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Mechanisms of Tolerance: an Anthology Editor: Erik Lundberg Mechanisms of Tolerance: an Anthology Editor: Erik Lundberg Mechanisms of tolerance: an anthology anthology an tolerance: of Mechanisms Editor: Erik Lundberg Erik Editor: Mechanisms of tolerance: an anthology Mechanisms of tolerance: an anthology Editor: Erik Lundberg The Living History Forum Stockholm 2017 Titel: Mechanisms of tolerance: an anthology Editor: Erik Lundberg Authors: Ali Abdelzadeh, Cecilia Arensmeier, Sevgi Bayram Özdemir, Viktor Dahl, Johan von Essen, Elisabet Langmann, Erik Lundberg, Marta Miklikowska, Kari Steen-Johnsen, Lars Trägårdh, Susanne Wallman Lundåsen, Metin Özdemir. Illustrator: Kati Mets Project leader: Erik Lundberg Translator: Jon Kimber ISBN 978-91-86261-63-4 Grafic design: Direktör Wigg reklambyrå The Living History Forum Stora Nygatan 10-12, Box 2123, 103 13 Stockholm Phone: 08-7238750 [email protected] Copyright: The Living History Forum Content Foreword 5 1. Tolerance: An introduction to the concept, the research and the anthology 7 Erik Lundberg Part 1. Tolerance from a comparative perspective 2. Tolerance from a comparative perspective 33 Susanne Wallman Lundåsen 3. On the gap between abstract and concrete tolerance 71 Lars Trägårdh 4. About the prerequisites for and sustainability of tolerance – a commentary on Wallman Lundåsen and Trägårdh 104 Kari Steen-Johnsen Part 2: The development and the expression of tolerance 5. The development of tolerance among the young 123 Erik Lundberg & Ali Abdelzadeh 6. Tolerance and other citizen competencies 149 Ali Abdelzadeh & Erik Lundberg 7. Young people’s views on tolerance 177 Cecilia Arensmeier 3 8. What are we doing with tolerance? 232 Johan von Essen 9. Schooling tolerance – an educational art 256 Elisabet Langmann Part 3. Mechanisms of tolerance 10. The apple does not fall far from the tree or does it? –The role of parents in development of tolerance and intolerance among adolescents 281 Marta Miklikowska 11. The role of friends in the emergence of tolerance towards immigrants among young people 303 Viktor Dahl 12. A school of tolerance? Participation in associations and youth tolerance 331 Erik Lundberg & Ali Abdelzadeh 13. The role of school context in adolescents’ attitudes towards immigrants and inter-ethnic friendships 343 Metin Özdemir & Sevgi Bayram Özdemir References 369 Author presentations 409 4 Foreword What is tolerance? In this anthology we let researchers from different disciplines discuss what this multifaceted concept can mean, both in theory and in practice. Our focus is on the development of young people’s tolerance. We have had the issue examined from both a his- torical and a contemporary perspective. The various chapters contribute to knowledge of the significance of family, social networks, voluntary associations and schools to the promotion of tolerant attitudes among young people. They also show how young people themselves think and reason. What does tolerance mean for them, and why is it important to look openly at their sur- roundings and other people? We hope and believe that we will give our readers new knowledge about what tolerance is, and how it can be promoted among young people. We turn to everyone who is interested in the issue, but especi- ally to people who, in different roles and in a variety of contexts, come into contact with young people, particularly in civil society. Since 2003, The Living History Forum has, with some regularity, conducted attitudinal surveys of various kinds. Several of these sur- veys have dealt precisely with young people’s attitudes to issues of tolerance. It is in our mission to understand how we can best promote work on democracy, tolerance and human rights. With this anthology, we want to deepen our knowledge of how young people think, and what circumstances and mechanisms affect their attitudes. Ingrid Lomfors Director-General The Living History Forum 5 6 1. Tolerance: An introduction to the concept, the research and the anthology Erik Lundberg In recent years, much of public discourse has focused on refugee migration. As a result of war, persecution and unrest in the Middle East and Africa, but also in other countries, more and more people have left their homes to seek safety, freedom and a better life. In Sweden, immigration became topical during the autumn of 2015, when a large number of refugees applied for asylum in a short period of time. For the individual and society at large, the ensuing changes meant, in many cases, new encounters and opportunities. But refugee migration has also resulted in tensions and conflicts. As well as ex- posing public migrant-reception systems to major trials, the question was raised about how we should handle coexistence in a society that is becoming increasingly pluralistic. In the conversations that ensued, tolerance became a fairly commonly used concept. The concept was emphasized as a balancing force to counteract growing concern and xenophobia. Tolerance also arose in relation to the various forms of social and religious attributes that are perceived as difficult, proble- matic, or provocative. In addition, the concept was highlighted not 7 only as a value and an expression of a generous refugee policy, but also as one that divided society into ”us and them” – to take some examples. The increased use of the concept of tolerance is evident not only in the context of refugee migration. Retriever (Mediearkivet in Swedish), a portal that brings together the contents of a large part of the Swedish press, shows that use of the term has steadily increased in recent decades. In 1990, the concept was found 108 times in the archive, only to increase to 5006 times in 2016. The corresponding figures for the Swedish web in 2000 and 2016, are 27 and 7178, respectively.1 A similar tendency is detectable in other countries. In Denmark, tolerance has been described as a keyword in contempora- ry political debate, as it has within the European Union, but also in other countries the concept has achieved a newfound attractiveness and relevance (Bredsdorff & Kjaeldgaard, 2012, p. 15; European Commission, 2016; Steen-Johnsen, Fladmoe & Midtbøen, 2016). The American political scientist Wendy Brown (2009) even speaks of a global renaissance of the concept since the mid-1980s. There are, of course, many explanations for the increased use of the concept. One possible explanation, however, has already been touched upon, and concerns the development of more diverse so- cieties with increasing ethnic and cultural diversity. Refugee migra- tion is only one example of a global trend in increased population movements. Another conceivable explanation is the escalation of 1 The searching was done in the Mediearkivet database, and applies from 1 January 1990 to 31 December 2016 (written press) and 1 January 2000 to 31 December 2016 (online). Searching was done on sources that used the word tolerance in various forms. To rule out articles in the medical field, we excluded sources that contained the following words at the same time: medicine, inflammation, disease, drugs, doctor, allergy and lactose. 8 religious conflicts in various parts of the world, especially the Middle East, which has again made topical the need for peaceful coexistence and tolerance (Brown, 2009; Bredsdorff & Kjaeldgaard, 2012). An additional circumstance is the increased reporting of hate crimes in Europe (Bevelander & Hjerm, 2015; Fundamental Rights Agency, 2015) and a growing extreme nationalism, which has reminded us of the lack of and the need for tolerance. The attraction of the concept of tolerance does not mean that it is a new concept that has just made its way into public discourse. Its roots can be traced back to ancient times and Stoic philosophy. Here, tolerance is presented as an important feature and strength of each and everyone of us for encountering the strange and the different (St- anford Encyclopedia of Philosophy). The concept is also found in the texts of the philosophers, e.g., Voltaire, John Locke and John Stuart Mill, for whom the religious conflicts in Europe during the 1600s provided a foundation for how tolerance came to be specified con- ceptually. For example, Voltaire presented tolerance as an argument against religious intolerance, while Mill pointed to the importance of tolerance of all kinds of differences, moral, ethnic and cultural. Just as in public discourse, there is disagreement in the scientific literature over the concept’s meaning and value. For some, tolerance is associated with something priceless and as a foundation of demo- cracy (Dahl, 1992; Gibson, 2006). It is put forward as a minimum condition for community life and a prerequisite for a multicultural and pluralistic society. In Walzer’s words (1997 p. xii): “Tolerance makes differences possible; differences makes tolerance necessary”. For others, the concept of tolerance evokes distaste, and is linked to inequality, exclusion and the power of the majority over the minority. 9 The concept is criticized for being ambiguous, normative, and as an expression of a more or less hidden exercise of power (Marcuse, 1969; Schirmer, Weiden Ballenstedt & Reich, 2012). Overall, it can be said that the conversation about tolerance raises several questions. First, there are fundamental questions about the concept of tolerance. In both public and scientific discourse, the con- cept has been criticized for its shortcomings and ambiguities. What does it mean to be tolerant? What is encompassed by the concept and in what does its real value consist? Second, there is the question of whether, and, in such case, the ways in which tolerance can be promoted? In both national and in- ternational policy documents, there is emphasis on the importance of safeguarding and reinforcing tolerance.2 But to what extent is it possible to influence tolerance? Which actors and institutions in society influence and promote tolerance? The Swedish curriculum is clear that the school should “foster” tolerance, but to what extent can school personnel act to promote tolerance? Alongside the school, there are also a range of other contexts with actors who have the potential to affect our attitudes and values, such as the family, friends and organizations in civil society.
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