Sandwich KFC - Ramsgate Road: Geoarchaeological Borehole Evaluation Report

ROCHESTER RIVERSIDE, MEDWAY – SCHOOL SITE: A WRITTEN SCHEME OF INVESTIGATION FOR AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVALUATION

National Grid Reference Number: TR 33422 61986 Site Code: AOC SRR21 AOC Project No: 34271 Date: January 2021

SANDWICH KFC – RAMSGATE ROAD: GEOARCHAEOLOGICAL BOREHOLE EVALUATION REPORT

Sandwich KFC - Ramsgate Road: Geoarchaeological Borehole Evaluation Report

For: Phil Speechley Speechley Property Consultants 57 Thorpe Park Road Peterborough PE3 6LJ

On Behalf of: Caskade Caterers Limited Hello House 144 Seven Sisters Road London N7 7NS

National Grid Reference (NGR): TR 33422 61986

AOC Project No: 34271

Prepared by: Virgil Yendell

Illustration by: Virgil Yendell

Date: 23 November 2020

This document has been prepared in accordance with AOC standard operating procedures.

Author: Virgil Yendell Date: 8 January 2021

Approved by: Virgil Yendell Date:

Draft/Final Report Stage: Draft Date:

www.aocarchaeology.com

Table of Contents

Illustrations ...... iii 1 Introduction ...... 5 2 Planning Background and proposed development ...... 5 3 Geology and Topography ...... 6 4 Archaeological and Historical Background ...... 7 5 Geoarchaeological and Palaeoenvironmental Background ...... 15 6 Aims of the Investigation ...... 16 7 Methodology ...... 18 8 Results ...... 20 9 Archaeological and Palaeoenvironmental Potential ...... 31 10 Conclusions and Recommendations ...... 35 11 Bibliography ...... 37 Appendix A – Deposit Model Data References ...... 50 Appendix B – OASIS Form ...... 51

SANDWICH KFC – RAMSGATE ROAD: GEOARCHAEOLOGICAL BOREHOLE EVALUATION REPORT

Illustrations Figure 1 Site Location Map ...... 39 Figure 2 Schematic map of the Wantsum Channel valley and islands ...... 40 Figure 3 Data points and transect locations ...... 41 Figure 4 Transect, northwest to southeast across the site showing the levels and thickness of deposits over the underlying geology in section (extrapolated from deposit records) ...... 42 Figure 5 Topographic plot of the surface of the below ground solid geology (extrapolated from deposit records), suggesting the form of the ancient land surface at c. 10,000 BC ...... 43 Figure 6 Thickness plot of the below ground lower alluvium (extrapolated from deposit records), representing deposit survival ...... 44 Figure 7 Thickness plot of the below ground fluvial deposits (extrapolated from deposit records), representing deposit survival ...... 45 Figure 8 Thickness plot of the below ground organic deposits (extrapolated from deposit records), representing deposit survival ...... 46 Figure 9 Thickness plot of the below ground upper alluvium (extrapolated from deposit records), representing deposit survival ...... 47 Figure 10 Plan showing areas of archaeological potential (extrapolated from deposit records) ...... 48

SANDWICH KFC – RAMSGATE ROAD: GEOARCHAEOLOGICAL BOREHOLE EVALUATION REPORT

Non-Technical Summary A geoarchaeological evaluation was undertaken on 24-25th November 2020 at the site of Sandwich KFC Ramsgate Road. The work was undertaken by AOC Archaeology Group for Speechley Property Consultants on behalf of the client, Caskade Caterers Limited. The aims of the evaluation were to assess the impact of development on any surviving archaeological remains within the site.

The geoarchaeological evaluation comprised the monitoring of 4 geotechnical boreholes and the drilling of 3 purposive geoarchaeological boreholes to maximum c. 8m bgl, and the extraction and retention of the (windowless) cored samples. Geoarchaeological and geotechnical deposit data can be used to identify areas of archaeological potential by characterising the probable nature and depth of sub-surface deposits.

The bedrock is Thanet Sand a stiff fine grained, greenish unit, representing a shallow marine deposit of the mid- Thanetian. It was only recorded in one location on site at -4.21m OD, due to the poor retrieval of sediments at depth. The lower alluvium, a pale blue silty clay was recovered below c. -2.97m OD, again in only one location on site. This unit may be related to low-lying peri-marine/ estuarine clays found elsewhere in the Wantsum Channel. Running sands were encountered from c. 0m OD downwards and are thought to be Mesolithic peri- marine to fluvial sands, although recovery of this unit was particularly bad. No organic deposits are recorded on the site. Upper alluvium in the form of variable clays, silts and sands; greenish yellow to blue grey in colour; were recorded from c. 3.37 down to -0.49m OD and likely represent further (late prehistoric to historic) mudflats and saltmarsh expansion.

Development impacts from the currently proposed raft foundation will be minimal but may affect the top of the upper alluvium. Although it is difficult to ascertain with certainty the potential of the deposits to contain archaeological remains, the nature of the deposits observed suggests any archaeological remains will be rare and associated with localised late prehistoric to historic mudflat/floodplain exploitation (i.e., brushwood trackways and platforms, fish traps, log boats etc) or historic reclamation i.e., ditches and dykes etc). The impact on these prehistoric deposits could be adequately mitigated by a programme of controlled archaeological watching brief.

It is recommended that the impact on deposits considered of moderate palaeoenvironmental potential may be mitigated by further off-site assessment work undertaken on the core samples retained from the evaluation. However, the samples represent incomplete sequences – and due to the poor recovery and loose nature of the lower deposits the sediment within the samples – cannot be reliable considered undisturbed. It is also unlikely further onsite sampling will improve the recovery or nature of future samples. Therefore, any assessment work undertaken on the current samples should focus on the upper portion of the sequence where recovery was more consistent. Even so such work would be on an incomplete sequence of limited chronology.

The appropriate mitigation strategy for the site will be decided by and agreed with the Local Authority and their archaeological advisors.

1 Introduction

1.1 This document details the results of a geoarchaeological borehole evaluation at the site of Sandwich KFC Ramsgate Road (NGR: TR 33422 61986, Figure 1). This WSI has been commissioned from AOC by Speechley Property Consultants on behalf of the client, Caskade Caterers Limited.

1.2 The proposed development site (henceforth “the Site”) is a roughly triangular plot of unused land, bounded to the east by the A256, Ramsgate Road, and further east is the Sandwich and Pegwell nature reserve and the River Stour. The northern boundary of the Site is defined by Richborough Service Station which serves north bound traffic on the A256. The eastern fence line of Richborough Energy Park (formerly a power station) defines the western boundary of the Site, and is an active industrial site comprised of warehouses and areas of hardstanding with plant vehicles in continuous use. The Site is currently unused land.

1.3 This report consists of a Stage 1, geoarchaeological borehole evaluation, in order to evaluate the potential of the site to contain significant archaeological remains and to produce a report inclusive of a deposit model. Samples have been collected and retained in order to facilitate possible later geoarchaeological/palaeoenvironmental specialist assessment, but an assessment of this nature is not included at this stage so that the need for further fieldwork can be commented on in a timely manner.

1.4 The geoarchaeological evaluation comprised the monitoring of 4 geotechnical boreholes and the drilling of 3 purposive geoarchaeological boreholes to maximum c. 8m bgl, and the extraction and retention of the (windowless) cored samples (Figure 1). Geoarchaeological and geotechnical deposit data can be used to identify areas of archaeological potential by characterising the probable nature and depth of sub-surface deposits.

1.5 As such, this report will provide recommendations on how investigations pertaining to these works should proceed and how such work will be integrated into the wider findings from the area. The works reported on here were carried out under the Written Scheme of Investigation (WSI, AOC 2020) for the site. A stage 2 archaeological trench evaluation maybe required dependant on the results of this report. 2 Planning Background and proposed development

2.1 The site has been subject of a previous Desk Based Assessment (DBA, AOC 2018). The current development plans propose the:

2.2 “Erection of single storey building to accommodate a restaurant and hot food take-away, incorporating a ‘drive-through’ facility, along with car parking and servicing facilities, served by a new vehicular access and egress off the A256”

2.3 It is understood that a raft foundation is most likely, but this has yet to be fully confirmed (Pers. Comm. Robert Hodges, Crossfield Consulting, November 2020).

2.4 Previous planning permission was granted for development in the Site in 2008 (Planning reference DOV/07/00441), for the: “Erection of restaurant (Use Class A3) and construction of vehicular access”. This planning permission lapsed, and in 2010 Dover District Council consented to a “renewal of planning permission DOV/07/00441 (Planning reference DOV/10/00939). Neither of

these permissions had archaeological conditions attached. The blue rectangle in the north of the site on Figure 2 denotes the single storey building with the rest of the area nominally as car parking.

2.5 Pre-planning advice for the current proposals was received on the 1st November 2018 (Hewett, 2018). The advice highlights that the Site is located within the area of the Wantsum Channel and as such there is the potential for archaeological remains to be present on the Site.

2.6 Kent County Council identifies the Wantsum Channel and Lower Stour Marshes as a Landscape Character Area (Jacobs Babtie, 2004:169). The Wantsum Channel which is now silted up, is a relict channel which divided the mainland to the west from the Isle of Thanet from the prehistoric period until the 14th century AD. Pre-planning advice has indicated that the Site lies within the Wantsum Channel area and as such there has been judged to be a potential for buried archaeological remains from the prehistoric to medieval period to survive on the Site.

2.7 The scheme is the subject of a planning condition (DOV/19/00342, November 2019) which stated:

2.8 “No development shall take place until the applicant, or their agents or successors in title, has secured the implementation of a programme of archaeological work in accordance with a written specification and timetable which has been submitted to and approved in writing by the local planning authority. Reason: To ensure that features of archaeological interest are properly examined and recorded. These details are required prior to the commencement of the development as they form an intrinsic part of the proposal, the approval of which cannot be disaggregated from the carrying out of the rest of the development.” 3 Geology and Topography

3.1 According to the British Geological Survey GeoIndex (BGS 2021), the Site is underlain by Thanet Formation, a sedimentary bedrock composed of sand, silt and clay formed approximately 59 million years ago in the Palaeogene period. The bedrock is indicative of a landscape previously dominated by shallow seas.

3.2 The BGS (2020) records Tidal Flat Deposits as the superficial deposits underlying the Site. This deposit is composed of clay and silt and formed up to 2 million years ago in the Quaternary period and is indicative of a shoreline environment.

3.3 A borehole sunk to a depth of between 10m and 30m (TR36SW23; BGS 2021) was located on Ramsgate Road, the A256, to the east of the Site. Another borehole (TR36SW26) is recorded to the south of the Site and is identified as being sunk to a depth of 30m+. No further information is available on the BGS website (2020) for these two boreholes.

3.4 A series of 14 boreholes are recorded by the BGS (2021) to the west of the Site, 11 of which are located along a south east to north west to alignment across Richborough Energy Park from Loading Bay Approach in the south east (TR36SW53) to land north west of North Road (TR36SW47). Another borehole (TR36SW50) is located at the junction of East Road and North Road and two (TR36SW46 & TR36SW60) were positioned in a plot of land encircled by Riverside Road and West Road. The BGS (2020) records that these boreholes are confidential and as such the results have been restricted and are not available.

SANDWICH KFC – RAMSGATE ROAD: GEOARCHAEOLOGICAL BOREHOLE EVALUATION REPORT

3.5 The Site slopes down from 6 m OD in the south area to 4.5m OD in the northern area. 4 Archaeological and Historical Background

4.1 The following background is taken from the DBA (AOC 2019), which should be referred to for the HER and figure references.

Prehistoric Evidence (c. 500,000 BC – AD 43)

4.2 The Site lies within the Wantsum Channel, a now silted and reclaimed relict waterway which divided the mainland from the Isle of Thanet from the prehistoric to the medieval period. Natural silting of the channel began in the late prehistoric period, although its width and depth changed considerably until the Roman period (Perkins, 2012). A proposed reconstruction of the Wantsun Channel c2000 years ago by Perkins (2012-Figure 3) locates the Site in the mouth of the channel, south of the Ebbsfleet peninsula extending south from the Isle of Thanet. Midden material and collections of shells have been found within the Wantsum Channel (Perkins, 2012).

4.3 Excavations at Weatherlees Hill (Site 138) to the north of the Site found a multi-phase Site (Site 6 & 9). The earliest remains at Site 138 date to the Early Neolithic and consist of a ring ditch (Site 69) in which was found a small polished axe. A single sherd of Late Bronze Age/ Early Iron Age pottery was found within the fill of the ditch (Site 69) and late Neolithic/early Bronze Age pottery was found within another ditch (Site 7). Further Neolithic remains in the Study Area include a horse- shoe shaped ditch (Site 95); a leaf-shaped arrowhead (Site 98); and a Neolithic enclosure (Site 105) also located to the north of the Site.

4.4 Bronze Age remains were also uncovered at Weatherlees Hill (Site 138) which consisted of a ditch and linear feature (Site 7) containing late Neolithic/early Bronze Age pottery; two late Bronze Age hoards (Site 9, 70 & 78), including a two ingots, a sword fragment, a socketed hammer, and a cylindrical band (Site 9 & 70), the other consisted of undefined metalwork (Site 78); a large quantity of Bronze Age ceramics found within pits and linear features (Site 12, 71; 72; 95); and a ring ditch which may have been in consistent or intermittent use through the Neolithic and Bronze Age (Site 69). During the East Kent Access Route excavations (Site 119 & 120) along the A256 to the north of the Site a late Bronze Age field system was discovered in association with pottery, quern stones, animal bone and a loom weight (Site 96) as well as 64 Bronze Age pits and post holes containing fired clay pottery and charcoal rich deposits, which were interpreted as being quickly filled after being cut (Site 100). A boundary ditch and four late Bronze Age hoards containing metalwork were also recorded (Site 100). North, north east of the Site, Canterbury Trust uncovered Bronze Age pottery and a worked flint (Site 87). Further north of the Site a Bronze Age barrow associated with late Bronze Age ditches, pits and a trackway were identified during works on the pipeline between Margate and Broadstairs (Site 105). Excavations to the north west of the Site found a series of ditches containing late Bronze Age/early Iron Age pottery and flints (Site 104).

4.5 Occupation of many sites in the Study Area continued into the Iron Age. To the north at Weatherlees Hill (Site 138) Iron Age activity includes; late Bronze Age/early Iron Age ditches and linear features containing Iron Age ceramics which may cut earlier linear features (Site 7); early Iron Age pottery in pits and associated within a dog skeleton (Site 12); a copper coin (Site 66); occupational debris, a ditch, a gully and ceramics (Site 71 & 72); a horse and sheep burial (Site 73); early Iron Age gullies, pits and a midden (Site 78). Excavations associated with the East Kent Access Route (119

SANDWICH KFC – RAMSGATE ROAD: GEOARCHAEOLOGICAL BOREHOLE EVALUATION REPORT

& 120) also to the north of the Site recorded an Iron Age drip gully containing Iron Age pottery (Site 99); a ditch (Site 101) in the vicinity of the Ebbsfleet peninsula which was recut in the Roman period. North west of the Site excavations found features dating to the late Bronze Age/early Iron Age (Site 104) including a flat-bottomed ditch, another ditch and a pit along with Iron Age ceramics.

4.6 Settlement at Weatherlees Hill to the north of the Site is believed to have continued from the prehistoric period into the Roman period (Site 6 & 9). A late Iron Age/early Roman trackway was found between the Roman features centred on Site 11; a coin (Site 75) dating to the transition was also uncovered; and a series of boundary ditches (Site 102) which seem to be been in consistent use from the Iron Age to the Roman period are recorded to the north of the Site. These ditches (Site 102) have been interpreted as defining a large enclosure at the end of a peninsula. Further north a late Iron Age, Roman cremation cemetery (Site 106) was discovered.

4.7 Prehistoric occupation of the area to the north of the Site around Weatherless Hill (Site 138) seems to have been fairly consistent from the Neolithic into the Roman period. It is likely from Perkin’s reconstruction (2012) that this activity was located around the Ebbsfleet peninsula, in the southern area of the Isle of Thanet and therefore the Site would have been located within the Wantsum Channel, and most likely underwater or in marginal land during the prehistoric period. As such there is judged to be a Low potential for Prehistoric features or artefacts to survive. However, there is judged to be a High potential for survival of paleoenvironmental remains, relating to evidence of Holocene environmental change specifically changing nature of the Wantsum Channel. Any such remains may enable a greater understanding of the environmental and geomorphological processes responsible for the development and later infilling of the Wantsum Channel.

Roman Evidence (AD 43 – AD 410)

4.8 As previously stated the Site is located within the relict Wantsum Channel. A proposed depiction of the Wantsun Channel c2000 years ago by Perkins (2012-Figure 3) locates the Site at the southern mouth of the channel. Perkins (2012) suggests that by 55BC and Julius Caesars’ failed invasion, the Wantsum Channel would have reached its maximum width and depth, at the mouth of the channel measuring between 3-4km across. Julius Caeser’s fleet is believed to have made landfall on the beaches of the Wantsum Channel in contrast to the Agricolan campaign which made landfall at Richborough, to the south west of the Site was used as a Roman fort and supply base from about AD80 (Perkins, 2012) and Perkins (2012) proposes that Richborough was located on an island around AD80. Perkins (2012) states that the Wantsum Channel was of fundamental importance to the Roman occupation of Britain, in respect to both defence and trade. Shore forts were built along the shoreline around Richborough in the 3rd century in response to threats from sea raiders (Perkins, 2012).

4.9 Roman activity to the north of the Site, centred at Weatherlees Hill (Site 138) seems to continue from the prehistoric period. A ditch (Site 101) located at what is thought to be the edge of a peninsula of land is thought to have been recut in the Roman period as a defensive ditch. To the south of Weatherlees Hill, and to the north of the Site further Iron Age ditches (Site 102) reused in the Roman period were recorded. Further north, during works associated with the Margate and Broadstairs pipeline (Site 118) uncovered ditches, pits and a possible Holloway which was in use from the Iron Age into the Roman period, as well as a dual rite inhumation cemetery (Site 106).

SANDWICH KFC – RAMSGATE ROAD: GEOARCHAEOLOGICAL BOREHOLE EVALUATION REPORT

4.10 Previous archaeological works in the Study Area have identified a multi-period occupation site (Site 6 & 9) to the north of the Site at Weatherlees Hill, which included at least two Romano-British buildings (Site 11 & 124), one of which is associated with a track and midden (Site 11) as well as Roman field systems and ditches (Site 12). A Roman coin (Site 75) dating to AD88 was also found in this area. Geophysical survey to the south west of the Site identified potential Roman features at Site 121. Within 200m north east of the Site a series of Roman ditches (Site 94) were found during excavations, which have been interpreted as field boundary ditches. To the north of the Site a Romano-British cemetery was identified during works for the installation of the Margate and Broadstairs pipeline (Site 118).

4.11 The main Roman site was located at Richborough, to the south west of the Site outside the 1km Study Area. Evidence of Roman activity has been uncovered to the north of the Site at a multi- phase site (Site 6, 9 & 138). Perkins’ (2012) theoretical map of the Wantsum Channel dating to c.2000 years ago (Figure 3) suggests that the Site must have been located in the Wantsum Channel or in marginal land, at the edge of the Wantsum Channel during this period. As such there is judged to be a Low potential for Roman features or artefacts to be uncovered. There is also potential for paleoenvironmental deposits to survive dating from the Roman period to survive which may enable a greater understanding of the changing nature of the Wantsum Channel in the period.

Early Historic (AD 410-1066) Medieval (AD 1066-1600)

4.12 The Isle of Thanet (known as “Tenth” or “Tenetlonde” in the Early Historic period (Hasted, 1800)) was separated from the mainland by the Wantsum Channel in the Early Historic period. It is recorded that the Danes wintered in on the island known as Thanet in AD851 and AD860 (Perkins, 2012). King Edgar is recorded to have issued orders for the Danes to be harried in the Wantsum Channel around Thanet in AD969 and AD980 and in AD1046 twenty-five ships were documented as sailing around Thanet. The North Mouth of the Wantsum Channel was still a waterway in AD1052 when Earl Godwin sailed from Dover to London via Sandwich (Perkins, 2012). Perkins (2012) states that although the Wantsum Channel was referred to as an extension of the “Thames” in the medieval period, many documentary references after the 11th century refer to its deterioration although the waterway was still passable until at least AD1460.

4.13 The supposed landing site of Saint Augustine and Christian missionaries in AD597 is annotated to the north of the Site on the OS map of 1877 (Figure 5) in the vicinity of Ebbsfleet Farm (Site 82), which indicates that the Ebbsfleet peninsula extended to within c.1km of the Site in the Early Historic period.

4.14 A potential Early Historic building (Site 88) was recorded to the north of the Site in the vicinity of the A256, and further north an Anglo-Saxon sunken building (Site 107) was recorded during the Margate to Broadstairs pipeline works (Site 118). Whilst Early Historic remains were not as prolific to the north of the Site, at Weatherlees Hill (Site 138) or along the East Kent Access Route (Site 119 & 120), a medieval building (Site 97) was found at Site 119 & 120 that may be of Early Historic date and early historic pottery (Site 74) was uncovered at Site 138.

4.15 Early Historic activity, as that of earlier periods is recorded to the north of the Site potentially on the Ebbsfleet peninsula of the Isle of Thanet. The Site would have been located within the Wantsum Channel, underwater or within marginal land, and as such there is judged to be a Low potential for

SANDWICH KFC – RAMSGATE ROAD: GEOARCHAEOLOGICAL BOREHOLE EVALUATION REPORT

Early Historic features or artefacts to survive on the Site. There is considered to be the potential for paleoenvironmental remains, relating to the Wantsum Channel to survive which may enable a better understanding of the development of the Channel and surrounding landscape.

Medieval (AD 1066-1600)

4.16 The Site is located between two settlements recorded in the Domesday Book of 1086; Fleet, to the south west and Minister to the north west. It is likely that the Site was located in the Wantsum Channel, potentially underwater or in newly formed land during a large portion of the medieval period. Perkins (2012) relates a common theory, that the Wantsum Channel as such a well-travelled waterway in the medieval period was often referred to as the “Thames” as it was viewed as connecting Sandwich to London. It was recorded that two cogs (small medieval ships) could turn in the channel without touching (Perkins, 2012), which indicates the width of the Channel in the late Early Historic and early medieval period. Hasted (1800) claimed that the Wantsum Channel or “æsturary” was considered the main sailing route between London and France in this period. London commissioners claimed jurisdiction over Stonar, to the south of the Site as a subject town in the 14th century, which further indicates that the Wantsum Channel was viewed as a link between the Kent coast and London.

4.17 Interest in the Wantsum Channel grew in the medieval period due to its deterioration as a waterway (Perkins, 2012) after 1066. The River Stour which ran towards Sandwich and Ebbsfleet was known to be a rapid stream in the medieval period, which naturally scoured away sands which had been building at the mouth of the Ebbsfleet harbour (in the vicinity of the Site).Although this fast flow action prolonged the usage of the Wantsum Channel, the rate of deposition far outstripped the River Stour’s flow (Hasted, 1800).

4.18 By the late 13th century, the Ebbsfleet Channel (part of the Wantsum Channel) in which the Site was located had silted, as to prevent the passage of large ships, which had to be redirected (Perkins, 2012). The people of Sandwich to the south of the Site challenged that the silting was caused by the milling activity of the Abbot of St Augustine’s which caused the “inning” (Perkins, 2012). The Abbot subsequently built a sea wall in the vicinity of the Ebbsfleet Channel, which was vandalised by the people of Sandwich although Perkins (2012) states that the wall failed to block the entire width of the Ebbsfleet Channel. The Ebbsfleet Channel was also known as “Minister Flete” (Perkins, 2012), potentially in reference to its proximity to the town of Minster, to the north of the Site. Hasted (1800) notes that a benefit to the Wantsum Channel silting was the proliferation of saltpans along the Kent coast, which landowners quickly took advantage of.

4.19 A Boarded Groin (Site 67), composed of an earthen bank, surviving between 6-9m in width and 1.5m in height between Ebbsfleet Lane to the north east of the Site and Pepperness, to the east of the Site, was built around 1365 and is located to the east of the Site along the coast. The Boarded Groin (Site 67) is drawn on 19th century Ordnance Survey (OS) maps which indicate its longevity. The construction of a sea defence indicates that the South Mouth of the Wantsum Channel around the Site had largely become impassable to shipping and had silted to a level that future navigation of this part of the channel was considered unlikely by the early 14th century. The northern area of the Wantsum Channel survived as a passable waterway later than the southern area, although by 1485 it too was impassable (Perkins, 2012).

SANDWICH KFC – RAMSGATE ROAD: GEOARCHAEOLOGICAL BOREHOLE EVALUATION REPORT

4.20 The multi-phase site centred at Weatherlees Hill (6, 9 &138) to the north of the Site has revealed extensive evidence of medieval occupation. A medieval building (Site 6), thought to date from the 13th/14th century was uncovered along with ditches and pits containing 13th/14th century ceramics (Site 74).A medieval farmstead comprising of a ditched enclosure dated from the presence of 13th to 14th century ceramics was recorded as was a medieval field system (Site 103) possibly associated with the nearby Ebbsfleet Farm and further medieval ditches (Site 12). Similarly, excavations along the East Kent Access Route, also to the north (Site 119 & 120) indicate that the area was also utilised in the medieval period with a small farmstead (Site 97) dated to the 11th to 13th century recorded.

4.21 By the 14th century the Site lay in the silted, former area of the Wantsum Channel, which was most likely marginal wetland in subsequent years. No medieval remains are recorded in the immediate vicinity of the Site, although medieval remains are recorded to the north, and several settlements including Stonar, Sandwich, Minster and Richborough are well documented in the medieval period. As such there is judged to be a Low potential for medieval features or artefacts to survive on the Site. There is the potential for paleoenvironmental and geoarchaeological deposits, relating to the process of silting up of the Wantsum Channel to survive buried beneath the Site. Any such deposits would allow for a better understanding of the processes responsible for the silting up of the Wantsum Channel in the medieval period and could also potentially further inform about local environmental conditions.

Post-Medieval (AD 1600-1900)

4.22 Early pre-Ordnance Survey maps of the Site tend to be schematic and lack detail, although these maps can give some idea of the nature of settlement in the surrounding area. An anonymous map dated 1611 (16/1946) and Blaeu’s 1646 map (Not illustrated) annotate settlements at Sandwich and Stonar to the south, Raynes (potentially Richborough) to the west and Ebbsfleet to the north. The route of the River Stour, located to the east and west of the Site, which loops to the south is also depicted. Neither the anonymous map dated 1611 (16/1946) or Blaeu’s 1646 map (Not illustrated) record anything specific about the Site, other than it was located on land by 1611.

4.23 Blatt’s 1769 map (Figure 4) was drawn at a larger scale than Blaeu’s and as such show’s further details about the surrounding area. This map (1769) depicts the Site divided north-south by a track (Site 139) which connects Stonar in the south to Ebbsfleet where the track seems to split, one fork headed north west and one north east. Hasted (1800) records that a wall was erected at the mouth of Ebbsfleet harbour which had been “choaked up” and on which by 1800 the road to Sandwich lay. Hasted (1800) is most likely referring to the feature which divides the Site in 1769 (Site 139). Salt pans are annotated to the south east of the Site, on the eastern side of Site 139. “Ebs Fleet Farm” (Site 82) is annotated to the north of the Site, as is Wetherlees Hill “or Battle D” (centre of Site 138). Blatt (1769) indicates that the Site is located in low lying land, and that the area to the south, in the loop of the River Stonar was occupied by wetland or marshland. Generally, the area to the north is depicted as to suggest a raised area of land, which most likely reflects its history as occupied land on the Ebbsfleet peninsula.

4.24 The Sandwich Drainage Act of 1776 was an attempt to prolong the use of Sandwich Harbour, which was considered a safe and convent port (Journal of the House of Commons, 1776:718). Stonar Cut (Site 5) to the south of the Site was a canal cut which enabled ships to reach Sandwich Harbour

SANDWICH KFC – RAMSGATE ROAD: GEOARCHAEOLOGICAL BOREHOLE EVALUATION REPORT

without having to navigate the long meander of the River Stour. The cut is still visible on aerial photography, although the HER records that it is rarely used for shipping.

4.25 No enclosure or tithe map was produced for the area surrounding the Site. It is likely that as the Site lay between two settlements in the late 18th century, and was only sparsely populated that the area was not considered to require recording. Also, as earlier maps show, the Site was divided by the Sandwich Road (Site 139).

4.26 The OS map of 1877 (Figure 5) depicts the Site similarly to Blatt, 100 years earlier. The Sandwich Road (Site 139- not annotated) appears to lie along an embankment and is located within the western Site boundary. A “Sea Wall” is annotated and depicted as extending north west from Site 139, from the western boundary of the Site. A small area at the southern corner of the Site is depicted within a field to the west of Site 139, whilst the north eastern area of the Site lies in land to the east of the Site 139. The surrounding area is generally shown to be divided into fields, bound by drainage ditches, and crossed by number of small footbridges which are annotated, and which illustrate the wetland nature of the area and the former Wantsum Channel. “Salt Pans” (Site 8) are annotated to the east of the Site along the coast and to the south (Site 59) of the Site. These features had been exploited along the Kent coast since the silting of the Wantsum Channel became inevitable (Hasted, 1800). The “Boarded Groin” (Site 67), constructed around 1365, is drawn to the north east of the Site along the coast, which indicates the longevity of this feature and highlights its importance to flood defences along the Kent coast. To the west of the Site, the River Stour is depicted and further west the Deal Branch Railway (Site 64), which opened in 1847 and connected Minister in the north, to Sandwich to the south and then to Deal, further south is illustrated. The Deal Branch Railway (Site 64) is depicted as being built on a raised embankment and in 1881 was extended to connect the railway (Site 64) to Dover. To the north, a Halfway House (Site 86) is annotated along the Sandwich Road (Site 139), as is a Coastguard Station (Site 60) and Stonelees, another farm, further north Ebbsfleet Farm (Site 82) is annotated. The Stonar Cut (Site 5) is illustrated to the south of the Site on the OS map of 1877 crossed by a bridge (Site 4).

4.27 There are no changes to the Site or surrounding area depicted on the OS map of 1897 (Not illustrated). A number of undated haystacks (Site 46-51& 54-56-raised areas of land used for the drying of hay) are recorded within the Study Area. These features (Site 46-51& 54-56) are thought to be date from the medieval or post medieval period and are often associated within wetland environments and it is likely that these features were used in the post medieval period when the historic maps indicate that the area around the Site was still occupied by wetlands.

4.28 The KCC HER records a Norwegian Barque wreck within the Study Area which sunk in 1882 (Site 3), as well as a milestone (Site 68), two sheep pens (Site 81 & 85), and two farmsteads (Site 83 & 84). Post medieval activity (Site 72) was also recorded around Weatherlees Hill to the north of the Site during excavations on the multi-phase site in 1995 and 2004 (Site 138), which illustrates the longevity of activity in the area to the north of the Site.

4.29 Historic maps thus indicate that the Site was occupied by the Sandwich Road and coastal embankment (Site 139) in the post medieval period from at least the second half of the 18th century. The Wantsum Channel is also shown to have ceased to exist in this period, although the area surrounding the Site was depicted as being wetland. Buried remains relating to the Sandwich Road

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(Site 139) and associated remains may survive within the Site and there is therefore considered to be a High potential for post medieval remains to survive within the Site.

Modern (AD post 1900)

4.30 There are no changes recorded to the Site between 1897 (Not illustrated) and 1949 (Figure 6). Whilst the Sandwich Road (Site 139) would have seen increased traffic during the 20th century there is no cartographic evidence of any major change to the Site before the mid 1980’s.

4.31 As one of the closest areas to France during the First World War, the Kent coast was utilised for troop deployment and supply stations. The Site lies within the area of Richborough Port (Site 17, 19 & 57) which was quickly developed by the Inland Waterways and Docks Section of the Royal Engineers for those purposes. The development required the reclamation of swampy foreshore and the widening of the estuary of the River Stour. The area was composed of hutted camps (Site 15 & 16), store depots (Site 19), wharves (Site 20), and railways (Site 20 & 43). The overall development of Richbrough Port (centred Site 57) included an area approximately 9.6km square between the River Stour and the Railway (Site 64). Cowan Camp (Site 15) and Robertson Camp (Site 16) were constructed to the south of the Site and Robertson Camp (Site 16) was still in existence in 1931 when it was depicted on the OS map published in 1933 (Not illustrated), whilst Cowan Camp (Site 15) was largely dismantled following the First World War. A train ferry dock (Site 14) was constructed to the east of the Site, on the coast in 1917. For a year following the First World War, salvage yards were constructed at Richborough Port (Site 18 & 21) to process the material coming back from Western Europe. Richborough Port (Site 57) was sold to a private enterprise in the 1920’s who proposed to use the infrastructure to serve local coalfields and industry, however the venture soon failed and the majority of surviving First World War structures fell into disrepair in the 1930’s, although the camp (Site 16) was used to house refugees from Nazi Germany from 1938. Several of the Fist World War structures in Richborough Port (Site 57) were brought back into use during the Second World War.

4.32 The OS map of 1933 (Not illustrated) only partially depicts the sea wall, which extended north west from the western Site boundary which suggests that it was largely a defunct feature by the mid 20th century. Similarly, the Boarded Groin (Site 67) is depicted as a dotted feature in 1933, indicating that it too had largely gone out of use. The OS map of 1933 (Not illustrated) also shows further land reclamation to the east and depicts the surviving First World War structures in Richborough Port (centred Site 57) to the north, east and south of the Site including; Weatherlees siding (Site 43) to the north; the train ferry dock to the east (Site 14) and Robertson Camp (Site 16), which would house refugees from 1938. The East Kent Light Railway (Site 65) to the south of the Site was extended to Richborough Port (centred Site 57) by 1928, although passenger traffic was only undertaken on this section of line for a year, after which it was utilised for industrial purposes only.

4.33 During the Second World War, Richborough Port (centred Site 57), having the same locational advantages as during the First World War, was brought back under Ministry of Defence (MoD) control. However, since warfare had developed in the intervening period, and the threat of air and land attack and invasion was considered to be great, Richborough Port was utilised not only as a supply port, but also as a defensive area. A collection of Grade II Listed Buildings (centred at Site 1) to the north east of the Site, is comprised of surviving defensive structures including 61 anti-tank pimples, 300 anti-tank cylinders and a pillbox that were constructed in Pegwell Bay. The KCC HER

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records the following Second World War structures; machine gun emplacements (Site 22, 29, 30, 32, 36, 39); coastal defences (Site 23, 31, 45); anti-tank blocks (Site 24, 26); buildings (Site 28, 35, 38, 40, 41); Richborough training site (Site 42) and jetties (Site 61-63) in the area to the east of the Site. Richborough Port (centred Site 57) is thought to have played a key role in the D-Day landing operations. Several bombs, evidenced by record or surviving craters (Site 25, 33, 34, 37) are known to have been dropped in the Study Area, aimed at Richborough Port (centred Site 57). The KCC HER also records two wrecked hulks (Site 44) within the Study Area which are thought to date to the Second World War.

4.34 The OS map of 1949 (Figure 6) depicts a large proportion of the Second World War structures (see section 5.6.4) within Richborough Port (centred Site 57) that survived the immediate post war period. However, most of the structures within Richborough Port were decommissioned in the post war period. OS maps dated 1958 and 1960 (Not illustrated) indicate that the majority of buildings had been cleared by 1960, with the surviving elements being the mineral railway or train ferry dock (Site 14) and four buildings to the east of the Site. The course of the Sandwich Road (Site 139) was moved to the east between 1982 and 1987 (Not illustrated). The Site is depicted as a gap Site between Richborough Power Station (Site 13) and the A256 after that date and a drain is annotated in the vicinity of the Site in 1990. There is no evidence of the embankment or any remains of the historic route of the Sandwich Road (Site 139) on OS maps dated after 1980.

4.35 Richborough Power Station (Site 13) to the immediate west of the Site was built between the late 1950’s and the early 1960’s and is not depicted on the 1960 OS map (Not illustrated) but appears on the 1968 OS plan (Not illustrated). Initially the Power Station (Site 13) was coal fired, however rising prices forced its conversion to oil in 1971. The Power Station (Site 13) acquired a number of new cooling tanks and chimneys between 1968 and 1982. After 1971 another change was forced in 1990 due to the rise in oil price and Orimulsion was burnt until the station was decommissioned in 1996. The cooling towers and chimney of Site 13 were demolished in 2012 and since Richborough Energy Park have been seeking planning permission to use Site 13 as a site on which to host a number of green energy’s generating technologies.

4.36 The Site was occupied by the Sandwich Road (Site 139) in the modern era until the latter half of the 20th century after which it has been unoccupied open ground. It is unknown what decommissioning works were undertaken on the road (Site 139) and as such there is judged to be a Medium potential for modern remains relating to the road to survive on the Site.

Unknown Date

4.37 Eight shallow circular earthworks (Site 46-51) have been recorded by KCC HER to the west of the Site and a further three circular earthworks are noted to the north west (Site 54-56) from aerial photography taken in the 1940’s. These features were interpreted as mounds for the drying and storage of hay in a damp environment, however no fixed date for these features has been suggested although they are usually associated with a medieval or post-medieval farming landscape. These features (Site 46-51 & 54-56) have not been identified on modern aerial photography, which may indicate that they have been levelled in the modern era. A further hay stack and associated agricultural features (Site 53) were noted on aerial photography to the north west of the Site in the vicinity of Weatherlees Hill Wastewater Treatment Works. These features (Site 53) have been overbuilt by the Wastewater Treatment Works and as such have most likely

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been destroyed.

4.38 An unidentified ship wreck (Site 2) was discovered in 1965 to the south east of the Site on the banks of the River Soar by the Stonar Cut. 5 Geoarchaeological and Palaeoenvironmental Background

5.1 The site appears to lie to the south east of the buried island feature, Weatherlees Hill, within the ancient Wantsum Channel. A schematic map showing the major landscape features in the area is presented in Figure 2. The Wantsum Channel was separated from the wider Thames Estuary by the Isle of Thanet, to the north, but it also encompassed a number of smaller islands and sand banks, such as the aforementioned Weatherlees Hill. The frequency of islands, providing access to the rich resources of the estuary would have been attractive to past human communities. For similar albeit farther removed reasons, the area has also been the focus of several geoarchaeological investigations over the last few decades.

5.2 Most recently Krawiec and Bates, as part of large-scale work on the Richborough Connection Project (ASE 2020, in prep), have furthered the ongoing discourse and debate concerning the development of the Wantsum Channel and associated islands that proceeded their work (Perkins 2007, 2012 and Moody 2008), and provided a useful broad outline for the development of the Wantsum Channel. They propose that the Wantsum Valley predates the incision of the Weald Artois Ridge, which occurred during the Anglian Glaciation (MIS 12, 478-524 kya, Gupta et al 2017) and formed the current Dover Straits. Additionally, it is suggested that the Wantsum Valley is potentially related to the pre-Holocene development of the Stour Valley (Bates et al 2012). After the submergence of Doggerland (6500-5000 BC), which formed the land-bridge between the UK and Europe, rising post-glacial relative sea level (RSL) drove the development of the Wantsum Channel as a tidal link between the Dover Straits and the Thames Estuary.

5.3 Towards the centre of the Wantsum Channel mouth a buried shingle bank of uncertain date, the Stonar Bank, has previously been recorded (Figure 2 and Hardman & Stebbing 1940, 1941). The Stonar bank is thought to be a narrow formation situated within a southern loop of the River Stour and has been the focus of several previous geoarchaeological investigations (Bates and Pine 1994, Hearne et al 1996, MOLA 2004, Quest 2016 and Quest 2017), most of which have predominantly been situated c. 2.5km south to of the current site. Substantial amounts of Stonar Shingle were identified in this southern area, near Sandwich, but Robinson & Cloet (1953) proposed that a rise in ground level to the north signalled that the bank continued in this direction, and that it was formed through a combination of long-shore drift and reworking of shingle barriers further offshore. Hardman & Stebbing (1940, 1941) postulated that the shingle spit of the Stonar Bank developed southward from the Isle of Thanet into the Wantsum Channel. In contrast Bates & Pine (1994), indicated that shingle spit developed from the south to north. Either way, the formation of the bank blocked the mouth of the Wantsum Channel to a large degree and forced the channel, now the River Stour, southwards.

5.4 The Deal Spit is another major landscape feature, it extends from the southern bank of the Wantsum Channel mouth northwards towards the Stonar Bank (Figure 2). In combination, the tidal protection of these banks and spits contributed to the formation of mudflat lagoons and saltmarshes within the landward side of the banks, and within the Wantsum Channel, from 5 to 4,000 BC (Clarke

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et al. 2010). Thus encouraging the further development of resource rich habitats desirable by past humans. The deposition and erosion of shingle formations of this type are frequently associated with and believed to define the widespread occupation and use of the ancient landscape of the south coast by past human communities (Long et al. 2007; Waller and Long 2010).

5.5 Westwards, further within the Wantsum Channel, a number of islands have been recorded, centred around high remnants of Thanet or London Clay bedrock. The most notable is Richborough Island (c. 17m OD), the history of which is covered in the preceding section. Important to the current site is Weatherlees Hill (c. 5m OD, Hearne et al 1995), within the Minister Marshes. Basal organic deposits that sealed the Thanet Sand of Weatherlees Hill previously produced early to mid-Neolithic radiocarbon dates (GU-4363, 3305-3350 cal BC, 4640+/-BP; GU-4367, 3505-3343 cal BC, 4360+/- BP, Hearne et al 1995). The well-preserved organic deposits atop Weatherlees Hill provided, until recently, one of the few analysed palaeoenvironmental sequences (diatom, mollusc, and pollen). However, the contradictory results have suggested that the dating was unreliable.

5.6 South of the current site (c. 850m) and further off Weatherlees Hill, investigations at Brown and Mason’s Yard recorded a high energy, marine environment during the Mesolithic that formed a ‘wave-cut-platform’ of the Thanet Bedrock (MOLA 2006). By the Late Neolithic/Early Bronze Age (2130 to 1880 BC), mudflat environs had developed into saltmarsh suggesting that these sediments had formed around the protection of a bank (e.g. the Stonar Bank) extending to/from Weatherlees Hill

5.7 It has been suggested that for much of the prehistoric and Roman periods the Wantsum Channel was open and navigable (ASE 2020, in prep). Sometime subsequently, because of the natural bank and spits closing off the mouth of the valley and likely also due to increased erosion from agriculture intensification/expansion, the channel began to silt and the floodplain experienced increased alluviation that further obstructed seaward river flow. During the medieval and post-medieval period, the expanded mudflats and saltmarsh underwent anthropogenic reclamation as detailed in the preceding section. 6 Aims of the Investigation

6.1 The stage 1 works will consist of a geoarchaeological borehole evaluation, followed by further archaeological evaluation in stage 2, if deemed necessary by the results of the first stage.

6.2 Geoarchaeology is the application of earth science principles and techniques to the understanding of the archaeological record (HE 2015a). It involves the examination of sub-surface deposit sequences, through coring or exposed sections, in order to identify site formation processes or landscape features of archaeological interest. Deposit models are often employed in geoarchaeology, these are conjectural maps and cross-sections used to investigate the archaeological significance, potential impact, or accessibility of buried deposits (HE 2020). Geoarchaeological approaches often form part of a wider programme of archaeological investigation.

6.3 The standards set out by the Chartered Institute for Archaeologists for archaeological field evaluation (CIfA 2020) apply to geoarchaeological evaluation, and the purpose of such is:

 To ‘determine, as far as is reasonably possible, the nature of the (geo)archaeological

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resource within a specified area using appropriate methods and practices.’

 To be ‘a limited programme of non-intrusive and/or intrusive fieldwork which determines the presence or absence of (geo)archaeological features, structures, deposits, artefacts or ecofacts within a specified area or site…. If such archaeological remains are present field evaluation defines their character, extent, quality and preservation, and enables an assessment of their worth in a local, regional, national or international context as appropriate.’

 But the (geo)archaeological resource should not be ‘needlessly disturbed or damaged or inappropriate or excessive cost incurred’ when evaluation is undertaken in support of a planning application.

6.4 Archaeological evaluation should enhance previous work and provide sufficient information upon which to base effective decisions concerning mitigation. Therefore, an evaluation can highlight the need for further WSIs and archaeological work to fulfil planning conditions.

6.5 AOC’s archaeological evaluation methodology will conform to best professional practice as summarised in the appropriate Chartered Institute for Archaeologists Guideline for Evaluation (CIfA 2020) and geoarchaeology (HE 2015a and HE 2020).

6.6 The general aims of the investigation at the Site are defined as:

 What is the distribution, depth, character, date, condition, and significance of the deposit sequence?

 What is the palaeoenvironmental potential of the deposits encountered?

 What is the extent of archaeological remains and their potential survival across the site?

 What is the depth of modern overburden?

6.7 The specific research aims of the investigation at the Site are defined as:

 What does the deposit sequence on the site reveal about the evolution of the Wantsum Channel?

 What does the deposit sequence on the site reveal about the evolution of the landscape around the Weatherlees Hill Island?

 What does the deposit sequence on the site reveal about the possible nature and date of the silting up of the Wantsum Channel or any related any tributaries?

 What does the deposit sequence on the site reveal about the formation of shingle banks or sand spits within the mouth of the Wantsum Channel?

 Can the deposit sequence onsite provide further chronological resolution or integration for the deposit sequences already investigated in the area?

6.8 The overall objective for the boreholes, deposit modelling and any subsequent trenching and palaeoenvironmental assessment is to evaluate the archaeological and palaeoenvironmental potential and likely significance of the deposits present, so that the impact of the development can be understood, and informed decisions made regarding appropriate mitigation. As part of this overarching objective and in order to fulfil the general aims, the specific objective of the stage 1 works at the Site are defined as:

 To monitor the geotechnical investigations and obtain geoarchaeological boreholes, in order to

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observe and record the deposit sequence and its distribution across the site and provide samples for palaeoenvironmental assessment.  7 Methodology Origin and Purpose of Deposit Modelling in Archaeology

7.1 The purpose of a geoarchaeological deposit model as outlined by Historic England (HE 2020) is to:

 identify areas of low or high archaeological potential

 avoid blanket evaluation coverage and inform appropriate mitigation strategies

 aid communication with construction professionals

 facilitate palaeoenvironmental reconstruction

7.2 The character and distribution of past human activity can be better understood through the consideration of the past landscape or environmental context. Such an approach is often required by archaeological advisors and the local planning authority on floodplains where the deposit sequence can vary from thin alluvium or peat, with shallowly exposed ancient land surfaces, to complex and thick sequences of interchanging alluvium and peat, covering deeply buried ancient land surfaces.

7.3 The topography and nature of the ancient land surface during the early Holocene, the current geological epoch and equivalent to the early Mesolithic (c. 11,500 BP or 10,000 BC), is dictated by and inferred from the surface of the Pleistocene superficial deposits (the previous epoch) and older solid geology (e.g. mudstone, brickearth, gravel or chalk). Overlying the Pleistocene – or older – deposits, Holocene alluvium may preserve palaeoenvironmental evidence (e.g. pollen, diatoms, ostracods) of landscape development, from local channel migration and vegetation change to regional effects of climate and relative sea level (RSL) change. In combination, likely preservation of palaeoenvironmental remains and deposit data (e.g. depth and character) provides a comparative framework to assess archaeological potential. Peat represents vegetated and waterlogged landscapes (e.g. marshland) which developed, within local or regional fluctuations of hydrology. The anaerobic and acidic conditions of the deposit are particularly conducive to organic preservation. Palaeoenvironmental remains from floodplain deposits, especially peat, provide information on the nature and timing of environmental change and the interplay with past human activity (HE 2015a, 2015b).

7.4 Modelling software (Rockworks & ArcGIS) is often used to create two and three-dimensional deposit models of the buried topography and overlying strata on the site. The data used may be readily available British Geological Survey (BGS 2021) geological information, recent geotechnical data from the client, or data past archaeological investigations. The depth and distribution of the various deposits is mapped in schematic cross-sections (transects) or plan, showing the elevation (Digital Elevation Model, DEM) or thickness (Isopach), of deposits or stratigraphic units. The model often culminates in schematics maps showing areas of archaeological potential.

Onsite Borehole Evaluation

7.1 Seven borehole locations approximately 100mm in diameter were drilled across the site (Figure 3, AOC34271_BH1-7). Geoarchaeological monitoring was undertaken on 4 geotechnical boreholes

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(AOC34271_BH1-4), 3 purposive geoarchaeological boreholes were also drilled (AOC34271_BH5- 7), and the core samples of the later were retained. Boreholes were drilled by a windowless sample rig under the supervision/monitoring of a geoarchaeologist/environmental archaeologist. Where appropriate, service pits (approximately 300mm x 300mm) were hand-dug to c 1.2m at each location, and the holes CAT-scanned for live services at regular intervals by the sub-contractor or by AOC during this process.

7.2 Continuous samples were collected through the alluvial deposits down to c. 2-8m bgl or the surface of the underlying pre-Holocene drift/solid geology, whichever was encountered first. The cores recovered were undisturbed 1m to 1.5m long plastic tubes, roughly 100mm diameter. The cores were retained. The borehole locations were surveyed in by the principal contractor, with each position located to a six-figure national grid reference, and the elevation measured to metres above ordnance datum.

7.3 Due to high levels of water-saturation in the low-lying sandy deposits retrieval in the core samples was particularly poor. Despite casing the holes, sediment was rarely retained in the sampler below 3-4m bgl. As the sampler could not clear locations, the unexploded ordinance (UXO) probe could not be lowered into the hole to a sufficient depth so that the next section could be scanned for UXOs prior to drilling. This led to several locations finishing prematurely. On some of the geoarchaeological locations the sampler dropped 2-3m under its own weight through these water- saturated running sands, again with poor retrieval.

7.4 On site or back in the AOC laboratory, the geoarchaeologist photographed and logged the Holocene sediments revealed in the boreholes according to standard geological criteria (Jones et al 1999; Tucker 2003). Preliminary interpretation of the deposit sequence sampled in the cores was made in order to produce an overview of the lithology that characterises the stratigraphy and identifies formation processes.

7.5 The borehole cores were adequately sealed and labelled and stored in the AOC laboratories cold storage for use during the subsequent stages of the project. As a general rule cores have a shelf life limited to 3-4 years.

Deposit Model

7.6 In order to create the deposit model, the geotechnical data was entered into a digital database (Rockworks 20). Any recent geotechnical logs supplied by the client or previous archaeological work onsite were given the prefix ‘CP’ for cable percussion, ‘RT’ for rotary, ‘WS’ for window samples, ‘AH’ for auger holes, ‘TP’ for test pits, or ‘TR’ for trenches. BGS logs (BGS 2021) added to the database were given a prefix relating to the two-letter grid square of its national grid reference e.g. TQ. A total of 45 sedimentary logs were included in the deposit model. The distribution of this data set is presented in Figure 2 and the data references for the sedimentary logs are presented in Appendix A. The numbers of each type are:

 BGS historic deposit data (BGS 2021): 17

 AOC deposit data: 7

7.7 Each lithology type (gravel, sand, silt, clay etc.) was given a unique colour (primary component) and pattern (secondary component) enabling visual correlation of the sediment components of

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deposits across the site. By examining the relationship of the lithology types (both horizontally and vertical) in preliminary and iterative transects, correlations can inform the site-wide deposit groups. The grouping of these deposits is based on the lithological descriptions, which represent distinct depositional environments, coupled with a wider understanding of the local floodplain sequences. Thus, a sequence of stratigraphic units (‘facies’), representing certain depositional environments, and/or landforms can be reconstructed both laterally and through time.

7.8 Inverse distance weighted (IDW, weighting =2, number of points =12) digital elevation model (DEM) and thickness (Isopach) plots were produced for key deposits (i.e. units defining major changes in the environment and modes of deposition) and surface horizons. These highlight major features of the topography through time. In this respect, the most common surface plot depicts the surface of the Pleistocene (or older) deposits (Figure 5) gives an approximation of the topography of the site as it existed at the beginning of the early Mesolithic period c 10,000 years ago. The development of the Holocene floodplain is likely to have been influenced by the topography inherited from the Pleistocene/Late glacial period. This surface would have dictated the course of later channels, with gravel high points forming areas of dry land within the wetlands, and lower lying areas forming the main threads of later channels. Many of the additional surface or thickness plots are more representative of deposit survival than time-specific landscapes (Yendell 2020).

7.9 The overlying deposit sequence across the site depicted by the stratigraphic units, as representative of specific depositional environments and/or landforms laterally and through time for the site and immediate vicinity, is illustrated in profile or transect form (

7.10 Figure 4). Such transects present a straight-line correlation between the data points, extrapolating the stratigraphic units identified within each borehole.

7.11 By examining the surface and thickness plots in combination with the vertical deposition shown in the transects areas of archaeological potential can be mapped (Figure 10). These characterise the differing geoarchaeological and archaeological potential and significance of single stratigraphic units, deposit sequences containing multiple stratigraphic units, or specific landforms and depositional environments. 8 Results Borehole logs

8.1 The log tables for the geoarchaeological boreholes monitored (Figure 3, AOC34271_BH1-4) and undertaken by AOC (Figure 3, AOC34271_BH5-7) are presented below. Table 1 Deposit log for AOC34271_WS1 Bore Easting Northing Elevation

AOC34271_WS1 633428 162000 3.67 Top Base Top Base Thickness elevation elevation depth depth (m Description Interpretation (m) (m OD) (m OD) (m bgl) bgl)

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SILT; mid grey-brown; Made ground / Top 3.67 3.37 0.00 0.30 0.30 occasional half brick. soil

SILT; mid blue-grey; very fine; rare flint large to 3.37 2.27 0.30 1.40 1.10 cobble sized, subangular, apart from that no visible inclusions.

Yellow green fine SAND, 2.27 1.67 1.40 2.00 0.60 slightly silty; fine; yellow- green.

Upper alluvium CLAY; yellowish blue; 1.67 0.87 2.00 2.80 1.40 firm; clear upper boundary; becoming soft.

0.87 0.67 2.80 3.00 0.20 SANDS; wet, no retrieval.

Table 2 Deposit log for AOC34271_WS2 Bore Easting Northing Elevation

AOC34271_WS2 633423 162040 3.75 Top Base Top Base Thickness elevation elevation depth depth (m Description Interpretation (m) (m OD) (m OD) (m bgl) bgl)

SILT clayey; mid to dark Made ground / Top 3.75 3.35 0.00 0.40 0.40 brown; occasional chalk. soil

SAND; medium to fine; 3.35 1.85 0.40 1.90 1.50 Upper alluvium brownish yellow.

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SAND; medium to fine; brownish yellow; 1.85 1.05 1.90 2.70 0.80 subangular to rounded black flint

SAND; black; gradual 1.05 0.95 2.70 2.80 0.10 boundary.

CLAY silty; blue grey; 0.95 0.75 2.80 3.00 0.20 firm; massive structure; occasional rootlets.

Table 3 Deposit log for AOC34271_WS3 Bore Easting Northing Elevation

AOC34271_WS3 633427 162074 3.8 Top Base Top Base Thickness elevation elevation depth depth (m Description Interpretation (m) (m OD) (m OD) (m bgl) bgl)

Made ground / Top 3.80 3.50 0.00 0.30 0.30 Tarmac. soil

SAND & FLINT; off white; 3.50 3.40 0.30 0.40 0.10 occasional chalk.

CLAY; light brown; firm; occasional Fe staining, 3.40 2.75 0.40 1.05 0.65 occasional white sand Upper alluvium pockets (<0.5cm) & root channels.

SAND; medium; light brownish yellow; 2.75 2.65 1.05 1.15 0.10 occasional rounded, black, flint. SAND; medium; light 2.65 2.30 1.15 1.50 0.35 brownish yellow; raw flint.

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CLAY silty; soft; occasional manganese staining; heavy Fe in 2.30 0.30 1.50 3.50 2.00 localised (rooting) patches; 1cm sand pockets. CLAY; light grey; firm; 0.30 -0.20 3.50 4.00 0.50 massive structure.

Table 4 Deposit log for AOC34271_WS4 Bore Easting Northing Elevation

AOC34271_WS4 633444 162052 3.95 Top Base Top Base Thickness elevation elevation depth depth (m Description Interpretation (m) (m OD) (m OD) (m bgl) bgl)

Made ground / Top 3.95 3.90 0.00 0.05 0.05 Turf soil

SILT; fine; blue-grey; 3.90 2.15 0.05 1.80 1.75 friable; becoming slightly clayey.

GRAVEL; fine; blue-grey. Upper alluvium 2.15 1.95 1.80 2.00 0.20 SAND; medium; grey.

1.95 2.00 Wet; very soft, no retrieval

Table 5 Deposit log for AOC34271_WS5 Location Easting Northing Elevation

AOC34271_WS5 633433 162056 3.82 Top Base Top Base Thickness elevation elevation depth depth (m Description Interpretation (m) (m OD) (m OD) (m bgl) bgl)

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3.82 3.77 0.00 0.05 0.05 Turf

Made ground / Top soil

SILT; fine; brownish grey; 3.77 3.54 0.05 0.28 0.23 rooting.

SILT; fine; light grey; firm; 3.57 2.02 0.25 1.80 1.55 becoming soft and wet from 0.7m.

Medium SAND and small, subrounded GRAVEL; 2.02 1.92 1.80 1.90 0.10 greenish yellow; Fe stained.

SILT; light grey; firm; Upper alluvium 1.92 1.62 1.90 2.20 0.30 slight organic patches some visible root fibres.

CLAY very silty; firm; olive yellow; irregular upper boundary; occasional organic patches (like above) but only near 1.62 0.02 2.20 3.80 1.60 upper boundary; occasional Fe staining possibly associated with rooting. Becoming mid grey from 3.6

SILT; loose; poor to no recovery; wet; mid to dark 0.02 -2.97 3.80 6.79 2.99 Fluvial grey (no retrieval 4-5m bgl). CLAY silty; pale blue; clear upper boundary; occasional pockets of organic <0.5cm. -2.97 -3.18 6.79 7.00 0.21 Lower alluvium Collapsing and cannot drill further without UXO access. Possibly backfill from overlying unit.

Table 6 Deposit log for AOC34271_WS6 Location Easting Northing Elevation

AOC34271_WS6 633419 162024 3.59

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Top Base Top Base Thickness elevation elevation depth depth Description Interpretation (m) (m OD) (m OD) (m bgl) (m bgl) SILT slightly sandy; Made ground / Top 3.59 3.09 0.00 0.50 0.50 brownish blue-grey. soil SILT sandy; yellow-grey; 3.09 2.59 0.50 1.00 0.50 massive structure. Upper alluvium Yellow SAND and sub 2.59 2.39 1.00 1.20 0.20 rounded GRAVEL. Core samples not opened but saved for OS (4-6m bgl Upper alluvium / 2.39 -4.21 1.20 7.80 6.60 sample 2m combined into Fluvial / Lower 1m and no retrieval from 6- alluvium 7.8m bgl). Gravity sunk sampler to 8m Bedrock - Thanet -4.21 -4.41 7.80 8.00 0.20 where it stopped - stiff, Sand shelly, green sand - Thanet

Table 7 Deposit log for AOC34271_WS7 Location Easting Northing Elevation

AOC34271_WS7 633416 161998 3.51 Top Base Top Base Thickness elevation elevation depth depth Description Interpretation (m) (m OD) (m OD) (m bgl) (m bgl)

3.51 3.03 0.00 0.48 0.48 SILT fine; blue grey.

SILT sandy; friable; dark Made ground / brown; occasional small Top soil 3.03 2.81 0.48 0.70 0.22 CBM, ash clinker, and mollusc shell.

SILT sandy; firm; greenish 2.81 2.31 0.70 1.20 0.50 yellow; rare inclusions.

SAND medium; mid yellow; 2.31 1.81 1.20 1.70 0.50 angular to subangular black flint; firm.

CLAY silty; greenish grey; 1.81 0.96 1.70 2.55 0.85 firm to soft; occasional Fe staining. Upper alluvium

CLAY silty; mid to dark grey becoming mid blue/grey with 0.96 -0.39 2.55 3.90 1.35 depth; irregular upper boundary.

CLAY silty; dark grey; very -0.39 -0.49 3.90 4.00 0.10 soft and wet; no visible organic tissue.

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So soft gravity took sampler from 4m straight to 7m. Only 0.4m retrieval (same as/ -0.49 -3.49 4.00 7.00 3.00 Fluvial backfill from above). Cannot progress as cannot scan for UXO

Deposit Model

8.2 Five stratigraphic units have been identified across the site and one additional unit identified on adjacent sites (Hearne et al 1996). These units are summarised in Table 8 below and listed in stratigraphic order from the oldest to the most recent. The vertical deposit succession is illustrated on the transects drawn across the site (

8.3 Figure 4). The major stratigraphic units are also represented by surface and/or thickness plots (Figure 5 to Figure 9).

Table 8 Summary of identified stratigraphic units (subdivision of the Holocene based Walker et al 2012)

Stratigraphic Lithology/Description Chronology Environment of unit (facies) deposition Thanet Sand Stiff, fine grained, Early to mid- Shallow marine greenish sand, with Thanetian (late deposit interbedded silt and Paleocene, 57 to clay. 59 million years ago) Lower alluvium Pale blue, silty clay, Early Holocene / Low lying estuarine Greenlandian (c and peri-marine 11,650–8,276 BP/ deposits 9,700–6326 BC) predominantly located in the eastern mouth of the channel Fluvial to marine Loose, wet, sand and Mid Holocene / Coarse sediments sands possible silt. No Northgrippian (c either infilling low retrieval, running 8,276 – 4,200 BP/ lying channel areas sands. 6,326 – 2,250 BC) or banked/reworked to Late Holocene / units around Meghalayan bedrock islands or (c 4200 BP/2250 shingle formations BC onwards) Organic deposits Peat Mid Holocene / Temperate wetland (not present on site) Northgrippian (c development within 8,276 – 4,200 BP/ a floodplain 6,326 – 2,250 BC) environment to Late Holocene / Meghalayan (c 4200 BP/2250 BC onwards) Upper alluvium Grey and yellow, Late Holocene / Representative of sand/silt/clay, Meghalayan floodplain and occasional gravel (c 4,200 BP/ 2,250 intertidal mudflats, BC onwards) with additions from possible reworking

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of shingle or sand bank material

Topsoil and made Mid to dark brown / Post-medieval to Reclamation / ground grey silt to sand, and modern (19th agriculture redeposited material of Century AD local origin with onwards) additional modern inclusions (CBM etc) Thanet Sand

8.4 A predominantly stiff, fine grained, greenish sand, with interbedded silt and clay; this deposit was laid down in the early to mid-Thanetian as a shallow marine deposit. The BGS (2021) map out crops and surviving/upstanding remnants of high Thanet sand across the Wantsum Channel Valley, one of which lies to the north of the current site and forms Weatherlees Hill (Figure 2). The high ground of Weatherlees Hill can be seen on the topographic plot of the surface of the below ground solid geology (Figure 5). This plot depicts the possible form of the ancient land surface at c. 10,000 BC, and shows the surface of the Thanet Sand rising to above -2m OD to the west and northwest of the site (TR36SW39 and TR36SW78), across the Weatherlees Hill island, and dropping to below -5 m OD in the south and east (TR36SW63 and TR36SW22), towards the low-lying main routes of the Wantsum Channel valley.

8.5 Due the poor retrieval of running sand deposits and resultant difficulty reaching lower depths, Thanet Sand was only recorded in one location AOC34271_WS6 (Table 6 and

8.6 Figure 4). At this location, the sampler dropped over 3m under its own weight through these water- saturated running sands and retrieved c. 0.2m thickness of Thanet Sand, with a surface recorded at -4.21m OD.

8.7 On the transect (

8.8 Figure 4), the surface of the Thanet Sand is recorded at c.-3m OD to the north of the site (TR36SW46). This marks the eastern edge of what is referred to as the Weatherlees Hill Island (c. 5m OD; ASE 2020, in prep).

8.9 At the Former Brown and Mason Yard (c. 850m south of the current site, MOLA 2006), Thanet Sand was recorded at –2.5m OD and indicated that the area was peripheral to the Wantsum Sea Channel. On the current site with the Thanet surface recorded at -4.21m OD it would suggest that the location is within deeper parts of the Wantsum Channel rather than on the edge of the Weatherlees Hill Island. However, this distinction between the low-lying Channel and higher areas of Weatherlees Hill is not well represented in the currently available borehole data.

Lower alluvium

8.10 Due to the poor retrieval of sediments at depth, this unit was recorded onsite to only a limited degree, with at least c. 0.2m thickness recovered below -2.97m OD in AOC34271_WS5 (

8.11 Figure 4). The deposit was a pale blue silty clay and included occasional small (<0.5cm) pockets of detrital organic remains. The detrital organics could be representative of ephemeral vegetation growth or eroded organics, especially considering the active river mouth location and proximity to

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channel marginal deposits that are known around Weatherlees Hill to the north (Hearne et al 1996). It is also possible that this sediment was backfilled or recut from the overlying sediment during the drilling process, particularly considering the poor retrieval between 0.02 and -2.97m OD.

8.12 Figure 6 models the thickness of the Lower alluvium across the site and its vicinity. Within the site the modelled thickness ranges c. 0.5-1m. Beyond the site and to the south, the unit is up to c. 2- 2.5m thick. To the east and north of the site it almost disappears, being modelled at c. 0-0.5m thick over the raised ground of Weatherlees Hill. In the far north east, possibly beyond Weatherlees Hill, it thickens again but only to c. 1.5-2m. The thicker deposits generally in fill the recorded low-lying areas of the Wantsum Channel and fringe the higher island areas.

8.13 If in situ, this unit may be related to peri-marine/ estuarine clays recorded in the BGS data to the south and east (Quest 2017) and also to geoarchaeological findings of sand and clay complexes to the south, representing estuarine mud to sand flats development (MOLA 2006). The low-lying estuarine mud flats are thought to be pre/Early Neolithic, based on a Late Neolithic/Early Bronze Age (2130 to 1880 BC) radiocarbon date from the overlying salt marsh deposits.

Fluvial to marine sands

8.14 Examples of this deposit group are only recorded in the purposive geoarchaeological boreholes onsite and not the geotechnical boreholes, which failed to recover anything from these depths. Even so the recovery of this sediment in the geoarchaeological boreholes is still very poor. Due to high levels of water-saturation in the low-lying sandy deposits sediment was rarely retained in the sampler below 3-4m bgl, and on some of the geoarchaeological locations the sampler dropped 2- 3m under its own weight through these water-saturated running sands, again with poor retrieval.

8.15 In AOC34271_WS5 no recovery was obtained between 0.02 and -2.97m OD, although indications were of loose silt of a mid to dark grey colour. The cores samples from AOC34271_6 were not opened onsite but wrapped to prevent light intrusion so that the samples, if needed, could be used for OSL dating. Core sample 4-6m bgl is 2m depth combined into a 1m sample and no retrieval was obtained from 6-7.8m bgl. The samples were taken in case OSL was required but considering the poor retrieval and loose character of the sediment I would not rely on the depth or viability of the samples for such a dating technique. In AOC34271_7 the sampler gravity sunk from -0.49 to - 3.49m OD, retrieving only 0.4m of clay, which is likely backfill from the overlying deposit. Loose, water saturated, silt and sands are indicated by these records and are suggestive of the “running sands” known along the south coast to be difficult for borehole, or for that matter trench, sampling. From the records gathered during these works it is generally taken that sands of this character were encountered from c. 0m OD downwards (

8.16 Figure 4), although the nature of the deposits does make it difficult to be precise or reliable with such elevation estimations.

8.17 Figure 7 presents a thickness model of the fluvial/marine sands across the site. Inside the north of the site the unit records a modelled thickness between c. 2.5-3m. Inside the south of the site the thickness is modelled between c. 2.0-2.5m, before decreasing to c. 1.5-2m thick in the very south of the site. Beyond the site and to the south and east, the unit is modelled up to c. 4.5-5m thick. To the north of the site, the unit mostly decreases to c. 0.5-1m thick on the model, however, few data points are in this area and it could be up to c. 3.5m thick. Across the west and north west of the site

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the fluvial/marine deposits are modelled at c. 0-0.5m thick over the raised ground of Weatherlees Hill. Similar to the underlying alluvial unit the thicker fluvial/marine sands generally in fill the recorded low-lying areas of the Wantsum Channel and fringe the higher areas (e.g. Weatherlees Hill island).

8.18 Peri-marine to fluvial sands are recorded in the BGS data to the south and east (BGS 2021/Quest 2017) and also geoarchaeological investigation suggested that similar sand flats, located to the south of the current site and like the estuarine muds mentioned in the preceding section, are thought to be pre/Early Neolithic (MOLA 2006). Micro-faunal remains from the base of this southern sequence, at the Former Brown and Mason Yard site, suggested a high energy marine environment. This environment is suggested to have eroded the Thanet Sand bedrock down to a ‘wave cut platform’ during the Mesolithic as RSL rose and coastlines transgressed (MOLA 2006).

8.19 The processes responsible for the formation of the spits and banks in the Wantsum Channel are not fully understood but it is assumed that a combination of long-shore drift and subsequent reworking of offshore shingle barriers is responsible (Robinson and Cloet 1953). Therefore, any coarser sediments may be derived from the inland fluvial regime, reworked shingle from offshore barriers, or reworked Thanet Sand bedrock (from the erosion of the suggested ‘wave cut platform’ to the south). The specific location of the current site, just to south of Weatherlees Hill, could also mean that these sediments may have been independently bank up against this raised landscape feature or be part of a separate encroaching bank or spit. Such a bank or spit could viably be approaching from the north or south such as proposed by conflicting theories about the formation of the Stonar Bank across the mouth of the Wantsum Channel (Hardman & Stebbing 1940, 1941, Bates & Pine 1994). The borehole from the Biomass site, c. 2km south of the current site, provided records of a 2.0m OD high sand and gravel ridge to the east of the Stonar Bank (QUEST 2017), possibly representing a similar formation to that found on the current site banked against Weatherlees Hill.

Organic deposits

8.20 No organic deposits are recorded on the site. Some organic inclusions are noted within some clay or sand deposits but are generally small and probably detrital.

8.21 Peat sequences are recorded at Weatherlees Hill (Hearne et al. 1995 and illustrated by the BGS data in

8.22 Figure 4 and Figure 8), further south at the Former Brown and Mason Yard (MOLA 2006), and in nearby work undertaken as part of the Richborough Connection Project (BH60 in ASE 2020, in prep).

8.23 On

8.24 Figure 4 and Figure 8, organic deposits are either not recorded or are modelled below c. 0.5m in thickness across the site and beyond the east and south of the site. Beyond the north of the site, and in particular immediately outside the northwest, the peat deposits thicken to c. 4-4.5m. Outside of the site and in the far west and northwest of the model the peat deposits again reduce to below c. 0.5m atop the highest parts of the Weatherlees Hill island.

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8.25 At the Former Brown and Mason Yard site (MOLA 2006) the peat was found to be representative of a salt marsh environment and was dated to the Late Neolithic/Early Bronze Age (2130 to 1880 BC). Saltmarsh within this central area of the channel during this period suggests the immediate locality was sheltered by a bank or spit or that the Wantsum Channel had more generally begun to sit up and low rate reduce. Pollen, molluscan and diatom data from Weatherlees Hill (Scaife 1995, Allen 1995, Cameron 1995, and Hearne et al 1996) provided evidence of a transition, possibly in the the Mid to Late Bronze Age (although the dating is in question), from dry land activity on the island to the encroachment of the upper and then middle saltmarsh as RSL rose further, presumably from the lower-lying channel environs such as at the Former Brown and Mason Yard site.

8.26 BH60 undertaken as part of the Richborough Connection Project (precise location not yet confirmed, ASE 2020, in prep) recorded a late Mesolithic humified silty peat (-5.00 to -5.60m OD) forming atop weathered Thanet Sand, and within a sheltered tributary or marginal channel location. Despite poor palaeoenvironmental preservation, brackish conditions were suggested. The overlying organic silts (-1.65 to -5.00m OD) recorded the continued development of mudflats and saltmarsh in this location proposed as marginal to the Wantsum Channel.

8.27 As Krawiec points out (ASE 2020, in prep) questions remain concerning too few or possibly unreliable dating, and these pose problems for an integrated chronology of the deposits across these sites. The current site provides a distinct change in sequence with no well-formed organic horizons, even in such proximity to the widespread peat recorded over/around Weatherlees Hill (Hearne et al. 1995 and illustrated by the BGS data in

Figure 4). It seems likely that the current site is related more closely to BH60 of the Richborough Connection Project which only had relatively thin peat deposits and that contemporary environs to the later prehistoric peat proposed by Hearne et al (1996) were represented on site more by the overlying minerogenic/ mudflat deposit. With that in mind and despite evidence of wetland development, silting up, and possible blockage of the Wantsum Channel during the late prehistoric (Hearne et al 1996 and MOLA 2006), the current site and the nearby parts of the Richborough Connection Project data (BH60, ASE 2020, in prep) do indicate some continued channel flow and continued silting up into and beyond the later prehistoric in the immediate vicinity. The retained cores from the current site could shed some more light on this, but it is likely that with the poor recovery and partial sequence that they represent, chronological and integration issues will persist.

Upper alluvium

8.28 This unit represents variably clays, silts and sands; greenish yellow to blue grey in colour; and from c. 3.37 down to -0.49m OD (

8.29 Figure 4) around which depth recovery below becomes problematic. They are c. 3.5m in thickness. From the late prehistoric to post-medieval period, the mudflats and saltmarsh encroached inland, across the channel and the lower island features, and eventually underwent anthropogenic reclamation.

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8.30 Figure 9 shows the modelled thickness of the lower alluvium. Inside the north of the site the unit records a modelled thickness between c. 4-4.5m. Across the central majority of the site the thickness is modelled between c. 4.5-5m, before increasing further to c. 6-6.5m thick in the very south of the site. Just outside of the site in the south the unit’s thickness increases to c. 8.5-9m. Still beyond the site but to the south and east, the unit is modelled up to c. 4.5-5m thick. To the north and northwest of the site, the unit is variable but decreases to c. 1-2m thick on the model, and this area coincides with the incidence of thick organic deposits. Across the west of the site the upper alluvium is modelled at c. 6-6.5m thick over the raised ground of Weatherlees Hill. Generally thicker deposits infill the recorded low-lying areas of the Wantsum Channel (e.g. to the south of the site). They appear thinner where organic deposit are recorded and wetland formation occurred instead of intertidal mudflat formation, however, as RSL rose both the vegetated wetland areas and the high ground of Weatherlees Hill were eventually inundated.

8.31 The deposits may represent comparable environments to those recorded nearby within the Richborough Connection Project (BH60, ASE 2020, in prep), where the upper organic silts recorded further mudflats and saltmarsh expansion. However, these deposits, at -1.65 to -5.00m OD, are considerably lower than recorded at the current site. It seems more likely they are related to the laminated tidal silt sands, OSL dated to the Medieval period (ASE 2020, in prep; GL17020, AD 1200-1390) that characterize the start of outer estuarine formation driven by RSL rise and the ongoing marine encroachment.

8.32 A band of clay with occasional rounded gravel inclusions is recorded within this unit at various elevations and with a non-uniform thickness and could represent late prehistoric to historic reworking of nearby coarse-grained shingle banks or spits material, such as the Stonar Bank.

Made ground

8.33 Made ground was relatively minimal on the site. Up to c. 0.5m thickness of reworked subsoil, with occasional modern inclusions, was recorded. In addition there were tarmac surfaces along the western edge of the site.

Deposit Model Reliability and Limitations

8.34 Few non-confidential geotechnical (BGS) boreholes are available close to the site. The recent geoarchaeological investigations provide a relatively broad spacing of data points across the surrounding Wantsum Channel landscape but are relatively linear in alignment providing limited context and detail. Despite this, normally a high degree of confidence could be attributed to the onsite deposit model. However, many of the records onsite have not provided full sequences to bedrock or even the basal “running sand” deposits. These issues do reduce the confidence of the model to some degree, especially in respect to the surface of the running sand unit and the surface of the bedrock beyond the single point provided by this work. However, the broad conclusions of the current model concerning the distribution of organic deposits onsite, the possibility of recovering samples from the running sands, and the possible potential of the limited samples recovered is comparable with nearby investigations and sequences. 9 Archaeological and Palaeoenvironmental Potential Review of aims and objectives

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9.1 Drawing on the results presented in section 8, the following is concluded in relation to the evaluation objectives detailed in section 6:

 What is the distribution, depth, character, date, condition, and significance of the deposit sequence?

9.2 The bedrock is Thanet Sand a stiff fine grained, greenish unit, representing a shallow marine deposit of the mid-Thanetian. It was only recorded in one location on site at -4.21m OD, due to the poor retrieval of sediments at depth. The lower alluvium, a pale blue silty clay was recovered below c. -2.97m OD, again in only one location on site. This unit may be related to low-lying peri-marine/ estuarine clays found elsewhere in the Wantsum Channel. Running sands were encountered from c. 0m OD downwards and are thought to be Mesolithic peri-marine to fluvial sands, although recovery of this unit was particularly bad. No organic deposits are recorded on the site. Upper alluvium in the form of variable clays, silts and sands; greenish yellow to blue grey in colour; were recorded from c. 3.37 down to -0.49m OD and likely represent further (late prehistoric to historic) mudflats and saltmarsh expansion.

 What is the palaeoenvironmental potential of the deposits encountered?

9.3 Organic deposits of high palaeoenvironmental potential were not found on site. Substantial thickness of Upper alluvium, and some Lower alluvium, were recorded onsite and may preserve palaeoenvironmental proxies (e.g. ostracods and diatoms) that record the changing environment, hydrology and RSL change. Palaeoenvironmental proxies may also help to refine the chronostratigraphy. Although, due to the poor recovery any findings are likely to represent a partial or fragmented sequence. In addition, erosion or reworking of the fluvial/marine sands may have occurred and possible organic inclusion in predominantly non-organic deposits may be a result of riverine or tidal erosion of well-formed peats that are present near to the site, and therefore not insitu.

 What is the extent of archaeological remains and their potential survival across the site?

9.4 Holocene deposits, largely free of modern truncation, appear to survive on site but some erosion or reworking of the fluvial/marine sands may have occurred and possible organic inclusion in predominantly non-organic deposits may be a result of riverine or tidal erosion of well-formed peats that are present near to the site. No high areas of supposed Pre-Holocene deposits (e.g. Weatherlees Hill island) are recorded and archaeological evidence of prehistoric or later dry-land activity and settlement in unlikely. However, prehistoric waterside structures (e.g. jetties and trackways) or log boats may be preserved in alluvial deposits in filling the low-lying topographic locations.

 What is the depth of modern overburden?

9.5 Made ground was relatively minimal on the site. Up to c. 0.5m thickness of reworked subsoil with occasional modern inclusion was recorded with occasional tarmac surfaces.

 What does the deposit sequence on the site reveal about the evolution of the Wantsum Channel?

9.6 Despite water saturated running sands making deposit recovery problematic, the onsite sequence indicates that the site lies within the edge of Wantsum Channel rather than on the high higher

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ground of the nearby Weatherlees Hill. Low-lying alluvium surviving on site could indicate Mesolithic estuarine mudflat formation, the thick sands are suggestive of fluvial or peri-marine deposition around the edge of Weatherlees Hill or as part of the formation or reworking of bank or spit features known to extend across the valley mouth (e.g. Stonar Bank and Deal Spit). The upper alluvium is likely to be late prehistoric to historic floodplain and estuarine mudflat expansion, driven by RSL rise, and which began to silt-up and restrict the water flow of many channel routes within the Wantsum Channel valley.

 What does the deposit sequence on the site reveal about the evolution of the landscape around the Weatherlees Hill Island?

9.7 The site presents a more variable landscape than previous work has suggested immediately around the Weatherlees Hill island. Organic deposits have been recorded to the north atop the island fringes (Hearne et al 1996) and to the south within the deeper parts of the channel (MOLA 2006). However, no thick peats were located onsite, and the sequence is representative of more active hydrology with mudflat and sand bank formation.

 What does the deposit sequence on the site reveal about the possible nature and date of the silting up of the Wantsum Channel or any related any tributaries?

9.8 The site supports the early results of the Richborough Connection Project (ASE 2020, in prep) that suggest a more complex story of the silting up of the valley, with active channel areas and reworking of sand banks, as well as the previously recorded vegetated saltmarshes. However, in and of itself, the poor recovery of deposits on site, resulting in incomplete sequences or unconsolidated samples, will be unlikely to contribute any new or substantial information.

 What does the deposit sequence on the site reveal about the formation of shingle banks or sand spits within the mouth of the Wantsum Channel?

9.9 The thick sands found onsite suggest fluvial/peri-marine deposition around the edge of Weatherlees Hill or as part of the formation or reworking of bank or spit features. Whether these are related to known features (e.g. Stonar Bank and Deal Spit) that form across the Wantsum Channel mouth is not currently known and the poor recovery means that samples are unlikely to provide much reliable confirmation either way.

 Can the deposit sequence onsite provide further chronological resolution or integration for the deposit sequences already investigated in the area?

9.10 No well-formed organic horizons have been recorded on site for AMS dating. The alluvial units of sand units could provide material for OSL dating but the incomplete sequences and unconsolidated samples that resulted from the widespread and poor recovery across the site would not support a reliable or robust dating strategy.

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Archaeological Potential and Significance

9.11 Based on distribution and character of the deposit sequence, as identified in the deposit model, and illustrated in the figures, areas of archaeological and palaeoenvironmental potential have been mapped for the site. These are shown on Figure 10 and the differing character and potential of each area is outlined in Table 9.

Table 9 Archaeological and palaeoenvironmental potential of areas within the site

Area Character of area Archaeological / palaeoenvironmental potential

A Applies to the site. Applies to the site.

The low-lying surface of the Thanet Sand Short-lived Prehistoric activity horizons (below c. -2m OD) forms part of the Wantsum (spreads of worked flint, evidence of burning, Channel valley. The valley is infilled with up cut features) may be found in the untruncated to 8m of sand and clays, signalling sand bank surface of the Thanet Sand or Sand bank and mudflat development within the wider deposits. However, considering the high more active fluvial/estuarine regime of the potential of reworking/erosion of these prehistoric and historic. Poor recovery of deposits over the course of the Holocene in deposits from the water saturated sequence addition to the water saturated and loose suggests the limited samples recovered are nature of these deposits, finding in situ incomplete or unconsolidated. remains onsite is unlikely (low significance). Any such activity horizons found in these lower topographic areas of the relic landscape would date prior to the inundation of the area, and prior to it becoming unsuitable for dryland activities.

Rare prehistoric waterside structures (such as jetties and trackways) or log boats may be preserved in alluvial deposits in filling the low- lying topographic locations (moderate significance).

Minerogenic and coarse-grained deposits in these low-lying areas onsite should provide moderate potential for the preservation of palaeoenvironmental material (e.g. diatoms, ostracods and insects) which would enable the reconstruction of the changing prehistoric to post-medieval hydrology and tidal regime, and might contribute to the regional record of RSL rise and development of Wantsum Channel. However, the poor recovery of deposits from

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Area Character of area Archaeological / palaeoenvironmental potential the water saturated sequence suggests any samples recovered will be incomplete or unconsolidated (low significance).

B Applies outside the site to the west and Applies outside the site to the west and northwest. northwest.

Prehistoric dry land to historic mudflats – the Mesolithic to medieval occupation horizons area targets high elevations of Thanet Sand (spreads of worked flint, evidence of burning, forming raised “island” zones such as the cut features, brick structures or indirect Weatherlees Hill. These are flanked by areas indicators of humans within soil formation) may that developed into vegetated wetland be found in the untruncated surface of the saltmarsh in the Mid to Late Holocene. They Sutton Sand on these higher topographic have a surface elevation at c. -2/-3m OD and areas of the relic landscape (moderate above. significance).

In addition, prehistoric to post-medieval waterside structures, such as jetties and trackways may be preserved in organic or alluvial deposits fringing the high topographic locations (moderate significance).

Organic deposits fringing the high Thanet Sands should provide good potential for the preservation palaeoenvironmental material (e.g. pollen and other botanical remains, diatoms, ostracods and insects) which would enable the reconstruction of the changing prehistoric to post-medieval landscape, and might contribute to the regional record of RSL rise and development of Wantsum Channel (moderate significance).

10 Conclusions and Recommendations

10.1 The following section reviews the significance of the results of the geoarchaeological borehole evaluation in relation to the development and makes recommendations for an appropriate mitigation strategy.

10.2 Development impacts from the currently proposed raft foundation (Pers. Comm. Robert Hodges, Crossfield Consulting, November 2020) will be minimal but may affect the top of the upper alluvium. Although it is difficult to ascertain with certainty the potential of the deposits to contain

SANDWICH KFC – RAMSGATE ROAD: GEOARCHAEOLOGICAL BOREHOLE EVALUATION REPORT

archaeological remains, the nature of the deposits observed suggests any archaeological remains will be rare and associated with localised late prehistoric to historic mudflat/floodplain exploitation (i.e., brushwood trackways and platforms, fish traps, log boats etc) or historic reclamation i.e., ditches and dykes etc). The impact on these prehistoric deposits could be adequately mitigated by a programme of controlled archaeological watching brief.

10.3 It is recommended that the impact on deposits considered of moderate palaeoenvironmental potential may be mitigated by further off-site assessment work undertaken on the core samples retained from the evaluation. However, the samples represent incomplete sequences – and due to the poor recovery and loose nature of the lower deposits the sediment within the samples – cannot be reliable considered undisturbed. It is also unlikely further onsite sampling will improve the recovery or nature of future samples. Therefore, any assessment work undertaken on the current samples should focus on the upper portion of the sequence where recovery was more consistent. Even so such work would be on an incomplete sequence of limited chronology.

10.4 The appropriate mitigation strategy for the site will be decided by and agreed with the Local Authority and their archaeological advisors.

SANDWICH KFC – RAMSGATE ROAD: GEOARCHAEOLOGICAL BOREHOLE EVALUATION REPORT

11 Bibliography Allen, M.J. 1995. ‘Land mollusca from the Wantsum Channel’, in Hearne, C., Perkins, D.R.J. & Andrews, P. 1995. The Sandwich Bay Wastewater Treatment Scheme Archaeological Project, 1992-1994. Archaeologia Cantiana, 115: 318-320

AOC 2018, Ramsgate Road Sandwich, Archaeological Desk Based Assessment, unpublished client report.

AOC 2020, Ramsgate Road Sandwich, Written Scheme of Investigation for a Geoarchaeological Borehole Evaluation, unpublished client report.

Bates, M.R. & Pine, C.A., 1994: A Report on the Stratigraphy and Geoarchaeological significance below Sandwich Industrial Estate, East Kent. Unpublished Report, Geoarchaeological Service Facility, University College, London.

Bates, M.R., Bates, C.R. and Lee, G. 2012. A Geoarchaeological investigation at Minnis Farm, Worth: Geophysics and borehole investigation. Unpublished Report.

Blatt, I. 1769. A topographical map of the county of Kent, 15

British Geological Survey (BGS) 2021. Geology of Britain Viewer. URL: https://shop.bgs.ac.uk/Shop/Department/GeoRecords Date accessed: January 2021.

Cameron, N. ‘Diatom analysis from the Wantsum Channel’, in Hearne, C., Perkins, D.R.J. & Andrews, P. 1995. The Sandwich Bay Wastewater Treatment Scheme Archaeological Project, 1992-1994. Archaeologia Cantiana, 115, 313-318.

Chartered Institute for Archaeologists 2020. Standard and Guidance for an Archaeological Field Evaluation.

Clarke, C. Pearson, S. Mate, M and Parfitt, K. 2010. Sandwich the ‘Completest Medieval Town in England. A Study of the Town and Port from its Origins to 1600. Oxbow. Oxford.

Gupta, S., Collier J. S., Garcia-Moreno D., Oggioni F., Trentesaux A., Vanneste K., De Batist M., Camelbeeck T., Potter G., Van Vliet-Lanoë B., and Arthur J. C. R., 2017. “Two-stage opening of the Dover Strait and the origin of island Britain". Nature Communications. 8: 15101.

Hardman, F.W. and Stebbing, W.P.D. 1942. Stonar and the Wantsum Channel, Pt1. Archaeologia Cantiana, vol. 55, 37-49Hearne et al 1996,

Hasted, E. 1800. 'The island of Thanet: Introduction', in The History and Topographical Survey of the County of Kent: Volume 10 (Canterbury, 1800), pp. 217-237. Available at: British History Online http://www.british-history.ac.uk/survey-kent/vol10/pp217-237 (Accessed 2/11/2018).Hewett, N (Principle Planner). 2018. Pre-Application Enquiry.

Hearne, C., Perkins, D.R.J. & Andrews, P. 1995. The Sandwich Bay Wastewater Treatment Scheme Archaeological Project, 1992-1994. Archaeologia Cantiana, 115: 239-354.

SANDWICH KFC – RAMSGATE ROAD: GEOARCHAEOLOGICAL BOREHOLE EVALUATION REPORT

Historic England 2015a. Geoarchaeology: Using Earth Sciences to Understand the Archaeological Record.

Historic England 2015b. Environmental Archaeology: A guide to the theory and practice of methods, from sampling and recovery to post-excavation.

Historic England 2020. Deposit modelling and archaeology: Guidance for Mapping Buried Deposits.

Jones, AP, Tucker, ME and Hart, JH, 1999 The description and analysis of Quaternary stratigraphic field sections Technical Guide 7, Quaternary Research Association

MOLA 2004,

MOLA 2006 (Spurr, G.) Former Brown & Mason Yard, Ramsgate Road, Sandwich, County of Kent: A geoarchaeological report. Museum of London Archaeological Service. Unpublished Report.

Perkins, D. 2012. The Long Demise of the Wantsum Channel: a Recapitulation based on the Date. Available at: https://www.kentarchaeology.org.uk/Research/Pub/ArchCant/127-2007/14/250.htm (Access on 01/11/2018)

Quest 2016 (Green, C.P. & Young, D.S.) Proposed Biomass Combined Heat & Power Plant, Discovery Park, Sandwich, Kent: Geoarchaeological Deposit Model Report. Unpublished QUEST Report.

QUEST 2017. Proposed biomass combined heat and power plant, Discovery Park, Sandwich, Kent: Geoarchaeological deposit model report. QUEST unpublished report

Scaife, R. 1995: ‘Pollen analysis from the Wantsum Channel’, in Hearne, C., Perkins, D.R.J. & Andrews, P. 1995. The Sandwich Bay Wastewater Treatment Scheme Archaeological Project, 1992-1994. Archaeologia Cantiana, 115, 303-313

Tucker, M. E. 2003. Sedimentary Rocks in the Field, 3rd ed. The Geological Field Guide Series. ix+234 pp. Chichester: Wiley.

Yendell, V. 2020. Hull Urban Archaeological Database: 3D deposit modelling, Stage 2 Review Report. Unpublished client report.

Figure 1 Site Location Map

Figure 2 Schematic map of the Wantsum Channel valley and islands

Figure 3 Data points and transect locations

Figure 4 Transect, northwest to southeast across the site showing the levels and thickness of deposits over the underlying geology in section (extrapolated from deposit records)

Figure 5 Topographic plot of the surface of the below ground solid geology (extrapolated from deposit records), suggesting the form of the ancient land surface at c. 10,000 BC

Figure 6 Thickness plot of the below ground lower alluvium (extrapolated from deposit records), representing deposit survival

Figure 7 Thickness plot of the below ground fluvial deposits (extrapolated from deposit records), representing deposit survival

Figure 8 Thickness plot of the below ground organic deposits (extrapolated from deposit records), representing deposit survival

Figure 9 Thickness plot of the below ground upper alluvium (extrapolated from deposit records), representing deposit survival

Figure 10 Plan showing areas of archaeological potential (extrapolated from deposit records)

Appendices

SANDWICH KFC – RAMSGATE ROAD: GEOARCHAEOLOGICAL BOREHOLE EVALUATION REPORT

Appendix A – Deposit Model Data References

Deposit log Easting Northing Elevation Source AOC34271_WS1 633428 162000 3.67 AOC AOC34271_WS2 633423 162040 3.75 AOC AOC34271_WS3 633427 162074 3.8 AOC AOC34271_WS4 633444 162052 3.95 AOC AOC34271_WS5 633433 162056 3.82 AOC AOC34271_WS6 633419 162024 3.59 AOC AOC34271_WS7 633416 161998 3.51 AOC TR36SW22 633470 161490 2.6 QUEST/BGS TR36SW26 633360 161840 2.2 QUEST/BGS TR36SW39 632840 162240 8.22 BGS TR36SW46 633220 162050 3.2 BGS TR36SW48 633190 162260 2.75 QUEST/BGS TR36SW51 633290 162000 3.5 QUEST/BGS TR36SW53 633340 161900 3.5 QUEST/BGS TR36SW57 633270 162070 1 QUEST/BGS TR36SW58 633260 162090 3.2 QUEST/BGS TR36SW63 633710 161960 2.6 BGS TR36SW74 632978 162624 1.62 BGS TR36SW75 633063 162675 1.57 BGS TR36SW78 632757 162707 1.9 BGS TR36SW81 633083 162743 1.61 BGS TR36SW82 633170 162795 1.67 BGS TR36SW96 632654 162880 1.52 BGS TR36SW97 632741 162933 1.48 BGS

SANDWICH KFC – RAMSGATE ROAD: GEOARCHAEOLOGICAL BOREHOLE EVALUATION REPORT

Appendix B – OASIS Form

OASIS ID: aocarcha1-413992

Project details

Project name Sandwich KFC - Ramsgate Road: Geoarchaeological Borehole Evaluation Report

Short description of the project The geoarchaeological evaluation comprised the monitoring of 4 geotechnical boreholes and the drilling of 3 purposive geoarchaeological boreholes to maximum c. 8m bgl, and the extraction and retention of the (windowless) cored samples. Geoarchaeological and geotechnical deposit data can be used to identify areas of archaeological potential by characterising the probable nature and depth of sub-surface deposits. The bedrock is Thanet Sand a stiff fine grained, greenish unit, representing a shallow marine deposit of the mid-Thanetian. It was only recorded in one location on site at -4.21m OD, due to the poor retrieval of sediments at depth. The lower alluvium, a pale blue silty clay was recovered below c. -2.97m OD, again in only one location on site. This unit may be related to low-lying peri-marine/ estuarine clays found elsewhere in the Wantsum Channel. Running sands were encountered from c. 0m OD downwards and are thought to be Mesolithic peri-marine to fluvial sands, although recovery of this unit was particularly bad. No organic deposits are recorded on the site. Upper alluvium in the form of variable clays, silts and sands; greenish yellow to blue grey in colour; were recorded from c. 3.37 down to -0.49m OD and likely represent further (late prehistoric to historic) mudflats and saltmarsh expansion.

Project dates Start: 24-11-2021 End: 25-11-2021

Previous/future work No / Not known

Any associated project reference codes AOC SRR21 - Sitecode

Type of project Field evaluation

Site status None

Current Land use Grassland Heathland 2 - Undisturbed Grassland

Monument type CHANNEL Mesolithic

Project location

Country England

Site location KENT THANET RAMSGATE Sandwich KFC - Ramsgate Road

Postcode CT13 9NL

Study area 3500 Square metres

Site coordinates TR 33422 61986 51.308380931013 1.349538942135 51 18 30 N 001 20 58 E Point

Height OD / Depth Min: -4.5m Max: 4m

Project creators

SANDWICH KFC – RAMSGATE ROAD: GEOARCHAEOLOGICAL BOREHOLE EVALUATION REPORT

Name of Organisation AOC Archaeology

Project brief originator Kent County Council

Project design originator AOC Archaeology

Project director/manager Virgil Yendell

Project supervisor Virgil Yendell

Type of sponsor/funding body Commercial Building Contractors

Name of sponsor/funding body Caskade Caterers Limited

Project archives

Physical Archive Exists? No

Digital Archive recipient Kent HER

Digital Archive ID AOC SRR21

Digital Media available ''Database''

Paper Archive Exists? No

Paper Archive recipient Kent HER

Paper Archive ID AOC SRR21

Paper Media available ''Notebook - Excavation',' Research',' General Notes''

Project bibliography 1

Publication type Grey literature (unpublished document/manuscript)

Title Sandwich KFC - Ramsgate Road: Geoarchaeological Borehole Evaluation Report

Author(s)/Editor(s) Yendell, V.

Date 2021

Issuer or publisher AOC Archaeology Group

Place of issue or publication Twickenham

Description Digital report

Entered by Virgil Yendell ([email protected])

Entered on 31 January 2021

AOC Archaeology Group, Unit 7, St Margarets Business Centre, Moor Mead Road, Twickenham TW1 1JS tel: 020 8843 7380 | fax: 020 8829 0549 | e-mail: [email protected]