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Frontiers of Motivation Research on Feedback Interdisciplinary Insights from Neurology and Cardiology Frontiers of Motivation Research on Feedback Interdisciplinary Insights from Neurology and Cardiology Master of Science Thesis Submission: Vallendar, June 23, 2020 First Supervisor: Asst. Prof. Dr. Daniel Schaupp Second Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Utz Schäffer Institute of Management Accounting and Control WHU – Otto Beisheim School of Management Jan Eric Walsken “All our provisional ideas in psychology will presumably someday be based on an organic substructure.” S. Freud, “On Narcissism” (1914), S.E. 14: 73–102. (London: Hogarth Press) “We know nothing about motivation. All we can do is write books about it.” Drucker, P. F. (1969). The age of discontinuity: Guidelines to our changing society. New York, NY: Harper and Row. “If you ever get close to a human And human behavior Be ready, be ready to get confused There's definitely, definitely, definitely no logic To human behavior But yet so, yet so irresistible And there's no map They're terribly, terribly, terribly moody Oh, human behavior Then all of a sudden turn happy But, oh, to get involved in the exchange Of human emotions Is ever so, ever so satisfying” Hooper, N, & Björk, (1993). Human behavior. On Debut. London: One Little Indian, & Elektra II Abstract Research on motivation may be alive and vital, but it is highly fragmented. This thesis discusses the most prevalent motivation theories and compares their ideas and concepts to introduce two new fields of research in this area: neurology and cardiology. The next era of motivation research will conflate concepts derived from behavioral approaches with organic substructure and elevate our understanding of motivation. A sound understanding of motivation allows organizational scholars to solve the motivational problem in the context of the organizational problem. To make proper use of promising novel insights in organizational contexts, we will revisit the current state of performance evaluation and their ability to coordinate and motivate individuals. By reconsidering how rewards crowd out intrinsic motivation via complex moods, and how superior intrinsic motivation increases performance compared to extrinsic motivation, this thesis introduces the motivation-potential model of feedback. Using a case study on a feedback-based management control system at a European e-commerce company based in Germany, we test how self-determination theory could be expanded by neurological concepts and quantitatively applied to design performance evaluation systems under the consideration of the motivation-potential model of feedback. In its entirety, this thesis attempts to build common ground for the future of motivation research and provides in-depth examples of theorization upon the aggregation of the field of research, as well as practical application and execution. III TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Figures .............................................................................................................. VIII List of Tables .................................................................................................................. IX 1. Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1 2. Review of Process- and Drive-Based Motivation Theories .......................................... 2 2.1 Motivation in Ancient Greek Philosophy ............................................................... 3 2.2 Psychoanalysis and Motivation (about 1900 to 1930) ............................................ 5 2.3 Drive-Reduction Theory (about 1930 to 1960) ...................................................... 6 2.4 The Law of Effect (1898) ....................................................................................... 8 2.5 Respondent Conditioning (1897) ............................................................................ 9 2.5.1 Acquisition ..................................................................................................... 10 2.5.2 Extinction and Recovery ................................................................................ 10 2.5.3 External Inhibition and Disinhibition ............................................................ 10 2.5.4 Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination ................................................. 11 2.5.5 100 Years Later: Excursion on The-Little-Albert-Experiment ...................... 11 2.5.6 Number of Repetitions and Intervals ............................................................. 12 2.6 Operant Conditioning (1938) ................................................................................ 12 2.6.1 Reinforcement, Punishment, and Extinction ................................................. 13 2.6.2 Influencers of Reinforcement Effectiveness .................................................. 14 2.6.3 Application in Economics .............................................................................. 15 2.7 Field Theory (1936) .............................................................................................. 15 2.8 Social Learning Theory (1960) ............................................................................. 17 2.9 Achievement Motivation (1964) ........................................................................... 18 2.10 Attribution Theory (1958) .................................................................................. 20 2.11 Effectance Motivation (1959) ............................................................................. 22 2.12 Effectance Motivation Reconsidered (1978) ...................................................... 23 2.13 Optimal Incongruity (1965) ................................................................................ 24 2.14 Goal-Setting Theory (1984) ................................................................................ 25 IV 2.15 Flow Theory (1979-present) ............................................................................... 26 2.16 Personal Causation (1968) .................................................................................. 28 2.17 Feedback Intervention Theory (1996) ................................................................ 28 2.18 Discussion ........................................................................................................... 30 2.19 Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 31 3. Self-Determination Theory (1975 to present) ............................................................. 31 3.1 The Six Mini-Theories .......................................................................................... 32 3.1.1 Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET) .............................................................. 32 3.1.2 Organismic Integration Theory (OIT) ........................................................... 34 3.1.3 Causality Orientations Theory (COT) ........................................................... 35 3.1.4 Basic Psychological Needs Theory (BPNT) .................................................. 36 3.1.5 Goal Contents Theory (GCT) ........................................................................ 36 3.1.6 Relationship Motivation Theory (RMT) ........................................................ 37 3.2 Application of Self-Determination Theory in Work Organizations ..................... 38 3.3 Self-Determination Theory and Feedback ............................................................ 40 3.4 Self-Determination Theory and Incentives ........................................................... 44 3.5 Self-determination Theory and Thriving .............................................................. 45 3.6 Discussion ............................................................................................................. 46 3.7 Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 47 4. Neuroscience and Motivation ..................................................................................... 48 4.1 Terminologies and Concepts................................................................................. 48 4.1.1 Neuroscience and Motivation: How Neuroscience Informs on Motivation .. 49 4.1.2 Measuring Brain Activity .............................................................................. 50 4.1.3 Brain Areas Relevant for Motivation research .............................................. 50 4.2 Synthesis of Concepts in Motivation Research and Neurology ........................... 52 4.2.1 Goal-Orientation and Influencers of Expectancy .......................................... 53 4.2.2 Agency ........................................................................................................... 55 3.2.3 Expectancy ..................................................................................................... 57 V 4.2.4 Self-efficacy ................................................................................................... 58 4.2.5 Intrinsic Motivation ....................................................................................... 58 4.2.6 Extrinsic Motivation ...................................................................................... 59 4.2.7 Intermediary Conclusion ................................................................................ 59 4.3 Novel Perspectives on Task Difficulty, Effort, and Motivation Potential ............ 61 4.3.1 Moods and Motivation Potential ...................................................................
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