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Sexual Esteem in Emerging Adulthood: Associations with Sexual Behavior, Contraception Use, and Romantic Relationships

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Sexual Esteem in Emerging Adulthood: Associations with Sexual Behavior, Contraception Use, and Romantic Relationships The Journal of Sex Research ISSN: 0022-4499 (Print) 1559-8519 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/hjsr20 Sexual Esteem in Emerging Adulthood: Associations with Sexual Behavior, Contraception Use, and Romantic Relationships Megan K. Maas & Eva S. Lefkowitz To cite this article: Megan K. Maas & Eva S. Lefkowitz (2015) Sexual Esteem in Emerging Adulthood: Associations with Sexual Behavior, Contraception Use, and Romantic Relationships, The Journal of Sex Research, 52:7, 795-806, DOI: 10.1080/00224499.2014.945112 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2014.945112 Published online: 11 Sep 2014. Submit your article to this journal Article views: 413 View related articles View Crossmark data Citing articles: 3 View citing articles Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=hjsr20 Download by: [Michigan State University] Date: 20 March 2016, At: 18:41 JOURNAL OF SEX RESEARCH, 52(7), 795–806, 2015 Copyright # The Society for the Scientific Study of Sexuality ISSN: 0022-4499 print=1559-8519 online DOI: 10.1080/00224499.2014.945112 Sexual Esteem in Emerging Adulthood: Associations with Sexual Behavior, Contraception Use, and Romantic Relationships Megan K. Maas and Eva S. Lefkowitz Human Development and Family Studies, The Pennsylvania State University Sexual esteem is an integral psychological aspect of sexual health (Snell & Papini, 1989), yet it is unclear whether sexual esteem is associated with sexual health behavior among heterosexual men and women. The current analysis used a normative framework for sexual development (Lefkowitz & Gillen, 2006; Tolman & McClelland, 2011) by examining the association of sexual esteem with sexual behavior, contraception use, and romantic relation- ship characteristics. Participants (N ¼ 518; 56.0% female; mean age ¼ 20.43 years; 26.8% identified as Hispanic=Latino; among non-Hispanic=Latinos, 27.2% of the full sample ident- ified as European American, 22.4% Asian American, 14.9% African American, and 8.7% multiracial) completed Web-based surveys at a large Northeastern university. Participants who had oral sex more frequently, recently had more oral and penetrative sex partners (parti- cularly for male participants), and spent more college semesters in romantic relationships tended to have higher sexual esteem than those who had sex less frequently, with fewer partners, or spent more semesters without romantic partners. Sexually active male emerging adults who never used contraception during recent penetrative sex tended to have higher sexual esteem than those who did use it, whereas female emerging adults who never used contraception tended to have lower sexual esteem than those who did use it. Implications of these results for the development of a healthy sexual self-concept in emerging adulthood are discussed. More than half of all individuals are sexually active those behaviors, and sexual esteem can inform positive by age 18 (Chandra, Mosher, & Copen, 2011), which youth development programs that focus not only on suggests that sexual behavior is a normative part of the reduction of risk behavior but also on the promotion the transition to adulthood (Lefkowitz & Gillen, 2006; of competencies that lead to consensual, emotionally Tolman & McClelland, 2011). Bancroft (2003) has chal- fulfilling, and more pleasurable sex. lenged researchers to approach sexual development The World Health Organization (WHO, 2006) through a broader perspective, including psychological defines sexual health as a state of physical, emotional, changes that are fundamental to the development of a mental, and social well-being in relation to sexuality; it sexual self. Understanding the development of sexual is not merely the absence of disease, dysfunction, or Downloaded by [Michigan State University] at 18:41 20 March 2016 health behaviors (such as condom use) can inform infirmity. Sexual health requires a positive and respect- safe-sex interventions by identifying barriers to sexual ful approach to sexuality and sexual relationships, as health. Equally important for understanding the well as the possibility of having pleasurable and safe sex- development of sexuality, however, is a positive youth ual experiences, free of coercion, discrimination, and development framework, which focuses on acquiring violence (WHO, 2006). In response to the WHO’s thor- competencies that promote positive outcomes, and not ough definition of sexual health, we aim to add to the just reducing risk (Lerner, Almerigi, Theokas, & Lerner, growing body of research that focuses on positive 2005). As individuals transition to adulthood, they psychological outcomes of sexual behavior by examin- report more positive consequences (e.g., psychological ing not only sexual and contraception behaviors but also and interpersonal) than negative consequences as a psychological factors, such as how individuals perceive result of sexual behavior (Vasilenko, Lefkowitz, & themselves as sexual people. Maggs, 2012). Therefore, understanding associations A burgeoning area of research that explores multiple between sexual behaviors, the romantic contexts of positive aspects of psychological sexual development has emerged. Such aspects include sexual self-efficacy,an individual’s perceived ability to successfully engage in Correspondence should be addressed to Megan K. Maas, The and initiate a variety of sexual activities (Rosenthal, Pennsylvania State University, 315-A East Health and Human Develop- ment Building, University Park, PA 16802. E-mail: [email protected] Moore, & Flynn, 1991); sexual competency, the ability MAAS AND LEFKOWITZ to be involved in sexual practices with successful imperative to consider gender when examining corre- processes and outcomes (Hirst, 2008); sexual subjec- lates of sexual esteem. Men are socialized to enjoy sex, tivity, feelings of entitlement to sexual pleasure and sex- be sexually competent, and acquire many sex partners ual safety (Horne & Zimmer-Gembeck, 2005; Tolman, (Tolman, Striepe, & Harmon, 2003). Men are also more 2002); and the focus of this article, sexual esteem, the likely to report physiological sexual satisfaction, tendency to view oneself as capable of relating sexually orgasms during intercourse, and permissive sexual atti- to another person (Snell & Papini, 1989) and to have tudes (Higgins, Mullinax, Trussell, Davidson, & Moore, an overall positive view of one’s sexual self. These con- 2011). In contrast, women are sexually socialized to rely structs have shared commonalities, yet each identifies on men for their sexual gratification (Hogarth & Ing- unique aspects of the developmental task of establishing ham, 2009) and sexual validation (Tolman et al., a sexual self-concept during emerging adulthood. 2003). Women also receive messages to be sexually This article focuses on sexual esteem during emerging attractive for and pleasing to men, instead of insisting adulthood because it encompasses perceptions of the sex- on their own sexual pleasure (Morokoff, 2000; Tolman ual self as well as perceptions of value to a sexual partner. & Diamond, 2001). Feminist scholars argue that female Sexual esteem addresses both identity development and sexual socialization impedes a woman’s sexual exploration of romantic relationships, which are primary well-being because it promotes sexual objectification developmental tasks during adolescence and emerging by men and self-objectification in women, making adulthood (Stein, Roeser, & Markus, 1998). Although unwanted sexual experiences more likely to occur individuals begin to explore identity and integrate (Impett, Schooler, & Tolman, 2006). Moreover, in sexuality into their self-concept during adolescence emerging adulthood, women have lower general (Buzwell, Rosenthal, & Moore, 1992; O’Sullivan, Meyer- self-esteem than men do (Galambos, Barker, & Krahn, Bahlburg, & McKeague, 2006), emerging adulthood is a 2006). Therefore, it is hypothesized that men will report developmental period where this process is accelerated as higher sexual esteem than women will (Hypothesis 1). individuals gain multiple sexual and romantic experi- ences (Arnett, 2000; Collins & Van Dulmen, 2006). Previous research has linked sexual esteem to a var- Sexual Behavior and Sexual Esteem iety of behavioral and psychological aspects of sexual well-being in female adolescents and female college stu- Another potential correlate of sexual esteem is sexual dents. For example, female adolescents with higher sex- behavior. For example, adolescent girls with more posi- ual esteem tend to have less disordered eating (Calogero tive sexual self-concept tend to have engaged in a larger & Thompson, 2009), more sexual agency and arousal variety of sexual behaviors (Impett & Tolman, 2006). (O’Sullivan et al., 2006), and more motivation to avoid Although little work has examined associations between sexual risk-taking and to be more sexually satisfied sexual behavior and sexual esteem, there has been ample (Schick, Calabrese, Rima, & Zucker, 2010) than female research on the association between sexual behavior and adolescents with lower sexual esteem. Further, sexual sexual satisfaction. For example, college students who esteem mediates the association between child sexual are more satisfied with their relationships have more fre- abuse and sexual revictimization in female college stu- quent foreplay, oral sex, or penetrative sex than do less dents (Van Bruggen, Runtz, & Kadlec, 2006). Yet, to satisfied students (Auslander
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