky 1998, Nichols 2000, Roche
1999). This semi-structured interview format was also used for interviewing the director of BSP. Although he was not a key informant for the project, his opinions and knowledge about biogas and BSP proved invaluable in forming the background of biogas in Nepal and the propositional necessary management components.
Interviews of Villagers
Informal interviews took place at all times as I went through my day listening to others comments and conversing with community members. At the end of the day I would write in a computer journal and unburden my memory to create field notes of the day (Bernard 2002). People were aware of my study and identifying characteristics were not revealed in the report. I also conducted unstructured interviews, which were similar to informal conversations, where the villager specifically knew they were being interviewed and I wrote their answers during the interview.
Structured Interview Surveys
Two rounds of surveys were conducted to gain information from the community about the project (Appendices E and G). Many respondents of both surveys already knew of my research. All respondents were explained their rights and permission was gained before the interview began.
The 23 Seti Devi Community Forest Group (CFUG) members who chose to install biogas with the project were interviewed to learn how they perceived the
138 procedures of the project and to determine their view of the project’s management and success. All participants were asked the same questions, but the questions were open- ended because the aim of the survey was to establish the respondent’s views on the project and management in their own words (Kitchin and Tate 2000). Because of the open-ended nature of the questions, theses biogas recipient survey questions were not pre-tested as they were reworded and discussed with each respondent (Appendix G).
Out of the 479 total household members of the CFUG, 76 members were randomly surveyed before and after the biogas plant construction was completed to determine community knowledge about the technologies and the project. The respondents were determined using random number generation software of Microsoft
Excel. These community knowledge questionnaires utilized closed questions intended to gain quantitative evidence about the respondents and their community (Appendix E).
The first phase of this interview also included socio-economic questions to determine the wealth of community members. Other indicators of wealth were also used alongside monetary questions as wealth is often found in the property and possessions in the village. The questions were pre-tested and revised from previous survey work I conducted with BSP Nepal in a nearby community.
The Pearson Correlation Coefficient (r) was used in the analysis of survey data to indicate associations between surveyed variables. High correlation, when the coefficient
(r) is close to +1 or –1, indicates that a change in one variable implies approximately a similar and predictable change in the other variable (Steel and Torrie 1960). This means a correlation exists between the two variable because as the value of one variable changes, the value of the other variable also changes. The level of significance given by
139 the probability (P) shows if the value of the correlation coefficient (r) is indicative of the
relationship between the two variables. When (P) is close to zero it indicates a high
probability that the values of the variables are well described by (r). Many correlations discussed in Chapter Eight are not strong, although they were significant (the correlation coefficient (r) was not high, but the probability (P) that the correlation shown was indicative of the actual relationship between the two variables was high). This indicates
other variables also had an important role in the relationship between the two variables
discussed. The Pearson Correlation coefficient statistical data sets generated by the SAS
software program is shown in Appendix I.
Data Analysis
The data results present the full picture of the project implementation process by
the biogas committee and community of Chhaling. The next chapter reveals the project’s
story – both the good and the bad. Interviews and meetings will be documented to
display the villagers in their own words and an analysis of survey data (Appendices F and
H) will support or challenge observations and statements by informants. The data was
checked for accuracy when discrepancies or weak data was collected. For example, upon
my return to Nepal in February 2005, I learned the biogas committee and I were being
accused of mismanagement of the project funds. Villagers suggested a field worker was
the originator of the accusations. After several failed attempts to meet the field worker, I
verified this information in meetings with the field worker’s supervisor and CFUG
members. When Peace Corps volunteers were evacuated, the project’s funds were
transferred to the NGO, BSP, to manage for the community. Not understanding the
140 reasoning behind the transaction, the field worker believed some kind of corruption was involved. In this way, the validity of information collected was confirmed.
Chapter Eight begins the data analysis with a discussion of the village’s implementation process and how the process components compare to the propositional necessary management components. Final conclusions and recommendations about what the comparison means for the project, the community of Chhaling, and renewable energy projects in Nepal will be made in Chapter Nine.
141 CHAPTER 8: PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION COMPONENTS IN CHHALING COMPARED TO THE PROPOSITIONS
The objective of this study is to compare the components of the biogas project implementation process to the propositional components (Table 8.1). After the creation of the project proposal and fundraising by the PCV, Seti Devi CFUG formed a biogas management committee in July 2004 to manage the project. The starting point for the analysis of this case coincides with the formation of this committee and the end point of the case is the collection of the loan payments for the first rotation of the project. The events of the project implementation will be explained and each of the corresponding propositional components involved will be compared and discussed. A picture of the current situation updated via email and telephone conversations with many of the key informants will also be presented.
Project Implementation in Chhaling: A Three Phase Process
The CFUG president, other CFUG committee members, the Forest Ranger, and the village’s Peace Corps volunteer discussed the biogas and improved cook stove project. They were satisfied that if the funding was found, the CFUG could implement it.
A biogas project proposal (Appendix B) was written to acquire funding from external sources. The planning phase of the project began in July 2004 when the CFUG committee wrote project goals and created a biogas management (sub) committee of five members, upper caste with four females and one male. Training was given to this new committee in project design and management by the Peace Corps volunteer and a local
142 Table 8.1: NECESSARY IMPLEMENTATION COMPONENTS OF A RENEWABLE ENERGY PROJECT
Community and Social Issues: Project Management and Design:
Gender Project Managing Committee Caste SOCIAL STRUCTURE PROJECT MANAGMENT Role of Field Workers Decision-making Monitoring and Evaluation
Community Assets and Resources
Optimization and Efficiency Vision, Goals, and Objectives
PARTICIPATION Stakeholders PROJECT DESIGN Action Plan/ Schedule Budget Integration
Motivation
143 student. With the assistance of the Peace Corps volunteer, the committee wrote an action plan and schedule of events to accomplish the project. Encouraged by the doubling of the budget by an anonymous donor that would provide enough funds for sixteen biogas plants and fifty improved cook stoves, they immediately began the work to achieve each of the small tasks set out for themselves. They started by creating all the rules for the project participants.
The Peace Corps volunteer organized the meetings between the biogas committee meeting and two NGOs in Kathmandu, Biogas Sector Partnership (BSP) and Winrock
International. BSP is the main office in Nepal facilitating the installation of biogas plants. They wanted to perform low cost research in the Chhaling project, reducing the cost of each plant for the biogas recipients. The biogas committee met with BSP staff to learn about the biogas system and the low cost technology. Convinced of its benefits, the committee decided to install the low cost plants in the project. A staff member of
Winrock International assisted the biogas committee in the creation of a rotating loan system and contract. He trained the committee members in the correct parameters of a good loan and in a payment collection system. Both the staff of these NGOs and the local Forest Ranger attended the mass meeting of the CFUG members where the biogas committee informed the villagers about the technologies and the project (Figure 8.1).
The staff from the NGOs supported the committee in explaining the process, the reason for the loan, and the source of the funding. Loan applications were distributed in this meeting. Interested members also gave their names and the small fee to install the improved cook stoves at the end of the meeting.
144 Figure 8.1: Field workers and villagers at the mass awareness meeting
Soon after this meeting, the Peace Corps volunteer was evacuated from Nepal due to the escalating violence surrounding the political rebel insurgency. Although the managers assumed the project would be cancelled, careful logistics maintained the funding in Nepal and ensured the continuation of the project. The biogas committee managers were afraid to have the US$3025 in foreign funds in their group account. They believed it could be embezzled by others and asked to have an office outside the community manage the money for them. BSP agreed to serve in this function and a document was signed completing the transaction of funds from Peace Corps to the staff at
BSP. The biogas committee members, Peace Corps staff, BSP staff, and the Peace Corps volunteer all signed this agreement verifying the amount and the responsibility of BSP.
The volunteer then left Nepal, to return five months later as a private citizen.
145 In this time the direct implementation phase of the project began. BSP chose a
biogas company to construct the plants for the project and in a meeting attended by BSP
staff, the project, and the biogas committee, a contract was signed including the payment
and responsibilities of each party. BSP had negotiated with the company to cut the cost
by buying bulk materials and by installing the low cost technology. They agreed to build
25 biogas plants. Winrock International staff and the biogas company helped the
committee write the loan contract with the biogas recipients including the need for co-
signers and both male and female household members’ signatures. This occurred in the
beginning of October 2004 and by late November, eleven people had signed contracts.
By mid December the total had reached nineteen and by mid-February there was a total
of 23 plants being built in this first building rotation.
Construction of the plants started in the beginning of December (Figure 8.2). The
company surveyed the biogas plant sites and the biogas recipients dug the pit where the
plants would be built. The biogas company brought all the materials to the road head.
Although a little behind the schedule of the project’s action plan, construction was going well. In mid-January the project was brought to a halt. Many of the households had run out of cement and the biogas company said they had already given the agreed amount.
The problem was there were two work contracts written for the company – one with BSP and one with the biogas management committee members. The former stated the specific material amounts, but the latter stated “all the needed construction materials as per plan
and design – for 6 cubic meter plant” (Appendix D). Most of the farmers agreed to pay
for the extra materials on their own. This caused dissent in the CFUG and some villagers
146 Figure 8.2: Biogas recipients assist the mason in construction
(Used by permission from Nellie Ingram 2003)
told the biogas committee members they had done poor management work. They said because they were women, they were unable to conduct the project properly.
In January, the post-construction phase began and with it the president resigned from the CFUG, but not from the biogas management committee. A new CFUG committee was formed and they wanted full control of the project from the biogas committee. When the former Peace Corps volunteer arrived back to Nepal in February
2005, the debate in the village was about who would control the project. Most of the biogas plants were completed or near completion when she arrived (Figure 8.3) and some were already producing gas (Figure 8.4). Loan payments were coming due. The new
147 Figure 8.3: End construction and completed biogas plants
Figure 8.4: Cooking tea on a gas stove of a newly installed biogas plant
CFUG committee wanted this responsibility believing the funds belonged in the CFUG account. The biogas committee members were unsure if the motives of the new CFUG committee members were only selfish benefits. They were worried because in the past
148 other villagers had been able to embezzle group funds. The new CFUG committee expressed their disapproval of the project’s management by the biogas committee. In the
CFUG committee members’ eyes, the biogas committee had signed a faulty loan contract
costing the villagers money. They believed the biogas committee members might be
using project money for their own benefit because the group account was in the personal
name of two members. The new CFUG members also said the biogas committee mismanaged the external source fund by allowing Peace Corps to give it to BSP. As well, they believed the biogas management committee would not be able to collect the
loan payment on their own for two reasons, they were not supported by the CFUG and
they were women.
A meeting to discuss and solve these issues was held at the District Forest Office
on March 9, 2005. The biogas management committee, CFUG committee members, BSP
staff, biogas company staff, District Forest Office staff, the District Forest Officer, the former Peace Corps Natural Resources Program Officer, and the former Peace Corps volunteer all attended this meeting. The outcome was a new biogas project management committee with seven members, the original five members and two added from the
CFUG. In this way, collaboration was formed between the two committees. Today this collaboration still exists, although the group has shrunk to four members, two members from the former biogas committee and two members from the new CFUG committee.
They are collecting loan payments and as of October 2005 there is demand for five more plants. Members of the biogas committee have emailed with assurance that the project is continuing and with the end of the monsoon rains, the demand for plants in the 2005-
2006 dry season should increase.
149 Comparison of Implementation Components to the Propositions
Implementing the project was not an easy task for the biogas management
committee. They had to consider many components, manage different groups of people,
and complete many activities. The committee successfully completed the installation of
the biogas and improved cook stove renewable energy technologies in Chhaling.
Throughout the three phases of the first rotation of biogas plants, they had both successes and failures in managing the propositional implementation components of the project. A
discussion and evaluation of the success of each component follows. Many components
overlapped chronologically and analytically in the implementation process. Issues that affected the project, but were not included in the propositions of this case study, are also presented.
Community Assets and Resources (Participation)
Dependence on external funding can be detrimental to a community. Villagers develop expectations for outside forces to improve their lives without making much of an effort. Internal community resources included in a project create a sense of ownership of the project and the infrastructure built (Gow and VanSant 1981, Esman and Uphoff
1984). This project was developed with external funding as a major source of input to create the rotating loan fund. Donors in the United States granted funds through the
Peace Corps Partnership Program. To be accepted by this program the community and local sources had to contribute at least 25% of the total budget as monetary or “in-kind”
contributions.
150 When first introduced to the CFUG president, she said the CFUG committee would give approval and funds for the project. This amount, 8000 Nepali Rupees (just over US$100), was 80% of their entire forest group funds. The biogas recipients were also to contribute in-kind semi-skilled labor such as carrying materials, digging the pit, mixing the concrete, and assisting the masons. The in-kind contribution was estimated at
6000 Nepali Rupees (about US$80) per plant. The Ranger, the CFUG president, and the
Peace Corps volunteer solicited funding from the District Development Committee
Office. The Local Development Officer committed 20,000 Nepali Rupees
(approximately US$265) to assist the project. Biogas Sector Partnership (BSP-Nepal) manages the government subsidy commissioned from the Alternative Energy Promotion
Center (AEPC). At the time of the project, BSP committed 8500 Nepali Rupees
(US$114) per constructed biogas plant.
Although the original plan was to build eight plants and 25 improved cook stoves, an increase in funding doubled the budget. The final project proposal (Appendix B) was written to construct sixteen biogas plants and fifty improved cook stoves. The CFUG and
Local Development Officer did not increase their monetary contributions, but the community’s semi-skilled labor increased, as did BSP’s contribution. Once the budget was recalculated, the community had committed approximately 26% of the funding for it in monetary and “in-kind” labor and materials. The District Development Office contributed almost 4% of the funding, BSP gave 26% in the form of a subsidy payment to the biogas company, and funding from foreign donors amounted to 44% of the project resources. Commitments from multiple groups and offices created an atmosphere of partnership in project development.
151 In the direct implementation phase, the biogas recipients dug the pits, carried the
materials, mixed the cement, and assisted the technicians in the construction of the biogas plants (Figure 8.2, page 147). According to the biogas recipient survey, the division of labor based on gender and caste was significant. After the biogas company brought the materials to the road head, women carried materials in almost all households (91%). Men in lower caste households were more likely to help carry materials than men in upper caste households (r = 0.64889, where r = the Pearson correlation coefficient; P = 0.0011, where P = level of significance). In general, when women carried the materials, the men did not (r = 0.51640, P = 0.0139). Women in lower caste households were more likely to assist the masons and dig than those in upper caste households (r = 0.36274, P = 0.0971; r
= 0.79582, P<0.0001). Upper caste women have more restrictions on the labor they do.
They are deemed incapable of performing tasks associated with strength and technical
knowledge.
Unfortunately, the low cost design became problematic for the villagers. It is
uncertain if the biogas recipients were clearly informed of BSP’s low-cost research
because the villagers used more cement than necessary for the design. An agreement
about the low cost design between the biogas committee and BSP was never signed. Yet,
the biogas company and BSP staff determined the cost for each plant based on using a
reduced amount of cement. Farmers mixed the concrete during building and ultimately
every farmer ran out of cement before construction was complete. Construction came to
a halt for about a month when the company refused to give more cement without more
money and the villagers refused to pay. Eventually, a meeting was held where the
villagers agreed to pay more for the materials necessary to complete the plants. Their
152 community contribution to the project increased. Some biogas recipients blamed the biogas management committee for signing a faulty work contract with the biogas
company.
The source of the funding was an important issue in the planning phase of the
project. One committee member asked me to speak in the mass meeting about the donors
in the United States. Others in the committee said the foreign source should not be
revealed. A previous project in the community was completely funded by foreigners who
granted the funds to the villagers. Even with the loan contract, the biogas committee
members were worried the biogas recipients would think they did not have to repay it.
The female CFUG committee president, Meena, said they should explain the Peace Corps
volunteer’s role in the project as a trainer, but not reveal the funding was from the United
States. The committee decided to say the money was given to the CFUG from an office
in Nepal to help with biogas and ICS. During the mass meeting, another project
participant revealed the foreign source. In the post-construction phase, this issue seems
to have been alleviated. Twenty-one of the 23 biogas recipients from the first round are
paying back their loan consistently.
Project Design and Project Management
Creation of the Vision, Goals, Objectives and Project Management Committee
The Seti Devi Community Forest User Group (CFUG) committee planned a
meeting for the end of rice planting season in July 2004. The main goals of this meeting
were to discuss and approve the biogas and improved cook stove project idea. Meena
conducted the meeting with assistance from their Peace Corps volunteer, the local Forest
153 Ranger, and a local student. The group reviewed its main goals, how the project related to them, and decided they would initiate the project by creating a sub-committee of the
CFUG to manage it.
Meena, the Ranger, the student, and the PCV had planned the meeting to include basic training in project design and management for the CFUG members. Necessary to implement the project, the training would begin on this day and continue in subsequent biogas management committee meetings. The PCV, student, and Ranger would assist the
CFUG in the project management, but the training was to teach the managers basic skills to implement the project implementation on their own. Training was derived from the
Peace Corps “Project Design and Management” workshop and included how to create realistic goals and how to form an action plan from the goals. The training was focused on strategies to make the project easier such as accomplishing small tasks, creating a timeline, defining the roles and responsibilities, networking for assistance, frequent meetings of the biogas management committee, and monitoring by the CFUG committee.
The trainers emphasized completing the small tasks of each goal in the action plan to achieve the overall vision of the project.
The main vision of the project was determined by the CFUG in a discussion about what the project should accomplish to fit into the CFUG’s own mission and goals. The following is directly translated from meeting minutes for July 20, 2004.
Overall objective for the biogas and improved cook stove project (vision):
The purpose of this construction is to save forest and develop [improve] the
lifestyle or living standards of the people of this area. To accomplish this we will
154 construct biogas plants and smokeless stoves. We will also provide loans without
collateral and with low interest to the farmers so that they can protect or preserve
the forest and improve their lives. So, the next purpose of this project is to
provide support to helpless/poor farmers, who cannot construct biogas plants, to
install the improved cook stoves without any cost. From this poor farmers also
will be benefited. This project will completely run and planned by the members
of the Community Users groups and Ranger and PCV will be advisors for this
project.
The CFUG committee succeeded in recognizing and creating four major goals for the project (Table 8.2). The field workers advised the CFUG members to create criteria for the new biogas committee members. The resulting decision by the CFUG was to require
Table 8.2: Goals and objectives formed by the CFUG in the first planning meeting Goal #1: Inform all Community Forest Members: • Posting notice • Houses visits • Group meeting
Goal #2: Create Loan System Policy • Prepare policies • Convince people to become biogas plant owners
Goal #3: Construct 16 Biogas Plants • Select a company and prepare agreement • Agreement with Biogas Sector Partnership (BSP) • Discuss regulations with biogas plant owners (pre-construction) • Collect materials • Provide training by the BSP
Goal #4: Construct 50 Smokeless Stoves and Provide 25 Memberships for a Small Fee. • Select technician who makes improved cook stoves. • Prepare policy
155 the new committee to consist of three different caste levels and five or six members, four of whom must be women. They knew they should include all people when conducting social work and they understood the project’s main beneficiaries were women.
Participants of the meeting volunteered to be on the biogas management committee and the end result was four women and one man. Only two caste levels were represented; four of the five biogas committee members were upper caste and only one woman, an ethnic Tamang, fit into the middle caste category, lower than the upper caste, but are considered clean. However, the CFUG committee members attending this planning meeting were also of these two caste levels only. Other Tamang members present were unable to make the time commitment. The group discussed whether to invite other middle caste level members onto the biogas management committee who had not attended the meeting. They determined the others must be too busy to attend the meeting and as such, were unreliable. This successfully completed the formation of a management committee with key stakeholders representative of the CFUG members.
In the following meeting of the biogas management committee, they completed the objectives for each goal (Table 8.2, page 155) and elected a treasurer, Anar, to handle the funds. It was necessary for her to be trained in basic account keeping skills. Meena naturally began to take a leadership role in the new committee because of her leadership on the CFUG committee. All the others agreed she was the person with the most experience. They decided to meet again the next day to work on the action plan. They realized they needed to complete it to get the project running. Meetings were scheduled close together so Meena would have more time for her husband when he returned from his work outside Kathmandu Valley. Meena’s household responsibilities increased when
156 her husband was home so she did not have time to perform CFUG functions. The biogas
project committee had to work around this gender-based problem. They scheduled
meetings quickly, anticipating the arrival of Meena’s husband in a few short weeks after
the new committee was formed.
Creating an Action Plan and Accomplishing Its Goals
In the second and third meetings of the biogas management committee, an action
plan was created for the project by discussing each goal and objective (Table 8.3). They
wrote the tasks needed to accomplish each goal, the people responsible, and the deadline
for each task based on the project design and management training. All of the tasks of
the action plan were conducted during the planning and direct implementation phases of
the project. Some of the tasks for each goal will be discussed so the success indicator
questions can be answered for this component (Table 6.4, page 125). The process of
creating the action plan was chaotic. Members would begin to discuss the details of each task, unable to stay on point to complete the entire plan in one meeting. The decisions were made using consensus.
The first task to be accomplished was a mass meeting to inform the CFUG members about the project. This activity was leading toward the achievement of the awareness goal, the first goal of the action plan (Table 8.3). While completing the action plan, the members discussed the date and itinerary and decided to hold the mass meeting after one month on August 28, 2005. They completed a draft of a community notice announcing the project and the date of the mass meeting. All five members were to speak about the different topics in the mass meeting.
157 Table 8.3: The biogas management committee’s action plan What? Who? When? Where? Goal #1.: Inform members All members of July 25, 2004 Radha - Prepare Notice sub Committee (notice) Krishna - Buy materials Primary - Post notice After August School - Set meeting place and time 21 (materials) - Call People August 28, 2004(meeting) Goal #2: Loan System Ranger and August 5, 2004 Radha - Prepare rules PCV, Krishna - Select people that want to have After August 28 Primary Biogas Plant Members of School - Discussion with Farmers subcommittee, Mid-September 10:30 AM and Winrock staff will support Goal #3.: Sixteen Biogas Plants Construction Objective 1: Select company All members of Select Range-Post - Find out company that works Sub-committee company office better before August - Prepare questionnaires to 28 discuss with BSP office - Contact with three BSP construction companies. - Select one construction company - Tell company and consult with them Goal #3 Objective 2 Agreement Sub-committee August 2, 2004 Kupandole with BSP about low cost and August 23 - Discuss with BSP - Sign on agreement
(Continued on next page)
158 Table 8.3 continued: The biogas management committee’s action plan What? Who? When? Where? Goal #3 Objective 3 Sub-committee After August Contract with farmers 28 - First meeting and sign on agreement (with farmers). - Meeting about works and responsibilities - Checking
Goal #3 Objective 5 Find place for biogas plant Mid November - Set a place Company to Mid January - Dig a hole Farmers - Company’s work Company (construction) - Trainings on Company Operation and Maintenance Farmers - Operate biogas plant B. S. P - Training about fertilizer
Goal #4 Improved cook stoves and membership - Prepare rules for ICS Sub-committee Mid August and membership receivers (choose the receivers and meet Mid September them.) - Select the ICS mason ICS mason Mid October to - Sign agreement with Sub-committee Mid January mason - Construct Stoves - Distribute membership
159 Before the mass meeting, four of the five members traveled to meet with staff
from Winrock International and Biogas Sector Partnership-Nepal (BSP-Nepal). In these two meetings, these members learned the information needed to plan and implement the project and to explain the process to the CFUG members. Winrock International staff trained the committee in the creation of a rotating loan system with low interest and no collateral, the second goal of the action plan (Table 8.3, page 158). At BSP, they learned the basic principles of low cost biogas, more about the biogas system, and work needed to accomplish the construction of the biogas plants, the third goal of the action plan
(Table 8.3, page 158-159). As in any project, the biogas management committee was working on small tasks involving all the goals at once. Once back in the village, the
committee discussed the loan system and the criteria for choosing villagers to receive the
loan, part of the second goal. The criteria were written into questions and a loan
application was created. A smaller set of criteria was written for the recipients of the
improved cook stoves. Also, by comparing the pros and cons, the committee decided to
use low cost technology from BSP for the project, part of the third goal of the action
plan. The Ranger helped plan the agenda of the mass awareness meeting. They
expected the villagers to ask them about the amount and source of funding for the project.
The biogas committee considered asking Peace Corps to give the money to the District
Forest Office for the CFUG. The Forest Officer could then put the money in the CFUG
account and could monitor the funds. The issue was left undecided.
The mass awareness meeting was held on Saturday, August 28, 2004 at a nearby
local primary school (Figure 8.5). Approximately 100 people attended the three-hour
meeting. As decided by the biogas committee, the Peace Corps volunteer did not
160 Figure 8.5: Biogas committee informed villagers at a mass meeting
participate and observed this meeting from the side. The amount and source of the money was the main question raised by the members from the beginning of the meeting.
The people asked if they could get the biogas plants for free. The 8500 Nepali Rupee
(US$114) government subsidy administered by BSP, the villagers’ down payment, and loan was explained. The CFUG president told villagers they must provide a down payment to prove they were responsible. She said only if they were responsible would the project be successful. The Ranger informed the villagers the funding came from
Peace Corps and the Bhaktapur District Development Office. He did not mention the
District Forest Office as previously suggested, but did include in his speech his office’s role in monitoring and punishing the CFUG committee members if they were corrupt.
He also suggested if the villagers worked hard then future biogas plants might be free.
People may have lost enthusiasm about being the first to adopt the biogas technology because of this statement. If it will be free later, why should they pay now to install it?
161 However, this point was not debated by anybody at the meeting. Other staff from BSP again explained the financial matters of the biogas construction and the quality of the
plants. The family of a young woman in the audience had installed a biogas plant and the people asked her questions. She listed the benefits to her family and the amount it cost them, 15,000 Nepali Rupees (US$214). She also described the problems. Less gas was produced in the winter and the biogas plant consumed 36 kilograms of dung per day.
Meena introduced the improved cook stove component of the project. She maintained it was for those without cattle, part of the fourth goal of their action plan
(Table 8.3, page 159). A teacher in the audience had received training in building improved cook stoves. He commented on the benefits of the improved stoves and the ease of obtaining the local materials to build it.
The second objective of the integration goal, CFUG memberships, created a major debate. Some villagers did not want the CFUG to provide memberships without late fees because when memberships were first solicited, many rich villagers did not become members. Then when the rich needed something from the forest in an emergency, they would quickly pay the membership fee. Why should rich farmers now receive a benefit because they were delinquent in paying for membership earlier? After the meeting, the CFUG was unsure if they would conduct this part of the community integration goal. Household names and the fee of 50 Nepali Rupees were taken for the improved cook stoves initiating the integration goal. The biogas plant application forms for the loan system goal were also distributed to 50 people to be completed and returned in a week. The meeting successfully informed a large percentage of the community about the biogas and improved cook stove project. The committee would also later
162 canvass the village informing people about the technologies and the project to find
interested households. Together these activities fulfilled the awareness goal of their
action plan.
After the completion of the meeting, a villager announced the disbandment of the current CFUG committee in two months. Meena announced she would also resign in
January after the project first phase of the project was completed. BSP staff had supported Meena in the meeting when villagers challenged her statements. They told her after the meeting not to be frustrated with the challenges of the villagers because this is the way community meetings are in Nepal. They promised to help her in conducting the project.
Project managers successfully conveyed the information about the project and the two renewable energy technologies to the community members. The results of the community knowledge surveys revealed few villagers knew about the project in the planning phase (nine percent). In the post-construction phase 91% were aware of the project. Villagers who knew about the project in the post-construction phase also had more knowledge about the benefits of improved cook stoves than those people unaware of project. They understood the improvements in health and reduction in firewood (r =
0.26574, P = 0.0297; r = 0.33797, P = 0.0052). People aware of the project in the post- construction phase also knew the committee and CFUG were working to provide assistance with adopting improved cook stove and biogas renewable energy technologies
(r = 0.37014, P = 0.0020; r = 0.32800, P = 0.0067). The community knowledge survey in
the planning phase revealed people of higher caste are more likely to be interested in biogas (r = (-) 0.50289, P = <0.0001). In the post-construction phase wealthier families
163 were more likely to be interested in the technology because as land, grain sales, office salary, male income, and army income increased so did the desire to install biogas (r =
0.35231, P = 0.0037; r = 0.32518, P = 0.0073; r = 0.26593, P = 0.0296; r = 0.29147, P =
0.0167; r = 0.23347, P = 0.0572 respectively). These correlations are weak, but still statistically significant.
To evaluate the action plan and the accomplishment of its activities, indicator questions developed in Table 6.4, page 125 were answered (Table 8.4). Overall, the
Table 8.4: Success questions and answers for the action plan component Question Answers Was an action plan written? Yes. Were events within two weeks of the Only for some tasks, some tasks were planned time? accomplished more than one or two months late. If timing was not efficient, did lateness Lateness did not affect overall outcome of affect the overall outcome of the project? the project, but did affect the changing of management. Were tasks delegated? Did people know Yes. Overall, the biogas recipients, what their responsibilities were and did company, and committee knew their they accomplish them? responsibilities. Within the committee, one or two people did most of the work. Two people on the committee did little work on the project.
biogas management committee accomplished most of the activities of the action plan.
Unaccomplished tasks and objectives were preparing and signing an agreement with
BSP, selecting and distributing new CFUG memberships at a reduced fee, and choosing a biogas company by the biogas committee. The tasks of the awareness goal to inform members were conducted on time. However, the tasks of the loan system goal were completed two months after the scheduled time. The activities for constructing the plants varied in their time efficiency. The company was selected by BSP instead of the biogas
164 management committee about a month later than scheduled and an agreement about the
low cost technology was never completed. The committee had not put a time-line on the
selection of the biogas recipients. Construction by the company began only two weeks
behind schedule. However, most plants were not completed until the middle to end of
February, at least a month late. The biogas management committee succeeded in
accomplishing all of its project goals, even if they were conducted later than planned.
Budget Management
The biogas management committee elected a treasurer trained by the Peace Corps
volunteer in basic account management before Peace Corps evacuation from Nepal.
They kept a typical ledger for the group management and improved cook stove expenses
(Appendix D) funded by the District Development Committee and the CFUG. They also
collected the down payment from the biogas loan recipients and paid it to the company
through this account. When the former Peace Corps volunteer returned to the village in
February 2005 to finish data collection for the case study, the treasurer and president had
all the correct receipts for the committee purchases. Unfortunately, the account book had
not been kept up to date with the transactions. It took several meetings to sift through the
paperwork and get the account up to date. This poor bookkeeping was not a major issue.
It could have been had the former volunteer not returned to finish the data collection for this study.
BSP managed the external source funds for the biogas committee and through their negotiations with the biogas company, 25 biogas plants were contracted instead of the sixteen originally planned in the budget. The cost of each plant was 17,500 Nepali
165 Rupees (US$250), a far smaller amount than the average cost of 24,000 Rupees
(US$342) for a six cubic meter biogas plant. In the survey conducted, biogas recipients reported they paid on average 1760 Nepali Rupees (US$25) extra for cement, other
materials, pipelines, and two-mouthed gas stove appliances. The total for each plant was
then 19,260 Nepali Rupees (US$275), about 4740 Nepali Rupees (US$67) less than the
average cost.
One major monetary issue was the separate bank account created by the
committee members when the project had begun. In July 2004, before the mass meeting
was held, funds from the District Development Committee arrived and a project bank account was opened separately from the CFUG account. Unfortunately, the bank would not allow them to put it into a separate subcommittee account of Seti Devi CFUG without
a letter from the District Forest Office. Meena and Anar opened a joint account in their personal names planning to change it as soon as they could obtain the letter. During the direct implementation phase, this would cause two obstacles to success of this component. First, the new CFUG members felt the funds should be in the group account, as the project originally began as a group project. Second, villagers began to think
Meena and Anar were corrupt in the management of the funds.
During the planning phase, Bharat, a male CFUG member, declined to join the new biogas committee. The Peace Corps volunteer asked him why and learned a new
CFUG committee would be formed a few months later. He said other community members wanted to be on the CFUG committee because of the money this project was bringing from the District Development Office. Bharat was convinced these new members would take control of the biogas project and embezzle all the money. The
166 volunteer explained to him it was not possible for them to steal money if the proper
precautions were taken. He remained skeptical and did not want to join the committee.
The new CFUG wanted control of the project and the project funds. The biogas
committee members did not trust their intentions and the new CFUG members did not trust the previous work or motives of the biogas committee. In the post-construction
phase of the project, this caused a great debate in the community group over who should
manage the project and who was in control. The success of the rotating loan system and
the sustainability of the project was in jeopardy. If the people did not know who was in
control, they might not make their loan payments. The issue was solved through the
collaboration of the biogas management committee and the new CFUG members. As of
October 2005, the payments are being collected into the CFUG bank account with a new
biogas management committee made up of original biogas committee members and
members of the new CFUG committee. The president of the CFUG monitors the
collection and the account funds.
Field Workers
Field workers played various roles in the project assisting the community to work
with the biogas company and improved cook stove mason to complete the project’s goals.
Field workers had both a positive and negative impact on the project implementation.
They trained the biogas management committee in the skills necessary to design, manage,
and conduct the project. Training was also given in techniques to accomplish specific
project goals such as the loan management system and managing the construction of the
biogas plants. Field workers met with the biogas management committee and assisted
167 them in alleviating project obstacles (Figure 8.6). The committee had their assistance in writing and signing work and loan contracts. Encouraged by field workers, the biogas committee members had confidence and believed in their abilities, even with unfavorable comments by the villagers about their gender.
Figure 8.6: Field workers met and supported the biogas committee
Negative impacts of field workers assistance are associated with the main problems of the project. When helping the committee write the work contract with the company, they did not advise the committee to ask about the detailed responsibilities of the company. The contract left out important information about the amount of materials
(Appendix D) and this formal agreement was then ineffective. A verbal agreement was needed after the shortage of the materials to complete the biogas plants (Guggenheim and
Spears 1991). Ultimately, the biogas committee was held responsible for the mistake and deemed incapable of doing quality work.
168 Another negative effect of field workers was a topic of conversation in a CFUG monthly committee meeting during the planning phase. Some field workers wanted extra payment from the CFUG for their assistance. The CFUG members said the field workers would not assist them or may even block the committee’s work in this project if they were not paid. The CFUG and biogas committee did not receive consistent support from these field workers. It is unknown whether they attempted to hinder the CFUG’s work.
The Peace Corps volunteer’s affect as a field worker was also positive and negative. Many villagers saw her as the source of the funding and involved in project management. Untrusting villagers even implied the possibility she could be corrupt and used this against the biogas management committee. The volunteer promoted women as managers of the project, convincing and encouraging the women in the biogas committee to take on non-traditional leadership roles. The committee members conveyed their uncertainty about some village males, traditionally the leaders in the community.
Increasingly the committee worked on the margins of the traditional decision-making system in the village, unsupported by male village members in the planning phase. Later high caste men used the biogas committee’s isolated position against them. Yet, the women gained confidence and self-esteem. Not only did they understand their struggle within the conservative patriarchal system, they believed they could actively promote change. Two women of the group expressed how they see themselves as the female pioneers in their village, the ones to inspire younger female students to work harder, go to school longer, and have an identity of their own.
169 Monitoring and Evaluation
A monthly CFUG committee meeting during the planning phase was held one
week before the mass meeting. Eleven women and one man attended this meeting. The
main purpose of the meeting was to hear the biogas committee’s report, to officially record the decision to conduct the project, and to record the commitment of 8000 Nepali
Rupees from the CFUG for the project. A field worker in attendance criticized how the
biogas committee reported to the CFUG. The meeting participants gave proper respect to
the field worker in the meeting. They did not heed his advice that all CFUG members
manage the project together because other field workers had encouraged a small biogas
management committee.
During the direct implementation phase, the biogas committee members checked
the biogas plants as they were being built. They learned of the shortage of materials,
primarily cement. The committee called upon BSP and the biogas company owner to
mitigate the problem. Although not completely resolved to the villagers’ satisfaction, it
was solved within a month.
The biogas committee also monitored project control and the collection of the
loan payments. During the direct implementation phase, rumors about corruption and
lack of ability to work with the biogas company had circulated in the village. However,
the committee did not address the issue until the former Peace Corps volunteer returned in the post-construction phase. When the president resigned from the CFUG in January
2005, she was the sole representative of the biogas committee in the meeting.
Bombarded with accusations about her inability to manage the project on her own, she was told to resign from both committees. She refused to give in and awaited the former
170 Peace Corps volunteer’s arrival for advice. The returned field worker obtained information about the progress of the project from the biogas management committee, villagers, biogas recipients, and government and NGO staff. The District Forest Officer, former Peace Corps Natural Resource Program Officer, and former Peace Corps volunteer convinced the biogas management committee and the new CFUG committee to work together.
The evaluation component is examined by answering the key indicator questions
(Table 8.5). According to these indicative questions the overall the project was a success.
Table 8.5: Evaluation component questions and answers Questions Answers Were the biogas plants and improved Yes. cook stoves built? Did people benefit from the project? Yes. As of March 2005, all the improved cook stoves were installed and as of August 2005, all the biogas plants were producing gas. Are loans being repaid? Yes. As of August 2005, there are only two biogas recipients who are late paying the monthly loan installments. Is the managing committee still existing A management committee still exists, but it and planning to build more plants from now has two new members and two former the repaid loan money? members. The committee is half women and half men, all upper caste. They are planning to build five new biogas plants in the 2005-2006 dry season and believe the demand will increase as the weather dries. Did Biogas Sector Partnership (BSP) – Only in some biogas plants. BSP attempted Nepal conduct its low–cost technology to install the technology through the biogas research? company, but the villagers were uninformed about the low cost design. The villagers saw the shortage of materials as low quality design and some inlets of the biogas plants exhibited chipping (Figure 8.7). Many biogas recipients paid more money for more materials to install biogas plants of the general design in Nepal.
171 The only component to fail was the installation of low cost technology. Uninformed about the technology, the villagers used the cement in the concrete mixture with the higher proportions they use for other purposes. This led to a shortage of material. The
biogas recipients eventually chose to pay for more cement and construct what they
considered higher quality biogas plants. Two households were observed with chips on the
biogas plant inlet (Figure 8.7). Both families had purchased one extra bag of cement.
Figure 8.7: Chipped inlet of a biogas plant installed during the project
The inlet was constructed last, with less cement when supplies were low. Although this
should not affect the construction of the dome under the ground and the company
guaranteed all the plants for ten years, a biogas recipient might feel the entire plant was
of low quality. However, survey questions about the success of the project indicated 77%
believed it a success while the remaining 23% responded it might be a success. This 23%
were hesitant because they wanted to see the success of their individual biogas plant (r =
0.64207, P = 0.0013). The new biogas management committee, formed from the new
CFUG committee and the former biogas committee in the post-construction phase, is
172 conducting the collection of the loan installments as of October 2005 and is facilitating
the construction of more biogas plants for the 2005-2006 dry season.
Remaining Components of Participation
Optimal and Efficient Participation during Implementation
Development of the community as a whole only occurs with participation of all people in the different aspects of the project. Decision-making and planning are
empowering activities and should involve community members from all levels of society
(Miller 2000). However, optimal participation is not necessarily maximum participation
(Esman and Uphoff 1984). A biogas sub-committee was formed by the Seti Devi CFUG
to manage the biogas and improved cook stove project. They were responsible for the
major decisions for the collective masses of CFUG members (Michels 1962)
According to key informants from the biogas committee and BSP, the biogas
management committee completed all the work for the project together. All the
committee members worked to convince their neighbors and went on rounds to monitor
the installation of the plants at least once. The former CFUG president and biogas
committee leader by default, conducted most of the project’s activities either on her own
or by designating others on the committee to assist her. The informants, observations,
and interviews of biogas recipients all revealed Meena as the leader and prime entity
associated with the project. It was commonly stated, “She did all the work” or “She is
the one who explained/ convinced us/ helped us.” Of the 22 respondents in the biogas
recipient survey, 63.6% named her the main project manager. Half of those respondents,
31.8% of the total, also included another woman on the committee, Anar, as a manager.
173 Only 13.6% named ‘Anar’ only as the main manager. The remaining respondents felt
either the biogas management committee as a whole was managing (4.5%), the CFUG was managing (13.6%), or they did not know who the managers were (4.5%). Upper caste households especially indicated Meena as the primary manager (r = (-) 0.52566 P =
0.0120) and the few lower caste biogas recipients named Anar (r = 0.43529 P = 0.0429).
The lower caste households are all located closer to Anar’s home and were probably in contact with her more than with Meena.
The sole female middle caste member of the biogas committee missed meetings and rarely spoke when she attended. Another committee member proposed this was because the other woman probably did not think she understood the discussions as well as the rest of the committee. The next day the silent member confirmed her friend’s assertion. “I do not speak without understanding, “ she said. The others tried to convince her to ask, as other members do, when information is unclear. Although she is a member of a clean caste, this biogas committee member is the only person who is not upper caste.
This may explain her trepidation. Overall most biogas committee meetings had 100% or
80% participation rates.
The survey of biogas recipients taken in the post-construction phase revealed 70% of them attended some meeting about the project. The community knowledge survey taken at the same time also indicated 91% of the people in the sample knew about the project. The mass meeting to educate the CFUG member about biogas and improved cook stove technologies and inform them about the project was attended by approximately 100 people. If each person represented one household of the CFUG, about
20% of the CFUG’s households attended. Overall, the community’s participation was
174 high, although biogas recipients who had missed meetings earlier were the ones to blame the biogas committee’s management of the project for the problem with the biogas company about the materials.
Time efficiency varied for the different tasks of the project; many were conducted months after the planned time for the event. Although some biogas recipients responded that the project materials arrived late and it took a long time to construct the plants, the success of the project’s goals was not impeded by the delays. In terms of cost efficiency, the project budget was maintained, and more biogas plants were built than originally planned. The only issue was the extra, unplanned costs incurred by the biogas recipients.
The managers would have built fewer plants with a small increase in the size of individual loans.
Stakeholders
Women are the major stakeholders in the project. They receive the greatest benefit from the installation of the renewable technologies and perform the labor for daily maintenance and operation of the biogas plants and the improved cook stoves. They are the cooks, household laborers and caretakers for the family and their belongings, including farmyard animals. Women played a dominant part in the implementation of the project in Chhaling. They were the majority of the biogas management committee and they led the CFUG until the post-construction phase of the project. With the advice of the staff of BSP and Winrock International, the women leaders made the community aware of the project, signed work and loan contracts, and monitored the construction of the biogas plants and improved cook stoves.
175 The biogas management committee worked to include women from the
households in the decision-making process. Canvassing the community, they spoke with
both women and men of the households and explained the project process and benefits of
the renewable technologies. The two outspoken women on the committee signed all the
loan contracts with the biogas recipients. Meena, the main leader, signed twelve, and
Anar signed seven. The remaining three households responding to the biogas recipient
survey were unsure who had signed the contract. Out of 22 installed biogas plants,
fourteen head of household females signed the biogas loan contract with the head of
household males. Three respondents were unsure if the head female household member
had signed. Of the five remaining households responding, the woman head of the house had not signed, Anar was the signer from the committee on four contracts. In an interview with Anar as a key informant of the project, she admitted she had difficulty and performed poorly in the creation of loan contracts. Two contracts were signed late, while construction had begun based on verbal agreement alone. She had only obtained the male signatures on the four contracts and there were no co-signers on three contracts.
She blamed her busy household, her own poor time management, and a shortage of the proper paperwork on these mistakes.
Women acted as project managers, household decision-makers, and played a
major role in the construction labor. Including women in the financial decision-making is
a new idea for many households in this community, yet they signed the loan contract at
63% of the households. In all except two houses, women carried materials, performed
labor, or assisted the masons. Women have had an active position in the implementation of this first loan rotation of the project.
176 At the end of the post-construction phase and now beginning the second loan
rotation of the project, men have begun to play a larger role in the biogas management
committee. Yet, women are still active on the committee and have an equal position within it. It remains to be seen what the gender roles will be in this round with the new
biogas management committee.
Integration
Biogas plants in Nepal require cattle manure for the operation of the system.
Only middle income and wealthy families have two or more cattle necessary for the six
cubic meter plant installed in Chhaling. Biogas indirectly benefits the entire community
by conserving forest resources, but cannot directly benefit the quality of life of the
poorest community members. Integration of the project into the entire community could
only be accomplished by also installing improved cook stoves, a technology easily
affordable by those unable to adopt biogas. Waiving the late fee for CFUG memberships
was also a measure to distribute benefits to the poor community members.
The integration component failed to meet all its intended objectives. The biogas
management committee installed all fifty improved cook stoves proposed in the doubled
budget during the planning phase. They had determined they would give priority to the
untouchable castes and the poor. Although 80% of the improved cook stove participants
had two cattle or less, only 24 households, about 50% had less than two cattle (Appendix
J). The improved cook stove recipients were high caste (92%); just four households
(eight percent) were of middle caste status and none were of low caste untouchable status
(Figure 8.8). The late fee waivers for CFUG membership were never distributed. CFUG
177 Figure 8.8: Four middle caste status households received an improved cook stove
members in attendance at the mass meeting disapproved of the fee-waiver because they
believed instead of the poor, rich villagers would receive this benefit. They said the
membership fee should be equal for all because discrimination did not exist in the village.
Therefore, the project managers never completed the portion of this integration component. The community survey verified the relationship between caste and wealth in
Chhaling. Upper caste families had more land, sold more grain, received higher office salary, received higher pensions, and used expensive liquefied petroleum gas for cooking
(r = (-) 0.29728 P = 0.0096, r = (-) 0.27309 P = 0.0170, r = (-) 0.27429 P = 0.0165, r =
(-) 0.23011 P = 0.0455, r = (-) 0.24054 P = 0.0363 respectively). Therefore, lower caste families in the village are economically disadvantaged and need to be integrated into the project. The improved cook stove component could have successfully brought benefits to these households, but this component of the project was not managed well. Demand was
178 high for the improved cook stoves from high caste households. The fund was depleted quickly because unlike biogas, the improved cook stoves were not distributed as a loan.
Each farmer paid 50 Nepali Rupees and the project funds subsidized the remaining 250
Rupees. They succeeded in installing the technologies to benefit the CFUG families, but those people were from the upper caste, wealthier families perpetuating the disparity between the haves and have-nots in the village.
Motivation
Were the project managers and participants motivated to improve the quality of life in the community or were they looking for their own personal benefit by working on the project? The answer is both. Most villagers want to improve the living conditions for themselves and their neighbors. However, Nepal’s society is dominated by a “take care of your own” attitude. Observations indicate most members of the biogas management committee were dedicated to community development. Of course, they hoped for side benefits from the project such as payment for their work.
The main leaders did not work specifically for financial benefit; they were not to receive a large fee for their work. This is why the former president of the CFUG became so frustrated with the accusations about her actions and previous work. She could not convince distrustful villagers of the committee member’s intentions. She believed the gossiping villagers knew the truth of the biogas committee’s honesty, but were spreading rumors so they could take control of the project or because they had been unable to do so.
Eventually, the original biogas committee lost some of its control of the project. The new biogas management committee is now a combination of men and women from the CFUG
179 and the former biogas committee. Meena assured field workers that the funds are secure and monitored closely by herself and the CFUG president.
Social Structure
Gender, Caste and Decision Making in Nepal Issues
Although the female members of the biogas management committee increased their skills, the committee encountered several problems with gender. Community men viewed them as incapable of managing a project or its finances. The husbands and family of the committee members determined the time the women had available. Others silenced the women in the community and committee meetings based on their gender, younger age, or lower caste. The decision-making process in the committee was consensus, but did not involve many village males. However, it was the work of the committee, 80% women, which facilitated the success of the project.
The members of the biogas committee received criticism about their gender almost from the start. Field workers told them they could not accomplish the work on their own without more male influence and the villagers in the mass meeting challenged their previous work, knowledge about the project, and abilities. Many villagers do not trust each other. Many people think others are corrupt and looking for their own benefit only, as this is the traditional way in Nepal. Corruption is common in the government offices (Acharya 2004, Gersony 2003). This also spreads out to the village level where people expect to receive extra “fringe” benefits and payments for all work. People in control receive these benefits while others do not. To keep their power and prestige the
180 villagers with power convince the uneducated and women they are incapable of other
work besides farming or must work under their specific direction.
After the shortage of construction materials in the direct implementation phase,
some villagers requested the biogas committee relinquish control of the project to other
CFUG members. In January, as the direct implementation phase was coming to a close,
Meena resigned as CFUG president. The new CFUG president and the resulting new
CFUG committee quickly challenged her position on the biogas management committee.
The other biogas committee members had not attended this meeting and the new CFUG members used the opportunity to question her lack of support and ability to complete the work on her own. They also criticized her for allowing the transfer of project funds to
BSP in the planning phase when the Peace Corps volunteer had been evacuated. The new
CFUG members wanted control of the project so the biogas loan payments would be
deposited into the CFUG account. Unrelenting, Meena waited for assistance from the
District Forest Officer, the former Peace Corps Natural Resources Program Officer, and
the former Peace Corps volunteer. With their help, a new collaborative project
management committee was formed. In Chhaling, women on CFUG and other
committees have increased social mobility and awareness from attending group meetings
and working on committees. However, their role is challenged and reduced by village
men when there is a perceived benefit to be gained.
Meena’s husband works in an army barrack outside of Kathmandu Valley. He
comes home periodically for two weeks. When her husband is away, Meena determines
her own daily plans. Like many Nepali households, when her husband is home, he makes
the household decisions. A wife must ask to participate in activities outside of her
181 normal routine. Many husbands do not approve of their wives working outside the home.
Meena’s husband approved of her work with the CFUG, but sometimes felt she had taken
on too much responsibility. He was worried about the time commitment and about
Meena’s health. Meena told me she might have to leave the CFUG. She did not attend
some meetings in the planning phase because of these reasons. Although it caused
problems during the planning phase, Meena was able to resolve the issue. She resigned
as CFUG president, but her husband allowed her to continue working on the biogas
committee. He was pleased because her workload had diminished. As of October 2005,
she is still a member of the biogas committee and also monitors the work of the CFUG.
Two members of the biogas management committee spoke infrequently and
missed the most meetings. One was the sole middle caste member and the other was a
young unmarried female. Somewhat chaotic, interruptions and tangents of thought
dominated the conversation of the committee meetings. The middle caste woman was
not only interrupted, but when asked a question, a male in attendance said he could speak
for her. Later, on the walk home she was asked why she let him speak for her. Again
confirming her compliance with the traditions, she said, “Because he is an older man, he
can speak for me.”
The decision-making process of the project was the traditional Nepali process of
consultation and consensus. If a person did not agree, they would speak and try to sway
others’ views. The biogas management committee respected Nepali values such as
prestige, caste-centered morality and family-centered morality by arranging meetings
around participants’ personal obligations and respecting people of higher status in
attendance. The committee used concealment to protect project finances. They did not
182 inform the CFUG about transfer of funds to BSP from Peace Corps until after the
transaction was complete. In this way, they were able to act as they thought best without
criticism, until others found out later.
A male member of the CFUG was an original committee member and male
experts from BSP and Winrock International assisted the female majority committee.
Men in the community were not satisfied with the male participation in the project. They
distrusted the male experts because they were outsiders from the village. They believed because the committee members were female, they had a difficult time managing the project with the male staff of the biogas company. The structure of the biogas management committee changed in March 2005. The former members were told they
could not collect the funds without the male-headed support of the new CFUG so the
committee now has both former biogas committee and new CFUG members.
Gender was the most contentious issue in the project. Traditional attitudes about the capacity of women to perform tasks outside the home and farm prevail in the village culture of Chhaling. In the planning phase of the project the committee aspired to gender and caste equality for the distribution of benefits. They did not achieve it for the poor and lower castes. Women led the project throughout the planning and direct implementation phase. They received training and support from field workers that improved their capacity as project and financial managers. Women in the community were involved in the direct implementation construction process, benefited by technology installation, and co-signed the loan documents with their husbands. However, women lost their management role in the post-construction phase. A biogas management committee still exists, as of October 2005, but only with two of the original committee
183 members. Although successful in the direct implementation phase, the gender ratio of the
committee changed for the post-construction phase to a more traditional male dominated
one. The committee, officially four people with a male monitor from the CFUG
committee, is effectively 60% men and 40% women. One woman is younger, unmarried,
attending college and a long-term member of the CFUG. She works well, but her
responsibilities leave her with limited time for the committee. Men then comprise 75%
of the effective working members of the committee.
The results of the gender component therefore show both successes and failures in
Chhaling, as women were both empowered and restricted during the project phases. The project managers in Chhaling failed to implement the caste component; lower and middle
castes did not substantially participate in or benefit from the project. As well, the project
managers were seen as working outside the decision-making structure of the village.
They were unsuccessful in the management of this component and therefore, the committee was reorganized to include more male upper caste villagers.
Other Components of the Implementation Process in Chhaling
Other components of the implementation process in Chhaling were not included
in the propositional components of this case study. Although considered part of the
context in terms of increasing material expenses and time restraints, national politics
played a much larger role than expected. Beginning in the planning phase, the biogas
committee members considered the impact of an American source of funding. Maoists in
the area could cause trouble for the CFUG if made aware of the American financial
184 support. The evacuation of the US Peace Corps because of the insurgency and violence in Kathmandu interrupted and affected the implementation process.
Politics and Finances
An issue, not a component, of the theoretical propositions was politics and how it relates to foreign funding. During the planning phase, members of the biogas management committee believed if they revealed money came from “America” (the
United States) they would have problems later with nearby Maoists. I was unaware of these statements until revealed later on taped recordings of meetings. While living in
Chhaling, I had learned of conflicts between Maoists and the army in nearby villages. A government office in the next village had been bombed, as well as the main District
Forest Office in the city. Peace Corps had warned me to shorten my time at my office to avoid the time before or after work hours when bombs were always detonated. I was unaware of any problems or contacts with Maoists in the village of Chhaling. The villagers had told me to avoid the forest alone and not to come home late. The also said the army patrolled the village to keep it safe. Biogas committee members repeated in meetings how Maoists might stop the project because of the American funding. Villagers may have underplayed the presence of Maoists in the community to keep the Peace Corps volunteer from leaving the community. I have not been informed of any issues in the post-construction phase related to the Maoists.
185 Politics and Peace Corps Evacuation
In the week before the Peace Corps was evacuated from Nepal, much logistical
work was completed in Kathmandu. All unused funding from the Peace Corps
Partnership Program, the program by which funds were sent from American donors, must
be returned or receipts submitted. The funds had arrived only one month earlier and the
CFUG had not used one Nepali Rupee of the funding for the biogas and improved cook
stove project. In discussions with Biogas Sector Partnership (BSP) staff, the local NGO assisting in technical and research aspects of the project, they confirmed their commitment to the project and agreed to assist the CFUG with management of the
finances. Consultations with Peace Corps/ Nepal senior staff and the Peace Corps office
in Washington, DC led to approval for the continued project. Funds must be entrusted to
an organization that would submit receipts and reports to Peace Corps. After filing some
paperwork, an agreement with BSP was formed.
The evacuation of the Peace Corps volunteer created a complicated problem for
the biogas management committee. They needed the approval of Peace Corps to keep the
funding in Nepal, but were also nervous about embezzlement and corruption if the community controlled the funds. BSP was the best choice as funding manager and the
money was transferred. A document signed by the Peace Corps former Natural
Resources Program Office and former volunteer, BSP staff, and biogas management
committee members verified the amount and the transaction. The volunteer left the
country feeling good about the funding situation. Later, the agreement would cause
problems for the committee. It was agreed that the implementation of the project would
186 truly be a test of the biogas management committee’s capacity, as well as of the
sustainability of the training given by the volunteer.
Summary: Successes and Failures of the Case Study’s Propositions
The biogas and improved cook stove project managers of this case study met both success and failure in managing the components of the propositional implementation process (Table 8.6). The main problems occurred with community and social issues,
Table 8.6: Evaluation of the propositional implementation components of this study Propositional Project Success = (+); Failure = (-); Implementation Components Community and Social Issues Social Structure Gender (+) and (-) Caste (-) Decision-Making (-) Participation Community Assets and (+) Resources Optimization and Efficiency (+) and (-) Stakeholders (+) Integration (-) Motivation (+) and (-) Project Management and Design Project Management Project Managing Committee (+) Role of Field Workers (+) and (-) Monitoring and Evaluation (+) Project Design Visions, Goals, and Objectives (+) Action Plan/ Schedule (+) and (-) Budget (+)
which affected the implementation of the action plan. Integration of the project to
include the poor and empower women in the community was not compatible with
187 working inside the accepted social structure of this village. The balancing of these ideals of project implementation is precarious, as it is difficult to satisfy the differing beliefs of community members. The success of meeting the project’s goals depends on how well community members can compromise, work together, and trust each other. The propositions did not include the component category of national politics, which also affected the project’s outcome in this village. Project managers must consider the propositional components of this study and also be ready to manage the less obvious ones. The success of the project implementers is evident by a planned second rotation of biogas plant construction in the 2005-2006 dry season. Despite obstacles to the process, the biogas management committee continued working and improved the quality of life in their village.
188 CHAPTER 9: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE DEVELOPMENT WORKERS
The objective of this case study, to analyze the implementation process of the biogas and improved cook stove project in Chhaling by comparing its components to the
propositional implementation components, revealed both the successes and failures of the
project managers (Table 8.6, page 187). Each development project has its own context,
however the results of this study show the main problems in Chhaling revolved around
community and social issues, specifically social structure. Managers had the most
problems with the social context of gender, caste, and decision-making in the village.
They were unable to integrate the project into the entire community and only partially
overcame the negative motivation of some project participants. Field workers, although
absolutely necessary to the success of this project, also committed mistakes assisting the
community. Some members of the biogas management committee participated less than
others leaving a few people to conduct the project. The biogas recipients survey
respondents named only two of the five participants as the main project managers. The
implementation of the action plan was affected by all these factors.
The biogas committee was composed of 80% women. Their role as decision-
makers was outside of the accepted social structure of the village. Although they tried to
incorporate male figures in the project as committee members and as experts from local
NGOs, the villagers did not legitimize the committee member’s work because they were
female. Community members blamed mistakes made by the committee members on their
gender. Two recommendations must be considered to alleviate this problem. More men
from the village should be incorporated into the decision-making process during the
189 planning phase of a project and gender awareness trainings should be given to both male and female villagers.
Any development is a slow process. The women rights movement has existed since the 1800s in the United States and yet an equal rights amendment has yet to be added to the Constitution. In the village of Chhaling, men hold the power of decision- making in financial matters. They need to learn the benefits of including and working with women in community projects. Otherwise, they will not accept and advocate for change. In the current social context in Chhaling, men must have a sufficient voice in the decision-making process or they will maneuver themselves into the leadership roles.
Although the project was implemented as part of an existing organization, the CFUG, the structure of the biogas management committee was not oriented with the local social structure (Kottak 1991). However, progress has been made in gender awareness and women’s empowerment in Nepal. Women from the original biogas management committee were able to remain members of the new biogas committee after its transformation. In the recent past, men would not have considered a woman on a public committee (Acharya 1999). Training about the benefits of female inclusion for both villagers and field workers must be continued in all regions of Nepal.
Project integration of the poorer members of the community was deficient. The middle caste villagers only received 8% of the improved cook stoves and 17% of the biogas plants. Not one lower caste untouchable family received either technology of the project. Late-fee waivers for new CFUG membership were not distributed because the villagers believed it would only benefit the rich. Although they planned to benefit the poor and lower castes, especially for the improved cook stove component, the biogas
190 committee could not overcome community members who believe there is no
discrimination in the village. Many CFUG members maintain all the people in the
village should have equal access to assistance from external agencies and local groups;
they do not support affirmative action philosophies. Demand was high for improved
cook stoves from the upper castes and the fund was depleted. The project was successful
in its implementation of the technology, however it also increased the disparity between
the wealthy and poor, typically higher and lower caste groups respectively (Kottak 1991).
Did project planners intentionally include the integration ideas to satisfy the development
agencies providing the funds or was integration beyond the capabilities of the biogas
management committee? The common improved cook stove installed in this project is
designed to cook family meals and not to brew alcohol, an activity of middle and lower
caste groups. The CFUG and biogas management committee are upper and middle caste
villagers; lower castes are not represented.
Although only 250 Nepali Rupees (US$3.50), the subsidy for improved cook
stoves may have been detrimental to the adoption of the technology in the village. Will
others adopt the technology without the subsidy or will they wait for future assistance
from development agencies they believe must work to improve the quality of their lives?
When external funds are given in this way, it may foster dependent relationships between
local organizations and donor agencies (Uphoff 1991, Anon. 1995 (b)). This must be examined in Chhaling.
The mistakes made by field workers and the biogas management committee caused some tasks of the action plan to be mismanaged. This was the first time the
CFUG members had conducted a large project for the community. They had no
191 experience in managing contracts and relied on the field workers’ advice in those matters.
Evacuated from Nepal, the Peace Corps volunteer was unable to give assistance to them
and other field workers missed an important parameter of the biogas work contract. The
emphasis was on the quantity of the biogas plants to be installed. The cost was reduced
to the amount required to install 25 plants, but the villagers were never informed of the low cost technology design. They added a higher proportion of cement than required and a shortage resulted. The managers were able to overcome many of the problems and successfully implement the project. Three of the four evaluation questions (Table 8.5, page 171) indicated project success. In the future, managers can learn from the mistakes of this experience and employ new strategies. The project management committee should consult with the installation company to confirm the specifics of the technology.
The amount of materials should be verified and written in both the company work contract and technology recipient loan contracts. The last decision of installation should rest with the biogas recipients installing the technology. If the villagers of Chhaling had chosen not to build the low cost design, the loan for each biogas recipient would have increased by a small amount. However, the out of pocket expenses in the beginning would have been reduced for the villagers even if fewer biogas plants were built.
Although an overall success, the biogas and improved cook stove project in the village of Chhaling had its problems. Community men challenged the abilities of the predominantly female project management committee. Eventually, the original committee members were forced to administer the project together with male leaders.
The project failed to integrate into the entire community, as recipients of both renewable energy technologies were middle to upper income farmers in Chhaling. Field workers
192 contributed greatly to project success, but failed to assist the management committee in evaluating the work contract with the biogas company. However, the final price of the biogas plants for the farmers in Chhaling was less than the average cost of biogas plants in Nepal. Although challenged by some, the female management committee received training and support from others. They succeeded in meeting their main goals and, as of
October 2005, the project continues to install biogas plants with its successful rotating loan system.
Implementing a renewable energy community development project is a balance of implementation guidelines and the beliefs of the community (Margoluis and Salafsky
1998). It is also a balancing act between old and new ideas. Development fosters change, sometimes seen as threatening to traditional practices. Biogas and improved cook stoves alone do not threaten the social structure of a village in Nepal, but they lessen the burden on women and open the door to other opportunities. Better facilities free time for new activities, such as income generating or community action projects. A person’s confidence increases as they understand they are capable of contributing to community welfare. They begin to think critically about their own culture and history
(Acharya 1999). Project managers must balance working within a traditional culture that devalues women’s abilities while promoting the modern idea that empowerment of lower status people will improve the standard of living for all. This task will never be an easy one, but it is always important to the success of development projects.
Biogas and improved cook stove renewable energy technologies have many benefits for rural farmers of Nepal. The implementation of community projects that install these technologies is an important step in increasing the conservation of forest
193 resources and improving the living standards of people in the villages of Nepal. Besides
project design and management components, development workers must consider the community and social issues pertaining to the context of the project implementation.
Although basic guideline components such as the propositions of this study can be assessed, each village is unique and its own context must be analyzed (Margoluis and
Salafsky 1998). Most important in the implementation process of development projects is the flexibility of the organizations involved (Uphoff 1991). All components may not be obvious at the beginning of the planning phase of the project. The project managers in the village must be ready to deal with unexpected issues and field workers must assist the villagers to increase their working capacity. Including non-represented groups such as lower caste or women in the decision-making process is important for an integrated project, but simultaneously, the managers must work within the community’s own decision-making process for successful and sustainable implementation. Development is a gradual process and awareness increases for each generation about how natural resource
conservation and social equality will benefit their lives.
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205
APPENDIX A
CASE STUDY DESIGN AND PROTOCOL
Final Draft: July 24, 2005
The Case Study Design and Protocol delineates the content and methodology of the study before the study began. The hypothesis questions and theoretical propositions are defined, as well as data collection methods and field procedures necessary to gather the correct information. Specific questions were prepared to direct the data collection and a guide was written for this case study paper. This paper loosely fits the guide because of alterations necessary to improve the flow of ideas.
206 Designing Case Study: Based on “Case Study Research: Design and Methods by Robert Yin. This is a explanatory study of the implementation of a biogas project by a community group that will show the causal links between the implementation process and the outcome (s) of and within the project. The five important items to include in the design of the study are: ¾ Case study questions: How did the CFUG implement the biogas project compared to an ideal implementation? What were the successes and failures or problems with the implementation process? What were the reasons/ causes for the successes, failures, or problems i.e. why did the successes, failures, or problems occur?
¾ Propositions: The ideal implementation of a community group project specifically involving biogas or renewable energy includes the following. These are issues that have been documented about community development projects in general and specifically to Nepal and/ or biogas. If the CFUG manages these components of the project, the project will be successfully completed without any major problems. If they divert from these issues in the implementation process then obstacles will occur. In other words, if these issues are not dealt with in some way, they will cause difficulties in the implementation process. The ideal way to handle each situation is also described with each factor: - Motivation of the group/ individual members: Ideally the motivation should be that the CFUG members have recognized the detriments of collecting and using firewood in wood stoves e.g. smoke related illnesses, hours of hard labor collecting wood and cooking on wood stoves, and the decline of resources in the CF and that biogas can help relieve some of these problems.
- Those who will benefit from the biogas project (stakeholders: in this case specifically women) are directly involved in the decision making, planning, implementation and evaluation of the project: Ideally women will have an equal if not dominant place in the project phases. (Various documentations from BSP surveys and Report of the International Conference on Biogas: Technologies and Implementation Strategies and other documents?) a. There should be more than half women on the biogas managing (sub)committee (BMC). [See below ‘x’ on how this overlaps with staying congruent with the Nepali village decision making process.
207 - When biogas can only benefit part of a population it should be implemented as part of an integrated and complete community project that targets different members of the village. (Report of the International Conference on Biogas: Technologies and Implementation Strategies, 1990.) This project is complete when others who cannot take on a biogas loan or do not have cattle are able to have Improved “Smokeless” Stoves built in their homes to reduce the amount of smoke produced and the amount of wood necessary by design. As well, poor community members who have been unable to afford to become members of the CFUG can have their fees waived through this project thereby they can legally collect firewood on open days and do not have to risk heavy fines and possible arrests by stealing necessary wood.
- The following procedures are part of the process: a. A biogas management committee (BMC) formed based on the following criteria: a. 4-6 members b. at least 4 women members c. Members nominated by another person d. Mixed castes. (see ‘x’ below)
b. Vision, Goals and Objectives that cover the following: Vision: To construct the biogas and ICS to improve the conditions of the forest and of the people. Project Goals and Objectives: Goal 1: Create Awareness among CFUG general members in the detriments of the traditional wood stoves and the benefits of biogas (and the lesser benefits of “Improved Smokeless¹ Wood Stoves as an much cheaper alternative.) Objective 1: Post informative posters in village community areas and hand out pamphlets about biogas and improved stoves. Objective 2: Hold Awareness meeting(s) for general assembly of CFUG members about biogas, Improved Stoves, and the CFUG project. Goal 2: Create a rotating loan system for CFUG members who would like to install biogas. Objective 1: Arrange loan system (payment plan, checking plan, duration of loan, etc.) Objective 2: Arrange loans with first eight biogas receivers.
208 Goal 3: Build first eight biogas plants. Objective 1: Create and sign contract with BSP and biogas companies including itemized bill of all materials and labor, repair agreement about research technology, and agreement on full day training on operation and maintenance. Objective 2: Collect and transport materials. Objective 3: Perform collective community (CFUG BR) labor. Objective 4: Company constructs plants and performs O & M trainings for BR. Objective 5: BSP performs training about benefits and effective composting utilization of biogas slurry. Goal 4: Provide direct benefits to other CFUG members that cannot afford biogas specifically targeting poorer members. Objective 1: Grant free membership to XX eligible community members based on criteria. Objective 2: Build Improved “Smokeless” Stoves for XX number of CFUG members that are unable or unwilling to undertake a biogas loan for low or no cost.
c. Creation of criteria for choosing first beneficiaries of biogas to help keep out bias by committee that cover the following: a. At least two stall – fed cows or buffalo (as per BSP) b. Documented history of collecting firewood from the CF i.e. has bought tickets from the CFUG on open collection days (as per previous Ranger.) c. At least four of the eight must be from outside the committee or committee’s family (to provide benefits to group as a whole, not just committee that are wealthier families in the community.) d. At least four from disadvantaged caste i.e. Tamang, Magar, Dalit (to provide benefits to a range of castes, not just the upper.) e. Receivers must agree to all loan conditions. f. Both male and female head of household must agree to and sign loan contract. g. Both male and female head of household must attend all meetings and work in project. h. As per BSP, all contracts signed for biogas company must be in female head of household’s name.
209 d. Creation of a specific Action Plan/ Schedule that covers the following:
Week Number Activity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Who? CFUG Plan itinerary for first president and committee meeting X treasurer CFUG Create Project Goals and committee Objectives X XX members CFUG Form Management committee Committee X members Biogas Management Create Action Plan/ Committee Schedule XX members Goal 1: "Awareness" Objective 1: Information
Activity 1: Get biogas materials from BSP and improved cook BMC to stove information from PC office? X XX delegate Activity 2: Distribute information in meetings and village BMC to canvassing XXXX delegate Objective 2: Meetings Activity 1: Schedule, Plan and Hold Awareness Meeting about biogas and ICS project XX BMC members Activity 2: Hold meetings and discussions and find interest XX BMC members
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Week Number Activity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Who? Goal 2: "Loan System" Objective 1: Arrange system Activity 1: Develop management plan for loans including loan duration, payment plans, checking procedures, etc. XXXX BMC members
Objective 2: Arrange loans Activity 1: Create criteria for first BR XXX BMC members Activity 2: Choose and meet with first BR XXXXXXXXXXXXX X XXXXXXBMC members Activity 3: Write up loan BMC to document. XXX delegate BMC to Activity 4: BR sign loan contract X delegate
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Week Number Activity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Who? Goal 3: "Building Biogas Plants" Objective 1: Contracts Activity 1: Meet with biogas companies to choose company to work with XX BMC members
Activity 2 : Choose company XX BMC members Activity 3: Write up contract with all pertinent information including itemized bill of materials and labor, repair agreement, and O & M full day training. XXX BMC members Activity 4: If low cost research is done, meet and sign contract with BSP. XXXX BMC members Objective 2: Materials
Activity 1: List materials needed - divide between "must purchase" and "locally available" XXXX BMC members Activity 2: Purchase materials for Delegated to plants XXX specific BR Activity 3: Gather local materials Delegated to for plants XXX specific BR Activity 4: Transport materials to Delegated to building sites. XXX specific BR
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Week Number Activity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Who?
Goal 3: "Building Biogas Plants" continued
Objective 3: Labor Activity 1: Determine and list all labor needed from BR XX BMC members Activity 2: Delegate labor activities and other work to BR individuals. XXX BMC members
Activity 3: Perform labor XXXXXXXX X XXXX BR
Objective 4: Construction Biogas Company Activity 1: Company constructs Technicians plants with help of BR. XX X XXXX and BR Activity 2: Company trains BR in Biogas O & M for plants. XXCompany Staff
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Week Number Activity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Who? Goal 4: "Other Community Benefits" Objective 1: Free CFUG membership Activity 1: Create criteria for eligibility for free membership (e.g. economic, caste status) and select families. XXX BMC members Activity 2: Give membership to families. XXX BMC members Objective 2: Improved Wood Cook Stoves Activity 1: Create criteria and locate members who would like Stoves built. XXX BMC members Activity 2: Create and sign contract with locally trained person(s) to build stoves. XX BMC members Locally trained Activity 3: Build stoves. XXXXXXXX X XXXXXXmason
214 e. Good Budget Management: a. Keep precise records of all money transactions. b. Negotiate with company for reduced price in building all eight plants and agree on payment plan. c. Budget money for building smokeless stoves. d. Budget money for management purposes. e. Costs incurred vs. “ideal” costs (See Ideal Costs Table) f. BMC manages action plan and delegates tasks to specific beneficiaries that covers activities in the above action plan. g. Implementation of Action Plan and Labor together by beneficiaries delegated by BMC for activities in above action plan. h. Assistance by Local field and development workers (Telkot Rangepost Forest Ranger and Peace Corps Volunteer) that does not impede their process, but enhances it to meet success.
215 i. Creation and implementation of monitoring and evaluation of the project by committee and local workers that covers the following:
Monitoring Plan: Things and Places What to Monitor? to Check How? Who does it? When? Roles and check BMC meeting CFUG committee Bi – weekly Responsibilities Work done by minutes, check work president schedule of action sites (houses of biogas plan, quality of work, plants and improved stoves) Education general assembly check attendance, BMC members At general (Awareness) and attendance, training interview members of assembly, at Training attendance, new skills assembly and trainings trainings, interviews used?, knowledge in month following gained? event Materials and Inventory at sites check lists of materials, BMC members Daily as per need Equipment equipment needed to build Budget Precise Records kept Another member of Minimum weekly – of all transactions, the BMC than the daily at periods of budget in balance check budget ledger of treasurer and/ or a many transactions. the BMC treasurer member of the CFUG committee and/ or the Ranger of PCV Interest and Work done on Observation, check CFUG committee Bi – weekly Motivation schedule, attendance to attendance, check president meetings by BR, BMC meeting minutes
216 Evaluation Plan: Quantitative or Sources of Methods of Key Questions Qualitative Information Collection Who? When? 1. Did Seti Devi Quantitative Families of BR and Interviews, CFUG committee succeed in building families who are to observation, review members/ PCV eight biogas plants have improved stoves meeting minutes within a rotating loan built, BMC meeting After 30 weeks plan and XX minutes, BMC from start of project improved smokeless members and CFUG stoves? members 2. Have Seti Devi Both BR families and Interviews and CFUG committee CFUG members families who received observations members/ PCV benefited from the stoves, CFUG After 30 weeks project? members, community from start of project members 3. Was low cost Both BR families, BSP staff, Interviews, inspection/ CFUG committee technology biogas technicians observation of plant members/ PCV/ successfully installed? (by BSP) BSP staff – after completion of plants and one year later 4. Are loans being Both BMC members, loan Interviews, review loan CFUG committee repaid and is there a paperwork, CFUG paperwork of treasurer members/ PCV plan to continue the members, BR families, loan plan for more BR Ranger, other in a rotating community members schedule?
217 j. The implementation process of ‘i’ through ‘ix’ above must be in congruence with the process, nature, and techniques of decision making in the village, but also be ready for incongruencies that can occur when people perform actions that depart from the accepted ways. (Taken from “Decision – Making in Village Nepal by Casper Miller; Pilgrims Publishing, 1990, 2000.)
a. Process: “sabaiko sallah” or consultation of all with consensus. There is usually one or two leaders, traditionally male , that speak to express the consensus of all. Therefore, the group ideally will have consensus on how to organize the BMC and what the main goals are of the project. As well, consensus is ideal for the all the BMC work. (ibid.) Gender and caste diversity in a group affects this consensus process. Groups of one gender have had more success in some large scale projects covering several wards or an entire district in Nepal (as well as one caste groups) when compared to mixed gender groups in the same project specifically when it comes to women’s involvement n the decision making (People in Parks project– PCP interview and from PIP document). Miller has also seen that many times lower castes do not speak or let the higher castes speak for them when in mixed caste company (1990.) This seems to have to do with women’s and lower caste members inability or unwillingness to voice opinions or even speak at all in the presence of others of higher status. Ideally there would be one gender and/ or caste group, but since this group committee is already of mixed genders (but mostly women) and mixed castes that seems to work, the creation of an all women or caste biogas managing committee might cause dissension between members. Therefore, for this project, the ideal managing committee will have a majority of women on it in and in leading positions as this the form of the functioning committee as well as having a diversity of castes. “What is important is that the members of the BMC are motivated, active, and understand the project – not what the gender or caste status make-up is of the it.” (Karki, Informal advisory discussion 7-01-2004.)
b. Nature: Values on Prestige or respect, caste-centered morality, and family- centered morality. “Personalism”, or doing no harm/ causing no pain/ avoid saddening others permeates decision making at all the levels of process, nature and techniques. (Miller, ibid.)
c. Techniques: a. Understanding that concealment is a legitimate means to creating private space in village life where privacy does not exist. This of course is an issue when dealing with a large sum of money and trying to evenly distribute the benefits of the project to many community members of different class and caste levels.
b. Open assembly that encourages others to express ideas, brings about consensus, and creates the conviction that attending the meeting is a matter of prestige by listening and finding significance in what people say. (Miller, ibid.)
218 ¾ Units of Analysis: This will be an embedded, single – case study design meaning there is one case, but multiple units of analysis. This is inevitable because implementation of the project will be done on many levels such as managerial and physical and will involve groups, families, business owners, and individuals. The case or main unit is the total System and sub-units of the system are “process units” (actions, roles, meetings, schedules, and social dynamics*) of the total system, intermediate players, and outside players that may affect the system: • Total System: The overall implementation process by the management committee, which includes all the major events in the process: major meetings, major decisions (by the management committee or that could have been decided by subunits), overall social dynamics between major actors (again these are the dynamics between subunits), and major outcomes of the entire project. • Sub-units: Process Subunits of the Total System o Committee and other meetings o Other committee activities o Roles of individual committee members o Committee time schedules/action plan o Social dynamics between committee members Intermediate Players o Activities of the BR group o Roles played by each BR family o Role played by BR individuals o Roles played by other individual CFUG/ community members o Social dynamics in each BR family separately and between BR families o Social dynamics between BR and other players in the project o Social dynamics of individuals of CFUG and other Community members with project players Outside Players o Activities of the biogas company and social dynamics with community members o Activities of Biogas Sector Partnership (BSP) and social dynamics with community members o Activities of District Forest Office (DFO)/ Telkot Ranger and social dynamics with the community members o Activities of PCV involvement and social dynamics with community members
219 ¾ Linking Data to Propositions: There are three principles of Data Collection for Case Studies: • Using multiple Sources of Evidence: Triangulation o Participant – Observation of mass assembly, CFUG committee, and biogas management committee meetings and other activities where they arise o Document collection: letters of financial commitment, meeting announcements, meeting minutes, agendas, written schedules or action plan, loan contracts, building contracts, bills, documents from government or mass media about the area or group o Archival Records: census data about the area, CFUG records about the group – the Constitution and Operational Plan o Interviews: Identifying key informants by conducting open- ended interviews where the respondent can give facts but also opinion that can lead to further lines of inquiry; conducting short interviews and to corroborate evidence with both biogas receivers, ICS receivers, and committee members for their analysis of the implementation process and procedural problems and achievements; conducting surveys of biogas receivers and ICS receivers (survey for socio-economic information and project perceptions) o Direct observation: Document with photos! - Formal observations that are part of the case study protocol (see below) where the incidence of certain behaviors or situations are measured. I need to work on these- maybe such things as: silence of members in meetings, consensus achieved, women are not involved in the decision making, women involved in only physical unskilled labor for the plant, men or husbands answering for women, etc. - Informal Observations made throughout a field visit: the condition of family houses as indicator of economic status, progress of building, who is doing what labor, other observations that occur that seem significant. • Create a Case Study Data base: Field Notes, physical documents, narratives, and tabular data collected should be organized and documented in such a way that an individual could retrace the steps or inspect the evidence of the case to evaluate the conclusions of the case study. • Maintain a Chain of Evidence: Also for evaluation of the conclusions by another party: Case study report findings should have sufficient citation to the relevant part of the database and the database should reveal the actual evidence and circumstances of the evidence (time, place, etc.) These circumstances should be consistent with the procedures and question that are part of the original case study protocol (again see below) and the protocol should indicate the link between it and the original study questions.
220 With these principles intact, the data needs to be analyzed in such a way to connect it back to the original questions and propositions of the study or in this case how the implementation compares to the theoretical ideal. Right now, I believe the best technique will be pattern matching to the ideal. In other words, the specifics of the implementation of the project will be compared to the “pattern” of the ideal above and if a match is found then the project should be a success. If for some reason (cause) the CFUG’s implementation fails to meet one of the criteria of the ideal meaning that some issue above was not managed well then an impediment within the implementation process will have occurred. Whether or not there is a “complete failure” (levels of failure/ success will need to be defined – e.g. all plants built - but some not operated or operated correctly, not all plants built, loan not being repaid, reasonable time schedule not met, etc.) depends on how many criteria are not met and the significance of each criteria to the overall project.
¾ Criteria for Interpreting Findings: How close does a match have to be for it to be considered a match? In this case, if all criteria are met, then the implementation should have succeeded overall and for each criteria that isn’t met then the implementation process should have had some kind of resulting problem.
Preparation for Data Collection: The “Case Study Protocol” is a specific way to increase the reliability of the study. It is a guide for the investigator in carrying out the study. It includes: 1. An overview of the case study project : See “Bhaktapur Biogas Renewable Energy Project” and “Study Proposal” 2. Field Procedures: How to gain access to organizations and interviewees, resources needed in the field, procedures for calling for assistance and guidance, making a clear schedule of data collection activities that are expected to be completed within specified periods of time, providing for unanticipated events 3. Case Study Questions: these are questions that have to do with the original case study questions and propositions, but are more numerous and specific to the actual inquiries. They are questions that the investigator must answer, not questions for the respondent. They are the reminders to the investigator regarding the information that needs to be collected and why. Along with these questions should be a list of probable sources whether they are people, documents, or observations. These questions relate to the entire case and not to subunits. As per Stakes (1995) there are “issue questions” and “topical questions.” The former refers to the abstract problems that are linked to political , social, historical, and especially personal contexts and the latter cover informational and evaluative (quality and effectiveness) questions. 4. Guide for the Case Study Report: A basic outline of the report can be included in the protocol because case studies do not necessarily follow the same report format of other research strategies. It will facilitate the collection of the relevant data and the amount of and kind of documentation necessary for the report.
221 Field Procedures
1. Access to key organizations and interviewees: a. Because I have lived in Chhaling for eighteen months, I have become friendly with many of the community members, some of who will be the key players in the project. I live in the field area of the project and thus have the advantage of all day access of those who become involved in the project. I also have good grasp of the language and understanding of the culture that makes me much more approachable by others and vice versa. For those involved in the project that I have not met, I will make sure to meet ASAP and with the help of a mutual Nepali friend. b. I have already made contacts with many people in the field of biogas – both companies and organizations involved in building biogas in Nepal – to with whom I have discussed this community project, my interest in it as a research project, and my interest in making biogas a realistic possibility for more rural families of Nepal. 2. Resources Needed in the Field: a. Personal computer at my house in the field b. Quiet place – my house in the field c. Small field notebooks/ pens d. Recording devices/ tapes/ batteries 3. Procedures for Requesting Assistance: Depending on the nature of the assistance necessary, follow the line of those closest to farthest away that may be able to help when in need of guidance: a. Ranger or other Nepali student assistance in field area b. PC Program Officer or other PC staff in Nepal or Staff of biogas organizations specifically BSP c. Emailing graduate advisor and/ or committee in USA d. Phoning graduate advisor in USA 4. Schedule of Data Collection Activities:
222 Data collection schedule
Time Frame to be Data Collection Activity Completed In Notes Research documents relevant to biogas and Throughout, but specifically to participatory community projects (for July 24 and after December 15 From NGO libraries such as BSP, ICIMOD, IUCN, PC, background and propositions/ theory.) to end Feb HMG Dept libraries, AEPC
CFUG constitution and Working (Action) Plan, Records Specifically to July 24 and after from Village Development Committee and District Archival Records Dec 15 Development Committee CFUG, biogas management committee, and mass Group Meetings Throughout community meetings
Interviews with "KEY" Informants: CFUG committee members Biogas management committee members BR individuals (maybe more than one per family) ICS recipients individuals This is an important tactic for this study as the main Membership recipients issues to affect the outcomes of the project are social Biogas company staff or BSP staff relations in the group. Thus informal discussions with all, but especially key informants can provide great insights Ranger into the real workings of the project that might not Other Key informants in the community July 10 to end otherwise be viewed from a non member of the CFUG.
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223 Data collection schedule
Time Frame to be Data Collection Activity Completed In Notes Interviews of villagers Interviews with specific questions to corroborate evidence As necessary - most probably about implementation (possibly also include "Key" mid August - mid December Informants, but with all involved in a particular issue/ topic All those involved in particular topics/ issues of (with a higher rate most I want to corroborate or document further to get views interest probable mid Sept - mid Nov) from different perspectives.)
Surveys: Structured Interview surveys One mid - project survey and one end survey to compare changes/ similarities in participants’ view of the project Survey One: Two Rounds of BR, ICS-R, and its implementation. One survey will also include membership -R, CFUG committee members, First round: Sept 25 - Oct 10; questions about socio-economic status especially of BR to BMC members Second Round: Feb 1- 15 compare to status of recipients in other studies. This survey is to assess the community's knowledge of the project and project activities including biogas, ICS, Survey Two: Two rounds of entire CFUG and CFUG memberships; attendance to the awareness community random sample of 100 houses in At same time of second round event (if held), and general knowledge about biogas and village wards of the CFUG of Survey One: Feb 1- 15 ICS.
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224 Data collection schedule Time Frame to be Data Collection Activity Completed In Notes
Direct Formal Observations A committee member does not speak for an entire meeting or is reluctant to speak (note Every meeting mid July to mid caste and gender) December A man speaks for a woman when she is asked a question Entire study at every event Decision made without consensus achieved Meetings, outside of meetings BR family's female head not present at Every meeting with BR end Aug meeting to mid December and trainings Male BR carries materials Mid Sept - mid Dec at BR sites Female BR assists in building with biogas company Beg Oct - mid Dec at BR sites Concealment of information Entire study at every event
Gender/ caste of main actors facilitating each These formal observations can be quantified as evidence activity (i.e. managers) At every activity corroborate or dismiss the existence of such behaviors. Monitory/ supervisory work done by BMC Other data collection techniques will try to clarify why the members Entire study at every event behavior has happened or not. Other observations collected throughout study that may Direct Informal Observations Entire study at every event become useful. Throughout, most relevant in As a PCV, I am assisting the implementation of the project meetings from July 10 to Oct as a way to build the capacity of the CFUG members. 13, but also in construction Thus, I will also document all that I am asked to Participatory Observation period from Oct 31 to Dec 15 participate in and how I perceive the effects of my actions. Materials from throughout study Possible copy of meeting minutes, copy of budget ledger, Physical Documents or Evidence - possibly collect at end of study copy of loan contract, copy of work contract, etc.
225 Case Study Questions for Protocol:
¾ 1. How have the CFUG committee members organized themselves to manage the project? [Who are the main people managing the project? What are the roles of these managers? How did these managers divide the work? (Also see “delegation of responsibilities” below.)Are the main people motivated and active? Has one or two people taken total control of the project? Why? Are the managers the people who will most benefit from the project (the stakeholders, i.e. women)? Did the key players in implementation change throughout the project? Are the managers meeting on a regular basis?] • Sources of Data: o Informal and participatory observations of CFUG meetings o Informal and participatory observations of Committee meetings o CFUG individual members/ committee members o BR individuals o Ranger o Biogas company staff • Sample Strategies: o Draw an organizational chart of the project including roles, create a new chart when roles change o List the people involved, their titles (in the project and out), and their roles o Create a timeline of major role changes. o Compare those involved in management to ideal
¾ 2. What are the (major) activities of the CFUG to implement the project? Who were the major actors in these activities? When were the activities held? Where? • Sources of Data: o Informal and participatory observations of CFUG meetings o Informal and participatory observations of Committee meetings o Meeting minutes o Documents created o CFUG individual members/ committee members o BR individuals o Ranger o Biogas company staff • Sample Strategies: o Timeline o Compare activities to Ideal Action plan o Fill in chart of major activities (add other activities that occur)
226
Activity When Week Where Who Accomplishments (Date) No. Goals/ Objectives Created BMC created Action plan created Awareness event BR chosen Biogas company chosen Loan contracts written Loans signed Biogas contracts signed Materials purchased Materials transported Digging Carrying Skilled labor Construction O&M training Slurry training
¾ 3. Which are the (major) decisions made by the CFUG managing the project? What were the goal, objectives, and action plan decided on? (Were these planned out?) What were the criteria for the BMC, BR, ICS-R, and free membership? Which biogas company, which ICS mason? Other decisions? When were decisions made? What is the decision making process? Was consensus used? Did all people speak? If not, who made final decision? • Sources of Data: o Informal and participatory observations of CFUG meetings o Informal and participatory observations of Committee meetings o Direct observation of consensus in meetings/ a person not speaking for an entire meeting
227 o Meeting minutes o Documents created o CFUG individual members/ committee members o BR individuals o Ranger o Biogas company staff • Sample Strategies o Narrative of decision making process o Create a timeline of decisions and those involved o Compare to ideal goals/ objectives/ action plan/ criteria o Fill in table of decisions (add other decisions that occur):
Project People Consensus No. Decision Order Week Date Present Reached Silent (N= not Number People made) Project Main Goals Main Objectives of Goals Action Plan/ Schedule for Project Criteria for “BMC” or other management Who sits on “BMC” Criteria for BR Criteria for ICS-R Criteria for waiving CFUG mem. BR ICS-R Free members
Loan rules Who signs BR loan contract from CFUG
228 Project People Consensus No. Decision Order Week Date Present Reached Silent (N= not Number People made) Who signs loan contract from BR family Biogas company Details of BR contracts with Biogas company Awareness event Who is responsible to gather local materials Who is responsible to purchase and transport materials Who supervises labor Who performs what labor When to start labor When to start construction When to hold O&M training When to hold slurry training
229 ¾ 4. How were responsibilities delegated? To Whom? By whom? • Sources of Data o Informal and participatory observations of CFUG meetings o Informal and participatory observations of Committee meetings o Meeting minutes o CFUG individual members/ committee members o BR individuals o Ranger o Biogas company staff • Sample Strategies: o Create table of each responsibility: Responsibility To Whom? When By Whom? When delegated? Completed? Write final copy of Goals and Objectives Write final copy of action plan Facilitate awareness event Contact BR for first meeting Write final loan contract Sign loan contracts Meets with loan companies to evaluate Purchase materials Gather local materials Transport materials Digging labor Carrying labor Skilled labor
o Narratives of each delegation of responsibility observed.
230 ¾ 5. What are the social dynamics between major actors in the project? How do these social dynamics affect the project and the decisions made in the project? How do gender and caste affect social dynamics? Did prestige or respect play a part in social dynamics? • Sources of Data: o Informal and participatory observation of meetings, interactions between individuals (committee members and BR) o Direct observation of men speaking for women, people not speaking at meetings o Interviews with individual actors about the project and social dynamics o Survey Questions on social dynamics o Ranger o Biogas Staff • Sample Strategies: o Quantify Direct Formal Observations of above social actions o Compare the data found with data found in organization question and decision making question – show comparisons in a chart to show the similarities between social dynamics and how the project was implemented. How did this differ from the “ideal” implementation and the “ideal” involvement of all people? o Narratives of social interactions within the decision making process
¾ 6. How were women and lower caste people involved in the project? What roles did they play? Were they involved in decision making? How? • Sources of Data: o Meeting observations – direct formal, informal, and participatory o Meeting minutes o Formal, informal, and participatory observations of all activities o CFUG/ community members o Committee members o Ranger o Biogas company staff o BR individuals o Surveys? • Sample Strategies o Highlight women’s/ disadvantaged people’s roles in activity, decision, and responsibility tables above o Compares to ideal role o How did these people’s role compare to knowledge of the project, project activities, biogas, ICS, and their attendance to awareness events found in surveys?
231 ¾ 7. What part have BR played in the overall implementation process? What part have other outside actors (biogas company, BSP, Ranger, PCV, etc) played in the project? • Sources of Data: o Meeting minutes o Informal and participatory observations of activities involving or about BR o Informal and participatory observations of activities involving or about outside players actions o Informal and participatory observations of all project activities o Ranger o Biogas staff o Committee members o BR • Sample Strategies: o Create chart of activities of BR in the project that shows how the activity relates to the entire project implementation o Create chart of activities of in outside players in the project that shows how the activity relates to the entire project implementation o List all project activities and players involved (see project activities question above.) o Compare to “Ideal” involvement of these players
¾ 8. How have the CFUG committee members become motivated? • Sources of Data: o CFUG committee members – interviews, group and individual discussions, surveys o Ranger o BR o Other Community (CFUG) members o Biogas company staff o Informal and Participatory observations of committee members • Sample Strategies: o Narratives interviews and discussions o Quantify survey results about motivation o Compare surveys to interviews and discussions o Compare motivations to “ideal.”
232 ¾ 9. Is it an integrated and complete community project, i.e. was biogas installed as well as ICS and waiving CFUG fee membership for poorer community members? Was awareness included in the project to include all community members? How? Were open assemblies utilized for awareness or making decisions for the project? Were other community member interested in the project and able to become involved? How? • Sources of Data: o Informal and Participatory observation of activities – meetings, awareness event, activities about ICS and free memberships o Meeting minutes o Community members survey of knowledge of the project activities, awareness event, and ICS/ free membership activities o Surveys of all BR and ICS-R, membership-R of socioeconomic status • Sample Strategies o Quantify percentages of community families with knowledge of the project, etc. o List activities that included awareness efforts and community members not on the committee o List socioeconomic status of ICS and free membership receivers vs. biogas receivers o Did the project accomplish the ideal integration?
¾ 10. How was the budget managed? Was a ledger used? Were all transactions recorded? Was the ledger monitored by other people? What costs were incurred in the project? • Sources of Data: o Meeting minutes o Ledger o Ledger transactions recorded vs. receipts o CFUG committee members – who is monitoring the budget ledgers of the “treasurer” of the project o Ledger transactions recorded vs. observed transactions • Sample Strategies: o Compare project costs to ideal costs o Narratives of budget management procedures observed.
233 ¾ 11. How was the project monitored and evaluated by the CFUG? (Were these planned out?) • Sources of Data: o Meeting minutes o Informal and participatory observations of activities/ major actors o Committee members o Ranger o Documents • Sample Strategies o Compare monitoring and evaluation events to “ideal” o Create table of monitoring activities showing who, when, what was monitored , and how it was monitored o Create table of evaluation procedures including criteria for evaluation, how it was evaluated, who, and when o Compare to ideal
¾ 12. What affect did the project have on the CFUG? What affect on the community? What were the major outcomes of the project? Include direct and indirect benefits/ detriments. • Sources of Data: o Survey, interviews, discussions with committee members, CFUG members, community members o Ranger o Biogas company staff o Observations • Sample Strategies o Show results of surveys o Narratives of interviews
234 Research Question for the Case Study – for subunits
¾ Every Activity 1. How has this activity been organized? 2. Is the activity going as planned? Procedures? 3. Who were the main people involved? Managers/ Facilitators? 4. Who had what responsibility? 5. What was the main work accomplished? 6. What decisions were made? How? 7. How have people become motivated for this activity? 8. Are all the BR actively engaged in the activity 9. Are other community members involved in the project? 10. Women’s involvement? 11. Lower caste people’s involvement? 12. What social dynamics observed? 13. How is this activity integrating the whole community in the project? 14. Expenses of activity
¾ First Meeting: 1. How was the first meeting facilitated? 2. Who facilitated the first meeting? 3. Were the facilitators effective in running the meeting? 4. Did other CFUG committee members take control of the meeting? 5. Were committee members responsive to the facilitator? 6. Did the Ranger respect the facilitators role and only act as an advisor? 7. What input particularly did the Ranger have in the first meeting? 8. What input by the PCV? 9. What input by the other Nepali assistant? 10. Were the PCV, Ranger, and other Nepali assistant effective as advisors? Why or why not? 11. What were the items or issues that caused the biggest problems in the meeting? How did the Ranger, PCV, and other assistant help with these issues? What was the outcome? 12. What decisions were made in the first meeting? 13. Were CFUG committee members responsive to the work asked of them in the meeting? 14. Did meeting attendees know the detriments of traditional woodstoves? 15. Did they know the benefits of biogas and ICS? 16. Did they know the worked involved and possible negative aspects of biogas and ICS? 17. Did they know and understand that women most benefit from and do the work to maintain biogas plants and ICS?
235 18. After a discussion about the mission, strategies and goal of the CFUG and then about biogas and ICS, were the attendees able to state how biogas and ICS relate to the mission and goals of the CFUG? If not, did they understand it when someone else stated it? Were they able to then restate the answer in their own words? 19. Do the CFUG committee members understand that they are the ones planning and implementing the entire project? In other words do they understand that they will only receive guidance and advice from the Ranger and PCV? 20. Was a committee (BMC) formed to manage the project in the first meeting? If not, why? Was any other form of management put in place? 21. Do the BMC/ CFUG committee members understand the responsibilities of managing the project? 22. What was the process to decide the criteria for the BMC? 23. What were the criteria? 24. Who was nominated? Who accepted? 25. Were goals and objectives determined and written in the first meeting? If not, why? 26. What are the goals and objectives? 27. Did all CFUG committee members attend the meeting? 28. Did all in attendance speak and/or participate? 29. Who did not speak? Why? 30. Who spoke in the meeting? Did they dominate the meeting? If yes, Did others seem to mind that one or two people were dominating the meeting? 31. Were attendees paying attention? 32. Did all in attendance seem to understand the material being covered? 33. What criteria were used to choose the BR? How was it determined? 34. Was the criterion for the BR determined by the CFUG committee alone acceptable to the project advisors? 35. Did the project advisors need to give suggestions to the CFUG committee for criteria so that not all the BR would come from the committee? 36. Were there many suggestions for first BR? 37. What did the CFUG members think about the fact that they could not decide the BR – which the BMC would decide? 38. Were they enthusiastic about the project in the meeting? Why? Why not? Who?
¾ Each BMC meeting: 22. Who facilitated/ ran the meeting? 23. How was it determined who ran the meeting? 24. Was a process determined for who is to facilitate meetings? 25. Did the person facilitating the meeting keep control of the meeting? 26. Did another person control the meeting? 27. Did one or two members dominate the meeting? Who? How did they control it? 28. Were all BMC members in attendance?
236 29. Did all BMC members participate? Speak? 30. Were there any issues at the meeting? Disagreements? About what issues? 31. Were all agenda discussed? 32. Were all agenda completed? If not, why? 33. How did the meeting end? 34. Plans for next meeting? 35. What decisions were made? What were the outcomes of the meeting? 36. Were all decisions/ discussions documented in meeting minutes? 37. Were all expenditures documented in budget ledger and meeting minutes? 38. Were others beside the BMC involved in the meeting and how? 39. What assistance was necessary from Ranger, PCV, or others? 40. Were there any personal issues that came up at the meeting (individual or group social dynamics)? How did they surface? What were they? Were they relevant to the meeting? How did the facilitator or other members manage them? What was the outcome? 41. Was the meeting successful? 42. Did BMC members leave the meeting with a positive motivated attitude? If not, why?
¾ First BMC meeting: 1. Were goal and objectives finalized? 2. Was an action plan formed – started? 3. What was the process to finalizing goals and creating action plan? 4. Were criteria for free membership determined? 5. What process for FM criteria? 6. Were community members identified for free membership? Who? 7. Were criteria for ICS determined? 8. Process? 9. CFUG members identified? Who? 10. Was Budget ledger started? 11. Was awareness meeting, general assembly, or other awareness event scheduled? When? 12. How will event be planned? 13. Who will run event? 14. What materials will be used for event? 15. What is the plan to notify CFUG members about event? 16. Is the CFUG committee continually motivated about the project?
¾ Second BMC meeting: 1. Was action plan finalized? 2. What is the form of the action plan? 3. Were criteria for BR, ICS, and FM finalized? 4. What is criteria? 5. Were any changes made to last meetings’ decisions? What ? Why? 6. Was awareness event held or is it scheduled for next week?
237 ¾ Third and fourth meetings: 1. Were activities held to create awareness among CFUG members about biogas, smokeless stoves, and the project (such as a general assembly meeting)? 2. Who brought informational materials about biogas and ICS to community? 3. What process to choose BR? ICS receivers? FM receivers? 4. Has the above lists been finalized? 5. Do the people on the lists satisfy the criteria? 6. Is everyone on the committee happy or satisfied about who is on the lists? 7. Is everyone on the CFUG satisfied about who is on the lists? 8. What plans were made to meet biogas companies? 9. What questions, preparation was done for meeting with biogas companies? 10. Who will meet biogas companies? 11. Has materials list for biogas plants been started? 12. Was ICS mason chosen? Who? 13. Was contract written and signed? 14. Is loan system being developed? 15. What is the process for deciding about the loan system rules?
¾ Subsequent Meetings and Other activities: 1. How were the membership fee issued and smokeless stove installation handled by the BMC and /or the CFUG committee? 2. What criteria was used to choose the smokeless stove receivers? How was it determined? 3. Did the CFUG waive the membership fees to individuals? 4. What were the criteria used to give free memberships? 5. What was the process to determine the criteria for free membership? 6. Who were the ones given free membership? 7. What was the process used to create the loan system? 8. What were the factors of the loan system? 9. What were the rules and regulations of the loan contracts? 10. What was the process to determine the rules of the loan contracts and how to write it? 11. Who wrote the loan contracts? 12. Who signed the loan contracts? 13. When were the loan contracts signed? 14. What was the process in determining which biogas company to hire? 15. Was more than one company met with or spoken to in this process? 16. What were the main factors in determining which company to use? 17. Who wrote work contracts? 18. Who signed the work contracts with the biogas company? When? 19. Was low cost design installed? Why or Why not? 20. Was BSP consulted in this matter of low cost design? 21. Was a contract written with BSP? How? Who signed it? When?
238 22. What was the process to determine the materials needed and local labor necessary for the project? 23. Did the BMC successfully delegate responsibilities to the BR? 24. What was the process to delegate responsibilities to the BR? 25. Were local materials used (esp. stones)? If not, why? 26. Where did materials come from? 27. How were the materials gathered and transported? 28. Who gathered and transported/ gathered? 29. When were materials purchased? 30. When were materials transported? 31. Was this work monitored and/or supervised? By whom? 32. What local labor was done? By whom specifically for each type of labor done by locals? 33. When did the each labor start and end? 34. Was the local labor supervised? By whom specifically? 35. When were BMC meetings held? Where? 36. Were BMC meetings held on schedule? 37. When were meetings held with BR? 38. Were meetings held regularly with BR? 39. How did the committee monitor progress of project by themselves and work by BR, ICS mason, biogas masons, etc? 40. Did both men and women from each household attend the meetings? 41. When were the responsibilities delegated? 42. Was a budget determined? 43. What was the process to manage funding? 44. What was the process to manage purchases? 45. When did construction by company start? 46. What was process by company to complete plants? 47. Who chose the sites for plants? Women involved? 48. How long did it take companies to complete construction? 49. How were families involved in construction with companies? 50. When were O&M trainings held? 51. When were slurry training(s) held? 52. What evaluation was done of project by CFUG?
239 Guide for Case Study Report (written 7/31)
1 Introduction 1.1 Summary of the Case Study and Report Conclusions 1.2 Introduction to Nepal 1.2.1 Geography/ physical 1.2.1.1 Climate 1.2.1.2 Forests – current condition 1.2.1.3 Social- Economic 1.2.2 Political – Infrastructure/ Insurgency 1.2.3 Foreign Aid 1.2.3.1 INGOs/ NGOs 1.3 Introduction to Biogas and Renewable Enterprises in Nepal 1.3.1 Overview of biogas technology and process of fermentation 1.3.2 Background of Biogas in Nepal 1.3.2.1 History of biogas in Nepal 1.3.2.2 Overview of different organizations involved in biogas, renewable energy in Nepal and their roles today 1.3.2.3 Summary of other biogas projects and methods 1.3.2.4 Summary of other community projects and methods 1.3.3 Brief summary of other renewable enterprises in Nepal – solar, wind, water 1.4 Introduction to Improved Cook Stoves (ICS) 1.4.1.1 How ICS Works 1.4.1.2 ICS in Nepal 1.4.1.2.1 History of ICS Nepal 1.4.1.2.2 Organizations involved in ICS 1.4.1.2.3 Summary of ICS projects and methods 1.5 Introduction to Project Area 1.5.1.1 Chhaling, Bhaktapur (HMG structure) 1.5.1.1.1 Seti Devi Community Forest Group – Brief history of CFUG formation in Nepal and Chhaling 1.5.1.1.2 Other organizations, groups in the village 1.6 Overview of project from Protocol: Refer to “Bhaktapur Biogas Renewable Energy Project” (include in Annex) 1.6.1.1 Main Goals 1.6.1.2 Main Outcomes 1.6.1.2.1 Successes 1.6.1.2.2 Failures, Problems 2 Methods 2.1 Overview of Case Study Design (include in Annex) 2.2 Overview of Case Study Protocol (except overview above in Intro) (include in Annex) 2.2.1 What Field Procedures used and why 2.2.1.1 Specific field procedures details 2.2.2 Case Study Questions – how answered 2.2.3 Guide for Report
240 3 Project Results 3.1 Major Successes 3.2 Major Failures, Problems 3.3 Social Issues – problems, innovations, management of issues 3.3.1.1 Gender 3.3.1.2 Caste 3.3.1.3 Other socio-economic issues 3.3.1.4 Group dynamics 3.3.1.5 Individuals 3.3.1.5.1 Issues between individuals 3.3.1.5.2 Individual own issues 3.4 Organization of committee for management 3.5 Major activities/ decisions and those involved 3.5.1 Action plan of committee 3.5.2 Committee meetings – major decisions and how they were made (consensus) 3.5.3 Other major activities 3.5.4 Values involved in decision making and implementation of major decisions/ activities 3.6 Delegation of Responsibilities: How? By Whom? To Whom? 3.7 Roles of people and their motivation in the project 3.7.1 Roles 3.7.1.1 Major Players – Who? Caste, gender, 3.7.1.2 Biogas Receivers 3.7.1.2.1.1 How chosen 3.7.1.2.1.2 Major leaders 3.7.1.2.1.3 Gender roles in construction 3.7.1.2.1.4 Caste roles in construction 3.7.1.2.1.5 Group dynamics/ ability to work together 3.7.1.3 ICS receivers 3.7.1.4 Memberships 3.7.1.5 Ranger and PCV 3.7.1.6 Biogas company staff 3.7.1.7 BSP 3.7.1.8 Other? 3.7.2 Motivation of players in project –how motivated? 3.8 Budget management 3.9 Monitoring and Evaluation by committee 3.10 Affects of project on community 3.10.1 On CFUG 3.10.2 On BR 3.10.3 On ICS –R 3.10.4 Others
241 4 Analysis 4.1 Comparison to ideal 4.1.1 Motivation 4.1.2 Stakeholders 4.1.3 Integrated Project 4.1.4 Committee formation 4.1.5 Goals and Objectives 4.1.6 BR criteria 4.1.7 Action plan 4.1.8 Budget management 4.1.9 Delegation 4.1.10 BR roles 4.1.11 Ranger, PCV roles 4.1.12 Monitoring and evaluation 4.1.13 Consensus process 4.1.14 Gender, caste involvement in management 4.1.15 Nepali values – respect, prestige, family – centered, caste- centered, personalism 4.1.16 Concealment? 4.1.17 Open assemblies 4.2 Deviations from the ideal 4.2.1 How deviations from the ideal were handled 4.2.2 Activities, etc that worked better than the ideal 5 Conclusions and Recommendations 5.1 Conclusions 5.1.1 Overall success vs. failure/ problems – did the project succeed? 5.1.2 Will the project last? (sustainability based on analysis) 5.2 Recommendations 5.2.1 To the CFUG and the community 5.2.2 To the local development workers 5.2.3 To Other development workers for future projects 6 References 7 Annexes 8 Bibliography of Documents Collected
242
APPENDIX B
BHAKTAPUR BIOGAS RENEWABLE ENERGY PROJECT PROPOSAL
February 2004 and updated July 2004
The draft to this proposal for a biogas and improved cook stove project in
Chhaling was created in a project design and management training given by the staff at
Peace Corps/ Nepal. The proposal was finalized and distributed for fundraising in
February 2004. It was updated in July 2004 after grants were offered according to official Peace Corps Partnership Program guidelines. Signs of success were added and the budget was re-written to reflect the increased funding available. This document was used as background information for the Case Study Design and Protocol.
243
The Bhaktapur Biogas Renewable Energy Project Energy to Conserve Forests and Improve Rural Living/ Health Conditions
Marjorie Ely February 2004 (updated July 2004)
Seti Devi Community Forest User Group Chhaling, Bhaktapur Nepal
244
A. Project Summary:
The overall mission of this project is to improve the welfare and living conditions of rural households by generating clean biogas energy and to simultaneously conserve local forest resources. The added composting technology will increase cold weather gas production and can be utilized to increase agricultural productivity and thus also promote economic growth. As well, to integrate this project into the larger community and improve the living conditions of the poorest villagers (with no cattle), Improved Cook Stove technology will be installed.
Biogas is an important renewable energy resource in Nepal that can be used by farmers for cooking, gas lamps, and possibly even electricity when constructed on a large scale. Right now the overwhelming majority of Nepal’s rural people use wood in small mud stoves to cook all their food. This puts a huge burden of work on the people (mostly the women) to collect firewood for the stoves (up to approximately 100 loads per year weighing from 50 to 100 kilograms each.) As well, the exploding population of Nepal, especially in Kathmandu valley, makes this practice a great detriment to the forests. Many of the forests of surrounding hillsides of Kathmandu valley are only considered 'shrubland' because they have been so devastated by this and other timber -wood collection by an ever increasing amount of people. The Seti Devi Community Forest User Group (CFUG) was formed approximately three years ago and was officially handed over the forest from the government on January 1, 2003. The executive committee is effective in managing the user collection of forest resources and the small fees given on these collection days. Our vision is to have this established group start a biogas loan project that does not require collateral to build biogas plants on a continual basis. The first plants will be built with the technical assistance of Biogas Sector Partnership Program (BSP) using innovative technology for the program's own study. BSP is a internationally known NGO that was previously financed by the Netherlands Development Organization (SNV/ Nepal) that works to provide quality control, new technology, training to farmers and biogas companies, research in biogas innovations, and ensures proper administration of the government subsidy through Alternative Energy Promotion Center (AEPC). This study would use low cost technology to increase biogas availability to poor farmers of Nepal and in addition compost technology will be added to increase cold weather gas productivity (and can be applied by farmers to their fields to increase soil nutrients and therefore increase vegetable production on their farms.) Improved Cook Stoves (ICS) do not compare to biogas. As can be seen in the photo on page 247, there is still significant smoke and wood is still necessary. However, as an alternative to traditional wood stoves that have no chimney and are mud fire pit inside the house, ICS are a great improvement for the family. The design as a closed system (with less oxygen to the wood) burns less wood and therefore conserves resources. For all of these reasons, this project will also promote ICS in the community and will install it at minimal cost for those who cannot install biogas i.e. those who do not have cattle to supply manure to the biogas system.
245 The strategy of this project is to use a well-established and working community forest group infrastructure to implement a new loan system for biogas that require no collateral with new funds other activities. Local labor, materials, and CFUG funds will be used providing over 35% of the total needed input for the project. Together with the BSP/AEPC subsidy and the funds the District Development Committee (DDC) has now promised to us (as of June 11, 2004) the total IN-Country funding is providing 64.7% of the total funds needed!! Technical knowledge will be provided by BSP and trainings in maintenance and effective slurry use will also be given to plant owners. A continual process of loans, repayments, and new loans will create a renewing cycle of biogas plants being built in the village.
B. Statement of Need:
Background Information
Biogas or “Gobar – gas” in Nepali literally meaning “manure gas” and it is just that. A process that ferments the manure to create methane gas from the farmer’s cattle, two large buffalo can provide enough for a family of four to cook from and three enough for 8 – 10. Traditionally the manure from the buffalo or cows is used for fertilizer in the family’s fields. Though this practice is good, the manure is not allowed to sit and compost long enough and therefore is not nutrient rich. Therefore, most farmers who can afford it buy urea (a chemical fertilizer) to apply to their fields to increase the productivity of the crops. On the other hand, the sludge manure byproduct resulting from the process of the biogas system is quite rich in nutrients and thus is better for the fields than the original manure. In fact, if this compost is so high in nutrients that after applying it to the fields for two seasons, urea is no longer needed. This saves the farmers money in the long run. The village of Chhaling is located in a rural area on the south facing hillside slope of Bhaktapur District in Nepal. Its forest is located on the opposite north-facing slope of the same hill. Eighty to Ninety percent of the families are subsistence farmers. Some of the richer CFUG members, who do have outside income, have installed biogas successfully. But, other subsistence farmers have indicated in informal discussions that they are fearful of loans where collateral must be given. Biogas only can indirectly help in income generation and though many sell farm products for income that could repay the loans, in the event of an emergency they are uncertain that they would be able to repay the loan. Not wanting to risk their own source of survival, they will not put up their farms for the loan. If farmers have a way to take loans without risking their livelihood, many will do so. And the CFUG has ideas like putting a cosigner on the loans to ensure repayment. Biogas is a very valuable resource that provides real benefits to farmers in Nepal. Perhaps the most significant is the health benefit to all those that are in the kitchen while cooking takes place (mostly women and children). Wood burning stoves for cooking is a major source of respiratory problems (and resulting deaths) in Nepal and so changing to gas burning stoves that produce no smoke has been shown to greatly reduce these health problems. There are other benefits that are especially important to the rural women, as women are responsible for most of the farm and household labor. Biogas significantly
246 changes the type of labor they must perform. They no longer need to carry firewood from distant forests up and down steep slopes to their homes. As well, the cooking time is drastically reduced when cooking with gas and the cleaning time is quicker because gas does not leave the same black residue that wood burning does. After biogas installation, women are normally the ones who maintain the daily manure and water input into the plant, but as long as a water source is nearby (a prerequisite for this project) this is not a difficult or time consuming task. As well, since the women are already the manure handlers in the family, carrying it for placement into the inlet is not bothersome.
Description of Need This project replaces traditional wood burning stoves with biogas and is essential because it provides the fulfillment of many needs. The most important are: • Dramatically increases the health of poor rural women and their children by eliminating smoke in the kitchen • Greatly changes the type of labor in many ways for these women. Among these changes are that they no longer must carry firewood long distances, sit for hours over a wood stove watching and stoking the fire, or clean coal stained pots. These changes may greatly reduce their labor time per day. • Substantially lowers the demand for firewood and thus conserves the local forest resources.¹
This photo shows the smoke produced when cooking even on an Improved "Smokeless" (meaning less smoke than traditional stoves) Cook Stove (ICS). The improvement is the chimney that reduces some of the smoke in the house, but as you can see the smoke is still significant. However, when compared to traditional wood stoves, the ICS use less wood and create less smoke for a healthier environment. This can especially benefit those families with no cattle.
The forest near Chhaling is severely degraded for many reasons. There are so few large trees that you may not even call it a "forest." The local users have been recently trained
247 by the District Forest Office in some basic silvicultural (forest management) techniques in order to open up the forest and lesson the competition among the trees, but this isn't enough. The demand by the exploding population is too high. This forest needs serious conservation to be done in order for it to move out of this degraded stage of development and into a healthy flourishing forest again. Biogas essentially eliminates the need for firewood and therefore is a major contributor to forest conservation in Nepal. Rural families, however, cannot afford this technology on their own. This project will provide the funds while the village people provide all the local labor and materials possible. A loan with no collateral is needed, as farmers are not willing to risk their farms because without them their family will starve.
The traditional way leaflitter and firewood are carried up and down steep slopes. This leaflitter is lighter, but woman carry firewood loads up to 50 kg (approx 110 lbs.)
The project will fulfill community needs by enhancing its assets. Community forests will begin restoration, community funds will be increased for biogas and later other loan possibilities, there will be increased nutrients for field fertilization because biogas "slurry" is much better than traditional dung compost, and healthy families can work harder and possibly have more time once firewood collection is eliminated.² These families may be able to start other activities to increase their income such as mushroom farming that is now being introduced in another project or vegetable production for sale. The applied composting technology also make sure that these benefits are available year- round even in the cold months. As well, Nepal's own biogas strategy will be enhanced by including research to be done by BSP. Farmers all over Nepal and around the world can benefit from research to lower costs and enhanced productivity.
248 C. Goals:
1. By the end of September 2004, the governing committee of the Seti Devi Community Forest User Group will be loaning funds to paying members for the building of family biogas plants on a rotating continual basis in Chhaling, Bhaktapur.
Objectives: a. Raised funds to be used for loan principles. b. Ensure community forest user group members understand the details of the loan and benefits of biogas. c. Arrange loans: Check that President and Treasurer are well trained in loan accounting.
2. By the end of December 2004, there will be biogas plants built for the CFUG members with the assistance of BSP that have added compost technology. The biogas receivers have begun repayment of the loans and have been trained in proper operation/ maintenance and slurry utilization.
Objectives: A. Create and sign agreement contracts with BSP and biogas technician(s) to build plants. B. Determine loan rate and monthly payments (tentatively 5% monthly interest for three years with no collateral.) C. Hold trainings given by BSP in slurry use and proper maintenance.
3. These first biogas plants will be built by BSP as part of research in biogas innovations including low cost plants. Failed plants will be repaired by BSP to run properly.
Objectives: a. Verify creation of research proposals with structured study methods b. Sign agreements for BSP to replace and repair research involved biogas plants that fail.
4. By the end of December 2004, there will be 50 Improved Cook Stoves (ICS) built by a locally trained mason to provide benefits to those who do not have cattle. As well, the CFUG will have given out membership waiving the late fee by this time.
Objectives: a. Choose members to receive ICS based on criteria and interest (hold awareness meeting.) b. Sign agreement with mason and build ICS. c. Give out memberships.
249 Beneficiaries: The main beneficiaries of this proposal are the rural women, girls and children of Chhaling, Bhaktapur. As explained above, their health, workload, and generally standard of living will benefit in possibly tremendous ways. Respiratory illnesses are the major cause of death in Nepali women and major studies have linked the smoke of wood fires used for cooking with the respiratory illness in women and children in Nepal. Traditional wood fires take hours to cook on and need constant supervision, stoking, and blowing to keep going. Improved Cook Stoves reduce all of the detriments by using a more efficient and healthier design. Biogas can more than half that cooking time and does not need as much supervision. As well, cooking on gas will dramatically reduce cleaning time, as pots are not covered in fire soot. But, the most significant benefits of biogas are the reduction of smoke related illness and that the women will no longer have to spend days to collect firewood several times a year walking up and down the steep slopes to get it to their home.
250 D. Action Plan and Project Design/Management: Action Plan
Task Who? When? Goal 1a, b and c: Search for donor groups and individuals and secure funds. PCV, Ranger, CFUG Members By end of June 2004 Hold informative meetings with CFUG committee to discuss biogas and the project. PCV and Ranger at CFUG meetings January 2004 – September 2004
Perform “Biogas Awareness Day” for general assembly of all CFUG members and create list of interested families to be involved in project. CFUG committee, Ranger, PCV By end July 2004
Choose eight families to receive biogas plants in first round based on established criteria. CFUG committee By end July 2004
Hold meetings with president, treasurer, and first eight families from CFUG to ensure all details about loan and PCV, Ranger, CFUG “first round” loan bookkeeping are understood. members By end of August 2004
Goal 2a,b and c: PCV, BSP staff, biogas technicians, Write and sign work contracts with BSP and biogas technician(s). CFUG President By end of August 2004
Determine loan properties (interest/ length/no collateral) PCV, Ranger, CFUG Members By end of August 2004
Build plants CFUG Members, BSP Beg September – end December 2004
Hold maintenance trainings BSP After completion of plants
Hold slurry utilization trainings BSP After completion of plants
Goal 3a and b:
Review BSP research proposal(s). Ranger and PCV By end July 2004 PCV, BSP staff, biogas technicians, Verify costs and building plans in meeting with BSP, biogas technician(s), and CFUG loan receivers. CFUG loan receivers By end of August 2004
Sign agreements between BSP and CFUG members including clause that BSP will repair or replace failed biogas BSP staff, CFUG loan receivers with research units. PCV help By end of September 2004
Goal 4 a,b,c
Hold awareness meeting and choose ICS receivers and families for CFUG memberships. CFUG committee By end August 2004
Sign agreement with local ICS mason CFUG committee By end August 2004
Build ICS and give out memberships CFUG committee By end of December 2004
251 Project Management and Sustainability:
The Telkot Ranger, Loknath Ghimire and the Peace Corps Volunteer, Marjorie Ely will begin the implementation process, but ultimately it is the community forest user group that will manage the loans, determine the building plans with local labor and materials, and coordinate with BSP and other biogas technicians. The Ranger and PCV will attend and assist where needed at all meetings, but the CFUG committee members (president and treasurer specifically) will facilitate, organize, and direct all the participants involved. Agreements with donors will be made through the CFUG with the PCV and Ranger's help in document writing. This will enhance the capacity of the group's members in dealing in such transactions. Monitoring and evaluation will be done by all involved especially by the PCV and Ranger, but in such a way to develop these skills within the community. The entire project is designed to promote sustainability as can be seen by the above management plans. As well, since the funds are used for rotating loans, more and more members of the CFUG will be able to install biogas in their homes. Biogas itself has no time limits or expiration on its usage. As long as the family has cows or buffalo, they can produce the gas. This project is directly related to sustaining the natural resources of the community by reducing villager’s demand on those resources.
Potential Problems and Solutions: • Late repayment of loans: Call upon other biogas receivers to put pressure on the late borrower by including a clause in the contract that if one receiver is late on a payment then after one month a late payment fee is applied to ALL the receivers and/ or cosigners on the loan. • Technology failure: agreements with companies and BSP to fix/ maintain plants. • Low interest of CFUG members in biogas installation after initial loans: Awareness campaigns by first borrowers as to benefits and successes of their biogas plants.
252 E. Budget: As of July 27, 2004 Exchange Rate $1USD = 74.64 NRs Biogas Plants Item Quantity Unit Rate (NRs) Amount NRs Amount $ Bricks 2000 Brick 1.53000 $40.19 Cement 16 25 kg bag 375 6000 $80.39 Sand 90 25 kg bag 12 1080 $14.47 Gravel 40 25 kg bag 20 800 $10.72 Emulsion Paint 1 Bucket 350 350 $4.69 Ms rod 8 mm 6 Rod 30 180 $2.41 Appliances 1 Assorted 50005000 $66.99 Transportation of goods 1 ---- 1500 1500 $20.10 Technician fee and training 1 Person 4600 4600 $61.63 Local Semi-Skilled Labor 40 Peop*days 150 6000 $80.39 Total Costs for Each Plant 28510 $381.97 Subtract BSP/ AEPC Subsidy (28.6%) -8500 -$113.88 Subtract Local Resources (24.4%): Labor -6000 -$80.39 Requested Funds for Each Plant (47.0%) 14010 $187.70 Total Requested for 16 plants 224160 $3003.22
CFUG Planning and Monitoring Costs: 25 weeks Stationary 5 People 200 1000 $13.40 Meeting Costs (tea, phone calls, photocopies, etc.) 25 Weeks 350 8750 $117.23 Total Requested for Planning and Monitoring 9750 $130.63
Compost Structure Construction Costs Bamboo 5 Bamboo 120600 $8.04 Labor 4 peop*days 150600 $8.04 Plastic sheet (500 gauge) 3 Meters 100 300 $4.02 Nail 1" long 1 Kg 30 30 $0.40 Binding wire 3 Bundle 50 150 $2.01 Plastic Rope 2 Bundle 5 10 $0.13 Plastic Tape 1 Tape 125 125 $1.67 Total Cost for each Structure 1815 $24.32 Subtract Local Resources (71.4%): Bamboo and Labor -1200 -$16.08 Requested Funds for each Structure(28.6%) 615 $8.24 Total Requested for 16 Composting Structures 9840 $131.83
253 Budget continued Improved Cook Stoves (ICS) Item Quantity Unit Rate (NRs) Amount NRs Amount $ Rods / tin 10 rod 5 50 $0.67 Tin for chimney outlet 2 Piece 25 50 $0.67 Sunbaked brick 100 Brick 1 100 $1.34 Labor 1 Peop*days 200 200 $2.68 Total for each ICS 400 $5.36 Subtract Family contribution (bricks) -100 -$1.34 Total Requested for each ICS 300 $4.02
Total for 50 ICS 15000 $200.96
Overall Budget Summary
Amount (NRs) Amount US$ Percent Total Project Cost (16 plants: 28510*16) + (Planning:9750) + (16 Compost: 1815*16 ) + (50 ICS: 100.00% 400*50) = 514950 $6,899.12 Total Local Community Labor and Materials[6000*16] +[1200*16]+ [100*50): -125000 -$1,674.71 24.27% Total Local Community Forest Contribution (monetary) -8000 -$107.18 1.55% Total BSP/AEPC (Nepal NGO/ government) Subsidy [8500*16] -136000 -$1,822.08 26.41% Total Nepal District Development Committee Contribution -20000 -$267.95 3.88%
Total Project Funds Requested (42.0%): 225950 $3,027.20 43.88%
254 F. Monitoring Plan:
What to Monitor? Things and Places to Check How? Who does it? When?
Attendance to CFUG meetings, members volunteering to help each other with work to CFUG president Interest and lower costs, participation at meetings, help and committee, At each CFUG Motivation in planning by CFUG members Roll call at meetings, observation Ranger, and PCV meeting (weekly)
Roles and Review work at meetings, survey CFUG At each CFUG Responsibilities Work is done on schedule, work quality work done at sites committee, PCV meeting (weekly)
Roll call at trainings and CFUG committee Training and Attendance to CFUG meetings and meetings, observation and testing members and Education trainings, new skills are proficient, new skills of skills, observation of use of BSP staff At trainings, at (Awareness) learned are being used? skills after training (trainers) site visits
Materials and List of needed tools for At each CFUG Equipment Inventory community labor. CFUG members meeting (weekly) CFUG Treasurer Ledgers are being kept in good order at with help from At meetings as Budget CFUG group. Book-keeping by treasurer PCV and Ranger necessary
255 G. Evaluation Plan:
Quantitative or Sources of Who? Key Questions Qualitative Information Methods of Collection When?
1. Is the Seti Devi Community Forest User Group using its supplemented funds to CFUG committee and Interviews and discussions at CFUG provide rotating loans for biogas plants whose members, other meetings, in groups, and with individual Ranger, PCV, borrowing members are consistently repaying community members, community and CFUG members; review of and CFUG the loan? Both Forest Ranger, PCV CFUG work records or meeting minutes committee
CFUG committee and Interviews and discussions at CFUG 2. Are the Community Forest User Group members, other meetings, in groups, and with individual Ranger, PCV, members working to continue building biogas community members, community and CFUG members; review of and CFUG plants in Chhaling, Bhaktapur? Qualitative Forest Ranger, PCV CFUG work records or meeting minutes committee
Both (Quantitative Interviews and discussions at CFUG - Y or N; Biogas plant owners, meetings, in groups, and with individual 3. Has innovative technology by BSP been Qualitative - Was CFUG committee and community and CFUG members; Ranger, PCV, installed (successfully?) in the first plants of the research members, BSP staff/ Interviews of BSP staff, review of CFUG and CFUG the project? successful?) research team work records or meeting minutes committee
256
H. Signs Of Success:
a. Quality of Life: i. 40 beneficiaries experience direct change from installation of first round of biogas plants and 250 beneficiaries from Improved Cook Stove installment (average 5 people per family * eight families.) ii. 30 biogas beneficiaries perceive a change in the quality of their life (3/4 of the people in the families with new biogas plants) and 125 of the ICS beneficiaries perceive a change in the life quality (1/2 of the ICS people – lower because a lower benefit than biogas.) iii. 45 beneficiaries acquire new skills: 40 people in operation and maintenance of new biogas plant and 5 in committee to plan, monitor, and manage budget of the project. iv. CFUG members accept committee with both men and women to control all dimensions of project. Women have direct say in decision making of project. v. Both men and women sign all the loans and ownership contracts giving women more participation in life decisions.
b. Organizational Capacity: i. CFUG demonstrated capacity to define goals and objectives of project and ability to choose appropriate members for subcommittee. ii. Subcommittee demonstrated capacity to put together action plan and implement it by delegating responsibility to plant receivers. Subcommittee also monitored these tasks and evaluated project’s success at the end. iii. CFUG was able to request, handle, budget, and use appropriate financial and material resources.
257
I. Reference for Footnotes:
East Consult (P) Ltd. 2003. Biogas User Survey 2002/2003, Main Report. Alternative Energy Promotion Centre (AEPC), His Majesty’s Government of Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal.
Biogas Project Funding Management Summary
Seti Devi Community Forest User Group; Chhaling VDC, Bhaktapur As of July 28, 2004 Exchange Rate $1 USD =74.64 NRs
Name of Agency/Donor Amount Donated Amount Donated (NRs) ($USD) St. Marks Episcopal Church Outreach 37320 500.00 Individual Donors via Kim Sullivan 69042 925.00 Other US Donor (Anonymous) 119424 1600.00 TOTAL Outside Funding 225786 3025.00
Amount NRs Amount $USD Total Project Cost: 514950 $6,899.12 Subtract Total Community Contribution: -125000 -$1,674.71 Subtract Total CFUG Contribution (letter attached): -8000 -$107.18 Subtract Total BSP/AEPC Subsidy: -136000 -$1,822.08 Subtract Funding From District Development Committee (DDC) (letter attached) : -20000 -$267.95
Subtract Outside Funding: 225786 $3,025.00
Difference: 164 $2.20
258
APPENDIX C
STUDY PROPOSAL
June 2004
This last revision to the thesis proposal for this case study, it defines the main question, my motives, and the general background of biogas in Nepal. It was useful in writing the
Case Study Design and Protocol.
259 Title: Group Management of Integrated Community Projects including Renewable Energy in Nepal: A Case Study of the Seti Devi Community Forest User Group in Chhaling VDC, Bhaktapur District, Nepal
B. Hypothesis: How did this group implement the project compared to the “ideal” implementation [to be developed] outlined in the Methods section below. Specifically gender, caste, and other social dynamics and their implications within decision making and the project implementation will be examined as well as the project planning design and management such as fund management, group organization, time management, implementation problems, and solutions established by the CFUG members. By studying the implementation process of this rural project, successes and failures, problems and solutions, and the group’s thoughts on these issues will be assessed. This evaluation will be used to create recommendations for the project, which may be used for future projects in Nepal and other countries. These recommendations will be useful for both Nepali rural community group members and international development workers involved in such projects.
C. Motivation: Biogas is a perfect application of appropriate technology for rural farmers of Nepal. Although it is somewhat technical to install the original plant, after it’s installation the system is simple to use and maintain daily. Major technical problems are not usual (BSP, 2003). Its benefits are diverse from health to time to resource conservation (especially with widespread installation.) At the present time only the medium to rich farmers are installing biogas because of the initial investment needed that is beyond most Nepali’s means. Loans are available, but as there is no direct monetary benefit, most people are not willing to put up collateral for the loan they are not sure how they can repay. This project has been set to establish a loan system for the CFUG that will be of low interest and no collateral and will provide the opportunity for these loans to all members with cattle regardless of caste or financial background. The project committee will be trained in design and management in the first meetings and then will have the PCV and Ranger as advisors throughout their implementation. By studying how the committee manages the project and how social dynamics play into the project implementation, I’d like to ascertain the best criteria for rural projects that can bring this resource to many farmers who up to now have been unable to acquire it.
D. Background: Biogas is an important renewable energy resource for farmers in Nepal. The major use for this technology is cooking, though it can also be used for lighting in gas lamps, as well. Right now the overwhelming majority of Nepal’s rural people use wood in small mud stoves to cook all their food. This puts a huge burden of work on the people (mostly the women) to collect firewood for the stoves (up to approximately 100 loads per year weighing from 50 to 100 kilograms each.) As well, the exploding population of Nepal, especially in Kathmandu valley where I live, makes this practice a great detriment to the forests. Most of the forests of surrounding hillsides of Kathmandu valley are only
260 considered shrub-land because they have been so devastated by this and wood collection for other purposes by an ever increasing amount of people. Biogas or “Gobar – gas” in Nepali literally meaning “manure gas” and it is just that. A process that ferments the manure to create methane gas from the farmer’s cattle, one large buffalo can provide enough for a family of four to cook from and two - three cattle is enough for 8 – 10. Traditionally the manure from the buffalo or cows is used for fertilizer in the family’s fields. Though this practice is good, the manure is usually not allowed to sit and compost long enough and therefore is not nutrient rich. Therefore, most farmers who can afford it buy urea (a chemical fertilizer) to apply to their fields to increase the productivity of the crops. On the other hand, the sludge manure byproduct of biogas systems is quite rich in nutrients after the fermentation process and thus is better for the fields than the original manure. In fact, if this sludge is composted with straw or grass and kitchen waste, the resulting compost is so high in nutrients that after applying it to the fields for two seasons, urea is no longer needed with the compost thus saving the farmers money in the long run. Thus, biogas is a very valuable resource that provides real benefits to farmers in Nepal. Another of the most significant is the health benefit to all those that are in the kitchen while cooking takes place (mostly women and children). Wood burning stoves for cooking is a major source of respiratory problems (and resulting deaths) in Nepal and so changing to gas burning stoves that produce no smoke may greatly reduce these health problems. Other benefits are especially important to the rural women because women are responsible for most of the farm and household labor. Biogas significantly cuts down the amount of labor for women. They no longer need to carry firewood from distant forests up and down steep slopes to their homes. As well, the cooking time is drastically reduced when cooking with gas and the cleaning time is quicker because gas does not leave the same black residue that wood burning does. The problem is that this resource is being wasted in Nepal as the cost of building the system is well beyond the reach of most rural people. It is approx. 25,000 Nepali Rupees [NRs] (or $340) to build one system. The government of Nepal in coordination with another International Non – government office (Biogas Support Program or BSP) [BSP has undergone a transformation from INGO to a local Nepali NGO with outside advisors and financial support dramatically reduced and fading out. The name is still BSP, but now standing for Biogas Sector Partnership Program] provides a varying amount of subsidy (from 5000 to 10000 NRs depending on district location) but this leaves a substantial amount remaining which is virtually impossible for a family of 5 that lives off of 3000 – 4000 NRs or less per month. A loan is possible to attain through this same system of subsidy, but almost all farmers are unwilling to put their farms up for collateral for the loan because biogas plants themselves do not provide income generation. (Though they do free up time and biogas slurry can be used in conjunction with income generating farm activities.) Also, because the direct benefits of biogas mostly affect women, men who are the financial decision makers in the household, usually do not see biogas as a priority. Most Nepalis therefore see biogas as a useful luxury item that is unattainable by most farmers. Micro- finance in Nepal is a relatively new system that is starting to bloom in many rural areas. The idea is based on a savings and loan scheme where by the members each put a certain amount of money in week and then can take loans from the group. Usually these loans are short term, one time payment
261 plans at relatively high interest (18% in Chhaling), for either income generating ideas or emergencies. New ideas for incorporating biogas into these micro-finance institutions are being explored by groups like Winrock International who works closely with BSP. Though much has been written about the positive impacts, socio-economic status of biogas users, and evaluation of biogas installation companies and the overall status of biogas in Nepal; there does not seem to be any previous studies on group formation and dynamics for individual plant construction. Most studies are based on individually built plants to show success of the overall biogas program in Nepal or of an individual installation company. These studies characterized biogas households and evaluated performance of the plants. These studies focused on sample surveys of households with biogas systems covering different portions of Nepal. There are other group projects in Nepal initiated by INGO/NGOs such as the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) in varying, but mainly Terai (hot flatland) districts of Nepal. Unfortunately, in the current unstable political situation of Nepal extensive travel to these different districts is not recommended and possibly dangerous (in addition to being unallowed by Peace Corps while I am a PCV.) A comparative study of the different projects and how they are implemented by the group participants would be optimum, but since this is impossible a case study of one project recommended by myself to this local group can provide much insight to the idiosyncrasies of community projects involving renewable energy for individual members. E. Summary of Study: This study will monitor the progress of the group from project introductory phases until the initial rounds of biogas plants are built and second round plants are planned. The group will be given a project organizational design to work from and the process by which they manage the project based on this design will be observed. All activities of the group and it’s individual members (related to the study) will be documented in detail. How well the group adheres to the project design, problems, successes, group dynamics, socio-economic factors, and necessary design alterations will all be evaluated. Previous renewable energy case studies especially those involving community groups in developing countries will be reviewed and recommendations and conclusions compared to those developed by this study.
F. Methods: The entire project will be monitored by direct observation of activities, informal and formal interviews, and review of all documents involved in the project. Specifically social, economic, and technical aspects will be examined for how they factor into the project management. Direct observation will be in the form of field notes and daily journal entries as well as recording meetings when this is appropriate and acceptable. Informal interviews of group participants, community members, and other involved peoples will be held whenever necessary to obtain or clarify information and/or opinions. Formal interviews will be conducted of identified key informants and new plant owners during and after the study cycle to ascertain viewpoints, group and family statistics (# of members, age, gender, etc.) and other pertinent information.
262 G: Support and Equipment: Support: ¾ Assistance in writing surveys in Nepali from Peace Corps staff or my Nepali language teacher. ¾ Assistance from Forestry Ranger and support from District Forest Office in planning and monitoring of ongoing biogas project. ¾ Cooperation of local agencies for background information ¾ Cooperation from biogas installation companies to identify technical constraints and issues during construction.
Equipment: ¾ Surveys ¾ Pens/pencils ¾ Audio recorder - batteries/ audio tapes
H. Copyrights: not applicable right now
I. Human Subject Research: a) The risk involved in this study is no greater than the normal risk for individuals if they were not to participate in it. b) Participants may only be identified by a number or pseudonym, but this precaution most likely not necessary. c) I will state all implications and non-involvement withdrawal rights. d) Surveys
263
APPENDIX D
DOCUMENTS OF THE CASE STUDY
Collected from July 2004 to March 2005
The documents collected in this study include official letters, contracts, meeting minutes, an announcement, the biogas recipient application, and the biogas management committee ledger. The documents were an important source of information and verified observations and the statements of respondents. Names have been changed or omitted when necessary to protect the identity of individuals.
264
265
266
267 District Development Committee (DDC) Office Bhaktapur, Kathmandu
Letter #: A. S. 060/61 Date: 2061/2/32 Forward #: 1968
Subject: Transferred Rs. 18,000 (Eighteen thousand Rupees)
Shree Devi Community Forest Users Group Chhaling, Bhaktapur.
As per above mentioned subject, DDC’s meeting on 2061/2/28 has decided to provide total Nrs. 20,000/ (twenty thousand rupees) for Bio Gas plant construction project. Currently, DDC has provided only Nrs. 18,000 (eighteen thousand rs.) Cheque # XXX for the BSP construction project. It is informed that after using money, please submit all the receipts and vouchers to the DDC, Bhaktapur.
By:
Local Development Officer DDC, Bhaktapur
c.c.: Chhaling Village Development Committee, Bhaktapur
268 Seti Devi Community Forest Users Group Chhaling – 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 Wards
Letter #: A. S. 061/62 Date: 2061/4/14 Forward #: 58
Subject: Regarding Information
District Development Committee Office Bhaktapur.
With reference to the above subject, We inform you that DDC’s grant money Nrs. 18,000 (eighteen thousand) has been received by this Seti Devi Forest Users Group and would use this grant as per biogas plant construction plan. This fund has been given to Mrs. Meena xxxx, Chairperson, and Mrs. Anar xxxxx, Advisor Chairperson CFUG committee, Chhaling.
Bharat xxxx Fund received by: Treasurer Mrs. Meena xxxx Seti Devi CFUG Mrs. Anar xxxx Chhaling
269 Plant Tree and Save Forest
Notice Notice Notice
As per meeting held among Seti Devi Community Forest Users Group on 2061/4/5, it has been decided that 16 bio gas plants and 50 improved smokeless stoves will be constructed and membership would be provided to 25 persons. Therefore, we request you to attend meeting on the following place, date and time to discuss about this.
Requested by: Meena Chairperson
Place: Radha Krishna School Compound Date: 2061/5/12 Time: 10 AM
270 Household Application Form for Biogas (Sample)
House owner’s Name: Father/Husband’s Name: Address: Number of family members:
Q. # 1 How many cattle/domestic animals do you have? Answer:
Q. # 2 Do you have toilet at your home? Answer:
Q. # 3 How far is water source from your home? Answer:
Q. #4 Do you keep/feed your animal at your home or in fields? Answer:
Q. #5 Have you and your husband, both, discussed or not? Answer:
Q. # 6 Do you both agree to sign on the agreement letter or not? Answer:
Q. # 7 Are you happy to use toilet in Bio Gas plant? Answer:
Q. # 8 Have you received Community Forest User membership? Answer:
Q. # 9 Where do you collect firewood from? Answer:
271 Biogas Sector Partnership-Nepal
Shree Seti Devi Community Forest Users Group Chhaling V. D. C., Bhaktapur District, Nepal
Date: 2061/8/24
Letter #: BSP/SB/04/239
Subject: Transfer amount (Money)
Dear Sir,
As per request letter # 061/62 dated 061/8/24 submitted by the Shree Seti Devi Community Forest Users Group Chhaling V. D. C., Bhaktapur District, Nepal Peace Corps Volunteer provided fund to set a Bio Gas Plant in their work area. According to the agreement letter, the collected money was planned to distribute to Bio Gas Company to 25 Bio Gas Plant @ the rate of Rs. 8000/ (eight thousand) and NRs. 1000/ (one thousand) was provided to the related farmers in advance. Therefore, we would like to inform you that currently farmers will get NRs. 1,75,000 (NRs. one hundred, seventy five thousand) for 25 Bio Gas Plants @ the rate of NRs. 7000/ (seven thousand). We inform you that NRs. 1000/ (one thousand) will be made available upon completion of the Bio Gas Plant construction.
Name
Sundar Bajgain Executive Director B. S. P. Nepal c.c.: Bio Gas Company Private Ltd.
272 Agreement for Biogas Plant Construction (Contract) Biogas Company (P.) Ltd. and Seti Devi Community Forest Users Group
Conditions to be kept in mind:
Biogas Company P. Ltd. will provide: • Provide technical support. • All the needed construction materials as per plan and design – for 6. cft. • 3 years’ guarantee for repairs and maintenance of biogas plant. • Complete plant construction works within 20 days of hole making. • Training for maintenance and repair will be provided by the company. • All the construction need to be completed at all the areas of the Community Forest Sub-Users groups.
Seti Devi Community Forest User Groups will: • Farmers would have to be used to dig holes as per set guidelines provided by the company. • Ask farmers to transport construction materials from the nearest road head to their own plant construction sites (if there is not road access). • Provide unskilled labors • Make sure that farmers will be responsible to manage lodge and foods for the construction groups at their respective sites. • Ask farmers to make two compost fertilizers as per BSP guidelines. • Collect Rs. 1000/(one thousand) from each farmer, who will have a bio gas plant, to give it to the construction company after the completion of the project. • Company will regularly monitor the plant. • Community will provide total Nrs. 9000 (nine thousand). But in advance, community will pay Nrs. 8000 (eight thousand) as an installment to buy materials. NRs. 1000 (one thousand) will be paid to the company after completion of the project. • Mobile loan system will be used for Seti Devi Community Forest Users Groups and construction work will be given to the second group.
If needed, above mentioned points will be amended or changed by both parties. Signatures: Seti Devi Community Forest User Biogas Company (P.) Ltd. Group Members Representatives Chhaling, Bhaktapur
Witnesses: B. S. P. Representative: Winrock International Rep. Seti Devi Forest Users Rep.: Anar Seti Devi Forest Users Rep.: Mahesh Date: 2061, Ashoj 5
273 Agreement for Biogas Plant Construction (Contract) Biogas Sector Partnership-Nepal & Biogas Company (P.) Ltd.
Peace Corps Volunteer, Ms. Marjorie D. Ely, provided fund of Nrs. 2,25, 212 (Rs. Two lakh, twenty five thousand and two hundred twenty) to B.S.P. Nepal to construct bio Gas plants at ward # 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 of Chhaling V. D. C., Bhaktapur district. As per suggestion and ideas of Shree Seti Devi Community Forest Users Group members, construction agreement have been made with Biogas Company, with the following conditions:
• Biogas plant should be constructed with 6cft. capacity following G.G.C. model plant. • Company is responsible to transport needed materials (Bricks- 1200 pieces, cement: 10 sacks, Iron rods 10.50 kg and other materials as per quotation) to the road head of the construction sites. • Polythene pipes should be used for the pipelines. If G. I. pipes are used, then farmers would be charged for any additional costs. • If any farmer wants to have a cow dung refining machine, the real cost will be paid for by the farmer. It is not necessary to use 6 cft size biogas machine. Therefore, it should be discussed with farmers. • Post construction policies and rules will be followed as per BSP Nepal.
Farmers’ (Forest Users Group) Responsibilities: • Construction materials, provided or transported by the company, will be transported from the road head to the construction sites by the farmers. • Manage labors. • If needed, more funds will be managed by the farmers.
------______xxxxxxxxxx Sundar Bajgain Biogas Company (P.) Ltd B. S. P. Nepal xxxxxxxxxx Bakhundole, Lalitpur Date: 10 Kartik, 2061 Date: 10 Kartik, 2061
274 Minute Book
Seti Devi Community Forest Users Group Chhaling, Bhaktapur ______Date: 2061/4/9
Attendance: Meena Anar Person 1 Person 2 Person 3 Marjorie Ely
As meeting of today following points were decided after the discussion;
Decision # 1: (From the meeting of the CFUG on 2061/4/5) Overall Objective for The Biogas and Improved Cook Stove Project (Vision). The purpose of this construction is to save forest and develop [improve] the lifestyle or living standers of the people of this area. To accomplish this we will construct biogas plants and smokeless stoves. We will also provide loans without collateral and with low interest to the farmers so that they can protect or preserve the forest and improve their lives. So, the next purpose of this project is to provide support to helpless/poor farmers who cannot construct biogas plants to install the improved cook stoves without any cost. From this poor farmers also will be benefited. This project will completely run and planned by the members of the Community Users groups and Ranger and PCV will be advisors for this project. Decision # 2:
Goal #1: Inform all Community Forest Members: - Posting Notice - Houses visits - Group meeting
Goal #2: Create Loan System policy - Prepare Policies - Convince Bio Gas Plant Owners
Goal #3: Construct 17 Bio Gas Plants - Select a Company and prepare agreement/MOU - MOU (agreement) with Bio Gas Promotion Support - Discuss with Bio Gas Plant Owners (Pre-construction) - Collect Materials - Provide training by the Bio Gas Promotion Support
Goal #4: Construct 50 Smokeless Stoves and provide membership to 25 farmers with a considerable fee. - Select technician who makes Smokeless stoves. - Prepare policy ======
275 Date: 2061/4/10 Attendance: Meena Person 1 Anar Person 2 Person 3 Marjorie Ely
Decision # 1 Work Plan for Gobar Gas and Improved Cook Stove
Sub-Committee Meeting What? Who? When? Where? Goal #1.: Inform All members of sub Shrawan 10, Radha members Committee 2061 Krishna - Prepare Notice After Bhadra 5 Pra. V. - Buy materials Bhadra 12 - Post notice - Set meeting place and time - Call People Goal #2: Loan System Ranger and PCV, Shrawan 21 - Prepare rules Radha - Select people what wants Members of sub After Bhadau 12 Krishna to have Bio Gas Plant committee, and Pra. V. - Discussion with Farmers Winrock End of Bhadau 10:30 AM Representative’s support
Goal #3. 16 Bio Gas Plant All members of Sub- Before Bhadau Range Post Construction committee 12 Objective 1:Select company - Find out company that works better - Prepare questionnaires to discuss with BSP office Sub-committee - Contact with three BSP construction companies. - Select one construction company - Tell company and consult with them
276 What? Who? When? Where? Goal 3 Objective 2 Sub-committee Shrawan 18 and Kupandole Agreement with BSP Bhadau 7 - Discuss with BSP - Sign on agreement - Goal #3 Objective 3 Contract Sub-committee After Bhadau 12 with farmers - First meeting and sign on agreement (with farmers). - Meeting about works and responsibilities - Checking
Goal #3 Objective 4: Sub-committee First week of Materials Asoj - Discuss about materials with BSP & Company. - Collect materials - Responsibilities should take by the farmers that want to have bio gas plant Goal #3 Objective 5 Find out place for bio Gas plant - Set a place Company - Dig a hole Farmers - Company’s work Company (construction) - Trainings on Operation Company and Maintenance - Operate bio gas plant Farmers - Training about fertilizer B. S. P Mangsir or Poush Goal 4 Improved stoves and membership - Prepare rules for ICS Sub-committee End of Shrawan and membership receivers (choose the receivers and meet End of Bhadau them.) - Select the ICS mason ICS mason Kartik-Poush - Sign on agreement with Sub-committee mason - Construct Stoves - Distribute membership
277
Date: 2061/4/17 Sub-Committee Meeting
Attendance: Meena Person 1 Anar Person 2 Person 3 Marjorie Ely
Discussion: 1. Post notice, Set criteria and rules for membership and smokeless stove, call technical persons, write notice, Visit Winrock and B. S. P. and select a company.
2. Criteria for Farmers who want to have Bio gas Plant. Farmers should have: - 2 cattle or domestic animals (at least) - Toilet - Water facility - Animals in cattle shed. - Tap – within 60-meter distance - Plan made from husband and wife – both - All caste groups - Sign on agreement - Member of the Users Committee - Collect firewood from the community forest - No biogas plant and improved cook stove facility will be provided.
3. Criteria for ICS owners (Who want to have) They should be: - member of the Users Group - priority to Dalit group or disadvantaged community - Responsible to collect dung, clay/soil and straw for chulo construction.
278 Date: 2061/4/21 Sub-Committee Meeting Attendance: Meena Person 1 Anar Person 2 Person 3 Marjorie Ely
Decision: 1. Develop Loan system - For one loan receiver should be three witness (at least) - Invest 5% money - Time will be set as per loan process - Interest 10% per year - Last process: 5% interest for 1 week, 10% interest for 2 weeks, 15% interest for 3 weeks and 20% interest for 4 weeks. Witnesses’ persons also will be presented. - Loan pay system: Any person takes loan in Kartik month and pay 5% interest should pay loan in Push not in Mangsir.
2. Rs. 50 should pay for chulo construction. 3. Membership: - Organize general meeting. - Membership fee Rs. 50/ - Membership will be provided to the selected person 4. Try for low cost Bio gas plant construction plan. Plan will be made after consultation with B. S. P. 5. Next meeting will be on 2062/4/28 at Anar’s home at 10.30 AM
Date: 2061/4/28 Sub Committee Meeting Attendance: Person 1 Anar Person 2 Person 3 Marjorie Ely Ranger
Discuss and Decision: 1. Loan System; - Rs. 10,000 (ten thousand) to 12,000 (twelve thousand) should pay within 24 month with interest.
2. Next meeting will be on Bhadra 12 , 2061 during general meeting.
279
Date: 2061/5/9
Sub-committee meeting
Attendance: Anar Person 1 Meena Person 2 Person 3
Decision:
1. Responsibilities: - Plan for Bhadra 12 general meeting – All sub-committee members. - Rationale and objectives of the general meeting - Meena - Information about biogas plan - Person 1 - Information about ICS - Person 2 - Membership – Person 3 - Other discussion will be led by Anar and Meena.
Date: 2061/5/20 Sub Committee Meeting
Attendance: Person 1 Person 2 Person 3 Meena Anar
Decision: 1. Received 10 applications for bio gas plant. Last date for application was to be 2061/5/20 (today) but we will meet again on 2062/5/25 to check for more applications and discuss about the received application.
Date: 2061/5/25 (No Nepali Minutes?)
280 Date: 2061/8/12
Sub Committee Meeting
Attendance: Person 1 Person 2 Person 3 Meena Anar Marjorie Ely
Decision: 1. Responsibility to construct 50 Improved cook stoves is given to the CFUG Committee Treasurer A -
Agreement: 1. Straw, mud/clay, husks, dung should provide by the farmers. 2. Iron rod will be provided by Sub-committee. 3. Sub Committee will give to the main constructor rs. 250/day 4. Application fee for chulo is Rs. 50/ 5. Chulo Construction should start from Mangsir 15 to end of Phagun month 2061. 6. Main constructor will train farmers (Chulo owners) regarding cleaning and maintenance. 7. Sub-committee will supervise and monitor chulo construction works. 8. Coming Tuesday, Sub-Committee members will buy iron rods for chulo construction.
Date: 2061/6/28
Sub-committee Meeting
Attendance: Other: Person 1 BSP representative Person 2 Winrock representative Person 3 Biogas Company owner Meena Local Student Assistant Anar
Decision: 1 Meeting with Farmers who want to set a bio gas plant. Prepared an agreement papers with the suggestion and help from Winrock rep. and BSP rep. Agreement is made with the sub-committee and Biogas Construction Company. 2 Sign on agreement with Farmers and collect Rs. 1000 (One thousand). 3 Prepare a sample Loan Form with Winrock rep.
281
Date: 2061/7/10
Attendance: Person 1 Meena Person 2 Person 3 Anar
Decision:
1. Sign on agreement by the farmers and collect Rs. 1000 (one thousand) as advance from each farmer who wants to have bio gas plant.
Date: 2061/7/27 Other Attendance: Meena Biogas Company staff Person 1 Person 2 Person 3 Anar
Decision:
1. Collected Rs. 11,000 (Eleven Thousand Rs) from 11 farmers and Loan form given to the company staff.
Name list of farmers Rs. 1. A 1000/ 2. B 1000/ 3. C 1000/ 4. D 1000/ 5. E 1000/ 6. F 1000/ 7. G 1000/ 8. H 1000/ 9. I 1000/ 10. J 1000/ 11 K 1000/
2. Next meeting will be on 2061/8/4 at 10 AM Meena’s house
282
Date: 2061/8/8
Sub-Committee Meeting Meena Person 1 Person 2 Person 3 Anar
Decision: No decision is made from today meeting.
Date: 2061/9/6
Attendance: Meena Person 1 Person 2 Anar Person 3
Decision: 1. Collected other Rs. 8000/ (eight Thousand Rs.) from the following farmers: 1. L Rs. 1000/ 2. M Rs. 1000/ 3. N Rs. 1000/ 4. O Rs. 1000/ 5. P Rs. 1000/ 6. Q Rs. 1000/ 7. R Rs. 1000/ 8. S Rs. 1000/
283
Date: 2061/9/15
Bio Gas Plant construction sub-committee meeting
Attendance: Meena Person 1 Person 2 Anar Person 3
Other Attendance: Ranger Forest Rangepost staff
Decision: 1. Bio Gas Plan supervision and monitor will be done by Sub-committee members with Forest Rangepost staff. 2. Needed support will be taken from Rangepost staff for all the construction works (Biogas and ICS).
Date: 2061/10/9 Bio Gas Plant construction sub-committee meeting
Attendance: Meena Person 1 Person 2 Anar Person 3
Decision: 1. On 2061/9/17 collected Rs. 2000/ (two thousand) from following farmers and given this rupees. To company staff 1. T Rs. 1000/ 2. U Rs. 1000/ 2. Decided to conduct a meeting and discuss about bio gas plant construction with Biogas construction Company and BSP rep.
284
Date: 2061/10/13 Bio Gas Plant construction sub-committee meeting with farmers and BSP & Company staff
Attendance: Person 1 Meena Anar Person 2 Person 3
Other Attendance: BSP representative (1) Biogas Company owner BSP representative (2) Biogas company staff
Meeting with BSP Staff and Bio Gas Company staff and discussed about construction plan. Farmers asked different questions to the B. S. P. staff and company staff.
------
Date: 2061/11/20 Bio Gas Plant construction sub-committee meeting
Attendance: Meena Person 1 Person 2 Anar Person 3
Decision:
1. 33 rods for the improved cooks stoves had been already distributed. 120 small rods and 10 big rods are still remaining. Besides this, 24 big rods and 33 small rods should be bought. 2. According to the decision of making only 50 improved cook stoves, from today ‘s date 2061/11/20, the quota has been already fulfilled so only 50 improved cook stoves will be made. 3. All the accounts of this sub-committee are checked and according to this all accounts are in good condition. 4. Decided to go to meeting at District Forest Office on 2061/11/26
285 Meeting Minutes from Bhaktapur District Forest Office
Today on the date 2061/11/26 the meeting of the officers of the Seti Devi CFUG with the District Forest Officer was conducted in the Bhaktapur District Forest Office with the following people present:
District Forest Officer Advisor from CRTEC (former Peace Corps Natural Resources Program Officer) Anar (Biogas Management Committee) Person 1 (Biogas Management Committee) BSP staff Person 2 (Biogas Management Committee) Meena (Biogas Management Committee) Marjorie Ely (former PCV) Biogas Company staff Person 3 (Biogas Management Committee) Person A (new CFUG committee) Person B (new CFUG committee) Person C (new CFUG committee) Person D (new CFUG committee) Person E (new CFUG committee) District Forest Office Ranger
Decision 1. In this meeting abut the making of biogas plants through the Seti Devi CFUG was discussed and according to this meeting’s decision two people from the Seti Devi CFUG [new] committee will be added to the biogas sub-committee to make altogether seven members in the sub-committee. The name of the seven members is given in decision 3. 2. About using the bank balance: While discussing about opening the bank balance of Seti Devi sub-committee, it is decided that from the sub-committee, two persons, Meena and Anar, and from the main committee side two persons, A and B, (all together four members) must have their signatures (agreement) to use the bank balance. 3. The name of the members of the sub-committee are as follows: i. Meena ii. Person 1 iii. Anar iv. Person 2 v. Person 3 vi. Person A (from CFUG) vii. Person B (from CFUG)
286 BIOGAS MANAGEMENT COMMITTEE ACCOUNT LEDGER
Account of : Bio Gas Sub Committee (Anar) 2061 Nepali English Date Date Particulars Debit Credit Balance 7/29/04 Funding support from 4/14/61 Dist. Dev. Committee 18,000 18,000/ 7/29 Register 100
Account book 160 17,650/
Glue 10 4/14 5 Note books 75
Photo copy 5 7/29 4/14 Bus Fare – 4 persons 57 17,508/
Meal for 4 persons 85 8/1 5 chow-chow 55 4/17 17,442/
Half litre milk 11 8/2 4/18 Snacks for 5 persons 81 17,143/
Bus fare 150
Bus fare BSP-Winrock 68 4/21 8/5 Snacks chow chow 5 55 Snack 12 17,065/
Milk ½ litre 11 8/13 Computer typing 20/ 4/29
Photo Copy 51 16,994 9/15 5/30 80 16914
40 16874 9/16 5/31 Meeting to Winrock 150 16614 9/17 6/1 Bus fare five people 60 6554
snack 90 16464 60/ 16,404/ 10/8 6/22 Meeting at BSP 156 16248 10/14 6/28 Meeting, snack, tea 105 6143 7/10 10/26
From CFUG funds 7000 23143
287 Nepali English Particulars Date Date Debit Credit Balance 10/28 7/12 Loan Form Photo copy 70 23073/ 10/31 Advance from members’ application for Bio Gas 7/15 plants:
1. Biogas Recipient 1000/ 24073
2. Biogas Recipient 1000/ 25073 1000/ 3. Biogas Recipient 26073
4. Biogas Recipient 1000/ 27073
5. Biogas Recipient 1000/ 28073
6. Biogas Recipient 1000/ 29073
7. Biogas Recipient 1000/ 30073
8. Biogas Recipient 1000/ 31073
9. Biogas Recipient 1000/ 32073
10. Biogas Recipient 1000/ 33073
11. Biogas Recipient 1000/ 34073 11/11 7/26 Gave to company 11000 23073 12/04 8/19 12. Biogas Recipient 1000/ 24073
13. Biogas Recipient 1000/ 5073 12/21 9/6 14. Biogas Recipient 1000/ 26073
15. Biogas Recipient 1000/ 27073
16. Biogas Recipient 1000/ 28073
17. Biogas Recipient 1000/ 29073
18. Biogas Recipient 1000/ 30073
19. Biogas Recipient 1000/ 31073 12/8 Monitor plants and phone 8/23 call to BSP 85 30988 12/21 9/6 Gave to company 8000 2988 12/24 9/9 Meeting snack 70 22918 1/13/05 9/29 Bank interest 165 23086 1/26/05 10/13 Meeting 30 23053/ 1/22/05 10/9 ? 1000 24053
288 Nepali English Particulars Date Date Debit Credit Balance 1/31/05 10/18 Snacks & Copy 83 23970 2/4/05 10/22 Bus fare to buy rods 60 23906/ 10/22 2/4 Iron Rods 1370 22536 10/23 2/5 20. Biogas Recipient 1000/ 23536 21. Biogas Recipient 1000/ 24536 22. Biogas Recipient 1000/ 25536 23. Biogas Recipient 1000/ 26536 10/25 2/7 Iron rods 374 26162 11/6 2/17 Iron Rods 1732 24430 bus 37 24393 11/13 2/24 77 24316 11/15 2/26 Iron Rods, bus 2499 21817 11/20 3/3 Meeting 55 21762 11/26 3/9 Meeting 96 21666
Fund collected from: • 23 farmers x Rs. 1000= Rs. 23,000 • Seti Devi Rs.8000 • Dist. Dev. Committee Rs. 18,000 ------
289
APPENDIX E
COMMUNITY KNOWLEDGE PRE-SURVEY AND
POST-SURVEY QUESTIONS
Conducted in August 2004 and March 2005, respectively.
Information collected in this survey was to determine the differences in knowledge about the renewable energy technologies and the CFUG project. Some questions asked were related to caste, wealth, and gender.
290 “Pre – Community Knowledge Survey” Questions
1. Name: ______Gender: M F
2. Number of people living in house: ______
3. Main sources of household income (Rank those that apply. Let respondent answer and then
prompt about remaining sources. Put an asterisk next to all prompted responses.):
Farm (Include income from animals)
Office/ Sales Work
Merchant/ Shop Owner
Labor (construction/ work in fields for pay)
Service Work (tailor/ blacksmith, etc)
Rent (of land/ room/ house/ etc)
Other______
4. Amount of Land (Number of Ropani):______
5. Number of (prompt):
• Cow______
• Buffalo______
• Goat______
• Chicken______
• Other______
6. Monthly household Income:
a. Farm (prompt source, amount is open):
Source __Selling grain______Amount______
Source __Selling vegetables ______Amount ______
Source __Selling milk______Amount ______
Source ___Use of stud______Amount ______
Source ___Other______Amount ______
291 b. Non-Agriculture Sources (source from #3 above, prompt for Amount <2000, >2000, >
4000, >6000, >8000)
Who______Source______Amount______
Who______Source______Amount______
Who______Source______Amount______
Who______Source______Amount______
7. Literacy (open):
a. Who is literate?: Age______Gender______
Age______Gender______
Age______Gender______
Age______Gender______
b. Who is illiterate?: Age______Gender______
Age______Gender______
Age______Gender______
Age______Gender______
8. What do you use to cook? (prompt and Rank):
Wood Stove
Kerosene
Electric
Gas
Biogas
Other______
9. If woodstove, what kind?(prompt and check one):
Traditional (old)
ICS
292 10. Monthly use of those listed above in question 8(prompt unit amount if necessary):
a. Firewood: Amount______dhoko
b. Kerosene: Amount______liters
c. Electric: Amount______hours
d. Gas: Amount______hours
e. Biogas: Amount______hours
f. Other ______: Amount______(Unit?)_____
11. Where do you get firewood from? (Open and rank after initial response with asterisks – Rank and
amount/month):
Community Forest: Amount/ month ______
“Barri” (Upland Field): Amount/ month______
Other______: Amount /month______
Other______: Amount /month______
12. Have you heard about the Seti Devi CFUG current project? YES NO
13. If yes, how did you hear about the project? (Open – check one or rank if more than one):
CFUG committee member
Family member
Friend/ Neighbor
Other______
14. If yes, what do you know about the project? (Open – check all that apply):
Biogas (Build/ bring/ give, etc)
ICS (Build / bring / give, etc)
Loan for biogas
Rotating Loan System
Lower membership fee for new members
293 Low cost biogas
Other______
15. Have you heard of ICS?: YES NO
16. If yes, how did you find out about it? (Open – check one or rank if more than one)
Family Member
Friend/ Neighbor
Radio
Television
Newspaper/ Magazine
Notice/ poster/ pamphlet
Calendar
Field Workers (in village)
Government/ NGO offices (at office)
Government/ NGO office (at a training of meeting in village)
Other______
17. If yes to 12, what do you know about the benefits and detriments of ICS? (Open – check off all
that apply):
Chimney/ smoke goes outside/ less smoke inside
Health benefit for respiratory
Less firewood needed
Less labor (because less firewood needed)
More wood in forest (conservation)
Most benefit to women and children (because they are in kitchen during cooking)
294 No place for warming hands
Less smoke to rid house of insects
Other______
18. If yes to 12, do you want to install ICS? YES NO
19. If yes to 15, why haven’t you installed it, yet? (Open)
Money
Don’t know a mason/ No one available in village to make
Family doesn’t want it
Other______
20. If yes to 15, do you know of any sources of assistance for installing ICS? YES NO
Name the known sources (Open):
The CFUG project
Center for Rural Technology in Kathmandu
DDC/ VDC training in installation
Other______
21. Have you heard of biogas?: YES NO
22. If yes, how did you hear about biogas? (Open – check one or rank if more than one):
Family Member
Friend/ Neighbor Radio
Television
Newspaper/ Magazine
Notice/ poster/ pamphlet
Calendar
Field Workers (in village)
295 Government/ NGO offices (at office)
Government/ NGO office (at a training of meeting in village)
Other______
23. If yes to 18, what do you know about the benefits and/ or detriments of biogas?(Open – check all
that apply):
No smoke
Improvement of/ benefit for respiratory health
Use cow/ buffalo manure
Use/ connect toilet
Can also use (add) straw/ kitchen waste/ goat manure/ other manure
Need to add water
No firewood needed(do not need to collect firewood for biogas)
Conserves forest resources
Shorter to cook meals (don’t have to start fire)
Easier to cook/ less work to cook (don’t have to keep fire going – stoking, blowing)
Less work to clean pots and pans
Can cook small snacks/ tea easily
Biogas slurry has more nutrients than FYM/ slurry good for compost for fields
Sanitation health benefit (in community because of toilet use)
No smoke to rid house of insects
Labor needed daily to put manure and water into plant
Less gas in winter months
Smaller flame than wood fire
296 Taste of food different (no smoke to add flavor)
May still need to build fires (to cook in winter/ for warmth in winter)
Other______
24. If yes to 18, do you want to install biogas at your home? YES NO
25. If yes to 21, why haven’t you installed biogas, yet? (Open)
Money – lack of own funding
Unable to get a loan
Don’t know how to find company
Family doesn’t want it
Other______
26. If yes to 21, do you know of sources of assistance for installing biogas? YES NO
Name the known sources (Open):
Loan from CFUG project
Loan from local bank/ individuals
Subsidy from BSP/ AEPC
Asking for help from VDC/ DDC
Other NGO’s assistance
Other______
NOTES:
297 Post Project “Community Knowledge Survey” Questions
1. Name______Ward______Date______
2. What do you use to cook? (Change from before??) (Rank):
Traditional Wood Stove
ICS
Kerosene
Electric
Gas
Biogas
Other______
3. If woodstove, what kind? (Change from before??) (check one):
Traditional (old)
ICS
4. Monthly use of those listed in Question 2 (Change from before??):
g. Firewood: Amount______dhoko
h. Kerosene: Amount______liters
i. Electric: Amount______hours
j. Gas: Amount______hours
k. Biogas: Amount______hours
l. Other ______: Amount______(?)_____
5. Have you heard about the Seti Devi CFUG current project? YES NO
6. If yes, how did you hear about the project? (Open - check one or rank if more than one):
Me (if checked then rank other sources if any)
CFUG committee member
298 Family member
Friend/ Neighbor
Other______
7. If yes, what do you know the goals about the project? (Check all that apply):
Biogas (Build/ bring/ give, etc)
ICS (Build / bring / give, etc)
Loan for biogas
Rotating Loan System
Lower membership fee for new members
Low cost biogas
Other______
8. Who is managing the project? (open)
9. What have you heard about how the project is being managed? (Open NO PROMPTING -
Looking for how the project is running –e.g. problems/success in the committee/CFUG/ between
people/ social/ financial or e.g. who is doing/heading the project or any other information.) Use
back of paper if needed.
10. Have you heard of ICS?: YES NO
11. If yes, How did you find out about it? (Check one or rank if more than one)
Me (From last interview – if checked, then have heard from other source, too? Rank other
sources)
Family Member
Friend/ Neighbor Radio
Television
299 Newspaper/ Magazine
Notice/ poster/ pamphlet
Calendar
Field Workers (in village)
Government/ NGO offices (at office)
Government/ NGO office (at a training of meeting in village)
Other______
12. If yes, what do you know about the benefits and detriments of ICS? (Check off all that apply):
Chimney/ smoke goes outside/ less smoke inside
Health benefit for respiratory
Less firewood needed
Less labor (because less firewood needed)
More wood in forest (conservation)
Most benefit to women and children (because they are in kitchen during cooking)
No place for warming hands
Less smoke to rid house of insects
Other______
13. If yes to 9, do you want to install ICS? YES NO
14. If yes to 12, why haven’t you installed it, yet? (Open)
Money
Don’t know a mason/ No one available in village to make
Family doesn’t want it
300 Other______
15. If yes to 12, do you know of any sources of assistance for installing ICS? YES NO
Name the known sources (Open):
The CFUG project
Center for Rural Technology in Kathmandu
DDC/ VDC training in installation
Other______
16. Have you heard of biogas?: YES NO
17. If yes, how did you hear about biogas? (Check one or rank if more than one):
Me (from last interview- if checked then rank other sources if any)
Family Member
Friend/ Neighbor Radio
Television
Newspaper/ Magazine
Notice/ poster/ pamphlet
Calendar
Field Workers (in village)
Government/ NGO offices (at office)
Government/ NGO office (at a training of meeting in village)
Other______
18. If yes, what do you know about the benefits and/ or detriments of biogas? (Check all that apply):
No smoke
301 Improvement of/ benefit for respiratory health
Use cow/ buffalo manure
Use/ connect toilet
Can also use (add) straw/ kitchen waste/ goat manure/ other manure
Need to add water
No firewood needed(do not need to collect firewood for biogas)
Conserves forest resources
Shorter to cook meals (don’t have to start fire)
Easier to cook/ less work to cook (don’t have to keep fire going – stoking, blowing)
Less work to clean pots and pans
Can cook small snacks/ tea easily
Biogas slurry has more nutrients than FYM/ slurry good for compost for fields
Sanitation health benefit (in community because of toilet use)
No smoke to rid house of insects
Labor needed daily to put manure and water into plant
Less gas in winter months
Smaller flame than wood fire
Taste of food different (no smoke to add flavor)
May still need to build fires (to cook in winter/ for warmth in winter)
Other______
19. If yes to 15, do you want to install biogas at your home? YES NO
302 20. If yes to 18, why haven’t you installed biogas, yet? (Open)
Money – lack of own funding
Unable to get a loan
Don’t know how to find company
Family doesn’t want it
Other______
21. If yes to 18, do you know of sources of assistance for installing biogas? YES NO
Name the known sources (Open):
Loan from CFUG project
Loan from local bank/ individuals
Subsidy from BSP/ AEPC
Asking for help from VDC/ DDC/Gov't
Other NGO’s assistance
Other______
Notes: (Use back of page if needed)
303
APPENDIX G
BIOGAS RECIPIENT SURVEY QUESTIONS
March 2005
The questions of this survey of the biogas recipient asked respondents about their views of the project and its managers. It asked about the roles of participants, the problems, the installation process, the costs involved for the respondents, and what they knew about the loan system.
337 Biogas Recipient Survey Questions
1. Awareness: a. How did you first learn about the project? b. What have you learned about the project by participating in it? c. When was the construction begun on your plant?
Labor/ Delegation of tasks #2 -4 2. a. What work did you family do for construction? (Distinguish by gender). b. What meetings did your family members attend? Who attended and what happened in the meeting? 3. Who told you what work your family had to do? 4. When was your plant construction completed?
Plant Operations #5-6 5. Is your plant producing gas now? How much? 6. Do you have any problems with operation of the plant? a. Input b. Output (using gas in kitchen) c. Slurry
Financial #7-10 7. How much have you paid so far for your biogas plant? 8. a. How much was your loan amount? b. Did you sign a contract? c. Who signed it? 9. When will you start to pay the loan? 10. How much do you pay per month for the loan?
Management of the Project # 11-14 11. Who is managing the project in the community? How many people? 12. What work do they do? 13. Who else in the community is doing work for the project? What work? 14. Who or what organizations have participated from outside the community? What work?
Problems #15-17 15. Have you had any problems with the project? 16. When? What was the solution? 17. Project Success or not?
Suggestions for the future 18. Other comments – what suggestions do you have to improve the project?
338
APPENDIX J
IMPROVED COOK STOVE AND BIOGAS RECIPIENT
CATTLE INFORMATION
The following two data tables were collected after completion of the Biogas Recipient
Survey in March 2005. Information about the caste and the ward location of the household is omitted to follow Human Subject Research Guidelines.
439
Improved Cook Stove Recipients Y/N Y/N HH No. No.in HH no of cows no of buffaloes Total < two cattle <=two cattle 1 7 1 2 3 0 0 2 5 1 1 2 0 1 3 14 1 1 2 0 1 4 7 1 0 1 1 1 5 6 1 1 2 0 1 6 6 0 2 2 0 1 7 6 2 0 2 0 1 8 7 1 2 3 0 0 9 5 0 1 1 1 1 10 3 0 0 0 1 1 11 5 2 0 2 0 1 12 4 2 0 2 0 1 13 2 1 0 1 1 1 14 4 1 0 1 1 1 15 6 1 0 1 1 1 16 7 1 2 3 0 0 17 3 0 0 0 1 1 18 7 1 2 3 0 0 19 5 1 0 1 1 1 20 3 1 0 1 1 1 21 4 1 1 2 0 1 22 4 1 0 1 1 1 23 4 1 0 1 1 1 24 8 1 1 2 0 1 25 5 1 1 2 0 1 26 5 0 2 2 0 1 27 6 1 2 3 0 0 28 4 0 0 0 1 1 29 5 0 0 0 1 1 30 4 1 2 3 0 0 31 8 1 1 2 0 1 32 5 1 0 1 1 1 33 4 0 0 0 1 1 34 4 1 2 3 0 0 35 7 1 2 3 0 0 36 6 1 0 1 1 1 37 4 0 0 0 1 1 38 4 1 0 1 1 1 39 6 0 1 1 1 1 40 9 3 0 3 0 0 41 0 1 1 42 7 0 0 0 1 1 43 4 2 0 2 0 1 44 7 1 0 1 1 1 45 6 0 2 2 0 1 46 5 1 1 2 0 1 47 5 1 0 1 1 1 48 6 1 1 2 0 1 49 10 1 2 3 0 0 50 6 1 0 1 1 1 Total 24 40
440
Biogas Recipients, Number of Cattle HH No. No. in HH No. buffalo No.cows Toilet? 1 7 1 2 yes 2 7 2 0 yes 3 4 1 2 no 4 6 0 2 yes 5 5 1 1 yes 6 8 0 3 yes 7 8 1 1 no 8 6 2 1 no 9 7 2 0 yes 10 6 1 1 no 11 11 1 1 no 12 6 0 3 yes 13 6 2 1 yes 14 7 2 1 yes 15 10 2 2 yes 16 6 1 3 yes 17 10 2 2 no 18 6 1 1 yes 19 11 1 1 no 20 11 1 2 yes 21 11 0 3 no 22 10 3 0 yes 23 6 1 2 no
441