The Representation of in US and UK Newspapers Whistleblowing Hero or Traitor: A Corpus-Based Critical Discourse Analysis

Masterarbeit

zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades Master of Arts (MA) an der Karl-Franzens-Universität Graz

vorgelegt von Anita SCHULLER

am Institut für Anglistik Begutachterin: Ao.Univ.-Prof. Mag. Dr.phil. Hermine Penz

Graz, 2015

Acknowledgements

I want to express my gratitude to Hermine Penz and Nancy Campbell for their guidance and advice during the writing process and the entirety of my studies. Additionally, I want to thank my family and friends for always being by my side. Thank you for all your encouragement, your patience, your inspiration and your never-ending support – during the last year and always!

“None of us got to where we are alone. Whether the assistance we received was obvious or subtle, acknowledging someone's help is a big part of understanding the importance of saying thank you.” - Harvey Mackay

ii Contents

Acknowledgements ...... ii List of figures ...... v List of tables ...... vi

1. Introduction ...... 1 2. Theoretical Background ...... 3 2.1. A corpus-based critical discourse analysis ...... 3 2.1.1. Corpus linguistics ...... 3 2.1.2. Discourse analysis ...... 5 2.2. Advantages and limitations of corpora in discourse analysis ...... 11 2.3. Corpus-based approaches in practice: Application in research and methodology .. 15 3. Empirical analysis: research questions, data, and methodology ...... 18 3.1. Side note: Edward Snowden, the timeline of events and publication of the first articles ...... 18 3.2. Research questions ...... 21 3.3. The Corpus ...... 22 3.4. Methodology ...... 28 3.4.1. The software R ...... 29 3.4.2. Frequency lists ...... 31 3.4.3. Considering clusters ...... 33 3.4.4. Concordances ...... 33 4. Discussion of results ...... 37 4.1. Frequency analysis ...... 37 4.2. Cluster analysis ...... 48 4.3. Concordances ...... 53 4.4. Semantic preferences ...... 58 4.5. Points of concern ...... 63 5. Conclusion ...... 65 Bibliography ...... 69 iii

Appendix A ...... 75 British Newspapers ...... 75 North American Newspapers ...... 87 Appendix B ...... 104 Frequency analysis ...... 104 Cluster analysis (word pairs) ...... 105 Cluster analysis (groups of three) ...... 106 Concordance lines ...... 107

iv List of figures

Figure 1: Fairclough's three-dimensional conception of discourse (Fairclough, 2008, p. 73) ...... 7 Figure 2: Discourse analysis of newspaper texts (Richardson, 2007, p. 39) ...... 9 Figure 3: Critical Discourse Analysis of newspaper texts (Richardson, 2007, p. 42) ...... 9 Figure 4: front-page of June 10, 2013 - Edward Snowden revealed ("The NSA files: The guardian front pages – in pictures", 2013) ...... 20 Figure 5: Number of newspaper articles featuring the search term "Snowden" on LexisNexis® Academic per month, from June 2013 to May 2014 ...... 27 Figure 6: Script in R - Frequency analysis on a one-word level (UK) ...... 29 Figure 7: Script in R - Concordance analysis for the key term “Snowden” (U.S.) ...... 30

v List of tables

Table 1: Average circulation of U.S. newspapers (Alliance for Audited Media, n.d.) ...... 24 Table 2: Average circulation of UK newspapers (National Readership Survey, 2014) ...... 24 Table 3: Corpus consisting of 539 newspaper articles ...... 28 Table 4: Most frequent words ...... 38 Table 5: Most frequent lexical words ...... 41 Table 6: Most frequent lemmas ...... 43 Table 7: Most frequent verbs ...... 47 Table 8: Most frequent word pairs ...... 49 Table 9: Most frequent three-word clusters (UK) ...... 50 Table 10: Most frequent three-word clusters (US) ...... 51 Table 11: Snowden as a legal subject ...... 60 Table 12: The movements of Snowden ...... 62

vi 1. Introduction

Is Edward Snowden […] a hero or a traitor? He is a hero. (My colleague Jeffrey Toobin disagrees.) In revealing the colossal scale of the U.S. government’s eavesdropping on Americans and other people around the world, he has performed a great public service that more than outweighs any breach of trust he may have committed. […] Snowden has brought to light important information that deserved to be in the public domain, while doing no lasting harm to the national security of his country. (Cassidy, 2013)

Edward Snowden […] has leaked news of programs that collect vast amounts of information about the telephone calls made by millions of Americans, as well as e-mails and other files of foreign targets and their American connections. For this, some, including my colleague John Cassidy, are hailing him as a hero and a whistle-blower. He is neither. He is, rather, a grandiose narcissist who deserves to be in prison. (Toobin, 2013)

Before June 10, 2013, hardly anyone knew the name – at least on a global scale: Edward J. Snowden. The American national was one of many, working as an IT specialist for one of the NSA’s (National Security Agency) contractor firms. At the beginning of June 2013, however, this was to change. At the time, various media outlets started publishing articles citing secret data from the U.S. government as well as from the American intelligence apparatus. The newspapers taking the lead were The Guardian in Great Britain, followed by in the United States. The first article and thus sparking the data scandal in the media read “NSA collecting phone records of millions of Verizon customers daily“ (Greenwald, 2013). It discussed the large-scale data collection of government and NSA via popular communication companies; the source behind the information leak, however, remained unnamed. On June 10, finally, The Guardian introduced “the individual responsible” (Greenwald, MacAskill, & Poitras, 2013): Edward J. Snowden. Over night, the computer professional became an international topic and a global news story.

Ever since, the perception of Snowden has been ambiguous in politics, the public, and – last but not least – the media. While some have called him a hero, a defender of civil rights, others have accused the former computer analyst of committing treason by publishing secret and sensitive

1 government data. In the aftermath of the informant being revealed, Edward Snowden, his role in the data scandal, ever-new revelations, as well as possible consequences of the leak dominated discussions in diverse international newspapers for month. John Cassidy and Jeffrey Tobin, two writers for The New Yorker, for example, argued their personal point of view on Snowden in their disputing essays “Why Edward Snowden is a Hero” (Cassidy, 2013) and “Edward Snowden is No Hero” (Toobin, 2013), respectively. The quotes at the beginning of this introduction are taken from these articles and shall exemplify the – sometimes even heated – media discussion surrounding the former intelligence employee. In one of their articles, on June 26, 2013, The Washington Post too posed the question whether Edward Snowden was “a whistleblowing hero or a traitor” (Pincus, 2013). This quote has inspired the title of this article and it is precisely the question which I seek to investigate within the case study this work is based on.

The aim of this paper is to analyze the representation of Edward Snowden in British and American newspaper articles. The analysis is based on a corpus of more than 500 texts taken from eight different English-speaking dailies (four British and American media outlets, respectively). How is Snowden represented in the media and how is the media discourse about him realized linguistically? Moreover, does the representation in newspapers in the UK and the United States differ; with one of these countries being home to the newspaper which first published the news story, and the other one being a main subject in Snowden’s revelations itself? The methodology applied within this paper combines techniques from the fields of Critical Discourse Analyses (CDA) and corpus linguistics. CDA aims to explore the links between language use and social practice. In this specific example, I will investigate how language is used to represent and construct the individual Edward Snowden in the media. Corpus techniques, such as frequency analyses and concordance lines, will add a quantitative dimension to the analysis.

The first part of this paper offers a general introduction to the fields of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) and corpus linguistics. In the second part, I will discuss the specific parameters of my case study in detail. Composition and compilation of the corpus analyzed for this case study as well as the linguistic methods applied within the paper will be thoroughly explored. The last section, finally, comprises a discussion of the most important findings obtained within the empirical case study. The complete result lists are enclosed in the appendix.

2 2. Theoretical Background

The first chapter of this thesis aims to offer some background knowledge on the fields of corpus linguistics and critical discourse analysis, and serves as a basis for the empirical case study that follows. I will provide the reader with definitions for the most relevant concepts discussed in this paper as well as consider some aspects of the practical application of corpora in critical linguistics.

2.1. A corpus-based critical discourse analysis

As the title of this paper indicates, the case study discussed in this thesis is based on a corpus- driven critical discourse analysis. Therefore, it is worth clarifying some questions before continuing further: what is a corpus? what is critical discourse analysis? and how do these concepts fit together?

2.1.1. Corpus linguistics

In the broadest terms, a corpus – in the field of linguistics – can be defined as a collection of samples of naturally occurring language. This could, for example, describe an assortment of only a few sentences or billions of words. It can consist of written data, such as newspaper articles or novels, as well as audio recordings or transcripts of spoken data. Since the widespread appearance of computers, however, the definition of corpora has been adapted and is nowadays mainly reserved for larger collections of language data that can be stored, accessed, manipulated, and analyzed electronically (Baker, 2008, p. 2; Hunston, 2002, p. 2).

Some researchers distinguish between corpus-based and corpus-driven approaches. Corpus-based analyses use data collections as a means to, for example, test already formulated hypotheses and/or investigate findings established on smaller language samples. In corpus-driven research, on the other hand, the corpus itself is the primary or even only source of data. The researcher turns to the data without prior hypotheses and “the patterns in it are noted as a way of expressing regularities (and exceptions) in language” (Baker, 2008, p. 16). Proceeding in an inductive way, 3 this case study, strictly speaking, thus follows a corpus-driven approach. Within this paper, however, the two terms are used interchangeably, as it is widely done in the research community (Baker, 2008, p. 16).

Corpora are designed and studied based on specific linguistic purposes. Although chance might play an important role in the process, the texts in corpora are assembled according to specific rules, depending on the purpose of research. They can be distinguished from data collections and archives that follow the sole purpose of storing and making texts accessible for their own inherent value. The creation of corpora exceeds the aim of just retrieving the data because a “corpus is stored in such a way that it can be studied non-linearly, and both quantitatively and qualitatively” (Hunston, 2002, p. 2). As Hunston clarifies, “a corpus does not contain new information about language, but the software offers us a new perspective on the familiar” (2002, p. 3).

Based on scope and purpose, we can distinguish several commonly-used types of corpora. Specialized corpora are composed of texts of a certain kind or a specific topic. They are used to represent and analyze a particular type of language. Researchers often create their own specialized corpus based on the specific criteria of their own research goals. The analysis in this paper too is based on a specifically created specialized corpus of newspaper articles, which are concerned with a particular topic. A general corpus, on the other hand, includes language data from many different types of texts and topics. It is usually much larger than specialized corpora and aims to represent a more general language use. Comparable and parallel corpora are used for comparisons between two languages or language varieties. Historical or diachronic corpora, finally, deal with language data from various time periods (Hunston, 2002, p. 14).

The origins of corpus linguistics can be found stemming from centuries past. Its methods, however, have changed drastically over time, depending on its fields of application and technical development. The processes of concordancing and indexing – nowadays two widely used techniques in corpus linguistics – can be traced back, as early as the 13th century, to the work of biblical and literary scholars. Concerning data gathering and the commitment to study naturally occurring data, the American structuralists of the 1950s were the forerunners of corpora. The late 1950s also brought the first computer-generated concordances, relying on punched-card technologies for storage. But it was the widespread appearance of constantly improving

4 computers, usable by anyone, during the 1980s and 1990s that paved the way for corpora as we know them today (McCarthy & O'Keeffe, 2010, p. 3).

Technology has been a major force in the growth of the individual size of corpora as well as the increasing number of varying fields of their application. While the early computerized corpora strived to include tens of millions of running words, the barrier of a billion entities within one corpus was already exceeded in the middle of the first decade of the twenty-first century. Additionally, scientists have recognized the potential and have been working on the utilization of the entire worldwide web, with its trillions of words, as one corpus and as one enormous storage of naturally occurring language data. Simultaneously, corpora have been gaining access to a constantly growing number of academic areas and are nowadays used in the process of answering research questions from diverse fields. These areas include, among others, language pedagogy and learning, forensic linguistics, pragmatics, sociolinguistics, speech technology, health communication, political discourse, as well as discourse analysis (McCarthy & O'Keeffe, 2010, p. 6).

2.1.2. Discourse analysis

The term discourse is used in varying yet interconnected ways in linguistics and social sciences. To begin with, discourse is, for instance, sometimes used to refer to “different types of language use or topics” (Baker, 2008, p. 3). This broad definition of discourse is connected to genre, style, as well as to text types and is based on “the general idea that language is structured according to different patterns that people’s utterances follow when they take part in different domains of social life” (Jørgensen & Phillips, 2002, p. 1). Common examples are such fields as political discourse, language learners’ discourse or media discourse (Baker, 2008, p. 3). Taking up this stance on the meaning of discourse, the analysis in this paper, for example, will deal with texts from the realm of media discourse, more specifically of news discourse.

In traditional linguistics, basically three different perspectives on discourse analysis prevail, which, in turn, are based on three varying definitions of discourse. First, a formal approach defines discourse as “language above the sentence or above the clause” (Stubbs, 1997, p. 1), and research in this area investigates how sentences and phrases merge into larger text units. We can

5 talk about discourse structure to describe a certain organization of text elements that we expect within texts of a specific type. “Language in use” (Brown & Yule, 1989, p. 1), on the other hand, refers to how people use language in certain situations or for differing purposes. It investigates how a person utilizes language as a means to produce certain utterances, for instance questions, apologies, warnings, or requests, as well as how we interpret the speech acts of others. This is the second perspective on discourse and indicates a more functional approach (Baker, 2008, p. 3; Jones, 2012, p. 36).

Discourse, however, can also be described as “practices which systematically form the objects of which they speak” (Foucault, 1993, p. 49), and it is this third meaning that I will focus on in this paper. There is not one unique discourse, but the term becomes a countable noun: discourses. This is what we might call a social approach, and it investigates discourse as a social practice. Research done from this point of view considers language not only a system for making meaning but also a means to construct social identities and social realities (Baker, 2008, p. 3; Jones, 2012, p. 36). On the basis of Foucault’s definition, Burr (1995, p. 48) refers to discourse further as:

a set of meanings, metaphors, representations, images, stories, statements and so on that in some way together produce a particular version of events … surrounding any one object, event, person etc., there may be a variety of different discourses, each with a different story to tell about the world, a different way of representing it to the world.

The news too, as analyzed in this paper, is thus a social practice. Fowler describes it as “a discourse which, far from neutrally reflecting social reality and empirical facts, intervene in the social construction of reality” (Fowler, 2013, p. 2). Fairclough talks about the “signifying power” of the media: “the power to represent things in particular ways, […] which is largely a matter of how language is used” (1995, p. 2). Based on the powerful position of mass media in contemporary social systems, we cannot dispute the media’s influence on sociocultural change. Fairclough, therefore, further advocates the importance of the analysis of “the linguistic and discoursal nature of medial power” (1995, p. 3).

Critical discourse analysis (from now on abbreviated as CDA) is the practical study of discourse in the tradition of the Faucaultian view. CDA does not have one unitary theoretical framework

6 but is used as a label for “theories and methods for the empirical study of the relations between discourse and social and cultural developments in different social domains” (Jørgensen & Phillips, 2002, p. 60). CDA focuses on the discursive practices as well as their ideological effects (Baker, 2008, p. 73; Jørgensen & Phillips, 2002, p. 60). For critical discourse analysts, discourse is both constitutive and constituted. From this point of view, discourse as a social practice does not only help producing and reproducing social structures but also reflects them. “The aim of critical discourse analysis is to shed light on the linguistic-discursive dimension of social and cultural phenomena and processes of change”; its main goal is to explore the links between language use and social practice (Jørgensen & Phillips, 2002, p. 61).

Figure 1: Fairclough's three-dimensional conception of discourse (Fairclough, 2008, p. 73)

Fairclough argues that discourse consists of three different levels and illustrates his theory in a three-dimensional model, as can be seen in figure 1 above. Every instance of language use, therefore, is built up from three different layers: a text (for instance writing, speech, or visual images), a discursive practice (includes production and consumption of texts), and a social practice.

7 The relationship between texts and social practice is mediated by discursive practice. Hence it is only through discursive practice – whereby people use language to produce and consume texts – that texts shape and are shaped by social practice. At the same time, the text (the formal linguistic features) influences both the production and the consumption process. (Fairclough, 2008, p. 65)

The discourse of newspapers, Richardson (2007, p. 1) argues, is a very specific one, characterized by distinctive features. Journalistic discourse demonstrates particular textual features, it relies on specific processes of text production and consumption, and it is defined by being integrated into a complex social system of institutions of power – influential as well as dependent on each other. Richardson (2007, p. 1) specifies further:

[T]he sourcing and construct of the news is intimately linked with the actions and opinions of (usually powerful) social groups; it is impossible to select and compose news without a conception of the target or intended audience; and, while possible, I believe that it is flawed to consider issues such as contemporary democratic politics, social values and the continuing existence of prejudice and social inequalities without reference to the formative influence of journalism.

Taking the specific situation of media texts into account, Richardson (2007, p. 39) has adopted Fairclough’s three-dimensional model (as seen in figure 1). Figure 2, therefore, shows the news text as discursive practice, as embedded in a discursive process. Each node in the process of production and consumption is interconnected with the other ones; while producer, text, and consumer have each some impact on the other entities, they are also in turn influenced themselves by the others. The producer encodes meaning in a text – by choosing one story, one particular story line, or one word over another; but at the same time, the text with its conventions shapes the process of production, the way information is collected and presented. In a similar way, a text as well as the encoded meaning shape the understanding of the consumer/reader, while, at the same time, the recipient with his or her prior understanding and beliefs can change how a text is decoded or understood. Relating back to Fairclough’s model depicted in figure 1, these processes relate to the middle layer – the level of discursive practice. Broadening one’s point of view in that way means taking the analysis a step further, from a textual to a discourse analysis (Richardson, 2007, p. 40).

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Figure 2: Discourse analysis of newspaper texts (Richardson, 2007, p. 39)

An additional layer of critical discourse analysis, finally, investigates social practices. Within Fairclough’s model (figure 1) this layer corresponds to the outer circle, while Richardson describes the most inclusive form of CDA again specifically for newspaper texts, as seen in figure 3. The level of social practices investigates the situational or institutionalized relations of a text. It relates to journalism being a social institution and deals with questions of language, power, and ideology in society. How can a text, embedded in the circle of production and consumption with newspapers and readers/consumers, influence society? How is language used to create, shape, or maintain certain beliefs or ideologies? What can we learn from a text about the society it was produced in or produced for, and how does a text influence social relationships? Does a text reproduce social inequalities, or does it help to deconstruct them? These are the questions researchers aim at answering by including the level of social practices into their analysis. Considering these additional aspects turns a discourse analysis into a critical discourse analysis (Richardson, 2007, p. 42).

Figure 3: Critical Discourse Analysis of newspaper texts (Richardson, 2007, p. 42)

Although the analysis of one level will inevitably involve the analysis of the other levels, a linguistic approach will deal with the text as its focal point: how is a certain discourse realized

9 linguistically? what is the linguistic structure of the text? which specific formal features, such as vocabulary, grammar, and syntax, are used? (Fairclough, 2008, p. 73)

Fowler (1996, p. 3) specifically names three different aspects that critical linguists have to bear in mind when analyzing a text. Critical linguists (a) have to study texts in the context they were produced in; (b) they work to uncover “the ideology coded implicitly behind the overt propositions” (Fowler, 1996, p. 3); and (c) the critical linguist “challenges common sense by pointing out that something could have been represented some other way, with a very different significance” (Fowler, 1996, p. 4).

Traditionally, one might argue that corpus linguistics and CDA come from two different research ideologies. In general, CDA advocates a detailed reading of a small number of texts and focuses on a close and qualitative methodology. Corpus linguistics, on the other hand, deals with large numbers of texts and therefore follows a rather general reading. Often corpus-driven research is judged to be purely quantitative – especially by people who do not work with corpora themselves. It is its broad approach towards language that has been a constant point of critique for opponents of corpus linguistics, especially in the case of corpus-driven CDA. As counterargument corpus linguists often like to make use of a comparison from the field of natural sciences (Baker, 2008, p. 7; Kenny, 2014, p. xiii).

Corpus-based research – like any methodology – has its strength and weaknesses. To criticize the approach as being too broad, however, is like criticizing a telescope for not being a microscope. The two instruments have diverging purposes and can both show us different facets of our reality, which we can then fit together. Corpus-driven methodologies allow us to combine the quantifiable linguistic data of a corpus with other research methods, to pool a qualitative and quantitative approach. Kenny leaves the idea of scientific instruments behind and uses the kaleidoscope as fitting an image for corpus-driven research:

Kaleidoscopes allow us to view patterns, and to change those patterns at will. In corpus linguistics, the words and characters of electronic texts act like pieces of coloured glass and paper, constantly forming new patterns, which then recede as others take their place. (Kenny, 2014, p. xiii)

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Nevertheless, critical linguists seem to have been reluctant to take up the kaleidoscope and incorporate corpus linguistics into their research. The following section will consider the advantages that corpus-driven tools can bring to critical linguistics, as well as discuss their limitations.

2.2. Advantages and limitations of corpora in discourse analysis

Corpus-driven procedures can help to reduce researcher bias. It is difficult if not impossible to take a truly objective position in one’s research. Some have even argued that the unbiased researcher in itself is only a “discourse of science through which a particular version… of human life is constructed” (Burr, 1995, p. 166). By using a corpus a researcher is faced with quantitative findings based on not one but numerous texts. Stubbs points out that the value of corpus-based analyses is that they “help to ensure that analysts do not merely pick evidence to fit their preconceptions” (Stubbs, 1996, p. 154). This does, however, not mean that corpus-based results are completely objective as statistical analysis is always only one step in the process (Thornbury, 2010, p. 274). Nevertheless, Baker (2008) argues that

The patterns of language which are found (or overlooked) [in a corpus] may be subject to the researcher’s own ideological stance. And the way that they are interpreted may also be filtered through the researcher’s subject position. This is true of many other, if not all, forms of discourse analysis. However, the corpus-based approach at least helps to counter some of this bias, by providing quantitative evidence of patterns that may be more difficult to ignore. (p. 92)

In addition, corpora can help unveiling patterns that might be difficult to detect by intuition or the conscious mind, based on how people in general – and not only researchers – process information. Already a study in the 1970s showed, for instance, that people tend to think that in a common sample of English texts words which start with the letter “k” are likely to be more common than words which have a “k” in third position. In reality, the second group is twice as

11 common as the first. People, however, incline to focus on first letters and store words accordingly, because it makes recalling a term easier (Baker, 2008, p. 11).

Frequencies in general are difficult to judge by intuition. Concerning lexis, a person might have some very general ideas about frequencies, such as that “go” is more common in general English than “walk”, which is more frequent than “stroll”. It is, however, difficult for most people to guess whether “fare” or “fantasy” is more common. Even if one might be able to judge some frequencies in lexis, it is still more difficult to detect frequency patterns concerning grammatical issues by intuition (Halliday, 1993, p. 3; Hunston, 2002, p. 20). In reality, however, language is characterized by typical choices of language users, which they often are not consciously aware of. In fact, researchers have argued for decades that grammar is not only about formal accuracy but also about functional choices. Descriptions of grammar, however, persisted in focusing on accuracy. Corpus access programs can help to quickly detect regularities and language users’ typical choices in large amounts of texts. They can, thus, help us to determine which grammatical choices are widespread, predictable but rare, or just isolated cases (Conrad, 2010, p. 227).

Other cognitive biases, which can pose a problem when processing information in general or carrying out discourse analyses, are the primacy effect, the confirmation bias and the hostile media effect. The primacy effect suggests that people tend to focus more on information that they learn about at the beginning of a task. The confirmation bias claims that a person might consciously or unconsciously seek out information in favor of his or her own theories and was already briefly mentioned above when discussing research bias. The hostile media effect is connected to the confirmation bias and argues that ideological followers tend to perceive media coverage as biased against their own ideological side of an issue. In all these cases, corpora may help to reduce one’s own prejudices by offering quantifiable findings which can then be included in a discourse analysis (Baker, 2008, p. 11).

Besides helping to reduce cognitive bias, corpora can be useful to investigate the incremental effect of discourses. One important task of discourse analysis is to analyze how language is used to create and spread discourses. A certain word, phrase or grammatical construction might suggest the existence of an underlying discourse, the use of a corpus, however, can help us to see whether this is just an individual example or a typical entity. We might be able to see and begin

12 to understand the cumulative effect of language use. Hoey (2005) describes lexical priming in the following way: “Every word is primed for use in discourse as a result of the cumulative effects of an individual’s encounters with the word” (p. 13). In addition, repeated patterns can also have an evaluative or hegemonial meaning and even trigger cultural stereotypes within discourse communities (Baker, 2008, p. 13).

Corpora cannot only help to deconstruct discourses today but may also be useful tools in the analysis of discourse change over time. Comparing two corpora can allow us to analyze hegemonic or common sense language patterns in the past as well as today. Additionally, we can follow the frequencies of single words and compare their changing meaning, the context, and the discourses they appear in over time (Baker, 2008, p. 14).

Although corpus linguistics has much to offer for critical discourse analyses, it also has its limitations and problems like every other method of research. One of the most problematic issues is that texts in corpora appear out of context. Due to the large number of texts, analysts will only deal with individual fragments out of context (Baker, 2008, p. 17; Thornbury, 2010, p. 275). As Baker (2008) observes:

Questions involving production such as who authored a text, under what circumstances, for what motives and for whom, in addition to questions surrounding the interpretation of a text: who bought, read, accessed, used the text, what were their responses, etc. can not be simply answered by traditional corpus-based techniques. (p. 18)

A problem connected to the lack of information about context, is the danger of representing a contorted image of language use in reality. General corpora try to assemble examples from various sources and within a corpus-driven analysis all of these text fragments would be given equal significance. Due to differing accessibilities, however, certain fields of society or specific text types might be over- or underrepresented. Additionally, it is doubtful that all sources have the same influence on the creation and maintenance of discourses. A text produced by a public or famous speaker as well as texts that are spread by mass media will generally reach, and possibly influence, a far larger audience than a text taken from the private sphere. Corpus linguists try to compensate these deficiencies by working with smaller specialized corpora from specific settings

13 as well as tagging texts with additional information about context (Baker, 2008, p. 18; Thornbury, 2010, p. 275).

The fact that corpora are usually restricted to language data can also pose a problem in discourse analysis. Discourses are not only created and maintained by verbal communication. They can be embedded in behavior, images or paralinguistic features. Nevertheless, corpora in general only consist of written and transcribed spoken language data. In addition, discourses can be expressed by what is left unsaid. “A hegemonic discourse can, [for example,] be at its most powerful when it does not even have to be invoked, because it is just taken for granted” (Baker, 2008, p. 19). It is necessary for a researcher to resort to his or her intuition as well as remember the vast possibilities in language use and choice, to detect such absences. In the case of corpus linguistics, the comparison to larger normative corpora may help to unveil such deficiencies (Baker, 2008, p. 17; Hunston, 2002, p. 23).

Interestingly, the fact that computer programs enable us to analyze texts differently than human brains usually do, presents not only an advantage as mentioned before, but can also be hindering to the researcher. Although modern computer programs have been offering an ever-growing repertoire of feasible analyses, there are still a lot of processes in critical linguistics which only a person can undertake. Computers are mainly only able to work on the surface of texts. They can help us to discover certain patterns; however, in the end, quantitative data alone cannot answer all the questions that linguists bring to the study of critical discourse analysis (Baker, 2008, p. 18; Thornbury, 2010, p. 275).

As we have seen, the application of corpora in critical discourse analysis can bring a lot of advantages, and yet also trigger some negative effects. The possible limitations should not prevent researchers from integrating corpus tools in their analyses, rather encourage them to combine corpus-based processes with other approaches. In addition, the discussion of possible problems should remind analysts to bear these concerns in mind in order to counteract these issues in their own work. The following section will deal with the practical application of corpora in critical linguistics.

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2.3. Corpus-based approaches in practice: Application in research and methodology

A noticeable number of studies have already shown how corpora and CDA can help to unveil ideologies and evidence of disadvantage. These studies concentrate, among other fields, on political texts, news and media discourse, teaching and learner’s material, as well as scientific writing (Baker, 2008, p. 3). The following list provides only some examples of such research and offers a glimpse into the field.

• Fairclough (2000), for instance, investigates the language corpus of the British New Labour Party and analyzes changing collocations in his corpus in connection with a changing ideology within the political party.

• Baker (2008) researches the discourse and identity of refugees in the news – created not by the refugees themselves but by spokespeople – through the means of concordance lines, semantic preferences, and discourse prosody.

• Teubert (2001), finally, focuses on keywords in his study on the language of Euroskepticism within texts from Euro-critical websites.

Additionally, corpora have been commonly used in discourse studies which deal with differences in language usage based on identity – most notably related to gender (Baker, 2008, p. 6). Again, I would like to provide some examples here.

• Rey (2014), for instance, investigates the gender differences in dialogues in the TV show Star Trek between the 1960s and 1990s.

• Biber and Burges (2000), on the other hand, investigate the changes of gender specific language usage in drama over time.

• Finally, McEnery (2004) investigates the practice of swearing in relation to speaker characteristics such as gender, class, or age.

After introducing some examples of the application of corpora in specific studies, I want to briefly discuss the research process and some methods of corpus linguistics. According to Hunston (2002, p. 120), the important questions to be answered when integrating corpus-based

15 approaches into critical linguistics are: what can be observed? and how should these observations be interpreted? She describes the methods applied by Stubbs and other researchers who have been influenced by his work in the following:

[…] Frequency of occurrence, regularities of co-occurrence and of usage are observed, comparatively where appropriate. This information is used to draw conclusions about collocations, semantic prosody, and typical grammatical and semantic roles. That information in turn is used in the identification of salient concepts, of inconsistencies and sites of conflict, of difference and of change. […] (Hunston, 2002, p. 120)

Finding frequency patterns is a basic corpus technique, which is also readily offered by basically all corpus access software programs. Generating frequency lists helps to sort the words within a corpus according to the number of their occurrences. These lists are especially interesting when comparing relative frequencies of several corpora or some texts within the same corpus. Keywords are also based on frequency and comparison. Keywords are not necessarily the most frequent words in a corpus, but they are characterized by a statistically higher appearance compared to a reference corpus (Evison, 2010, p. 123). Another very common tool for manipulating data is the generation of concordances. Concordance lines center on a specific item the researcher has decided to search for. The program, then, lists all entries with the particular word and its varying co-texts. This process is also sometimes called KWIC (Key Word In Context) analysis. Commonly, this method can be adapted by determining how many words on each side of the target word should be included into the analysis (Evison, 2010, p. 128). Concordance lines are also a first step in determining a word’s collocates. Collocation describes the phenomenon “of certain words frequently occurring next to or near each other” (Baker, 2008, p. 96).

Beyond a mainly lexical level, corpora can and have also been used to focus on more grammatical or semantic aspects in discourse analysis. Possible fields of investigation are for example: modality, nominalization, attribution or metaphors. As we extend the level of complexity and variety in investigated patterns, however, the usage of corpora may become more complicated as well. Being able to access already pre-tagged corpora can help to reduce such problems. So-called tags can add additional information to a corpus, such as grammatical

16 categories or the intended meaning among several possible ones. Hand-tagging or the ability to use common concordance tools in a creative way may also prove to be useful strategies in these cases (Baker, 2008, p. 151).

After having discussed the method of corpus-based critical discourse analysis in general terms, the next section will introduce the more specific parameters of the empirical case study that will be presented in the latter part of this paper.

17 3. Empirical analysis: research questions, data, and methodology

The next section will discuss the parameters of the empirical case study described in this paper in more detail. The leading research questions will be presented and thus establish the main focus of the analysis. Additionally, I will examine the corpus and the methodology applied in the research process. First, however, a brief side note will introduce the underlying subject of all articles within the corpus: the persona of Edward Snowden and the information leak that made him famous.

3.1. Side note: Edward Snowden, the timeline of events and publication of the first articles

Edward Joseph Snowden is an American computer specialist who has become widely known for leaking secret data from the NSA (National Security Agency) to the mainstream media in 2013. For almost a decade, Edward Snowden worked for several U.S. national security facilities as well as for some of their private contractors. The young man started working for the CIA (Central Intelligence Agency) in 2006, at the age of 23. He was hired as an IT expert and received clearance for top-secret government data in line with his current position. Having worked in Geneva for several years, he left the CIA in 2009, after one of his superiors accused him of trying to access information he was not eligible to. For the following years, Snowden worked for NSA defense contractors, engaged in projects for NSA and CIA – both in the U.S. and abroad – with wide access to classified government documents (Cole & Brunker, 2014).

In 2013, Snowden released secret NSA data to the mass media and became the source behind one of the biggest information leaks in U.S. history. Earlier the same year, in March 2013, Snowden sought a new job with NSA defense contractor Booz Allen Hamilton in Hawaii. He would later tell the media that he specifically chose this job in order to gain additional access to secret government data, which he already planned on making public. On May 20, 2013, Snowden left Hawaii in the direction of Hong Kong. He was intending to meet with journalists and make some of the United States’ most highly-classified data public. The disclosed material concerned inter

18 alia, the extensive surveillance programs of the U.S. government – domestic and international – as well as the monitoring activities of some European governments and their respective intelligence apparatus (Cole & Brunker, 2014; Gidda, 2013).

The first articles based on data leaked by Edward Snowden were published at the beginning of June 2013. , lawyer and columnist for The Guardian, was named as the author of the text entitled “NSA collecting phone records of millions of Verizon customers daily“ (Greenwald, 2013), which appeared in the British newspaper on June 5. The article discussed the large-scale data collection of telephone metadata from U.S. operator Verizon through the NSA. A day later, on June 6, Greenwald and The Guardian featured another story discussing the obtainment of user data via PRISM, a program that allows the NSA access to servers of companies including Google, Apple and Facebook (Greenwald & MacAskill, 2013). At the same day, the Washington Post also featured a text about PRISM, publishing the first article based on Snowden’s information leak in the U.S. Up until this point, however, all these articles did not name Edward Snowden as the source of information (Cole & Brunker, 2014).

Although not a single article mentioned the name Edward Snowden, the former intelligence employee had been in contact with the journalists for several months at this point in time. Snowden reached out to Glenn Greenwald and , a documentary filmmaker, in December 2012 and January 2013 respectively. In May 2013, the informant began sending the first documents to Greenwald, Poitras and , a journalist at the Washington Post. At the time of the first publications, Edward Snowden resided in Hong Kong, his initial refuge after leaving the U.S. in May 2013. Greenwald and Poitras were with him, conducting the first personal interviews with their source (Cole & Brunker, 2014; Gidda, 2013).

19

Figure 4: The Guardian front-page of June 10, 2013 - Edward Snowden revealed ("The NSA files: The guardian front pages – in pictures", 2013)

The identity of Edward Snowden as the whistleblower was finally revealed on June 10, 2013. Being the first newspaper that Snowden sought out and the medium featuring the first article based on the information leak a few days earlier, it was again the British newspaper The Guardian that provided this new piece of information first. Figure 4 shows the front page of the British newspaper on June 10. The journalists, who were still in Hong Kong with their informant, state that they revealed their source’s identity at his own request. It was the first time the name Edward Snowden was brought to the attention of the general public (Cole & Brunker, 2014; Greenwald, MacAskill, & Poitras, 2013).

After the revelation of his identity, Edward Snowden was charged by the U.S. Justice Department and left Hong Kong in order to seek asylum elsewhere. On June 14, 2013, U.S. federal prosecutors filed a criminal complaint against Snowden, charging him under the United States’ 1917 Espionage Act, and demanding the extradition of the former intelligence employee (Finn & Horwitz, 2013). Snowden left Hong Kong on June 23, 2013, in the direction of South America. Due to legal complications, however, he found himself stuck in a Russian airport, only a supposed stopover on his journey. Stranded, Edward Snowden applied for asylum in Russia, and 20 his application was approved in the form of temporary asylum on August 1, 2013. A year later, in August 2014, Snowden received a three-year residency permit from the Russian government. At the time of the publication of this paper, the NSA informant still resides in Russia (Cole & Brunker, 2014; Gidda, 2013).

Although media coverage was most intense in the immediate aftermath of Snowden being revealed as the informant, the IT professional has been in the media again on several occasions since. His revelations have triggered heated discussions about public surveillance, security and privacy, as well as about the moral and legal implications concerning the role of both the media and Edward Snowden himself in the information leak. While Snowden has been criminally charged in the U.S., he has also received several awards, such as the Right Livelihood Award in 2014, which is widely known as “the alternative Nobel Prize” (Right Livelihood Award, n.d.-a; Right Livelihood Award, n.d.-b). Several public opinion polls have documented a public torn over the subject of Edward Snowden, over his possible prosecution, and over whether leaking the data was the ‘right’ thing to do (see, for example, Newport, 2013; Rasmussen Reports™, 2013; NBC News/Wall Street Journal Survey, 2013).

3.2. Research questions

In the project to be described in this paper, my aim is to compare the representation or construction of the person Edward Snowden within British and U.S. newspapers. In one of their articles, on June 26, 2013, The Washington Post posed the question whether Edward Snowden was “a whistleblowing hero or a traitor” (Pincus, 2013). This is a question which I seek to answer within this case study. My research will thus focus on the following questions:

• How is Edward Snowden represented in the written media and how is the media discourse about him realized linguistically?

• Moreover, does the representation within newspapers in Great Britain and the U.S. differ; with one of these countries being home to the newspaper, which first published the news story, and the other one, being a main subject in Snowden’s revelations itself?

21

In addition, with methodology stemming from both corpus linguistics and critical discourse analysis, I want to contribute to the growing body of research seeking to add a quantitative corpus-linguistic component to critical linguistics. I have already discussed the possible merits and dangers of such a combined approach in the previous section in general terms. On the following pages, however, I want to illustrate how the field of critical discourse analysis may be enhanced by the use of an electronic corpus on the specific example of my case study.

3.3. The Corpus

The corpus for this project comprises 539 newspaper articles from British and American dailies. All of these articles mention the person Edward Snowden and were published between June 10, 2013, and July 9, 2013, in one of the eight newspapers that are included in this case study. For the process of compiling the texts, the database LexisNexis® Academic was used, which is an online academic research database (www.lexisnexis.com). The following chapter will offer a detailed description of the composition and compilation of the corpus used for this case study. The discussion might seem rather extensive at times; as the compilation of corpus and methodology is, however, both a fundamental as well as time-consuming part of this project, I decided to dedicate a section of this paper to the process whose extent may reflect both its importance and the time devoted to it.

With the research questions firmly established, the next step in the analytic process is the construction of a corpus. Having a clear research aim in mind will guide the design of the specific data collection. A matter that is relevant to all corpus analyses is the selection of representative data: “there must be a match between the language being examined and the type of material being collected” (Reppen, 2010, p. 31). The researcher has to formulate criteria for the individual texts to be included, as well as make decisions about the corpus as a whole, such as the intended target size of the corpus (Reppen, 2010, p. 31). According to Bell (1994, p. 12), the collection of a corpus of media language specifically must be preceded by decisions in three areas. Although Bell published these criteria in the 1990s, they are still a valid starting point for comprising a media corpus today. These three categories concern:

22 • the genres: news, advertisements, weather forecasts, opinion, and so forth (type of media content), • the outlets: the publications, TV or radio channels (carrier of content), • the outputs: specific newscasts, programs and time period covered (media production sampled within certain time period).

While Bell names genre as the first criterion for the building of a news corpus, the data collection for this case study evolves around a specific topic: the topic of Edward Snowden. Bell describes genre as “the particular kind of media content in which you are interested” (1994, p. 12). Whereas he divides and categorizes media content according to different text types, the particular kind of media content I am interested in for this project are texts dealing with a specific topic.

In the beginning, the first ideas for this paper revolved around a general comparison of articles about the NSA data leak in U.S. and UK newspapers. Soon, however, a more precise question proved to be necessary. The first search queries on the database LexisNexis® Academic for articles related to terms such as “NSA” or “data leak” resulted, in reality, in far too large a number of texts dealing with a wide range of news topics connected only remotely to the intended issue. Therefore, the idea arose to investigate a specific facet of the reporting about the NSA data leak: the reports about a specific key player in the events, that is, the reports about the person of Edward Snowden.

Based on the interest in a comparison between how U.S. and UK media deal with the person of Edward Snowden, the corpus consists of samples taken from four American and British newspapers respectively. According to Bell (1994, p. 12), these newspapers are the selected media outlets. For the U.S., the corpus includes The New York Times, USA Today, New York Daily News, and The Washington Post. Daily Mail, Daily Mirror, The Guardian and represent the British newspapers in the analysis. All of these papers are among the top ten national daily newspapers in their respective country. The ranking is based on the average circulation numbers of the newspapers – including hard copies and online appearance – in 2013. Table 1 and table 2 below, illustrate the figures concerning the newspapers included in the analysis in more detail. The numbers are presented as published by the National Readership

23 Survey1 (National Readership Survey, 2014) in Great Britain and by the Alliance for Audited Media2 (Alliance for Audited Media, n.d.) in the U.S. One should be careful with making generalizations for the entire British or American newspaper scene, based on the results of this case study. Nevertheless, the analysis of four out of the ten most widespread daily newspapers in each country, allows the appraisal of a significant part of the respective media landscape.

Newspaper Name Total Average Weekday Circulation The New York Times 1,865,318 USA Today 1,674,306 New York Daily News 516,165 The Washington Post 474,767

Table 1: Average circulation of U.S. newspapers (Alliance for Audited Media, n.d.)

Newspaper Name Total Average Weekday Circulation Daily Mail 6,404,000 Daily Mirror 3,106,000 The Guardian 2,194,000 The Daily Telegraph 2,139,000

Table 2: Average circulation of UK newspapers (National Readership Survey, 2014)

1 The top ten national newspapers for Great Britain: Daily Mail/The Mail on Sunday 6,404,000; The Sun/The Sun on Sunday 6,228,000; Daily Mirror/Sunday Mirror 3,106,000; The Guardian/The Observer 2,194,000; The Daily Telegraph/The Sunday Telegraph 2,139,000; The Times/The Sunday Times 1,443,000; Daily Express/Sunday Express 1,310,000; /The Independent on Sunday/i 1,299,000; Daily Star/Daily Star Sunday 1,235,000; Daily Record/Sunday Mail (Scotland) 884,000 (National Readership Survey, 2014). 2 The top ten national newspapers for the United States of America: Wall Street Journal 2,378,827; The New York Times 1,865,318; USA Today 1,674,306; 653,868; New York Daily News 516,165; New York Post 500,521; Washington Post 474,767; Chicago Sun-Times 470,548; Denver Post 416,676; Chicago Tribune 414,930 (Alliance for Audited Media, n.d.). 24 Newspapers have target groups; they address a certain ideal readership. They vary in the news they choose to report, as well as in the way they present this news. Conboy (2013, p. 10) explicates that:

[the assumed audience is] represented in the style and register of language [newspapers] employ, the stereotypes, both positive and negative which they contain which confirm the social and cultural perspectives of the reader, and the assumptions which are embedded in the truncated style of the newspaper […]

Traditionally, newspapers are grouped into so-called broadsheets or quality newspapers on the one hand, and tabloids or popular dailies on the other hand. This binary distinction is, however, problematic. The terms “broadsheet” and “tabloid” refer to classic newspaper formats in the past: broadsheet style for quality papers and tabloid size for popular ones. This distinction, however, may be rendered obsolete nowadays, as various newspapers have, over the years, adapted their format based on practical or economic reasons rather than ideological ones. The terminology of “quality” or “popular” is in itself problematic, due to the value judgments it entails (Bednarek & Caple, 2012, p. 18). Nevertheless, I will use these terms in this paper, as they are still the most common way to describe and categorize different Anglophone newspapers today.

In order to ensure the inclusion of heterogeneous fractions of the two newspaper markets, the corpus for this project consists of both, quality newspapers as well as popular dailies from Great Britain and the U.S. The distinction between broadsheet and tabloid newspapers is deeply routed in the British media scene and tradition; the National Readership Survey, which was already mentioned before, therefore, also groups the dailies according to these terms in their publications. The Guardian and The Daily Telegraph are so-called quality newspapers, the Daily Mail presents a mid-market journal – leaning towards the popular fraction, and the Daily Mirror is part of the tabloid news (National Readership Survey, 2014).

In the U.S., on the other hand, this binary categorization is not as established and as widely used as in the UK. The classification of the U.S. newspapers in this project must therefore be based on other criteria. The number of Pulitzer Prizes won by a newspaper is, for example, often considered an indicator for quality in American journalism (Logan & Sutter, 2004, p. 102). Including the award ceremony in 2014, The New York Times has won 114 Pulitzer Prizes so far,

25 and The Washington Post has been given 60 awards, which makes these two newspapers the two most successful dailies in this ranking and should allow us to qualify them as so-called broadsheets (The New York Times Company, n.d.; WashPostPR, 2014). USA Today and New York Daily News, on the other hand, are both characterized by their “visual storytelling” (USA TODAY, 2015), a feature which both news companies use themselves to advertise their brands and which is rather typical for tabloids. In fact, the New York Daily News, which is also sometimes referred to as “New York’s picture newspaper”, displays a camera in its logo (Vaughn, 2007, p. 332).

Finally, the specific news outputs – in this case, the particular newspaper articles – have to be selected. On June 10, 2013, Edward Snowden was revealed as the informant behind the NSA data leak (Greenwald et al., 2013). It was the first time the name was brought to the attention of the general public, and the date also marks the onset for the media analysis discussed in this paper. All articles within the corpus are taken from newspaper editions which were published within one month after the former intelligence employee was revealed as the informant.

In an attempt to describe what makes a story newsworthy, Bell (1994, p. 156) names a list of so- called news values – more specifically, values in news actors and events. These factors relate to the content of the news and include, among others, the news values of recency and novelty. The parameter of recency states that “the best news is something which has only just happened” (Bell, 1994, p. 156). Novelty explains that the attribute of being “new” information – something people have not heard before – is “one of the main factors in news selection” (Bell, 1994, p. 157). Although they stem from the 1990s, Bell’s values remain applicable today. Considering the velocity and volatility of the media today, recency and novelty are probably even more important factors than ever before.

A general search query on the database LexisNexis® Academic affirmed that the press coverage on Snowden was most intense directly following the revelation of the informant’s identity. For both countries, the U.S. and the UK, the newspaper database offers the highest numbers of articles related to the search term “Snowden” for the month of June 2013, followed by July 2013. Figure 5 illustrates the number of newspaper articles per month in all U.S. and UK newspapers which are included in the online database, without any further filters. Except for minor

26 deviations, the number of articles declines steadily over the year. Based on the fact that the highest number of texts concerning Edward Snowden was published right after the revelation of his identity, the decision was made to focus the analysis on the time between June 10, 2013, and July 9, 2013.

1.800 1.600 1.400 1.200 1.000 800 600 UK 400 US 200 0

Figure 5: Number of newspaper articles featuring the search term "Snowden" on LexisNexis® Academic per month, from June 2013 to May 2014

In total, the corpus comprises 539 articles: 313 texts taken from the four American newspapers, and 226 articles that were published in one of the four British dailies represented in this case study. Table 3 illustrates the distribution of texts among the individual journals. After searching the database LexisNexis® Academic for texts which were published in one of the eight chosen newspapers and which included the key term “Snowden”, these results were edited: all articles which mentioned “Snowden” in a different way than in relation to the person Edward Snowden were eliminated; all limited regional editions were excluded, as were duplicate editions; finally, all letters contributed by readers were likewise removed (opinions from experts or public figures, which were commissioned by the papers remained in the corpus). As the number of pages necessary to replicate 539 newspaper articles exceeds the possibilities of this volume, the texts are not included in full within this paper. A list of all titles as well as date and newspaper of publication can, however, be found in the appendix (appendix A). The full texts may be researched on online databases such as LexisNexis® Academic. Examples taken from specific

27 newspaper articles are identified by a reference in brackets. “UK” indicates that the samples stem from texts within the British dailies and “US” relates to the American sub-corpus. The particular numbers correlate with the complete list of articles included in the corpus, which can be found in appendix A.

Newspaper (US) Number of texts Newspaper (UK) Number of texts The Guardian 115 New York Times 101 Daily Telegraph 53 Washington Post 107 Daily Mirror 35 USA Today 64 Daily Mail 23 Daily News 41 ∑ 226 ∑ 313

Table 3: Corpus consisting of 539 newspaper articles

After discussing the corpus and its compilation in detail, the following section will introduce the methods applied to the data.

3.4. Methodology

Following the brief introduction on corpus techniques in the first part of this paper, I now want to discuss the procedures I apply within this project in more detail. A common first step in the process of analyzing corpora is the generation of frequency lists, which will therefore, also be the first corpus-handling technique I will be considering here. As already mentioned before, however, a corpus in itself does not contain new information; it is the software that offers a new perspective as well as allows us to gain new insights into the language and that enables us to quickly apply the techniques of corpus linguistics on large amounts of data (Hunston, 2002, p. 3). This chapter will therefore be led by a brief introduction of the software which is employed in this case study.

28 3.4.1. The software R

The software used for this case study is the freeware R. R is a versatile multi-purpose tool for corpus linguists: it is a statistics program, a programing language, a calculator, and a graphics program. The software is an open-source software; i.e. the source code of the program is available to the general public with a license providing the rights to use, study, change, and distribute the program. R can be found free of charge on several websites online (Gries, 2009, p. 2). The version used for this project is 3.0.1. – codename “Good Sport”.

Using software which, at the same time, is a full programing language may prove to be more difficult in the beginning, but can also offer various advantages over ready-made corpus software. With specialized linguistics programs it is often sufficient to push one button to receive finished frequency lists or concordance lines. In order to reach the same output in R, on the other hand, it is necessary to write a small script or code, which basically means writing some lines of text as instructions for the program. After getting accustomed to the software, however, it offers great control and high flexibility to the researcher: “you define what a word is, and you define how a particular search is implemented for a particular search word and a particular corpus, and your results will be maximally replicable” (Gries, 2009, p. 2).

> rm(list=ls(all=T)) > > textfile.uk<-scan(file="/Users/*/Desktop/corpus_neu/uk.txt", what="char", sep="\n", quote="", comment.char="") Read 3548 items > > textfile.uk<-tolower(textfile.uk) > > words.list.uk<-strsplit(textfile.uk, "\\W+") > words.vector.uk<-unlist(words.list.uk) > > freq.list.uk<-table(words.vector.uk) > sorted.freq.list.uk<-sort(freq.list.uk, decreasing=T) > > sorted.table.uk<-paste(names(sorted.freq.list.uk), sorted.freq.list.uk, sep="\t")> cat("WORD\tFREQ", sorted.table.uk, file="/Users/*/Desktop/corpus_neu/ freq_uk", sep="\n") > > cat("WORD\tFREQ", sorted.table.uk, file="/Users/*/Desktop/corpus_neu/ freq_uk.txt", sep="\n")

Figure 6: Script in R - Frequency analysis on a one-word level (UK) 29

Examples of such a script written and used in R can be seen in figure 6 and figure 7. The particular text in figure 6 describes the process of creating a frequency analysis on the level of individual words and was applied on the British sub-corpus in this case study. The sample in figure 7, on the other hand, illustrates a concordance analysis for the key term “Snowden”, written for the American sub-corpus. The specific codes illustrated in figure 6 and figure 7, as well as all the other scripts written for this corpus analysis, can be found in full length in the appendix at the end of this paper (appendix B).

> rm(list=ls(all=T)) > > textfile.us<-scan(file="/Users/*/Desktop/corpus_neu/us.txt", what="char", sep="\n") Read 6525 items > > textfile.us.2<-gsub("(\\W)", " \\1 ", textfile.us, perl=T) > textfile.us.3<-unlist(strsplit(textfile.us.2, " +")) > > (matches.snowden.us<-grep("\\bsnowden\\b", textfile.us.3, ignore.case=T)) [1] 84 250 253 314 392 419 427 777 2363 [10] 2922 4072 4104 4114 4397 5162 5178 5498 5554 [...] [2521] 310221 310323 310423 310511 310572 310684 310843 310981 311072 [2530] 311093 311137 311151 311256 311378 311463 311468 311609 > > beginning.of.range<-max(1, (matches.snowden.us[1]-6)) > for (i in matches.snowden.us) { + cat(file="/Users/*/Desktop/corpus_neu/conc.snowden.us.limrange.txt", append=T, + textfile.us.3[max(0, i-6):max(0, i-1)], + "\t", + textfile.us.3[i], + "\t", + textfile.us.3[(i+1):min(i+6, length(textfile.us.3)+1)], + "\n") +} >

Figure 7: Script in R – Concordance analysis for the key term “Snowden” (U.S.)

To ensure that R can read the data properly, it is necessary to edit the newspaper articles in a preparatory step. First, all information which is marked by the database LexisNexis® Academic

30 as meta-data, is excluded from the files. These bylines may include: newspaper and section of the publication, date of publication, author’s name, word count of article, etc. The task of removing this kind of information enables us to analyze the text as it appeared originally in the dailies. Within a second step the corpus is cleared of special characters, because R is not able to read this type of multi-byte signs. Having prepared the data in that way, one can now finally start to analyze the data with R.

3.4.2. Frequency lists

Content analysis assumes that the quantitative description of communication content is meaningful. This assumption implies that the frequency of occurrence of various characteristics of the content is itself an important factor in the communication process. Berelson, 1966, p. 265

Frequency lists are an easy accessible corpus tool and present a suitable starting point for analyzing almost any type of corpus. For generating a frequency list, a program scans all tokens within a corpus, groups them into types and counts the occurrences of each type. While each individual word or entity equals a token, only uniquely different words are counted as types – excluding all repeated items. Generally, frequency lists can be sorted according to the frequencies of occurrence themselves (usually from highest to lowest rates), in alphabetical order, or depending on their first appearance within a text (Hunston, 2002, p. 67).

But how are frequency counts useful in discourse analyses? Language is based on certain rules. Despite those rules, however, language users also have particular choices concerning the language they use. Baker (2008) claims that it is the tension between “language as a set of rules vs. language as free choice” (p. 48) which makes frequencies relevant for critical linguists. Why does a speaker choose one linguistic option over another? The choice of certain vocabulary or grammatical structures can reveal ideological differences. “If people speak or write in an unexpected way, or make one linguistic choice over another, more obvious one, then that reveals something about their intentions, whether conscious or not” (Baker, 2008, p. 48). “Words convey the imprint of society and of value judgments in particular – they convey connoted as well as denoted meaning” (Richardson, 2007, p. 47).

31 Fairclough argues further that vocabulary is organized in so-called classification schemes. Classification schemes constitute “a particular way of dividing up some aspects of reality which is built upon a particular ideological representation of that reality” (Fairclough, 2007, p. 96). Classification schemes within particular texts or discourses “may vary quantitatively, in the sense of wording particular aspects of reality to different degrees, with a larger or smaller number of words” (Fairclough, 2007, p. 96). Frequency counts can assess texts quantitatively and thus illustrate which words or structures have been chosen most commonly in a particular language output and, in turn, which classification schemes may be in place.

Focusing on lexical items and structures, a frequency analysis concerning the corpus in this case study can help us to establish the focus of the analyzed newspaper articles. As the inclusion of a text in this case study is only based on a mentioning of “Snowden”, Edward Snowden is not necessarily the main subject in all the texts. Peculiarities concerning the lexis, classification schemes, and the occurrence of particular semantic fields (i.e. words related in meaning or sharing a conceptual domain) in the articles may thus be useful in establishing general themes and, in turn, the context Snowden is presented in in the news (Baker, 2008, p. 54).

In order to compare the frequency counts across different corpora, a process of normalization is required. If working with more than one corpus, it will be seldom the case that a researcher is faced with several text collections of equal size. The comparison between absolute or raw frequencies based on different-sized corpora will only offer distorted results. In such cases, normalizing the data can help. The raw numbers are divided by the total word count of a corpus and multiplied by 1000. The results can then be compared on a common scale, such as frequency per thousand words (Evison, 2010, p. 126). As the two sub-corpora – the British and the American one – in this case study also differ in size, I will apply normalization when comparing the results concerning these two sub-sets. The process of normalization will not only be used for comparing frequencies, but will be applied whenever absolute or raw numbers across several corpora are compared to each other.

32 3.4.3. Considering clusters

Frequencies, however, cannot only be applied on the level of single words but also on word clusters. Frequency counts on a multi-word level illustrate common word combinations. The technique can also be applied to further investigate the most frequent individual words; it portrays the lemmas with their co-text, helps to uncover the particular ways they are used in the specific texts in this corpus (Baker, 2008, p. 56). For this case study I will run an application in R specifying a cluster size of two entities, as well as one with a range of three.

Cluster frequency analyses are based on a two-step process. When using a ready-made corpus program, which offers a selection of predesigned analyses, one will generally only enter the input texts, let the program perform the necessary tasks, and be presented with the results - often not being aware of any intermediate procedures. If one works, however, with a program which requires the user to enter the scripts for the analyses oneself, such as R, the researcher has to take a slightly more complex approach, dividing the task into two interconnected steps. The corpus analysis program, therefore, has to first produce word clusters, which are then analyzed in a second run. In an initial step, the software has to go through the whole corpus and cut the texts into all possible clusters of a previously determined size. If one, for example, has a corpus comprising six entities – A, B, C, D, E, and F – and the cluster size has been defined as two, a program like R will produce the following word pairs as output: AB, CD, EF, as well as BC, and DE. In a second step, the software then undertakes a frequency analysis in the same way as on a one-word level; but instead of single words, the program reads the word pairs. R runs through all word combinations, counting how often the individual pairs occur in the corpus, and produces a frequency list ranging all word clusters as output, sorted according to (usually) decreasing frequencies.

3.4.4. Concordances

A concept similar to cluster frequencies is the one of concordances; in contrast to the former, however, the technique of concordances is used to investigate the surroundings of a fixed search term. Based on the focus on a particular word, the method is also commonly known as KWIC technique (Key Word In Context). The software scans the corpus, seeking for the specified search

33 term, and generates a list presenting all occurrences of the requested word form including their exact location as well as their co-text. Depending on the research purpose, one can adapt the way the results are portrayed. Generally, all concordance programs allow varying the parameter of how many elements should be included on both sides of the determined search node. In addition, the KWIC format is not the only one available to illustrate concordance data; portraying the findings within the complete sentences they appear in, offers, for example, an alternative view (Tribble, 2010, p. 167).

Once generated, the concordance data can be further processed and analyzed. But what is the best way to read the output? Sinclair (2003) tries to introduce a generic procedure and names seven stages that “should uncover the mysteries of most concordances” (p. xvi). Although the author states himself that, in practice, intuition will guide the researcher to shortcuts, this set of steps offer a valuable starting point for analyzing concordance data (Sinclair, 2003, p. xvi):

• Step 1 Initiate – As a first step, the researcher has to search for patterns in the elements directly adjoined to the search node to the left and to the right. Decide on the most promising examples and progress with these. Some advice on how to detect such regularities can be found in the paragraph following the discussion of this multi-step procedure. • Step 2 Interpret – Considering these common elements, one has to try and find a hypothesis that explains their connection, for example word class or meaning. • Step 3 Consolidate – In a next step, the search parameters are widened. This process may, for example, include: assessing additional elements in different positions within the co- text of the search term than the ones one started with; finding structures that express a common meaning or theme in different yet similar ways to the ones already found. • Step 4 Report – After all the patterns one can observe have been found exhausted, the hypothesis should have reached a state of being “as flexible as it needs to be and as strong as it can be” and should be noted down (Sinclair, 2003, p. xvii). • Step 5 Recycle – At this stage, the researcher can move on to the next most important pattern and restart the procedure. The process is repeated as long as new patterns can be found.

34 • Step 6 Result – This step should result in a final list of hypotheses concerning the search node one has started with. • Step 7 Repeat – If the process has so far only been applied on a limited sub-set of your corpus, access new data and start at the first stage again, applying your already established findings on the new texts.

For the purpose of finding regularities in large amounts of concordance data in the first place, it can be useful to benefit from the electronic – and thus flexible– form of your data and first assess the results by re-sorting them in different ways. Following the KWIC format, three different ways of sorting seem self-evident: according to the search term itself, the elements on the left, or the entities to the right (Tribble, 2010, p. 175). The advantages which may be gained by such simple changes in the set-up shall be illustrated using the example of “take*” as hypothetical search term. Sorting the results according to the search term itself allows us to see which forms of “take*” appear in the corpus and which ones are the most frequent ones. Arranging the results based on the data on the left illustrates common subjects. Sorting by the right context, on the other hand, can unveil patterns concerning complements, prepositions, or adverbs accompanying the verb.

A concordance-informed discourse analysis is a more qualitative approach than the ones discussed so far. While frequency analyses are strongly related to quantitative results, concordance data relies on further interpretation. Although a corpus software can be useful in processing and sorting the concordance lines in a corpus, the researcher still has to carry out further analyses and interpret the data generated by the corpus program. Especially with larger collections of texts, it may not always be easy to detect specific language patterns. Methodical approaches, such as the one by Sinclair (2003, p. xvi) discussed before, aim at helping the researcher to process even large amounts of data. As with many, if not all, forms of qualitative research, identification as well as interpretation of certain discourses might be influenced by the analyst’s stance (possible problems arising in discourse analysis as a rather qualitative form of research have already been discussed in the first part of this paper). The corpus-driven approach, however, can help to counteract overwhelming amounts of data as well as certain biases; guided by quantitative figures, objective numbers offer an easy-accessible starting point for further

35 analyses as well as evidence for particular patterns, which therefore may be more difficult to ignore.

As this case study aims at depicting the representation of the persona of Edward Snowden, I will begin by conducting a concordance analysis with the search term “Snowden” at its center. What is the immediate co-text of the name Edward Snowden in the articles? Which modifications are applied in relation to Snowden, i.e. phrases and words grammatically connected to the name, giving additional information about the person? Are there common themes or particular discourses applied to the former NSA employee? I will try to elucidate the semantic preference and discourse prosody of the whistleblower’s last name. Stubbs (2001) defines semantic preference as “the relation not between individual words, but between a lemma or word-form and a set of semantically related words” (p. 65). Similarly, the concept of discourse prosody seeks for patterns between words or phrases and groups of terms related in meaning that might imply a common discourse. The difference between the two concepts is rather vague; Stubbs (2001, p. 65), however, argues that a distinction is partly based on the semantic domains or discourses the related words refer to. If the field is a closed category such as ‘animals’, we rather use the term semantic preference. If the domain, however, is open-ended or rather undefined, such as ‘pleasant things’, the term discourse prosody is preferable.

36 4. Discussion of results

After having discussed the methods applied in this case study in theory in the previous section, the following chapter will consider the actual findings. Following the same order as before, I will begin by analyzing our collection of newspaper articles on a single-word level, move on to investigating multi-word clusters, and end by exploring the concordance lines surrounding the key word of “Snowden”. The scripts used and written in R, the free software program, for the specific analyses can be found in the appendix (appendix B); the same holds true for some more extensive result lists, which due to their considerable length could not be included into the main part of this paper and have also been added to the appendix (appendix C). Examples taken from individual newspaper articles are designated by a reference in brackets indicating the specific newspaper text they stem from (a full list of all articles included in the corpus can be found in appendix A). As already mentioned, considerations will begin on a one-word level, discussing the findings obtained by means of a frequency analysis.

Due to its extensive length, the decision was made to not add appendix C directly to this paper, but to provide the document online via cloud storage. The data can therefore be found online at the following IP address: https://storage.driveonweb.de/dowdoc/657247e105bea5e3e42b40823e9fde0f47b0155041fe8471

The online folder also includes appendix A, in order to present the concordance lines right next to the list of newspaper articles they stem from. Additionally, the hard copy of this paper is also accompanied by a CD-ROM which holds the complete appendix (appendices A-C). Both the printed version and the CD are accessible at the University of Graz, Austria.

4.1. Frequency analysis

Using the software R, a word list of the two sub-corpora – the British and American newspaper articles – was obtained. The script used for this analysis can be found in appendix B, as can all the other scripts written and run in R for this case study. A word list is simply a list illustrating all the words appearing in the corpus alongside with their frequencies (summed up for all the texts). Considering the different sizes of the two sub-corpora, not only the absolute but also the relative

37 frequencies will be considered, in order to make the results comparable; i.e. the frequencies per 1000 words. In total, the British sub-corpus consists of 139.942 tokens (total number of words) and 11.243 types (words appearing several times are only counted once). The American newspaper articles, on the other hand, comprise 260.619 tokens and 14.823 types.

UK Absolute F. F. per 1000 US Absolute F. F. per 1000 the 8487 60,65 the 15442 59,25 to 4335 30,98 to 7581 29,09 of 3695 26,40 of 6848 26,28 and 3013 21,53 a 6330 24,29 a 2890 20,65 and 5540 21,26 in 2708 19,35 in 5131 19,69 that 1835 13,11 that 4018 15,42 he 1471 10,51 s 4003 15,36 s 1449 10,35 he 2750 10,55 is 1359 9,71 snowden 2537 9,73 snowden 1278 9,13 said 2416 9,27 for 1256 8,98 for 2362 9,06 on 1227 8,77 on 2326 8,92 it 1153 8,24 is 2144 8,23 us 1116 7,97 it 1809 6,94 was 1001 7,15 was 1675 6,43 as 915 6,54 with 1641 6,30 said 822 5,87 as 1447 5,55 has 820 5,86 mr 1389 5,33 with 810 5,79 have 1381 5,30 by 809 5,78 his 1348 5,17 be 801 5,72 has 1327 5,09 his 765 5,47 by 1296 4,97 have 757 5,41 not 1185 4,55 not 757 5,41 from 1165 4,47 Table 4: Most frequent words UK to the left – U.S. to the right F. = Frequency

Table 4 illustrates the twenty-five most frequent words in the corpus, grouped into those terms taken from the British and from the American part of the data collection, respectively. A more extensive version of this frequency list can be found in appendix C. The left hand side of the table

38 shows the highest frequencies within the British newspapers, and the part to the right indicates the most common words within the American articles. For all words illustrated in the table, the first column of numbers gives the absolute frequencies, and the second sequence displays the number of occurrences per 1000 words. Based on the different numbers of articles in the American and British parts of the corpus as well as the varying lengths of the articles themselves, the data had to be normalized. This means that, in a first step, all absolute or raw figures had to be divided by 139.942 and 260.619 respectively (the British and American number of tokens), before being multiplied by 1000. In this way, the results of both sub-corpora are presented in the form of “frequency per 1000 words” and can be compared to each other.

Looking at table 4, it becomes apparent that the most common words in the corpus are grammatical or function words. Function words express a grammatical or structural relationship with other words in a sentence and have little semantic meaning of their own. They are part of a closed class (i.e. a class of words usually not subject to linguistic innovation or growth) and include, for example, determiners, pronouns, quantifiers, prepositions, and conjunctions. In fact, with the exception of only a few words, all of the items included in the 25 most common terms are grammatical words. This, however, does not come as a big surprise, as basically all forms of language are characterized by a high frequency of function words (Baker, 2008, p. 53). It is, actually, rather striking how similar these lists of functional words are for the British and American part of the newspaper corpus. As the aim of this paper is, however, to get a better idea about the characteristics of a specific discourse, about the discourse of the persona of Edward Snowden, a closer look at another word class may prove to be more helpful. For now, we therefore set the grammatical terms aside, focusing our attention instead on the most frequent lexical words in the corpus.

After having discussed the manual processing and exclusion of function words within a corpus in such detail, I also want to mention the possibility of applying so-called stop lists. Stop lists are catalogues of common, yet to the analysis irrelevant, function words. Ready-made corpus programs often already include such stop lists. When working with software that requires the researcher to write the scripts for the analyses him- or herself, on the other hand, one has to integrate one’s own version of such a list within the code. The program will exclude all words included in this stop list from its results when reading the corpus and creating the frequency list.

39 In this way, the presented output has already been revised and does not contain common function words (Gries, 2009, p. 109). Based on the fact that this case study is, however, my first corpus analysis of such extensive size, I was not sure which function words I should expect to be included in the corpus. I decided, therefore, to not integrate a stop list into my programing and to undertake this intermediate step – at least in the case of this specific paper – by hand.

Table 5, now, shows the 25 most common lexical terms in the corpus, for the British and American newspapers respectively (26 words in the case of the U.S. newspapers because three nouns share the 24th rank). So-called lexical or content words express – as the name already indicates – primarily lexical meaning and, different than function words, belong to an open class (i.e. a class of words open to linguistic innovation or growth). The category of content words comprises nouns, adjectives, most verbs, and adverbs. As illustrated, the most common lexical terms in the corpus investigated for this paper are mainly nouns and adjectives. Taking first place in both countries is the term “Snowden”. Considering that it was the main criterion for the articles to be included into the corpus that the name of the IT specialist had to appear at least once in every one of them, a high frequency of the name was to be expected. As the lexical verb “said” represents an exception on the list, with being the only lexical verb (third place in the British ranking and second in the American one), we will focus our attention first on nouns and adjectives, which make up the vast majority of this list, before considering the most frequent verbs in a separate process.

UK Absolute F. F. per 1000 US Absolute F. F. per 1000 snowden 1278 9,13 snowden 2539 9,74 us 1116 7,97 said 2416 9,27 said 822 5,87 mr 1389 5,33 intelligence 397 2,84 government 1154 4,43 government 379 2,71 security 803 3,08 hong kong 362 2,59 intelligence 697 2,67 security 359 2,57 united 666 2,56 mr 347 2,48 hong kong 663 2,54 nsa 320 2,29 states 661 2,54 surveillance 320 2,29 surveillance 622 2,39 edward 281 2,01 national 608 2,33

40 data 249 1,78 obama 523 2,01 people 242 1,73 nsa 520 2,00 asylum 235 1,68 information 516 1,98 president 227 1,62 officials 512 1,96 world 226 1,61 president 502 1,93 gchq 220 1,57 american 500 1,92 agency 207 1,48 agency 483 1,85 national 207 1,48 programs 396 1,52 whistleblower 206 1,47 former 388 1,49 information 202 1,44 data 386 1,48 public 201 1,44 washington 367 1,41 internet 196 1,40 public 363 1,39 guardian 194 1,39 people 354 1,36 american 186 1,33 program 354 1,36 secret 354 1,36 Table 5: Most frequent lexical words UK to the left – U.S. to the right F. = Frequency

Looking at table 5, several issues seem noteworthy, with the first of them being that both the singular and plural form of the word “program” appear in the American part of the list (position 19 and 24). “Program” and “programs” are, in fact, two different word-forms of the same lemma. One speaks of several terms belonging to the same lemma if various lexical words stem from the same term, belong to the same word class, and only differ in spelling or inflection (Baker, 2008, p. 55). In total, the two word-forms of “program” and “programs” count 750 occurrences in the U.S. part of the corpus, which results in the lemma “program” moving up considerably in the American top 25 list. Since the lemma of “program” appears that often in the texts, revising the term’s absolute and relative frequency and, subsequently, the ranking, it seems appropriate to adapt the frequency counts and recalculate the most common lexical words based on lemmas. As can be seen in table 6, counting the lemmas instead of the word-forms, in fact, leads to a significantly different frequency list. The revised table illustrates the lemma counts. The lemma is presented in either its singular or plural form depending on which of the two individual forms scored higher on its own in the first frequency count.

Second, one can observe that several of the terms in table 5 do not necessarily belong exclusively to one grammatical category such as nouns, adjectives, or verbs. Various words in the English

41 language exhibit identical written forms for diverging word classes, and it is only possible to identify the word class by examining the term in context. In table 5, for example, “national” (position 19 and 11 on the British and American list, respectively) could depict a noun or an adjective; the same holds true for “official” (U.S.: rank 15), “American” (U.S.: rank 17), “public” (rank 22 and 23 for U.S. and UK, respectively), and “secret” (U.S.: rank 24). “State” (U.S.: position 9) and “program” (U.S.: both position 19 and 24), on the other hand, could be used as both a noun and a verb. “Us” is also an interesting case: taking second position in the British ranking, it is either used as the abbreviation for “United States” (noun) or as pronoun “us”. Table 6, however, illustrates the newly revised frequency counts, limited to the words’ occurrences in the most common word class. As the corpus used for this case study is not an annotated one, i.e. it does not include tags giving additional information such as word class, it is only possible to count the use of different word-forms for identical terms by hand. All terms which exhibited possible ambiguity concerning their word class and, as a consequence, had to be reassessed manually are marked with an asterisk in the revised table below.

Table 6, finally, shows the 20 most common nouns as well as the five most frequent adjectives in the corpus. The decision to include more nouns than adjectives in this list is based on the simple fact that nouns are by far the most common lexical class in the corpus. In the British part of the corpus, the first adjective appears, in fact, only after all of the 20 most common nouns did. The adjectives are colored in red.

UK Absolute F. F. per 1000 US Absolute F. F. per 1000 snowden 1278 9,13 snowden 2539 9,74 us* 953 6,81 mr 1389 5,33 government 446 3,19 government 1204 4,62 intelligence 397 2,84 security 810 3,11 hong kong 362 2,59 programs* 750 2,88 security 359 2,57 intelligence 697 2,67 mr 347 2,48 officials* 667 2,56 agency 337 2,41 united 666 2,56 nsa 320 2,29 hong kong 663 2,54 surveillance 320 2,29 states* 660 2,53 edward 281 2,01 surveillance 622 2,39 country 279 1,99 agency 609 2,34

42 data 249 1,78 national * 606 2,33 year 249 1,78 year 575 2,21 people 243 1,74 president 525 2,01 whistleblower 240 1,71 obama 523 2,01 asylum 236 1,69 nsa 520 2,00 president 229 1,64 information 516 1,98 world 228 1,63 american * 468 1,80 gchq 220 1,57 country 438 1,68 national* 207 1,48 documents 389 1,49 foreign 184 1,31 former 388 1,49 american* 173 1,24 data 386 1,48 last* 172 1,23 contractor 386 1,48 secret* 159 1,14 new 352 1,35 Table 6: Most frequent lemmas UK to the left – U.S. to the right F. = Frequency Words which are marked by an asterisk (*) exhibit identical written forms for diverging word classes. After having been revised manually, the result show the number of occurrences for only the most frequent word class. Terms which are color-coded in red belong to the word class of adjectives.

Considering table 6, it becomes apparent that various terms stem from the same semantic fields. As already mentioned before, one speaks of a semantic field when a group of words are related in meaning or when they share a conceptual domain. One semantic field which various terms among the top 25 relate to is the one of politics. We can find words such as “government”, “country”, or “president” among the most frequent nouns in both the American as well as British sub-corpus. Besides the general term “country” being mentioned, we can also see specific geographic references, for example “Hong Kong”, among the most frequent words (due to the fact that neither “hong” nor “kong” can stand on its own in the English language, “Hong Kong” is rated as one word here). Plus, “national” as well as “American” are two of the five most common adjectives in both countries. Besides these words, which are equally common in both states, several political terms are represented among the most frequent words in at least one of the countries. One can thus find “US” (used as abbreviation for “United States”), “people”, “world”, or “foreign” among the most common entities in the UK, while “officials”, “states”, as well as “Obama” are frequently mentioned in the American articles.

43 Another semantic field which is also clearly visible in the articles is the one of intelligence work. Considering Snowden’s résumé, his past work related to CIA and NSA, the connection does not come as a surprise. Overlapping with the field of politics, one could arguably consider several of the terms interchangeable between the semantic fields of politics and intelligence. As some of the words, however, exhibit a clear proximity to the intelligence apparatus, a separate category seemed appropriate. We can thus find the terms “agency”, “surveillance”, “security”, and the word “intelligence” itself among the most frequent entities in the articles from the U.S. as well as the UK. Interestingly, while “NSA” is included in the top 20 lists of both countries, “GCHQ” is only among the most common words in the UK. GCHQ stands for Government Communication Headquarters, a British security and intelligence agency. Based on the fact, however, that the organization is apparently strongly interconnected to British intelligence and politics, it seems only logical that the term “GCHQ” occurs more frequently in articles from the UK. “Obama”, the name of the current U.S. president, on the contrary, is only on the American top 20 list, as already mentioned in the previous paragraph. One can thus assume a slight preference in the reporting of both countries’ newspapers for particularly highlighting certain facets of national concern in the storyline.

Establishing some preliminary results, one can conclude that Edward Snowden is repeatedly referred to in articles dealing with topics from the fields of politics and intelligence work in both the UK as well as the U.S. But while the two sub-corpora exhibit a certain resemblance concerning these earlier mentioned semantic fields, some differences in the lexical frequency lists definitely seem noteworthy. Fairclough (2007) argues that sometimes “what is ideologically significant about a text is its vocabulary items per se” (p. 94), as numerous words are themselves “ideologically contested” (p. 95). Having a closer look at the British side of the most frequent words, one can detect the terms “whistleblower” (position 16, frequency per 1000 words 1,71) and “asylum” (position 17, frequency per 1000 words 1,69). The two terms, however, do not appear among the 20 most frequent nouns in the American newspaper articles. In fact, with a frequency of 1,2 (“asylum”) as well as 0,25 (“whistleblower”) per 1000 words, they occur significantly less frequent in the American sub-corpus. Both terms carry ideological connotations. They relate to behavior or acts which may not necessarily comply with national legal standards, but still may be judged as morally right or worthy of protection by society.

44 Next, it is interesting that “Edward” (position 11, frequency per 1000 words 2,01) belongs to the most common terms within the British sub-corpus, whereas it exhibits a significantly lower frequency of 1,32 per 1000 words within the American articles. On the other hand, the rather neutral form of address “Mr” is twice as common in the American frequency counts. The question arises whether “Mr” instead of “Edward” is thus used to refer to the IT specialist in the American papers. While it is true that using the first name of a person implies a certain proximity to him or her and it may be possible that this technique hints at a more personal representation of Snowden in the UK newspapers, it is difficult to derive further judgments without investigating the context the name is used in in more detail. We will, however, return to the subject again when analyzing word clusters as well as the connotations of “Snowden” later in this paper.

Considering that the lexical peculiarities having been discussed so far concern, for the most part, the British sub-corpus, a closer look at the American newspaper articles seems in order. Which words specifically occur in the U.S. newspapers at high frequencies? The following terms are some examples for lexical items which appear comparably more often in the American articles than the British texts and can therefore only be found among the top 20 nouns in the U.S. sub- corpus: “programs” (position 5), “information” (position 18), “documents” (position 21), as well as “contractor” (position 23). None of these words is ideologically connoted as the examples of “whistleblower” or “asylum” in the British part; nevertheless, they may indicate that the reporting in the U.S. papers focuses on other aspects concerning Snowden’s story than the British ones. The terms of “whistleblower” and “asylum”, for example, refer to the person of Snowden and his actions, while “programs”, “information”, and “documents” seem to be interconnected with the information leak, with the data Snowden revealed. The term “contractor” (position 23) may be a similar case as “GCHQ” on the British side. The question of how Snowden could access secret government data although not working for one of the national security institutions directly any more affects American politics and intelligence more than their British counterparts. The current work of Snowden for a contractor at the time of the leak seems, as a result, to have been of higher interest to the American population and a more prominent topic in the U.S. media (frequency of 1,48 per 1000 words) than the British journals (frequency of 0,59 per 1000 words).

In order to get a more profound idea about the lexical characteristics of the corpus discussed in this paper, I now want to move on and consider yet another class of words: verbs. As already

45 mentioned before, most verbs belong to the class of lexical or content words; auxiliary and modal verbs, however, are separate classes. Table 7 illustrates the 25 most frequent verbs in the British as well as the American sub-corpus. Although they exhibit far lower relative frequency rates than the lexical items previously discussed, all these verbs can still be found among the 200 most frequent words in the two sub-corpora (the list of these 200 most frequent terms is included in appendix C). Looking at the table, it is noticeable that differentiating members of the relatively small groups of auxiliaries and modals seem to be dominant in the corpus. At a more profound look, one can see, for example, that eight out of the ten most common verbs in both countries are varying forms of “be” and “have”; two verbs which can, however, function as both lexical and auxiliary verbs. In fact, a study about key verbs in British news discourse found that “has” – in its lexical use – was one of the most common verbs (Bednarek & Caple, 2012, p. 87). Considering their predominance within the group of most frequent verbs, the lexical forms of “have” and “be” may also be among the key verbs within the analyzed articles. The corpus used for this case study is, however, not an annotated one, and further claims about how these verbs are used at their numerous occurrences could only be made after reassessing them manually. But as this task exceeds the possibilities of this paper, we will put these verbs aside and have a more detailed look at the lexical and modal verbs within the corpus. In general, one can say that the two sub- corpora exhibit high rates of resemblance concerning the most common specimens in the word class of verbs. The majority of verbs are used in the present tense, although a substantial percentage within this top 25 list also represents forms of past tense.

UK Absolute F. F. per 1000 US Absolute F. F. per 1000 is 1359 9,71 said 2416 9,27 was 1001 7,15 is 2144 8,23 said 822 5,87 was 1675 6,43 has 820 5,86 have 1381 5,30 be 801 5,72 has 1327 5,09 have 757 5,41 be 1105 4,24 had 619 4,42 had 900 3,45 are 580 4,14 are 856 3,28 been 483 3,45 would 714 2,74 would 454 3,24 been 706 2,71 were 345 2,47 were 513 1,97 will 288 2,06 will 437 1,68

46 can 242 1,73 could 413 1,58 could 235 1,68 can 385 1,48 do 195 1,39 do 262 1,01 being 153 1,09 may 258 0,99 did 148 1,06 did 256 0,98 should 138 0,99 told 245 0,94 may 137 0,98 made 226 0,87 told 128 0,91 should 208 0,80 made 127 0,91 say 202 0,78 spying 117 0,84 being 197 0,76 say 108 0,77 make 188 0,72 might 107 0,76 get 187 0,72 going 96 0,69 called 184 0,71 Table 7: Most frequent verbs UK to the left – U.S. to the right F. = Frequency

It is undeniable that modal verbs are a highly frequent verb class in this newspaper corpus. Seven modals can thus be found among the most frequent verbs in the British part of the corpus, while the American top 25 list comprises six modals. According to Biber and Conrad (2009, p. 117) this is rather uncommon, as they claim that modal verbs are, in general, an uncommon feature in news writing. The results of this case study comply, however, with their findings that name “will” and “would” as the most common modal verbs in newspaper articles.

Concerning lexical verbs, words related to the concept of conversation seem to be the most frequent ones; we can thus find terms such as “said” (position three in the UK, first rank in the U.S.), “told” (position 20 in the UK and position 18 in the U.S.), “say” (rank 23 in Britain and position 21 in the States), or “called” (U.S.: rank 25) in both sub-corpora. Journalists often embed information which they gain from outside sources into their news stories. Integrated reported speech or thoughts are typical features of news texts, and verbs such as “say” or “tell” are common options for indicating and integrating these elements. A second group of lexical verbs belongs to the class of activity, such as “make” (position 23 in the U.S.), “made” (UK: rank 21, U.S.: position 19), or “going” (position 25 in the UK). Without further context, however, one cannot draw more detailed conclusions from these findings. “Spying” (UK: position 22), finally,

47 relates back to the semantic field of intelligence, already mentioned earlier in this paper, and reflects the specific contents of the Snowden news story in this frequency list.

It would be highly interesting to investigate the word class of verbs in some more detail. Who is the agent of a task/action described by means of a verb? Who is represented as object? What are the most common verbs directly related to Snowden in the corpus (either as agent or object)? As the corpus used for this case study is, however, not annotated (i.e. it does not comprise tags giving additional information about word class or grammatical functions), it would be necessary to research all pieces of information needed to answer these questions by hand. Considering the size of the corpus (or even of the limited field of the concordance lines including the key term “Snowden”), these questions will not be included and discussed further within this case study. They may, however, pose an interesting starting point for future research.

Although the lexical analysis on a one-word level can already give us a rough idea about the texts in the corpus and their lexical characteristics, the approach of only always focusing one word at the same time – without any context – also has its limitations. The next section will therefore introduce the methodology of cluster analyses and consider the most frequent two-word as well as three-word clusters in the newspaper articles.

4.2. Cluster analysis

Cluster analyses allow us to consider frequencies beyond single words. They enable us to investigate the most frequent words within their immediate co-texts. As already mentioned before, the results of cluster analyses are based on a two-step process. In a first run, all texts in a corpus have to be cut into word clusters of a predefined size. Based on the intent of investigating the most frequent two-word as well as three-word clusters, the newspaper corpus was thus divided into multi-word entities of two as well as three terms first. The script written in R to undertake this process can be found in the appendix (appendix B). Divided into two-word clusters, one receives 134.962 entities for the British sub-corpus and 247.525 word pairs for the American part. Cut into units of three, the newspapers from the UK produced 131.674 items and the U.S. articles were formed into 241.578 groups of words.

48

In a second step, the preliminary results were sorted according to their frequencies. Table 8 illustrates the ten most common word pairs in the corpus. A more extensive list can be found in the appendix of this paper (appendix C). Combinations of two function words were excluded from the top ten ranking, leaving only pairs including at least one lexical term. Table 9 and table 10, on the other hand, exhibit the ten most frequent clusters of three words, for the British as well as the American sub-corpus. Again, a more extensive list is included in the appendix (appendix C). All three tables include absolute and relative frequencies. Relative frequencies are given as percentage of the total number of word clusters, for the U.S. and the UK respectively, i.e. x divided by 134.962 and 247.525 respectively, times 100 for the word pairs; x divided by 131.674 and 241.578 respectively, times 100 for the three-word clusters.

UK Absolute F. Relative F. US Absolute F. Relative F. (%) (%) the US 570 0,42 Mr. Snowden 698 0,28 Hong Kong 358 0,27 Hong Kong 658 0,27 Edward 274 0,20 United States 635 0,26 Snowden Mr Snowden 229 0,17 the United 631 0,25 the NSA 190 0,14 National 468 0,19 Security the Guardian 174 0,13 he said 407 0,16 National 159 0,12 the 379 0,15 Security government he said 145 0,11 Security 257 0,10 Agency the United 91 0,07 the NSA 255 0,10 US 89 0,07 the U.S. 250 0,10 government Table 8: Most frequent word pairs UK to the left – U.S. to the right F. = Frequency

Just as on the single word-level, the semantic fields of politics and intelligence are recognizable; in the context of word clusters, we can encounter them, however, in more specialized forms. In the U.S., for example, the word clusters dealing with intelligence seem to specifically highlight

49 the issue of security; “National Security”, “Security Agency”, as well as “the National Security” can be found among the most common phrases. Concerning the field of politics, the examples in table 8, table 9 and table 10 illustrate similar terms from the realm of politics as the ones we have already encountered among the most frequent single words. Situated in context, however, the articles do not talk about general concepts anymore but about specific political institutions: the corpus comprises thus, for example, “US government”, “the government”, “the US government”, and “the Obama administration”.

In both the American as well as the British parts of the corpus, one can find the phrase “he said” among the ten most frequent two-word clusters. As already mentioned before while discussing the most frequent verbs, this phrase belongs to the so-called expressions of reporting. Looking just beyond the top-ten list, one can find various other examples of such expressions. Numerous phrases such as “said he” (UK: 0,06 and U.S.: 0,08), “said the” (UK: 0,05 and U.S.: 0,07), “said it” (UK: 0,04), “said that” (US: 0,08), as well as “according to” (US: 0,07) illustrate this common feature of newspaper writing in the corpus analyzed for this case study. Direct or indirect quotes can be used to make an article more colorful, to provide authenticity, or to highlight certain facets within a news text. At the same time, however, they can also be used to distance oneself or to seem more neutral, just depending on how these expressions are used in a specific context (Bednarek & Caple, 2012, p. 93).

UK Absolute frequency Relative frequency (%) National Security Agency 99 0,08 in Hong Kong 79 0,06 the US government 76 0,06 whistleblower Edward 75 0,06 Snowden the United States 74 0,06 the National Security 54 0,04 in the US 52 0,04 of the US 47 0,04 one of the 45 0,03 to the US 44 0,03 Table 9: Most frequent three-word clusters (UK)

50

US Absolute frequency Relative frequency (%) the United States 601 0,25 National Security Agency 245 0,10 in Hong Kong 178 0,07 the National Security 140 0,06 the Obama administration 122 0,05 The Washington Post 93 0,04 in the United 91 0,04 Edward J. Snowden, 87 0,04 one of the 80 0,03 to the United 78 0,03 Table 10: Most frequent three-word clusters (US)

It is evident that the United States, as well as expressions of movement in relation to the U.S., are among the dominant themes expressed by the most frequent word clusters. “The United States” being the most common group of three words as well as “United States” and “the United” taking third and forth position among the two-word clusters in the American sub-corpus also explain why, on a single word level, US was only among the top 20 noun list in Britain. It seems that the US dailies tend to spell the country’s full name out instead of using the abbreviation “US”. With the appearance of “the U.S.” on the top-ten list too, however, it is also clear that abbreviations for “United States” are not unknown to the American newspaper readership. “The US” being the most common word pair in the UK articles, on the other hand, confirms the British preferring to use the abbreviation instead of the full name. Additionally, one can discover several phrases expressing movement and relation relative to the U.S. The British sub-corpus, for example, comprises “in the US”, “of the US”, “to the US”, while the U.S. newspapers use phrases such as “in the United” and “to the United”.

The events around the person of Edward Snowden are interconnected to international politics and have affected several countries in different ways: Edward Snowden traveling to and from diverse countries; diplomatic negotiations concerning extradition and asylum; revelations about surveillance programs conducted by numerous countries, as well as revelations about various countries being under surveillance. The reporting about the Snowden story seems, however, to have focused on the United States, geopolitically speaking – at least for the month following

51 Snowden’s revelation, which is the time period analyzed for this case study. It is true that other terms such as “Hong Kong”, “world”, or “foreign” appear in the articles too – in the case of “Hong Kong” even numerous times, the dominant role of the U.S, however, cannot be denied.

Finally, it is noteworthy that we can find several combinations with the most common individual term “Snowden” among the most frequent word clusters too. “Mr Snowden” is the most frequently used word pair in the U.S. sub-corpus and also takes forth position within the ranking of most common two-word clusters in the British articles, just behind “Edward Snowden” in third position. The most frequent three-word clusters containing “Snowden” differentiate between the two countries. While the British newspapers describe the former intelligence worker as “whistleblower Edward Snowden”, the American journals talk about “Edward J. Snowden”. It seems that the UK magazines present the name “Snowden” in a more positive context than the American press, connected, for example, with the generally – I would argue – positively connoted term “whistleblower”. While it is true that the act of whistleblowing itself often entails illegal actions, for example the publication of secret government data or corporate secrets, these informants are protected under specific laws and statutes. The protection and rights offered by governments and society enhance their status. Plus, dictionaries, such as the Oxford Dictionary, the Cambridge Dictionary, as well as Collins Dictionary, define whistleblowers as people who inform on or stop illegal or immoral activities. Additionally, it is noteworthy that the US dailies seem to refrain from creating a too personal image of the IT specialist. It is thus interesting that only the full name including also a reference to Snowden’s middle name can be found among the most frequent word clusters, creating a more distant, impersonal, and official atmosphere than just using first and last name.

One has to be, however, careful with jumping to conclusions too early, and the immediate context of the name “Snowden” is definitely worth a more profound analysis. The following chapter will therefore investigate the collocations of “Snowden”.

52 4.3. Concordances

Concordance analyses investigate the occurrences of a certain search term in a corpus within the context this specific search term occurs in. The method is also referred to as KWIC analysis (Key Word In Context); although the term keyword, in this case, just describes the specific search term. As this case study discusses the discourse about the persona of Edward Snowden in several English-speaking newspapers, the concordance analysis in this paper focuses on the keyword “Snowden”.

As could already be seen when we discussed frequencies on a single-word level, the corpus comprises in total 3.817 hits for “Snowden”. The search term is mentioned 1.278 times in the British articles and occurs 2.539 times in the American sub-corpus. The software R was used to search the corpus for the term “Snowden” and to create a list of all occurrences of this keyword in their respective context. For this case study, the range for the presented output was set on -6/+6, i.e. the program included the six items preceding the keyword, the word “Snowden” itself, and the six entities following the search term into the emitted results. Six entities preceding and following the key term may seem like a rather extensive scope for concordance lines, as a range of -3/+3 is significantly more common in corpus linguistics. The program R, however, in cases, not only recognizes words as objects, but punctuation marks too. In order to secure that even in such cases the concordance lines included sufficient valid material to analyze (lexical entities), the limits were set at such an extensive range. The script used for the concordance analysis on the search term “Snowden” can be found in the appendix (appendix B).

After having created the concordance lines, i.e. a list of all occurrences of “Snowden” plus their respective context, the next step is to process the findings. The objective of concordance analyses is to find patterns in language use, based on repetition or similarities. Patterns can indicate specific discourses around the key term. One therefore has to scan the concordance lines, searching the words to the left and right of the key term, and to look for recognizable patterns. It is noteworthy that this approach adds an additional qualitative facet to our research and broadens our point of view beyond the rather quantitative frequency analyses. As the concordance lines are usually presented in the order of occurrence, it can, however, sometimes be difficult to discover any pattern. It may therefore prove to be useful to sort the results according to different criteria

53 and according to the various elements preceding and following the actual search term. Another possibility to detect patterns is to undertake another frequency analysis restricted to the concordance lines, to get a first impression of common words in the surroundings of a key term (Baker, 2008, p. 71). In order to not get lost in the large amount of results, it is advisable to divide the task into individual steps as suggested by, for example, Sinclair (2003, p. xvi) and as described in the previous section. In addition, it can be useful to consider only small parts of the results at once; i.e. we will focus on around 35 concordance lines at once, analyze them, form hypotheses, and move on to another section of about the same size to analyze the new data and test our previously found hypotheses. The 35 concordance lines roughly equal one page when the results are being printed or studied in page view on the screen, assuming a regular font size.

First, it is noteworthy that the term Snowden is accompanied by more personal attributions in the analyzed UK media outputs than in the American ones. As we have already seen when discussing cluster and frequency analyses, Snowden’s first name Edward is used significantly more often in the UK dailies than in the American newspapers. In fact, when the term “Snowden” appears in the British journals it is accompanied by “Edward” in more than 22 percent (290 times out of 1278 times) of the cases, while this only holds true for less than 14 percent (347 times out of 2539 times) of occurrences in the American editions. The U.S. texts talk about “Mr. Snowden” or simply “Snowden” instead. In addition, even when first and family name are both mentioned in the U.S. articles, the two words are often separated by Snowden’s middle name “Joseph” or the initial “J”. Mentioning proper names is a way to personalize a news story, to highlight “the personal or human interest aspect of events” (Bednarek & Caple, 2012, p. 44). By using both the first and last name of Snowden, a more personal image is constructed; the news story focuses on the person rather than the events. By including the middle name too, however, the impression created of the person described is a rather formal one, distant from the readers. The same holds true for just talking about “Snowden” or “Mr. Snowden”. Plus, the British concordance lines include significantly more references to Snowden’s age (absolute 73 occurrences) than the U.S. sub-corpus (absolute 43 occurrences). Identifying a person by his or her age is another technique of personalization used in news writing (Bednarek & Caple, 2012, p. 78).

The results of our frequency analyses on a one-word level as well as the figures discussed in the previous paragraph can already give us a first impression of how Edward Snowden is described

54 in this media corpus analyzed for this case study. For a more detailed description, however, I want to have a closer look at the concordance lines once more, on the language used to directly describe the American IT specialist: the specific modifiers – such as nouns, adjectives, and phrases – relating to the persona of Snowden. By adding these words and phrases to the name Snowden, specific characteristics or social roles of Edward Snowden are highlighted. I will begin by focusing on the elements preceding the name Snowden in the concordance lines.

On the left-hand side of the keyword “Snowden”, one can find (proper) nouns, adjectives, as well as a few determiners combining with the name Snowden. I have already mentioned that “Edward Snowden” is a common combination in the British sub-corpus. Plus, the more personal version of “Ed Snowden” is used about 10 times. While not as common as in the American dailies, “Mr.” is still used 236 times (about 19 percent of all British concordance lines) to refer to the former intelligence worker. Interestingly, “whistleblower” is also one of the most common nouns, which can be found within the concordance lines, just to left of the key term “Snowden” (absolute 91 times). In fact, the UK texts comprise numerous varieties of word combinations including this particular term, such as “whistleblower Edward Snowden”, “CIA whistleblower Edward Snowden”, “intelligence whistleblower Edward Snowden”, “United States whistleblower Snowden”, “surveillance whistleblower Edward Snowden”, “NSA whistleblower Edward Snowden”, “American whistleblower Edward Snowden”, as well as “fugitive US CIA whistleblower Edward Snowden”. It is striking that whenever additional information is added in order to specify the term “whistleblower”, the first name of Snowden is also included in the phrase. Besides calling him a whistleblower, Edward Snowden is also described in the following ways in the British sub-corpus: “leaker/self-confessed leaker/secrets leaker Edward Snowden”, “(CIA) runaway Snowden”, “(former) CIA employee/technician/worker”, “spy Edward Snowden”, “NSA contractor Snowden”, “NSA defector Edward Snowden”, “fugitive Edward Snowden”, “objector Snowden”, “this brave man Snowden”, as well as “the man Edward Snowden”. Different than “whistleblower Snowden” – in all its variations, however, these combinations each occur only between once and up to five times.

The most frequent term used to relate to Snowden in the U.S. articles is “Mr.”, as has already been indicated before (absolute 700 times, relative 28 percent). While not as common as in the UK, one can still find Snowden’s first name “Edward” adjoined to his last name in slightly less

55 than 15 percent of the concordance lines. Moreover, two of Snowden’s social roles are specifically highlighted in the American sub-corpus. The IT specialist is thus referred to as “leaker” and “contractor” about 35 times (absolute) each. Similar to “whistleblower” in the British dailies, varying versions of these word combinations can be found in the U.S. articles, as the following examples shall illustrate: “classified surveillance program leaker Edward Snowden”, “former NSA contractor Edward Snowden”, “American intelligence leaker Edward Snowden”, “fugitive intelligence contractor”, “NSA leaker Edward Snowden”, as well as “former government contractor Edward J. Snowden”. Again, the texts comprise diverse descriptions of Snowden occurring between once and up to five times. These include references to Snowden’s professional abilities and his former career as well as alternative portrayals of his role in the data leak: “tech specialist Edward Snowden”, “infrastructure analyst Edward Snowden”, “former CIA employee”, “tattler Edward Snowden”, “hacker Edward Snowden”, “the ‘traitor’ Snowden”, “secrets-spiller Edward Snowden”, as well as “fugitive Edward Snowden” (which, in fact, appears about ten times).

On the right hand side of the name Snowden, one can find modifiers in the form of phrases and clauses. This analysis is restricted to phrases which rely on the same word forms as the modifications to the left, previously discussed: nouns and adjectives. While other and more complex grammatical structures could also offer an interesting and maybe more detailed insight into the portrayal of Snowden, the necessary time and effort to detect and include all clauses and phrases relating to the former CIA employee exceed the possibilities of this paper. I will therefore focus on noun phrases which directly follow the key word “Snowden” and which start with an article (definite or indefinite).

Modifiers in the form of noun phrases following the key term “Snowden”, can be found in about five percent of all concordance lines (UK: 4,6 % - U.S.: 5,2 %). The British noun phrases succeeding the key term offer a different image than the ones preceding it. While the combination “contractor Edward Snowden” could not be found among the British modifiers to the left, it appears with the same frequency as “whistleblower”-phrases on the right-hand side of the concordance lines (both about ten times absolute). Plus, alternative noun phrases relating to Snowden’s professional life (different than “contractor”) are also more common following the key term than preceding it, such as “employee”, “analyst”, “technician”, and “worker Edward

56 Snowden”. The phrases in the American sub-corpus seem similar on the left and on the right hand side of the key term. The reference to Snowden being a “contractor” is once more among the most common modifiers; the “leaker Edward Snowden”, on the other hand, appears significantly less often. Additionally, one can find alternative descriptions of Snowden’s previous jobs again. A new reference, however, is, for example, the one of “Snowden, a high school dropout”.

In both countries, adjectives are used rather rarely in these modifying phrases, especially in the parts preceding the key term. In fact, only the following six adjectives can be found on the left hand side of and directly relating to Snowden within the American concordance lines (illustrated within examples): “former NSA contractor Edward Snowden” (being the most common adjective with appearing about twenty times absolute), “young American Edward Snowden”, “fugitive intelligence contractor Edward J. Snowden”, “American fugitive Edward Snowden”, “confessed leaker Edward Snowden”, “vanished tattler Edward Snowden”. Similar words also appear in the British lines: “fugitive”, “former”, “American”, “confessed” (although here, “fugitive” is the most common adjective). The same adjectives can be found as modifiers succeeding the key term “Snowden”. Considering, however, that the modifying phrases on the right side of the key term in both countries focus on Snowden’s previous professional roles, it should not come as a surprise that, in total, “former” appears with the highest frequency.

The descriptions of Snowden within the concordance lines vary considerably between the U.S. and the UK. While the IT specialist is repeatedly called a whistleblower in the British dailies, this expression is hardy used in the American newspapers. I have already mentioned before (while analyzing frequencies on a single-word and cluster level) that the role of Snowden as a contractor seems to be of higher interest for the American media outlets, and it appears that this pattern is also repeated in the concordance lines. Focusing rather on the professional roles of Edward Snowden, one could argue that the U.S. papers set a more objective or distant tone than the British ones. With the repeated reference to the “leaker Edward Snowden”, however, a slightly negative tendency seems recognizable, as the term – I would argue – triggers rather negative connotations.

It is noteworthy that the American collocation lines, in general, seem to include a high number of ‘negative’ vocabulary implying negative social judgment. So-called ‘negative’ vocabulary refers

57 to words people usually rely on to describe negative events. This category includes terms such as “death”, “damage”, “confusion”, or “flood”, to only name a few examples. A specific sub- category hereof is negative vocabulary related to social judgments. These words are “labels for socially defined negative behavior” (Bednarek & Caple, 2012, p. 49), thus vocabulary people use to describe negative events as judged by a society. The term “crime”, for example, belongs to this specific class of negative vocabulary; society defines what a crime is, depending on a certain time and a certain place. It is noteworthy that the word “criminal” occurs twice as often – in relative terms – in the concordance lines taken from the American sub-corpus (21 / 2539 concordance lines) than the ones taken from the British texts (4 / 1278 concordance lines). In addition, the word “case”, which also carries a legal connotation, appears about twice as often in the U.S. articles (60 / 2539 concordance lines) than in the UK newspapers (15 / 1278 concordance lines) too. On the contrary, the term “whistleblower” appears significantly more often in the context of the name “Snowden” in the British samples (113 / 1278 concordance lines) than the American ones (15 / 2539 concordance lines). “Whistleblower” too implies social judgment; however, while this term too might entail illegal actions or behavior, it nonetheless describes a person whose actions are, in the end, accepted or even positively evaluated by society and often perceived as eligible for specific legal protection.

4.4. Semantic preferences

The construction of Edward Snowden as a criminal case is also part of a more extensive semantic preference or discourse prosody: ‘Edward Snowden as legal subject’. According to Stubbs (2001), semantic preference is “the relation, not between individual words, but between a lemma or word-form and a set of semantically related words” (p. 65). The distinction to the related idea of discourse prosody is a rather vague one. Discourse prosody too describes a concept “where patterns in discourse can be found between a word, phrase or lemma and a set of related words that suggest a discourse” (Baker, 2008, p. 87). Stubbs (2001, p. 65) argues that the difference between the two categories is partly based on whether the semantically related field is a closed or open-ended category. Within this paper the two terms are used interchangeably.

58 We can find patterns describing Edward Snowden as legal subject in both sub-corpora, albeit the semantic preference is stronger and portrayed with a more negative stance in the U.S. articles, as already the discussion in the previous paragraph indicates. Table 11 shows a range of examples taken from the corpus to illustrate the discourse of Edward Snowden as legal subject, with the first half of samples taken from the British sub-corpus and the second part having been found in the American texts. One can see that the articles include references to certain laws and charges Snowden might have to face. Plus, the whistleblower’s current, as well as possible future, legal situation is considered, by discussing the possibilities of extraditing and turning Snowden back over to the U.S. authorities, or asylum being granted to him. Finally, specific legal institutions are mentioned, such as the Department of Justice, prosecutors, lawyers, as well as the criminal court and its proceedings.

Preceding context Subsequent context no legal basis to restrict Mr Snowden from leaving Hong Kong . (UK 113) with under military jurisdiction , Snowden would receive a normal trial in whereas (UK 197) would be legally bound to offer Snowden safe passage to the country that (UK 171) when asked by the Guardian Snowden would be permitted to testify at whether (UK 14) to bully Russia into preventing Mr Snowden from soliciting asylum . (UK 120) While we accept that Mr Snowden may be deemed to have contravened (UK 59) ever pay it back . Mr Snowden is guilty of having betrayed his (UK 197) national security spokesman . Mr Snowden is facing a number of charges (UK 163) solution for the fugitive . Snowden is believed to be in the (UK 220) It was also quite predictable that Snowden would be charged with criminal offences (UK 121) with lawyers about the possibility Snowden gaining protection in Iceland . (UK of 11) Before leaving Hong Kong , Snowden was given a refugee document (US 205) The most likely statute under Snowden would be prosecuted is the 1917 which (US 4)

59 that his country would consider if Snowden were to officially petition Ecuador for (US 248) said that a criminal investigation Snowden was underway and was being run of (US 138) when the Justice Department Snowden was in the Chinese territory . (US learned that 152) Hong Kong government if Mr . Snowden would be released on bail if (US 186) Department all weighed in to urge Snowden ' s detention . But the (US 168) laws prevented it from commenting Snowden ' s passport . (US 152) on United States to extradite Mr . Snowden would have to cite offenses that (US 68) treated as a political offense . Snowden ' s defense team in Hong (US 138) Table 11: Snowden as a legal subject (with the first half of examples taken from the UK newspapers and the second half from the U.S. dailies)

While ‘Snowden as a legal subject’ is an integrated semantic preference in both the American as well as the British newspaper articles, several differences of how the pattern is employed are noteworthy, setting the more negative tone concerning the topic in the American dailies. Within the range of legal topics, for example, mainly the U.S. newspapers repeatedly discuss the possible detention or arrest of Snowden and thus his legal punishment. While phrases such as “to move quickly to arrest Edward Snowden, […]” (US 144), “there is an outstanding warrant for Snowden' s arrest. […]” (US 126), as well as “to personally ask that they detain Snowden and extradite him […]” (US 166), and “Department all weighed in to urge Snowden' s detention. […]” (US 168) are included almost 50 times in the American concordance lines, word forms of “arrest” and “detain” occur, in total, less than ten times in the British sub-corpus. Additionally, while the concordance lines from both countries include a similar discussion about whether Snowden is a “traitor” (including both authors and outside sources calling Snowden a “traitor” as well as both groups contradicting such claims), only the U.S. newspapers seem to have gone a step further, also discussing whether Edward Snowden “committed treason”, a phrase carrying more negative connotations – both social and legal – than the previously mentioned term “traitor”. The word “fugitive” is also an interesting case. The state of being a fugitive implies unlawful behavior in a person’s past; the term might therefore be understood as being negatively appraised by society. Nevertheless, “fugitive” appears relatively more often in the British

60 concordance lines, contradicting the previous finding of the topic of ‘Snowden as a legal subject’ being evaluated in a more negative way in the American sub-corpus than the British one. Taking a closer look, however, it becomes apparent that the term “fugitive” commonly collocates with “whistleblower” in the UK sub-corpus, softening the negative undertone of “fugitive” significantly; a combination of words which can hardly be found among the American concordance lines at all.

Another pattern within the concordance lines elucidates the ‘movements of Edward Snowden’, as can be seen in table 12. Phrases such as “travel from Hong Kong to Moscow” (UK 178), and “headed to the mainland” (US 47) illustrate the moving and change of locations of the persona Edward Snowden, while examples such as “has been stuck in limbo” (UK 214) as well as “was hiding out somewhere” (US 83) describe the lack of it. Again, the samples are taken from both the American and British dailies – the first half from the UK and the second part from the U.S. – indicating that the discussion of Snowden’s movements occurs as a discourse in both countries’ news writing.

It is noteworthy that several of the examples in table 12 employ the person Edward Snowden as object; he is not moving himself but he is moved or kept in place by others. Examples can be found in phrases such as “to turn Mr. Snowden over to” (US 76), “it [the airplane] was carrying Mr. Snowden” (UK 214), “he had smuggled Mr. Snowden onto” (US 299), “to harbor Mr. Snowden or allow him to pass” (US 162), as well as “the kidnapping […] of Mr. Snowden” (seen as forced movement) (UK 120). Additionally, even with verbs of activity, in the case of Snowden moving himself, we can find numerous collocations with words which transfer the power of decision over Snowden’s movements to a third party once again. Examples such as “not to allow CIA whistleblower Edward Snowden to fly to Britain” (UK 61), “his government did not intentionally help Snowden travel from Hong Kong to Moscow” (UK 178), as well as “Hong Kong explained why they let Snowden travel to Moscow despite his passport” (US 211) illustrate this approach. These practices imply that it is not Snowden’s decision where to stay or where to go, but that, on the contrary, outside sources decide for him. Snowden is illustrated as relying on others concerning his whereabouts and as restricted or detained in his movements.

61 Preceding context Subsequent context that had a chance of having Snowden land or travel through their country (UK 206) suspicions that it was carrying Mr Snowden who has been stuck in limbo (UK 214) believes Russian President Snowden s flight to Moscow . He (UK 107) Vladimir Putin approved by the fugitive CIA technician . Snowden went on the run after leaking (UK 33) The kidnapping or incapacitation Snowden must have been contemplated . So of Mr (UK 120) his government did not Snowden travel from Hong Kong to intentionally help Moscow (UK 178) The Hong Kong authorities waited Snowden was out of Chinese airspace until before (UK 105) had a role to play in Snowden s departure from Hong Kong . (UK 107) idea that the US whistleblower Snowden may remain in Russia , hours (UK Edward 168) be some unfounded suspicions that Snowden was on the plane . We (UK 191) Mr of which leaves NSA leaker Snowden sitting in a Moscow airport in (US Edward 264) be a likely transit point for Snowden rather than serving as a long (US 151) The revelations were astonishing . Snowden was hiding out somewhere in Now Hong (US 83) America not to harbor Mr . Snowden or allow him to pass through (US 162) to Moscow . As Mr . Snowden remained out of sight , apparently (US 235) weeks starting in late March Snowden was headed to the mainland for because (US 47) decide whether to turn Mr . Snowden over to the United States , (US 76) not whether they could be certain Snowden was on the aircraft , but (US 272) of WikiLeaks , who has Snowden since his arrival there from Hong accompanied (US 259) that he had smuggled Mr . Snowden onto his airplane , said the (US 299) Table 12: The movements of Snowden (with the first half of examples taken from the UK newspapers and the second half from the U.S. dailies) 62

4.5. Points of concern

Finally, I want to discuss some points of concern I have not mentioned so far, regarding the subject of concordance lines. First, although I have tried to offer a substantial discussion of the results, I will not be able to fully exhaust all possible findings. Due to the high amount of concordance lines comprising the term “Snowden” that R contracted from the corpus, my discussion has, in places, been unavoidably selective. Earlier in this chapter, I discussed the semantic preferences of ‘Snowden as a legal subject’ as well as ‘the movements of Snowden’. Ideally, a researcher would continue looking for such patterns until no more can be found and the remaining entities can be analyzed as their own class of seeming exceptions. The same holds true for the discussion of modifications to the name Snowden (especially in form of phrases and clauses), where I only discussed some of the possible forms modifications could take. For this paper, however, I decided to focus on the most apparent patterns and to move on to different techniques, in order to be able to consider a number of diverse methods of corpus linguistics.

Second, when carrying out a concordance analysis focusing on a specific subject – and especially in the case of a noun, the term of interest will most certainly be replaced at times by substitutes, such as determiners, pronouns, or synonyms. With large-scale corpora, such as the one analyzed in this case study with over 500.000 words, it is, however, hardly manageable to include all replacements for a key term in the analytical process. In the case of Snowden, for example, the most obvious substitute would be the pronoun “he”. As we have seen in the chapter on single- word frequencies, “he” belongs to the most common terms in both sub-corpora. In total, the pronoun “he” is mentioned 4.221 times in the discussed collection of newspaper articles, more than 10 times per thousand words and even more often than the name “Snowden”. It should be clear that not all these pronouns actually refer to the person Edward Snowden. The task of sorting through all appearances of “he”, scrutinizing them, and decide on whether to ex- or include them into the concordance analysis of “Snowden”, however, exceeds the possibilities of this case study.

The issue becomes even more complicated with other substitutes for the term “Snowden” that relate to the persona of Edward Snowden by describing alternating characteristics of the

63 American whistleblower. In a randomly chosen article, Snowden is referred to, for example, by using the terms “NSA spy”, “this man”, “this individual”, as well as “the whistleblower” (UK 24). In order to include all alternative references to Snowden into the concordance analysis, it would be necessary to go through all articles individually. While a more extensive analysis of references to the persona Edward Snowden might offer further interesting findings, it would require additional and extensive research (shifting its focus further down on the scale from corpus towards critical discourse analysis), which exceeds the possibilities and purpose of this paper. The concordance analysis in this case study is thus limited to the specific key term of “Snowden”, with its results already discussed prior in this section.

64 5. Conclusion

In this paper, I have illustrated the application of a corpus-based discourse analysis to investigate the portrayal of informant Edward Snowden in British and American newspaper articles. After having discussed some theoretical concepts of corpus linguistics as well as critical discourse analysis, I have concentrated on my specific case study. I have focused here on the linguistic representation of the American IT specialist during the first month following Snowden being revealed as the source behind the leak of secret government and NSA (National Security Agency) data in June 2013. The case study draws on a media corpus comprising more than 500 articles and 500.000 words, with the texts stemming from eight different dailies published in the two Anglophone countries.

Starting on the level of individual words, the focus of attention has been broadened constantly with every step in the analytical process. At the beginning, I have focused on the most frequent lexical words, considering the lexical characteristics of this particular corpus without further context. In a second step, I have analyzed the most common two- as well as three-word clusters, i.e. the typical combinations of several words within the articles. Finally, the analysis has sought to investigate concordance lines. The immediate context of the name Snowden was examined, considering once more the lexical peculiarities of this corpus of newspaper articles – this time in context, as opposed to before. While the representation of Edward Snowden in the U.S. and the UK seems rather similar on the level of individual entities, one can see various differences when having a more profound look and when applying the techniques of corpus linguistics beyond the level of single words.

The findings of my frequency analysis indicate several general main topics that the articles in the corpus focus on, and the results illustrate only minor deviations between the U.S. and Great Britain in this area. I found thus various terms among the most frequent lexical words in both countries relating to the semantic fields of politics and intelligence work. This suggests that these topics are of importance within this news story evolving around the persona of Snowden. Minor differences concerning the frequency lists from the U.S. and the UK hint at a less personal focus in the narration by the American dailies, emphasizing the events rather than the person.

65 Additionally, the British corpus includes several words which are characterized by rather positive social connotations, whereas the U.S. lists lack comparable terms.

While parts of the results drawn from the frequency analysis of word clusters replicate the previous findings based on single-word entities, the investigation of the most common phrases has also offered some additional insights. First, however, the cluster analyses have shown similar results concerning common semantic fields in the corpus as the frequency analysis on a single- word level. But instead of dealing with abstract concepts, the results portray specific entities from the realms of politics and intelligence, such as particular institutions as well as individual people. A tendency towards a more positive portrayal of Snowden in the UK can be observed. Confirming the trend of a slightly more positively connoted vocabulary in the British sub-corpus on the level of individual entities, the word clusters too seem to be marginally more affirmative of Snowden in the UK. Favorable individual terms, for example, could be observed in direct combination with the name Snowden among the most common word clusters in the UK dailies. The U.S. newspapers, on the other hand, tend to set a more objective tone and prefer to talk about “Mr Snowden”.

In both sub-corpora, the analysis of phrases has revealed some additional characteristics which have not been visible on the level of only individual words. The frequent mentioning of the United States, as well the common descriptions of movements in relation to the U.S., for example, indicate a geopolitical focus on North America in the news reporting of both countries. This emphasis has not been visible in the examination of only singular words, for instance. Additionally, the cluster analysis has disclosed several general characteristic features of news writing in the corpus, such as expressions of reporting.

Finally, a concordance analysis has offered a detailed look at the immediate context of the last name Snowden. I found that the British sub-corpus exhibits higher rates of personalization markers than the American articles. Personalization foregrounds the personal and emotional aspects of a news story by relating to people with their full name or referring to their age, for instance. Moreover, the British and American newspapers diverge in their direct description of Snowden: while the UK focuses on “whistleblower Edward Snowden”, the U.S. primarily refers to Snowden as “(former) contractor” or “leaker”. Plus, once more a slightly more negative

66 vocabulary was found in the U.S. articles. Interestingly, the focus lies on negative terms which are evaluated as such by society and are not perceived as negative by their inherent nature; i.e. “crime” as a negative term determined by society.

Two semantic preferences found in the concordance lines of “Snowden” have been discussed in more detail: ‘Snowden as a legal case’ as well as ‘the movements of Snowden’. Although a legal discourse can be detected in both sub-corpora, the American newspapers focus, once more, on the more negative and harsher aspects of this subject, such as intended or possible punishment of the former intelligence worker. Concerning ‘the movements of Snowden’, the fugitive whistleblower is often portrayed as object or complement of the movement, not moving himself but being moved. Snowden seems to be represented as relying on others, as not being free in his movements and, ultimately, in his decisions.

To sum up, this paper has illustrated that while the representation of Edward Snowden in British and American newspapers might seem to be quite similar at a first glance, the two sub-corpora have exhibited several subtle yet distinctive differences. The articles from the two different countries – the UK as well as the U.S. – illustrate clear similarities concerning overarching topics, semantic fields, as well as discourse prosodies. Nevertheless, the texts often diverge in how these themes are applied and interpreted. One can thus perceive slightly more negative tendencies in the portrayal of Edward Snowden in the U.S. newspapers analyzed for this case study.

I have tried to introduce and combine a range of diverse techniques of critical discourse analysis and corpus linguistics in this paper. Each analytical intermediate step has contributed to the overall analysis of this media corpus. Certain particularities or tendencies concerning the representation of Snowden have become visible only after putting the findings of diverse analyses together, like the pieces of a puzzle. Negative vocabulary can thus, for example, already prove to be less judgmental or even quite positive when one broadens the focus of analysis beyond the level of single entities and investigates a term in its immediate context. The decision to include diverse analyses has allowed me to offer a broad discussion of the representation of Snowden in this particular collection of media texts. A more profound investigation of certain areas of these

67 texts might still prove to bring forward additional findings of interest and may offer a valuable starting point for further research in the future.

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74 Appendix A

British Newspapers

Document 226 / 226: Daily Mirror - July 9, 2013 Tuesday Irish refuse US spy plea; FUGITIVE SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 6 - LENGTH: 56 words

Document 225 / 226: The Guardian (London) - July 9, 2013 Tuesday Europe opens trade talks with US amid ongoing tensions over spying BYLINE: Dominic Rushe in New York - SECTION: GUARDIAN FINANCIAL PAGES; Pg. 19 - LENGTH: 495 words

Document 224 / 226: The Guardian (London) - July 9, 2013 Tuesday Snowden predicted that US would try to demonise him as a spy: America is a good country, insists whistleblower Poll finds public support in US has begun to turn BYLINE: Glenn Greenwald, Laura Poitras and Ewen MacAskill - SECTION: GUARDIAN HOME PAGES; Pg. 10 - LENGTH: 555 words

Document 223 / 226: The Guardian (London) - July 9, 2013 Tuesday Legal challenge to spy programmes BYLINE: Nick Hopkins - SECTION: GUARDIAN HOME PAGES; Pg. 11 - LENGTH: 235 words

Document 222 / 226: The Daily Telegraph (London) - July 8, 2013 Monday Snowden 'should accept Venezuelan asylum offer' BYLINE: Colin Freeman - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 12 - LENGTH: 154 words

Document 221 / 226: The Guardian (London) - July 8, 2013 Monday G2: Shortcuts: Shorter cuts SECTION: GUARDIAN FEATURES PAGES; Pg. 2 - LENGTH: 109 words

Document 220 / 226 - The Guardian (London) - July 8, 2013 Monday Russia: Snowden's last chance is Venezuela, says MP BYLINE: Matt Williams and agencies Moscow - SECTION: GUARDIAN INTERNATIONAL PAGES; Pg. 12 -LENGTH: 131 words

Document 219 / 226: Daily Mirror - July 7, 2013 Sunday 'We'll give asylum to Snowden' BYLINE: STEPHEN HAYWARD - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 9 - LENGTH: 135 words

Document 218 / 226: The Sunday Telegraph (London) - July 7, 2013 Eurozone crisis over? Not by a long, long way BYLINE: LIAM HALLIGAN - SECTION: BUSINESS; Pg. 4 - LENGTH: 1312 words

Document 217 / 226:The Sunday Telegraph (London) - July 7, 2013 Venezuela, Nicaragua and Bolivia offer to shelter US whistle-blower SECTION: FEATURES; Pg. 31 - LENGTH: 374 words

Document 216 / 226: The Sunday Telegraph (London) - July 7, 2013 HEAR SAY SEVEN DAYS IN SOUNDBITES SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 26 - LENGTH: 115 words

Document 215 / 226: The Daily Telegraph (London) - July 6, 2013 Saturday Charles Moore SECTION: FEATURES; TEASERS; Pg. 25 - LENGTH: 7 words

Document 214 / 226: The Daily Telegraph (London) - July 6, 2013 Saturday Britain blocks plan for EU role in spy talks BYLINE: Bruno Waterfield; Raf Sanchez - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 21- LENGTH: 278 words

Document 213 / 226: The Daily Telegraph (London) - July 6, 2013 Saturday Edward Snowden is a traitor, just as surely as George Blake was; The beneficiaries of his betrayal are not civil liberties, but those who wish to embarrass us BYLINE: CHARLES MOORE - SECTION: EDITORIAL; OPINION, COLUMNS; Pg. 26 - LENGTH: 1270 words

Document 212 / 226: The Guardian (London) - July 6, 2013 Saturday Comment: The revolution is over: the rude phone users have won: The unashamed use of mobile phones in public places means there is little left to do but offer a resigned shrug BYLINE: Marina Hyde - SECTION: GUARDIAN COMMENT AND DEBATE PAGES; Pg. 42 -LENGTH: 848 words

Document 211 / 226: The Guardian (London) - July 6, 2013 Saturday National: Britain vetoes first EU-US talks on espionage debacle BYLINE: Ian Traynor, Vilnius - SECTION: GUARDIAN HOME PAGES; Pg. 4 - LENGTH: 458 words

Document 210 / 226 - The Guardian (London) - July 6, 2013 Saturday Review: Victorian sleuths and Swedish serial killers: From a Holmes pastiche to a Stalinist mystery, John O'Connell rounds up recent thrillers BYLINE: John O'Connell - SECTION: GUARDIAN REVIEW PAGES; Pg. 11 - LENGTH: 849 words

Document 209 / 226: The Daily Telegraph (London) - July 5, 2013 Friday France accused of spying on its citizens with a supercalculator in a Paris bunker

75 BYLINE: Harriet Alexander - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 15 - LENGTH: 493 words

Document 208 / 226: Daily Mirror - July 5, 2013 Friday Russian spy Anna: Wed me Edward; FUGITIVE BYLINE: CHRISTOPHER BUCKTIN - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 11 - LENGTH: 142 words

Document 207 / 226: DAILY MAIL (London) - July 5, 2013 Friday FRENCH STATE SPIES ILLEGALLY ON ITS CITIZENS' BYLINE: BY NO BYLINE AVAILABLE - LENGTH: 132 words

Document 206 / 226: The Guardian (London) - July 5, 2013 Friday Comment: An act of air piracy: Forcing down Morales's plane was a metaphor for the gangsterism that now rules the world BYLINE: John Pilger - SECTION: GUARDIAN COMMENT AND DEBATE PAGES; Pg. 34 - LENGTH: 768 words

Document 205 / 226: The Guardian (London) - July 5, 2013 Friday France has enormous electronic spying operation, says Le Monde BYLINE: Angelique Chrisafis in Paris - SECTION: GUARDIAN INTERNATIONAL PAGES; Pg. 22 - LENGTH: 365 words

Document 204 / 226: The Guardian (London) - July 5, 2013 Friday US to hold talks with Berlin to calm NSA fears: 'Intense discussion' next week as outrage mounts Warning that scandal will damage transatlantic trade BYLINE: Kate Connolly in Berlin, Dan Roberts in Washington and Ian Traynor in Vilnius -SECTION: GUARDIAN INTERNATIONAL PAGES; Pg. 22 - LENGTH: 906 words

Document 203 / 226 - The Daily Telegraph (London) - July 4, 2013 Thursday BONNIE GREER SECTION: NEWS; TEASERS; Pg. 2 - LENGTH: 31 words

Document 202 / 226: The Daily Telegraph (London) - July 4, 2013 Thursday I was kidnapped, says Bolivian president as hunt for fugitive takes a new twist BYLINE: Tom Parfitt - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 17 - LENGTH: 496 words

Document 201 / 226: The Daily Telegraph (London) - July 4, 2013 Thursday THERE WILL BE MORE LIKE SNOWDEN; Diplomatic rows and farcical airport spats over the fate of the NSA whistleblower are obscuring his real political significance, says Bonnie Greer BYLINE: Bonnie Greer - SECTION: FEATURES; Pg. 21 - LENGTH: 1272 words

Document 200 / 226: The Daily Telegraph (London) - July 4, 2013 Thursday Spying was simpler in the Black & Decker days; You knew who your friends were during the Cold War - and you didn't snoop on them BYLINE: SUE CAMERON - SECTION: EDITORIAL; OPINION, COLUMNS; Pg. 23 - LENGTH: 905 words

Document 199 / 226: Daily Mirror - July 4, 2013 Thursday AND SO TO THE 5 BIG QUESTIONS OF THE WEEK BYLINE: Brian Reade - SECTION: FEATURES; OPINION, COLUMN; Pg. 23 - LENGTH: 82 words

Document 198 / 226: Daily Mirror - July 4, 2013 Thursday Snowden jet 'hijack' anger SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 14 - LENGTH: 80 words

Document 197 / 226: DAILY MAIL (London) - July 4, 2013 Thursday ASSANGE AND SNOWDEN HEROES? NO THEY'RE JUST HYPOCRITES AND MORAL COWARDS BYLINE: BY STEPHEN GLOVER - LENGTH: 1157 words

Document 196 / 226: DAILY MAIL (London) - July 4, 2013 Thursday FURY OF BOLIVIA AS LEADER IS CAUGHT IN SNOWDEN HUNT BYLINE: BY NO BYLINE AVAILABLE - LENGTH: 182 words

Document 195 / 226: The Guardian (London) - Final Edition, July 4, 2013 Thursday Comment: Unrepentant in our secrecy: It's because my intelligence committee puts the public first that we've postponed our first ever public session BYLINE: Malcolm Rifkind - SECTION: GUARDIAN COMMENT AND DEBATE PAGES; Pg. 30 - LENGTH: 612 words

Document 194 / 226: The Guardian (London) - July 4, 2013 Thursday Snowden row intensifies as hidden bug found in Ecuador's embassy: Device discovered during meeting over Assange Minister threatens to reveal perpetrators BYLINE: Nick Hopkins and Sam Jones - SECTION: GUARDIAN HOME PAGES; Pg. 2 - LENGTH: 598 words

Document 193 / 226: The Guardian (London) - July 4, 2013 Thursday G2: Shortcuts: Shorter cuts SECTION: GUARDIAN FEATURES PAGES; Pg. 2 - LENGTH: 139 words

Document 192 / 226: The Guardian (London) - July 4, 2013 Thursday G2: Suzanne Moore: When states monitored their citizens we used to call them authoritarian. Now we think this is what keeps us safe BYLINE: Suzanne Moore - SECTION: GUARDIAN FEATURES PAGES; Pg. 5 - LENGTH: 826 words

Document 191 / 226: The Guardian (London) - July 4, 2013 Thursday Bolivia accuses countries of aggression as hunt for Snowden forces plane to divert: Officials file complaint to UN on president jet drama US confirms it discussed possible 'escape' flights BYLINE: Sara Shahriari in La Paz, Jonathan Watts in Rio de Janeiro and Dan Roberts in Washington - SECTION: GUARDIAN INTERNATIONAL PAGES; Pg. 17 - LENGTH: 846 words

Document 190 / 226: The Guardian (London) - July 4, 2013 Thursday Analysis: 'Kidnap' reopens historical scars in Latin America BYLINE: Jonathan Watts in Rio de Janeiro - SECTION: GUARDIAN INTERNATIONAL PAGES; Pg. 17 - LENGTH: 490 words 76

Document 189 / 226: The Guardian (London) - July 4, 2013 Thursday Economic sanctions: US could block use of the dollar BYLINE: Jennifer Rankin - SECTION: GUARDIAN INTERNATIONAL PAGES; Pg. 17 - LENGTH: 250 words

Document 188 / 226: The Guardian (London) - July 4, 2013 Thursday Parliament: Rifkind defends cancelling of spy chiefs' TV grilling BYLINE: Patrick Wintour Political editor - SECTION: GUARDIAN INTERNATIONAL PAGES; Pg. 17 - LENGTH: 363 words

Document 187 / 226: The Guardian (London) - July 4, 2013 Thursday Comment is free In brief: This shitstorm in a German dictionary - it isn't what you think BYLINE: Philip Oltermann - SECTION: GUARDIAN LEADER PAGES; Pg. 32 - LENGTH: 406 words

Document 186 / 226: The Daily Telegraph (London) - July 3, 2013 Wednesday Snowden gives up on asylum in Russia as options close BYLINE: Tom Parfitt; Damien McElroy - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 13 - LENGTH: 402 words

Document 185 / 226: Daily Mirror - July 3, 2013 Wednesday Brian Reade SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 31 - LENGTH: 18 words

Document 184 / 226: Daily Mirror - July 3, 2013 Wednesday Leak geek's asylum plea to 21 states; WHISTLEBLOWER BYLINE: CHRISTOPHER BUCKTIN - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 9 - LENGTH: 138 words

Document 183 / 226: DAILY MAIL (London) - July 3, 2013 Wednesday SO THE US IS SPYING ON FRANCE ...QUELLE SURPRISE! BYLINE: BY TOM LEONARD IN NEW YORK AND JASON GROVES IN LONDON - LENGTH: 646 words

Document 182 / 226: DAILY MAIL (London) - July 3, 2013 Wednesday IS EX-SPY BOUND FOR VENEZUELA? BYLINE: BY NO BYLINE AVAILABLE - LENGTH: 137 words

Document 181 / 226: The Guardian (London) - July 3, 2013 Wednesday Comment: Thank you, Mr Snowden: We Germans should offer shelter to the man who revealed that our US and UK allies are spying on us BYLINE: Jurgen Trittin - SECTION: GUARDIAN COMMENT AND DEBATE PAGES; Pg. 28 - LENGTH: 617 words

Document 180 / 226: The Guardian (London) - July 3, 2013 Wednesday Front: Bolivian jet diverted on Snowden escape fears BYLINE: Dan Roberts in Washington - SECTION: GUARDIAN HOME PAGES; Pg. 1 - LENGTH: 637 words

Document 179 / 226: The Guardian (London) - July 3, 2013 Wednesday Front: Snowden running out of asylum options BYLINE: Miriam Elder in Moscow - SECTION: GUARDIAN HOME PAGES; Pg. 1 - LENGTH: 681 words

Document 178 / 226: The Guardian (London) - July 3, 2013 Wednesday Ecuador says it blundered over Snowden: Correa says safe pass was given to fugitive in error President praises US for 'gracious' behaviour BYLINE: Rory Carroll in Quito - SECTION: GUARDIAN INTERNATIONAL PAGES; Pg. 18 - LENGTH: 694 words

Document 177 / 226: The Guardian (London) - July 3, 2013 Wednesday Legal options: Desperate search for a friendly host BYLINE: Owen Bowcott -SECTION: GUARDIAN INTERNATIONAL PAGES; Pg. 18 - LENGTH: 549 words

Document 176 / 226: The Guardian (London) - July 3, 2013 Wednesday Leading Article: Edward Snowden: A whistleblower, not a spy BYLINE: Editorial: - SECTION: GUARDIAN LEADER PAGES; Pg. 30 - LENGTH: 670 words

Document 175 / 226: The Daily Telegraph (London) - July 2, 2013 Tuesday US spy whistleblower seeks asylum in Russia BYLINE: Tom Parfitt; Bruno Waterfield; Damien McElroy - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 13 - LENGTH: 648 words

Document 174 / 226: The Daily Telegraph (London) - July 2, 2013 Tuesday Spy chief warns of cyber theft on "industrial scale BYLINE: Tom Whitehead - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 8 - LENGTH: 412 words

Document 173 / 226: Daily Mirror - July 2, 2013 Tuesday RUNAWAY SNOWDEN SEEKS RUSSIA ASYLUM; Whistleblower is 'desperate' BYLINE: CHRISTOPHER BUCKTIN - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 15 - LENGTH: 471 words

Document 172 / 226: DAILY MAIL (London) - July 2, 2013 Tuesday WHISTLEBLOWER SEEKS ASYLUM IN RUSSIA BYLINE: BY NO BYLINE AVAILABLE - LENGTH: 176 words

Document 171 / 226: The Guardian (London) - July 2, 2013 Tuesday Comment: We can help Snowden: The NSA whistleblower has been offered asylum, but he still needs citizens' support to achieve it BYLINE: Mark Weisbrot - SECTION: GUARDIAN COMMENT AND DEBATE PAGES; Pg. 26 - LENGTH: 668 words

Document 170 / 226: The Guardian (London) - July 2, 2013 Tuesday Front: Obama scrambles to limit crisis amid EU outrage over bugging: Merkel and Hollande want answers: Fugitive applies for asylum in Russia BYLINE: Ian Traynor in Brussels and Dan Roberts in Washington - SECTION: GUARDIAN HOME PAGES; Pg. 1 - LENGTH: 1090 words

Document 169 / 226: The Guardian (London) - July 2, 2013 Tuesday 77 Leading article: Off camera: Spies and security BYLINE: Editorial - SECTION: GUARDIAN LEADER PAGES; Pg. 28 - LENGTH: 459 words

Document 168 / 226: The Guardian (London) - July 2, 2013 Tuesday Covert surveillance: Putin: Snowden could stay in Russia - if he keeps quiet: President's offer likely to anger Washington 'Trapped' whistleblower remains unseen at airport BYLINE: Miriam Elder in Moscow - SECTION: GUARDIAN HOME PAGES; Pg. 6 - LENGTH: 751 words

Document 167 / 226: The Guardian (London) - July 2, 2013 Tuesday Covert surveillance: Whistleblower's flight: Moscow stopover became end of the line ... for now BYLINE: Tania Branigan in Hong Kong and Miriam Elder in Moscow - SECTION: GUARDIAN HOME PAGES; Pg. 6 - LENGTH: 1463 words

Document 166 / 226: The Guardian (London) - July 2, 2013 Tuesday Covert surveillance: Parliament: Televised quizzing of intelligence agencies shelved until after recess BYLINE: Patrick Wintour Political editor - SECTION: GUARDIAN HOME PAGES; Pg. 6 - LENGTH: 477 words

Document 165 / 226: The Guardian (London) - July 2, 2013 Tuesday Covert surveillance: Statement: Obama guilty of deception, says whistleblower from his limbo BYLINE: Dan Roberts in Washington and Rory Carroll in Quito - SECTION: GUARDIAN HOME PAGES; Pg. 7 - LENGTH: 607 words

Document 164 / 226: The Daily Telegraph (London) - July 1, 2013 Monday Assange hails fugitive a hero; Snowden's ally BYLINE: Jon Swaine - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 15 - LENGTH: 150 words

Document 163 / 226: The Daily Telegraph (London) - July 1, 2013 Monday US spy claims could damage relations with EU, say leaders BYLINE: Jon Swaine; Bruno Waterfield - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 15 - LENGTH: 601 words

Document 162 / 226: Daily Mirror - July 1, 2013 Monday U.S. TOLD: EU ARE OUT OF ORDER BUGGING OFFICES; Brussels' fury at America spying claim BYLINE: CHRISTOPHER BUCKTIN - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 16 - LENGTH: 278 words

Document 161 / 226: DAILY MAIL (London) - July 1, 2013 Monday GERMAN FURY AT US SNOOPING ON HALF A BILLION CALLS AND EMAILS EVERY MONTH BYLINE: by Mail Foreign Service - LENGTH: 344 words

Document 160 / 226: The Guardian (London) - July 1, 2013 Monday Front: Exclusive: New leaks show how US is bugging its European allies: Snowden papers reveal 38 targets including EU, France and Italy: New leaks show how US bugs its European allies BYLINE: Ewen MacAskill in Rio de Janeiro and Julian Borger - SECTION: GUARDIAN HOME PAGES; Pg. 1 - LENGTH: 557 words

Document 159 / 226: The Guardian (London) - July 1, 2013 Monday Front: Berlin accuses Washington of cold war tactics BYLINE: Ian Traynor in Brussels - SECTION: GUARDIAN HOME PAGES; Pg. 1 - LENGTH: 1230 words

Document 158 / 226: The Guardian (London) - July 1, 2013 Monday G2: Glastonbury Shortcuts: The hotlist: This year's Glastonbury highs - and lows SECTION: GUARDIAN FEATURES PAGES; Pg. 3 - LENGTH: 204 words

Document 157 / 226: Daily Mirror - June 30, 2013 Sunday US 'spied on the EU' SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 7 - LENGTH: 72 words

Document 156 / 226: MAIL ON SUNDAY (London) - June 30, 2013 Sunday WE'RE SO PROUD. SAY FAMILY OF THE BRITISH BLONDE ON RUN WITH CIA WHISTLEBLOWER BYLINE: By Claudia Joseph - LENGTH: 633 words

Document 155 / 226: The Sunday Telegraph (London) - June 30, 2013 HEAR SAY SEVEN DAYS IN SOUNDBITES SECTION: FEATURES; OPINION, COLUMN; Pg. 26 - LENGTH: 118 words

Document 154 / 226: The Sunday Telegraph (London) - June 30, 2013 SHUN SNOWDEN, URGES VICE-PRESIDENT SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 30 - LENGTH: 74 words

Document 153 / 226: The Daily Telegraph (London) - June 29, 2013 Saturday Snowden could return to US, says his father; Fugitive whistle-blower is being manipulated and would go back to his home country if he was guaranteed a fair trial, it is claimed BYLINE: Jon Swaine - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 17 - LENGTH: 658 words

Document 152 / 226: Daily Mirror - June 29, 2013 Saturday Ex-CIA man leaks more secret files; FUGITIVE BYLINE: CHRISOPHER BUCKTIN - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 9 - LENGTH: 123 words

Document 151 / 226: Daily Mirror - June 29, 2013 Saturday A real Snowhere man; RESULT! BYLINE: JOHN SHAW; DEREK McGOVERN - SECTION: SPORT; OPINION, COLUMNS; Pg. 58 - LENGTH: 101 words

Document 150 / 226: DAILY MAIL (London) - June 29, 2013 Saturday THE PUBLIC SCHOOL GIRL WHO FELL FOR ASSANGE THEN WENT ON THE RUN WITH THE WORLD'S MOST WANTED MAN BYLINE: BY GEOFFREY LEVY - LENGTH: 1480 words

Document 149 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 29, 2013 Saturday

78 Ecuador asylum for Snowden in doubt amid tension over role of WikiLeaks: Travel document for whistleblower cancelled Concern over alleged grandstanding by Assange BYLINE: Rory Carroll in Quito and Amanda Holpuch in New York - SECTION: GUARDIAN INTERNATIONAL PAGES; Pg. 31 - LENGTH: 921 words

Document 148 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 29, 2013 Saturday Media: US army blocks access to parts of Guardian website BYLINE: Spencer Ackerman and Dan Roberts in Washington - SECTION: GUARDIAN INTERNATIONAL PAGES; Pg. 31 - LENGTH: 274 words

Document 147 / 226: The Daily Telegraph (London) - June 28, 2013 Friday Jets will not seek to intercept Snowden BYLINE: Tom Parfitt - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 21 - LENGTH: 397 words

Document 146 / 226: Daily Mirror - June 28, 2013 Friday SPYING FOR OUR BENEFIT BYLINE: Paul Routledge - SECTION: FEATURES; OPINION, COLUMN; Pg. 31 - LENGTH: 270 words

Document 145 / 226: Daily Mirror - June 28, 2013 Friday Obama: No wheeling & dealing for ex-CIA man; LEAK BYLINE: CHRISTOPHER BUCKTIN - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 9 - LENGTH: 200 words

Document 144 / 226: DAILY MAIL (London) - June 28, 2013 Friday WORLD WAR II WIKILEAKS STYLE LENGTH: 1485 words

Document 143 / 226: DAILY MAIL (London) - June 28, 2013 Friday AFTER GERMANY'S ATTACK, HAGUE DEFENDS SPIES WHO PROTECT US' BYLINE: BY GERRI PEEV POLITICAL CORRESPONDENT - LENGTH: 415 words

Document 142 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 28, 2013 Friday Comment: Big Brother today would be a public-private partnership: British and US spooks mine data collected by private companies from us. Those firms have a duty of openness too BYLINE: Timothy Garton Ash - SECTION: GUARDIAN COMMENT AND DEBATE PAGES; Pg. 44 - LENGTH: 931 words

Document 141 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 28, 2013 Friday Diary: Diary Hugh Muir BYLINE: Hugh Muir - SECTION: GUARDIAN COMMENT AND DEBATE PAGES; Pg. 45 - LENGTH: 691 words

Document 140 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 28, 2013 Friday Edward Snowden: NSA: Secret papers reveal email surveillance lasted 10 years BYLINE: Glenn Greenwald and Spencer Ackerman - SECTION: GUARDIAN INTERNATIONAL PAGES; Pg. 35 - LENGTH: 405 words

Document 139 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 28, 2013 Friday Edward Snowden: Correa shoots first in Ecuadorean stand-off: Leftist leader renounces bilateral deal with US 'We do not trade principles for mercantile interests' BYLINE: Rory Carroll and Dan Collyns in Quito - SECTION: GUARDIAN INTERNATIONAL PAGES; Pg. 35 - LENGTH: 720 words

Document 138 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 28, 2013 Friday Edward Snowden: Extradition: Obama plays down moves to apprehend whistleblower BYLINE: Spencer Ackerman in Washington - SECTION: GUARDIAN INTERNATIONAL PAGES; Pg. 35 - LENGTH: 627 words

Document 137 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 28, 2013 Friday Snooper's charter bill has no chance, say MPs: Tory Davis and Labour's Watson call for rethink Whistleblower revelations have 'put up big red flag' BYLINE: Alan Travis Home affairs editor - SECTION: GUARDIAN HOME PAGES; Pg. 15 - LENGTH: 523 words

Document 136 / 226: The Daily Telegraph (London) - June 27, 2013 Thursday EU demands to know extent of British 'snooping' amid privacy fears BYLINE: Bruno Waterfield - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 22 - LENGTH: 354 words

Document 135 / 226: The Daily Telegraph (London) - June 27, 2013 Thursday Snowden faces 'months' in Moscow; Whistle-blower SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 22 - LENGTH: 147 words

Document 134 / 226: The Daily Telegraph (London) - June 27, 2013 Thursday There are many ways to shear a pig, Mr Putin; The Russian president shares his proverbial lore with an Old Master and Eric Cantona BYLINE: CHRISTOPHER HOWSE - SECTION: EDITORIAL; OPINION, COLUMNS; Pg. 26 - LENGTH: 830 words

Document 133 / 226: Daily Mirror - June 27, 2013 Thursday AND SO TO THE 5 BIG QUESTIONS OF THE WEEK BYLINE: Brian Reade - SECTION: FEATURES; OPINION, COLUMN; Pg. 25 - LENGTH: 108 words

Document 132 / 226: Daily Mirror - June 27, 2013 Thursday Snowden 'stuck' in Russia BYLINE: CHRISTOPHER BUCKTIN - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 2 - LENGTH: 123 words

Document 131 / 226: DAILY MAIL (London) - June 27, 2013 Thursday PUTIN: EX-SPY WILL NOT BE EXTRADITED BYLINE: BY NO BYLINE AVAILABLE - LENGTH: 134 words

Document 130 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 27, 2013 Thursday Notorious oil trader Marc Rich dies aged 78: Unrepentant sanctions breaker and fugitive from FBI had powerful friends 79 BYLINE: Jennifer Rankin - SECTION: GUARDIAN FINANCIAL PAGES; Pg. 28 - LENGTH: 717 words

Document 129 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 27, 2013 Thursday Snowden may face months of limbo over asylum claim: Ecuador cautious over decision on whistleblower Damage to trade ties with US a risk, admits minister BYLINE: Miriam Elder in Moscow - SECTION: GUARDIAN INTERNATIONAL PAGES; Pg. 22 - LENGTH: 610 words

Document 128 / 226: The Daily Telegraph (London) - June 26, 2013 Wednesday GCHQ faces 'illegal' spying investigation SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 12 - LENGTH: 177 words

Document 127 / 226: The Daily Telegraph (London) - June 26, 2013 Wednesday Putin ignores US calls to hand over whistle-blower; He is a free man, says Putin, as he confirms that Snowden is holed up at Moscow airport BYLINE: Tom Balmforth; Tom Phillips; Alex Spillius - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 15 - LENGTH: 551 words

Document 126 / 226: The Daily Telegraph (London) - June 26, 2013 Wednesday German anger at UK 'spying online'; Minister challenges the Government over the legality of GCHQ surveillance after revelations from US whistle-blower BYLINE: Bonnie Malkin - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 2 - LENGTH: 428 words

Document 125 / 226: Daily Mirror - June 26, 2013 Wednesday PUTIN: RUSSIANS WILL NOT HAND OVER SNOWDEN; 'He's in transit and free to go anywhere' BYLINE: CHRISTOPHER BUCKTIN - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 2 - LENGTH: 267 words

Document 124 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 26, 2013 Wednesday Front: Germany blasts Britain over GCHQ's secret cable trawl: Minister questions legality of mass tapping of internet and phones BYLINE: Alan Travis, Kate Connolly in Berlin and Nicholas Watt - SECTION: GUARDIAN HOME PAGES; Pg. 1 - LENGTH: 840 words

Document 123 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 26, 2013 Wednesday G2: Shortcuts: Law: The man Edward Snowden wants on his side BYLINE: Jon Henley - SECTION: GUARDIAN FEATURES PAGES; Pg. 2 - LENGTH: 252 words

Document 122 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 26, 2013 Wednesday Snowden is in our airport but we will not extradite him - Putin BYLINE: Miriam Elder in Moscow and Jonathan Kaiman in Beijing - SECTION: GUARDIAN INTERNATIONAL PAGES; Pg. 19 - LENGTH: 693 words

Document 121 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 26, 2013 Wednesday Leading Article: Edward Snowden: History will be kind to him BYLINE: Editorial - SECTION: GUARDIAN LEADER PAGES; Pg. 32 - LENGTH: 664 words

Document 120 / 226: The Daily Telegraph (London) - June 25, 2013 Tuesday US demands Russia hand over Snowden amid wild goose chase; Seat on flight from Moscow to Cuba left empty as NSA whistle-blower remains elusive BYLINE: Harriet Alexander; Tom Balmford; Malcolm Moore - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 16 - LENGTH: 812 words

Document 119 / 226: Daily Mirror - June 25, 2013 Tuesday LEAK GEEK GOES MISSING SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 2 - LENGTH: 208 words

Document 118 / 226: DAILY MAIL (London) - June 25, 2013 Tuesday US CALLS FOR RUSSIA HELP AS CIA SPY DISAPPEARS' BYLINE: BY KEITH GLADDIS AND WILL STEWART IN MOSCOW - LENGTH: 254 words

Document 117 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 25, 2013 Tuesday Comment: How can we invest our trust in a state that spies on us?: We should not fear some Orwellian future place where we're subjected to total electronic scrutiny - it's our present reality BYLINE: George Monbiot - SECTION: GUARDIAN COMMENT AND DEBATE PAGES; Pg. 29 - LENGTH: 1066 words

Document 116 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 25, 2013 Tuesday They seek him there: media board flight to Havana but Snowden remains elusive: Whistleblower fails to board Cuba-bound plane We will consider request for asylum, says Moscow BYLINE: Miriam Elder in Moscow - SECTION: GUARDIAN HOME PAGES; Pg. 3 - LENGTH: 923 words

Document 115 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 25, 2013 Tuesday Civil rights group accuses GCHQ BYLINE: Richard Norton-Taylor - SECTION: GUARDIAN HOME PAGES; Pg. 3 - LENGTH: 330 words

Document 114 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 25, 2013 Tuesday G2: Pass notes: Pass notes No 3,400 Ecuador SECTION: GUARDIAN FEATURES PAGES; Pg. 3 - LENGTH: 352 words

Document 113 / 226: The Daily Telegraph (London) - June 24, 2013 Monday Snowden heads for asylum in Ecuador; America attacks Russia over 'escape' BYLINE: Tom Balmforth; Raf Sanchez - SECTION: NEWS; FRONT PAGE; Pg. 1,2 - LENGTH: 801 words

Document 112 / 226: Daily Mirror - June 24, 2013 Monday KEEP BLOWING WHISTLE BYLINE: Kevin Maguire - SECTION: EDITORIAL; OPINION, COLUMNS; Pg. 12 - LENGTH: 165 words

Document 111 / 226: Daily Mirror - June 24, 2013 Monday Ed to safety SECTION: EDITORIAL; OPINION, LEADING ARTICLES; Pg. 12 - LENGTH: 100 words 80

Document 110 / 226: Daily Mirror - June 24, 2013 Monday He'll have to sing for his supper.. and he'll never be safe again BYLINE: CRISPIN BLACK - SECTION: NEWS; OPINION, COLUMNS; Pg. 9 - LENGTH: 281 words

Document 109 / 226: Daily Mirror - June 24, 2013 Monday The spy who came in to the cold.. & flew off to the sun; WIKILEAKS HELPS WHISTLEBLOWER FLEE SNOWDEN'S ECUADOR ESCAPE BYLINE: CHRISTOPHER BUCKTIN - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 8,9 - LENGTH: 818 words

Document 108 / 226: DAILY MAIL (London) June 24, 2013 Monday [no title] LENGTH: 94 words * REVELATIONS by Snowden published in The Guardian probably breached the Official Secrets Act, security experts say. The paper did not seek the advice of the Defence Advisory Committee before publishing stories considered potentially dangerous to national security. A source close to the body, known as the D-Notice committee, said: The stories were also probably a breach of the Official Secrets Act. The reports revealed how GCHQ spied on diplomats at the G20 conference in 2009 and also its massive tapping operation on fibre optic cables carrying data to Europe.

Document 107 / 226: DAILY MAIL (London) - June 24, 2013 Monday CIA WHISTLEBLOWER SEEKS ASYLUM AFTER FLEEING HONG KONG FOR RUSSIA BYLINE: By Keith Gladdis and Will Stewart in Moscow - LENGTH: 788 words

Document 106 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 24, 2013 Monday Front: Hong Kong, Moscow, Quito?: Snowden turns to Ecuador in bid for asylum BYLINE: Tania Branigan in Hong Kong, Miriam Elder in Moscow and Nick Hopkins - SECTION: GUARDIAN HOME PAGES; Pg. 1 - LENGTH: 1075 words

Document 105 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 24, 2013 Monday Edward Snowden: Shock turns to fury after whistleblower evades US net: 30-year-old slips away aboard flight to Moscow Errors made in extradition demands, Hong Kong says BYLINE: Tania Branigan in Hong Kong, Miriam Elder in Moscow and Nick Hopkins - SECTION: GUARDIAN HOME PAGES; Pg. 2 - LENGTH: 1336 words

Document 104 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 24, 2013 Monday Edward Snowden: US-Chinese relations: Escape may prevent more poisonous row BYLINE: Tania Branigan in Hong Kong - SECTION: GUARDIAN HOME PAGES; Pg. 2 - LENGTH: 539 words

Document 103 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 24, 2013 Monday Edward Snowden: Ecuador - safe haven? BYLINE: Jonathan Watts - SECTION: GUARDIAN HOME PAGES; Pg. 2 - LENGTH: 174 words

Document 102 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 24, 2013 Monday Edward Snowden: Snowden's journey BYLINE: Guardian staff - SECTION: GUARDIAN HOME PAGES; Pg. 2 - LENGTH: 555 words

Document 101 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 24, 2013 Monday Edward Snowden: WikiLeaks: Thorn in the side role cemented BYLINE: Dominic Rushe in New York - SECTION: GUARDIAN HOME PAGES; Pg. 3 - LENGTH: 276 words

Document 100 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 24, 2013 Monday Leading Article: Civil liberties: Guarding the guards BYLINE: Editorial - SECTION: GUARDIAN LEADER PAGES; Pg. 26 - LENGTH: 673 words

Document 99 / 226: Daily Mirror - June 23, 2013 Sunday Snowden's US spy rap SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 4 - LENGTH: 77 words

Document 98 / 226: MAIL ON SUNDAY (London) - June 23, 2013 Sunday SECRETS LEAKER SNOWDEN COULD FACE 30 YEARS' YAIL BYLINE: BY NO BYLINE AVAILABLE - LENGTH: 254 words

Document 97 / 226: The Sunday Telegraph (London) - June 23, 2013 Battle for Snowden in Hong Kong BYLINE: RAF SANCHEZ; MALCOLM MOORE - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 31 - LENGTH: 1075 words

Document 96 / 226: The Daily Telegraph (London) - June 22, 2013 Saturday GCHQ is a greater problem than American spies, claims intelligence whistleblower BYLINE: James Kirkup - SECTION: NEWS; FRONT PAGE; Pg. 1 - LENGTH: 232 words

Document 95 / 226: Daily Mirror - June 22, 2013 Saturday £8M PAID TO RAIL SCANDAL FATCATS BYLINE: MARK ELLIS - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 10 - LENGTH: 176 words

Document 94 / 226: Daily Mirror - June 22, 2013 Saturday BRIT SPIES 'TAPPED OUR PHONE LINES' SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 10 - LENGTH: 185 words

Document 93 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 22, 2013 Saturday Comment: Mastery of the internet will mean mastery of everyone: If you think loss of privacy is a price worth paying for security, ask what a totally monitored future would look like BYLINE: Henry Porter - SECTION: GUARDIAN COMMENT AND DEBATE PAGES; Pg. 43 - LENGTH: 1103 words

81 Document 92 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 22, 2013 Saturday Front: Exclusive: How GCHQ watches your every move: Operation Tempora revealed: Internet traffic and calls tapped from fibre optic cables: Information shared with American spy agency BYLINE: Ewen MacAskill, Julian Borger, Nick Hopkins, Nick Davies and - SECTION: GUARDIAN HOME PAGES; Pg. 1 - LENGTH: 2070 words

Document 91 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 22, 2013 Saturday Covert surveillance: 'We are starting to master the internet. And our capability is impressive': Project Tempora: The evolution of a secret intelligence programme to capture vast amounts of web and phone data from fibre optic cables BYLINE: Ewen MacAskill, Julian Borger, Nick Hopkins, Nick Davies and James Ball - SECTION: GUARDIAN HOME PAGES; Pg. 6 - LENGTH: 2118 words

Document 90 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 22, 2013 Saturday Leading Article: Civil liberties: The world at their fingertips BYLINE: Editorial - SECTION: GUARDIAN LEADER PAGES; Pg. 44 - LENGTH: 648 words

Document 89 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 21, 2013 Friday Comment: Why state surveillance is a threat to doctors and lawyers: Professionals who rely on confidentiality will have to guard against the danger of patients and clients being snooped on BYLINE: Ross Anderson - SECTION: GUARDIAN COMMENT AND DEBATE PAGES; Pg. 42 - LENGTH: 839 words

Document 88 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 21, 2013 Friday G2: Film & Music: A week in radio: The time of dystopias BYLINE: Nosheen Iqbal - SECTION: GUARDIAN FEATURES PAGES; Pg. 24 - LENGTH: 340 words

Document 87 / 226: The Daily Telegraph (London) - June 20, 2013 Thursday Obama returns to his message of hope, tempered by the years of experience; Dispatch BYLINE: Jeevan Vasagar - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 18,19 - LENGTH: 1104 words

Document 86 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 20, 2013 Thursday Front: Obama: NSA is not rifling through ordinary people's data BYLINE: Kate Connolly in Berlin and Mark Sweney - SECTION: GUARDIAN HOME PAGES; Pg. 1 - LENGTH: 716 words

Document 85 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 19, 2013 Wednesday Comment: Britain's response to the NSA story: back off and shut up: Snowden's revelations are causing outrage in the US. Here, Hague deploys the police-state defence and the media is silenced BYLINE: Simon Jenkins - SECTION: GUARDIAN COMMENT AND DEBATE PAGES; Pg. 31 - LENGTH: 1069 words

Document 84 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 19, 2013 Wednesday Top officials defend NSA surveillance: Web spying critical to US security, Congress told General says programme has rigorous oversight BYLINE: Spencer Ackerman in Washington - SECTION: GUARDIAN INTERNATIONAL PAGES; Pg. 21 - LENGTH: 558 words

Document 83 / 226: The Daily Telegraph (London) - June 18, 2013 Tuesday Stop leaking, says father SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 16 - LENGTH: 71 words

Document 82 / 226: The Daily Telegraph (London) - June 18, 2013 Tuesday I am not a spy for China, says Snowden BYLINE: Philip Sherwell; Malcolm Moore - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 16 - LENGTH: 428 words

Document 81 / 226: DAILY MAIL (London) - June 18, 2013 Tuesday SHOCK HORROR! BRITAIN SPIES ON OTHER NATIONS LENGTH: 1239 words

Document 80 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 18, 2013 Tuesday Front: Snowden: truth will out on scale of US surveillance BYLINE: Ewen MacAskill in New York - SECTION: GUARDIAN HOME PAGES; Pg. 1 - LENGTH: 770 words

Document 79 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 18, 2013 Tuesday Covert surveillance: China link?: Chinese deny whistleblower was working for them BYLINE: Tania Branigan in Hong Kong - SECTION: GUARDIAN HOME PAGES; Pg. 6 - LENGTH: 845 words

Document 78 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 18, 2013 Tuesday Covert surveillance: Turkey, South Africa and Russia round on UK over G20 spying: Guardian eavesdropping revelations described as scandalous BYLINE: Julian Borger, Luke Harding, Miriam Elder in Moscow and David Smith in Johannesburg - SECTION: GUARDIAN HOME PAGES; Pg. 6 - LENGTH: 951 words

Document 77 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 18, 2013 Tuesday Covert surveillance: Media: MoD serves news outlets with D notice over surveillance leaks BYLINE: Josh Halliday - SECTION: GUARDIAN HOME PAGES; Pg. 7 - LENGTH: 457 words

Document 76 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 18, 2013 Tuesday Covert surveillance: Snowden Q&A: Extracts from Edward Snowden's online Q&A on guardian.co.uk SECTION: GUARDIAN HOME PAGES; Pg. 7 - LENGTH: 237 words

Document 75 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 18, 2013 Tuesday Assange case: WikiLeaks founder 'fit for five years in embassy': UK and Ecuador lawyers to try to resolve impasse Foreign minister: we will not hand Assange over BYLINE: Sam Jones - SECTION: GUARDIAN HOME PAGES; Pg. 15 - LENGTH: 507 words

Document 74 / 226: The Daily Telegraph (London) - June 17, 2013 Monday US spies mined data on trillions of emails and video calls

82 BYLINE: Jon Swaine - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 16 - LENGTH: 411 words

Document 73 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 17, 2013 Monday Comment: The whistleblowers: a new generation of US patriots: The violation of civil liberties in the name of security had a profound impact on those who came of age after 9/11 BYLINE: Gary Younge - SECTION: GUARDIAN COMMENT AND DEBATE PAGES; Pg. 27 - LENGTH: 1056 words

Document 72 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 17, 2013 Monday Front: Revealed: how UK spied on its G20 allies at London summits: Politicians' calls and emails intercepted by UK intelligence: Delegates tricked into using fake internet cafes: Analysts at GCHQ sent logs of phone calls round the clock: Documents revealed by US whistleblower Snowden: Revelations come as UK prepares to host G8 leaders BYLINE: Ewen MacAskill, Nick Davies, Nick Hopkins, Julian Borger and James Ball - SECTION: GUARDIAN HOME PAGES; Pg. 1 - LENGTH: 1272 words

Document 71 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 17, 2013 Monday Covert surveillance: United States: How American spies based in UK targeted Russian leader Medvedev: National Security Agency intercepted satellite communications between London and Moscow BYLINE: Ewen MacAskill, Nick Davies, Nick Hopkins, Julian Borger and James Ball - SECTION: GUARDIAN HOME PAGES; Pg. 4 - LENGTH: 789 words

Document 70 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 17, 2013 Monday Covert surveillance: Espionage: A short history of bugging BYLINE: Ewen MacAskill, Nick Davies, Nick Hopkins, Julian Borger and James Ball - SECTION: GUARDIAN HOME PAGES; Pg. 5 - LENGTH: 364 words

Document 69 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 17, 2013 Monday Covert surveillance: Trinidad summit: Top secret document reveals plans to spy on Commonwealth ministers and officials: The document lists 'Initelligence (sic) on South Africa's views on Zimbabwe' BYLINE: Ewen MacAskill, Nick Davies, Nick Hopkins, Julian Borger and James Ball - SECTION: GUARDIAN HOME PAGES; Pg. 5 - LENGTH: 502 words

Document 68 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 17, 2013 Monday Leading Article: Civil liberties: Surveillance and the state BYLINE: Editorial - SECTION: GUARDIAN LEADER PAGES; Pg. 28 - LENGTH: 662 words

Document 67 / 226: Daily Mirror - June 16, 2013 Sunday The wolf whistle blower BYLINE: Carole Malone - SECTION: FEATURES; Pg. 27 - LENGTH: 102 words

Document 66 / 226: MAIL ON SUNDAY (London) - June 16, 2013 Sunday QUOTES OF THE WEEK BYLINE: BY NO BYLINE AVAILABLE - LENGTH: 318 words

Document 65 / 226: The Sunday Telegraph (London) - June 16, 2013 Who's watching you watch trivia? BYLINE: JENNY McCARTNEY - SECTION: FEATURES; Pg. 23 - LENGTH: 279 words

Document 64 / 226: The Sunday Telegraph (London) - June 16, 2013 The eternal debate with no easy answers BYLINE: JOHN AVLON - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 26 - LENGTH: 684 words

Document 63 / 226: The Daily Telegraph (London) - June 15, 2013 Saturday Alive - I'm one of the lucky ones, Sir David BYLINE: Judith Woods - SECTION: FEATURES; OPINION, COLUMN; Pg. 26 - LENGTH: 707 words

Document 62 / 226: The Daily Telegraph (London) - June 15, 2013 Saturday Britain issues travel alert to block entry of fugitive US whistleblower BYLINE: Tom Phillips - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 17 - LENGTH: 479 words

Document 61 / 226: Daily Mirror - June 15, 2013 Saturday LEAK GEEK ALERT; Airlines warned not to fly CIA whistleblower into UK BYLINE: CHRISTOPHER BUCKTIN - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 27 - LENGTH: 221 words

Document 60 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 15, 2013 Saturday Comment: Thankfully, Snowden's worst fear has not been realised: The NSA whistleblower's only concern was that his disclosures would be met with apathy. Instead, they are leading to real reform BYLINE: Glenn Greenwald - SECTION: GUARDIAN COMMENT AND DEBATE PAGES; Pg. 51 - LENGTH: 1062 words

Document 59 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 15, 2013 Saturday International: Spying on Europeans not routine - US: Europe presses for more details of Prism scandal: Officials insist data is not 'collected in bulk' BYLINE: Ian Traynor, Brussels, Tania Branigan, Hong Kong, Gwyn Topham - SECTION: GUARDIAN INTERNATIONAL PAGES; Pg. 38 - LENGTH: 729 words

Document 58 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 15, 2013 Saturday International: Snowden travel ban BYLINE: Sam Jones - SECTION: GUARDIAN INTERNATIONAL PAGES; Pg. 38 - LENGTH: 138 words

Document 57 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 15, 2013 Saturday International: Hong Kong march BYLINE: Tania Branigan - SECTION: GUARDIAN INTERNATIONAL PAGES; Pg. 38 - LENGTH: 137 words

Document 56 / 226: The Daily Telegraph (London) - June 14, 2013 Friday

83 Big Brother's gaze is not enough to deter Americans from their online comforts; Viewpoint BYLINE: Katherine Rushton - SECTION: BUSINESS; Pg. 2 - LENGTH: 1177 words

Document 55 / 226: The Daily Telegraph (London) - June 14, 2013 Friday This party should be less reppy and more peppy; THEATRE BYLINE: Dominic Cavendish - SECTION: FEATURES; REVIEW; Pg. 28 - LENGTH: 440 words

Document 54 / 226: The Daily Telegraph (London) - June 14, 2013 Friday Fugitive spy harmed US security, says FBI chief BYLINE: Chris Irvine; Tom Phillips - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 19 - LENGTH: 267 words

Document 53 / 226: Daily Mirror - June 14, 2013 Friday LEAK GEEK GAFFE SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 27 - LENGTH: 111 words

Document 52 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 14, 2013 Friday Diary: Diary Hugh Muir BYLINE: Hugh Muir - SECTION: GUARDIAN COMMENT AND DEBATE PAGES; Pg. 37 - LENGTH: 696 words

Document 51 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 14, 2013 Friday G2: Film & Music: CAUGHT: NIXON ON SUPER 8: A new documentary compiles home movies from the 70s White House. But it's less a portrait of Tricky Dicky than a disarmingly personable insight into all the president's men. By Ben Walters BYLINE: Ben Walters - SECTION: GUARDIAN FILM AND MUSIC PAGES; Pg. 9 - LENGTH: 937 words

Document 50 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 14, 2013 Friday Spying programme can prevent another Boston, says FBI chief: Agency to take legal action against Snowden over leak Fury in congress at scale of electronic surveillance BYLINE: Dan Roberts in Washington - SECTION: GUARDIAN INTERNATIONAL PAGES; Pg. 28 - LENGTH: 767 words

Document 49 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 14, 2013 Friday Diplomatic fallout: Snowden case puts strain on China-US relations BYLINE: Tania Branigan, Jonathan Kaiman in Hong Kong and Warren Murray - SECTION: GUARDIAN INTERNATIONAL PAGES; Pg. 28 - LENGTH: 654 words

Document 48 / 226: The Daily Telegraph (London) - June 13, 2013 Thursday Read Telegraph blogs at telegraph.co.uk/blogs SECTION: FEATURES; Pg. 25 - LENGTH: 57 words

Document 47 / 226: The Daily Telegraph (London) - June 13, 2013 Thursday I'm ready to reveal more criminality, says Snowden BYLINE: Tom Phillips; Peter Foster; Damien McElroy - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 17 - LENGTH: 601 words

Document 46 / 226: Daily Mirror - June 13, 2013 Thursday Leak geek to 'reveal more'; SECRETS SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 11 - LENGTH: 93 words

Document 45 / 226: DAILY MAIL (London) - June 13, 2013 Thursday I'M NO TRAITOR SAYS SPY WHO BLEW WHISTLE ON CIA SNOOPS BYLINE: BY SAM GREENHILL - LENGTH: 233 words

Document 44 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 13, 2013 Thursday Diary: Diary Hugh Muir BYLINE: Hugh Muir - SECTION: GUARDIAN COMMENT AND DEBATE PAGES; Pg. 39 - LENGTH: 691 words

Document 43 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 13, 2013 Thursday Front: Snowden vows to fight his case in Hong Kong BYLINE: Ewen MacAskill in Hong Kong, Tania Branigan in Beijing and Dan Roberts in Washington - SECTION: GUARDIAN HOME PAGES; Pg. 1 - LENGTH: 776 words

Document 42 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 13, 2013 Thursday G2: In search of anonymity: In this age of information overload, internet exhibitionism and NSA snooping, is it possible to make yourself unGoogleable? And does it earn you added credibility, as fashion designer Phoebe Philo and bands such as !!! suggest? Stuart Jeffries investigates BYLINE: Stuart Jeffries - SECTION: GUARDIAN FEATURES PAGES; Pg. 6 - LENGTH: 2307 words

Document 41 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 13, 2013 Thursday G2: Westminster digested: John Crace BYLINE: John Crace - SECTION: GUARDIAN FEATURES PAGES; Pg. 9 - LENGTH: 330 words

Document 40 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 13, 2013 Thursday Covert surveillance: Senate interrogates NSA over extent of its snooping: 'Why did you acquire my data', demands Democrat Agency chief: programme thwarted terror attacks BYLINE: Spencer Ackerman in Washington - SECTION: GUARDIAN INTERNATIONAL PAGES; Pg. 24 - LENGTH: 939 words

Document 39 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 13, 2013 Thursday Covert surveillance: Whistleblower's deportation battle could go on for years, say experts BYLINE: Tania Branigan in Beijing - SECTION: GUARDIAN INTERNATIONAL PAGES; Pg. 25 - LENGTH: 764 words

Document 38 / 226: The Daily Telegraph (London) - June 12, 2013 Wednesday The pole-dancer and her man of mystery BYLINE: Raf Sanchez; Nick Allen - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 15 - LENGTH: 700 words

Document 37 / 226: The Daily Telegraph (London) - June 12, 2013 Wednesday Whistle-blower's lover uncovered 84 SECTION: NEWS; FRONT PAGE; Pg. 1 - LENGTH: 36 words

Document 36 / 226: The Daily Telegraph (London) - June 12, 2013 Wednesday Russia says it could grant spy asylum as Europe seeks data assurances BYLINE: Tom Parfitt; Jon Swaine - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 15 - LENGTH: 431 words

Document 35 / 226: Daily Mirror - June 12, 2013 Wednesday LEAK GEEK GOES ON RUN FROM THE CIA; And he leaves behind his ballerina girlfriend, too EXCLUSIVE BYLINE: CHRISTOPHER BUCKTIN - SECTION: NEWS; OPINION, COLUMNS; Pg. 9 - LENGTH: 450 words

Document 34 / 226: Daily Mirror - June 12, 2013 Wednesday Q&A SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 9 - LENGTH: 323 words

Document 33 / 226: DAILY MAIL (London) - June 12, 2013 Wednesday THE POLE DANCER LEFT BEHIND LENGTH: 414 words

Document 32 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 12, 2013 Wednesday Comment: Mass surveillance is about power as much as privacy: US and British spying agencies BYLINE: Seumas Milne - SECTION: GUARDIAN COMMENT AND DEBATE PAGES; Pg. 29 - LENGTH: 1049 words

Document 31 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 12, 2013 Wednesday Front: Not your average tourist: how the spy story of the age leaked out: Ewen MacAskill in Hong Kong on the trail that brought Edward Snowden to the attention of the Guardian - then the world BYLINE: Ewen MacAskill - SECTION: GUARDIAN HOME PAGES; Pg. 1 - LENGTH: 1561 words

Document 30 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 12, 2013 Wednesday Comment: How to make surveillance both ethical and effective: As former GCHQ chief I believe we should set down some principles that would help guide the public debate on privacy BYLINE: David Omand - SECTION: GUARDIAN LEADER PAGES; Pg. 30 - LENGTH: 968 words

Document 29 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 12, 2013 Wednesday Covert surveillance: You must respect the privacy of our citizens, Europe warns US: EU officials demand answers on what the data snooping programmes entail and whether they breach human rights BYLINE: Alan Travis, Spencer Ackerman, Paul Lewis in Washington and Dan Roberts - SECTION: GUARDIAN HOME PAGES; Pg. 6 - LENGTH: 1075 words

Document 28 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 12, 2013 Wednesday Covert surveillance: Russia: Asylum offer from Putin BYLINE: Miriam Elder in Moscow and Paul Owen - SECTION: GUARDIAN HOME PAGES; Pg. 6 - LENGTH: 178 words

Document 27 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 12, 2013 Wednesday Covert surveillance: Whistleblower's girlfriend: 'My world has opened and closed. All I can feel is alone' BYLINE: Paul Lewis - SECTION: GUARDIAN HOME PAGES; Pg. 6 - LENGTH: 806 words

Document 26 / 226: The Daily Telegraph (London) - June 11, 2013 Tuesday From Hawaii to Hong Kong, the trail of a whistleblower on the run BYLINE: Raf Sanchez; Nick Allen; Tom Phillips - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 16 - LENGTH: 764 words

Document 25 / 226: The Daily Telegraph (London) - June 11, 2013 Tuesday Why shouldn't governments and spies make sense of all this data?; The digital revolution is a boon in many ways, but it's also a thicket bad guys can hide in BYLINE: BENEDICT BROGAN - SECTION: EDITORIAL; OPINION, COLUMNS; Pg. 20 - LENGTH: 1264 words

Document 24 / 226: The Daily Telegraph (London) - June 11, 2013 Tuesday America faces long fight to capture NSA spy; Obama is urged to prosecute intelligence contractor for treason Whistleblower quits Hong Kong hotel in attempt to seek asylum BYLINE: Jon Swaine - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 16 - LENGTH: 835 words

Document 23 / 226: The Daily Telegraph (London) - June 11, 2013 Tuesday SO SHOULD WE ALL BE SCARED?; From his hiding place in Hong Kong, leaker Edward Snowden warns the American people about the threat of government snooping. But what's new, asks Peter Foster BYLINE: Peter Foster - SECTION: FEATURES; Pg. 19 - LENGTH: 1450 words

Document 22 / 226: The Daily Telegraph (London) - June 11, 2013 Tuesday GCHQ still answers to the law, insists Hague; US intelligence 'exposed Olympics terror threats' BYLINE: Christopher Hope - SECTION: NEWS; FRONT PAGE; Pg. 1,2- LENGTH: 545 words

Document 21 / 226: Daily Mirror - June 11, 2013 Tuesday LEAK GEEK IS CIA MAN SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 2 - LENGTH: 256 words

Document 20 / 226: Daily Mirror - June 11, 2013 Tuesday HAGUE: I LET SPIES BUG HUNDREDS EVERY YEAR; Intel 'stopped Olympic terror' BYLINE: JASON BEATTIE - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 2 - LENGTH: 329 words

Document 19 / 226: Daily Mirror - June 11, 2013 Tuesday A bugbear for Hague; VOICE OF THE [email protected] SECTION: EDITORIAL; OPINION, LEADING ARTICLES; Pg. 8 - LENGTH: 192 words

Document 18 / 226: DAILY MAIL (London) - June 11, 2013 Tuesday OUR ONLINE SPYING DEAL WITH US 'PREVENTED OLYMPIC TERROR STRIKE' 85 BYLINE: BY TIM SHIPMAN DEPUTY POLITICAL EDITOR - LENGTH: 777 words

Document 17 / 226: DAILY MAIL (London) - June 11, 2013 Tuesday COLLEGE DROP-OUT WHO GAVE AWAY HIS COUNTRY'S SECRETS BYLINE: BY TOM LEONARD - LENGTH: 976 words

Document 16 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 11, 2013 Tuesday Comment: Have we been saved from the United Stasi of America?: Edward Snowden's NSA whistleblowing is a much more significant act of bravery than mine over the Pentagon papers BYLINE: Daniel Ellsberg - SECTION: GUARDIAN COMMENT AND DEBATE PAGES; Pg. 30 - LENGTH: 992 words

Document 15 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 11, 2013 Tuesday Comment: The case for government as a force for good is still strong: The real threat to our privacy and the economy is not Big Brother but a weak state at the mercy of global business BYLINE: Polly Toynbee - SECTION: GUARDIAN COMMENT AND DEBATE PAGES; Pg. 31 - LENGTH: 1085 words

Document 14 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 11, 2013 Tuesday Front: Europe demands answers from Obama over surveillance by US BYLINE: Alan Travis and Dan Roberts in Washington - SECTION: GUARDIAN HOME PAGES; Pg. 1 - LENGTH: 1346 words

Document 13 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 11, 2013 Tuesday Covert surveillance: Special forces: Whistleblower did try to enlist BYLINE: Spencer Ackerman - SECTION: GUARDIAN HOME PAGES; Pg. 6 - LENGTH: 266 words

Document 12 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 11, 2013 Tuesday Covert surveillance: Snowden may be able to buy time from asylum system in disarray: Claim for resettlement to third country is unlikely to succeed, but whistleblower could delay extradition in Hong Kong BYLINE: Tania Branigan in Beijing and Jonathan Kaiman in Hong Kong - SECTION: GUARDIAN HOME PAGES; Pg. 6 - LENGTH: 773 words

Document 11 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 11, 2013 Tuesday Covert surveillance: Analysis: Speculation high over possible sanctuary in Iceland BYLINE: Owen Bowcott, Alexandra Topping and Ed Pilkington in New York - SECTION: GUARDIAN HOME PAGES; Pg. 6 - LENGTH: 638 words

Document 10 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 11, 2013 Tuesday Covert surveillance: Spies for hire: why so many have access to America's top secrets: Spencer Ackerman reveals how the expansion of US intelligence has caused a huge amount of sensitive work to be contracted out BYLINE: Spencer Ackerman - SECTION: GUARDIAN HOME PAGES; Pg. 8 - LENGTH: 1148 words

Document 9 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 11, 2013 Tuesday G2: 'The truth sets you free': Edward Snowden's leaks about the NSA's electronic surveillance make him one of the most damaging whistleblowers in history. But what drives loyal staff to reveal the crimes and misdemeanours of their employers? And how do they live with the backlash? BYLINE: Leo Benedictus, Leo Hickman and Richard Norton-Taylor - SECTION: GUARDIAN FEATURES PAGES; Pg. 6 - LENGTH: 2579 words

Document 8 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 11, 2013 Tuesday Leading Article: Between two worlds: Civil liberties and security BYLINE: Editorial - SECTION: GUARDIAN LEADER PAGES; Pg. 32 - LENGTH: 666 words

Document 7 / 226: The Daily Telegraph (London) - June 10, 2013 Monday NSA contractor, 29, outs himself as whistleblower BYLINE: Raf Sanchez; Chris Irvine - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 4 - LENGTH: 359 words

Document 6 / 226: Daily Mirror - June 10, 2013 Monday Hague faces MPs' quiz on illegal web snoop claim; LEAK BYLINE: JAMES LYONS - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 2 - LENGTH: 176 words

Document 5 / 226: DAILY MAIL (London) - June 10, 2013 Monday WHY I BLEW WHISTLE ON US ONLINE SPYING, LENGTH: 650 words

Document 4 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 10, 2013 Monday Front: The whistleblower: I can't allow the US government to destroy privacy and basic liberties: Edward Snowden, 29, emerges from hiding in Hong Kong: IT contractor says his concerns were ignored and he had to go public BYLINE: Glenn Greenwald and Ewen MacAskill in Hong Kong and Julian Borger - SECTION: GUARDIAN HOME PAGES; Pg. 1 - LENGTH: 727 words

Document 3 / 226 : The Guardian (London) - June 10, 2013 Monday Covert surveillance: 'I have no intention of hiding ... I have done nothing wrong': Profile: Edward Snowden, the man responsible for the leaks of secret documents detailing the NSA's widespread phone and internet surveillance BYLINE: Glenn Greenwald, Ewen MacAskill and Laura Poitras in Hong Kong - SECTION: GUARDIAN HOME PAGES; Pg. 2 - LENGTH: 2452 words

Document 2 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 10, 2013 Monday Covert surveillance: 'We hack everyone, everywhere ... It's horrifying': Edward Snowden was interviewed over several days in Hong Kong by Glenn Greenwald and Ewen MacAskill. These are his responses BYLINE: Glenn Greenwald and Ewen MacAskill - SECTION: GUARDIAN HOME PAGES; Pg. 4 - LENGTH: 1067 words

Document 1 / 226: The Guardian (London) - June 10, 2013 Monday Leading Article: Edward Snowden: No ordinary spy

86 BYLINE: Editorial - SECTION: GUARDIAN LEADER PAGES; Pg. 26 - LENGTH: 657 words

Copyright information: Daily Mirror: Copyright 2013 MGN Ltd. All Rights Reserved

The Guardian: Copyright 2013 Guardian Newspapers Limited All Rights Reserved

The Daily Telegraph: Copyright 2013 Telegraph Media Group Limited All Rights Reserved

Daily Mail: Copyright 2013 Associated Newspapers Ltd. All Rights Reserved

North American Newspapers Document 313 / 313: Daily News (New York) - July 9, 2013 Tuesday Judge rejects Bin kin's ploy BYLINE: Dareh Gregorian - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 19 - LENGTH: 189 words

Document 312 / 313: Daily News (New York) - July 9, 2013 Tuesday 'Everyone' is target of NSA, Snowden says BYLINE: Stephen Rex Brown With News Wire Services - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 10 - LENGTH: 160 words

Document 311 / 313: The New York Times - July 9, 2013 Tuesday Sore Feelings as U.S. and Europe Begin Trade Talks BYLINE: By ANNIE LOWREY - SECTION: Section B; Column 0; Business/Financial Desk; Pg. 8 - LENGTH: 891 words

Document 310 / 313: The New York Times - July 9, 2013 Tuesday A Magazine's Death Comes Amid Questions About 'Why?' BYLINE: By WILLIAM NEUMAN - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; Foreign Desk; QUITO JOURNAL; Pg. 9 - LENGTH: 1337 words

Document 309 / 313: The New York Times - July 9, 2013 Tuesday Soldier's Lawyers Ask Judge To Acquit on Aid to Enemy BYLINE: By SCOTT SHANE - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; National Desk; Pg. 11 - LENGTH: 826 words

Document 308 / 313: USA TODAY - July 9, 2013 Tuesday Hypocrisy of civil libertarians; They're up in arms over the NSA database, but what about ObamaCare and health records? BYLINE: Jonah Goldberg - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 6A - LENGTH: 796 words

Document 307 / 313: USA TODAY - July 9, 2013 Tuesday Privacy tools can curtail PRISM tracking; It can be as simple as a free browser add-on BYLINE: Byron Acohido - SECTION: MONEY; Pg. 2B - LENGTH: 550 words

Document 306 / 313: The Washington Post - July 9, 2013 Tuesday Snowden's links to WikiLeaks and journalists raises questions BYLINE: Walter Pincus - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A11 - LENGTH: 958 words

Document 305 / 313: The Washington Post - July 9, 2013 Tuesday [no title] SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A01 - LENGTH: 337 words

Document 304 / 313: The Washington Post - July 9, 2013 Tuesday Snowden not the first embarrassment for Booz Allen BYLINE: Tom Hamburger;Robert O'Harrow Jr. - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A09 - LENGTH: 2031 words

Document 303 / 313: The Washington Post - July 9, 2013 Tuesday Venezuela's Maduro culls power with Snowden asylum offer BYLINE: Juan Forero - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A07 - LENGTH: 1186 words - DATELINE: BOGOTA, COLOMBIA

Document 302 / 313: The New York Times - July 8, 2013 Monday Brazil Voices 'Deep Concern' Over Gathering of Data by U.S. BYLINE: By LARRY ROHTER - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; Foreign Desk; Pg. 7 - LENGTH: 457 words

Document 301 / 313: The New York Times - July 8, 2013 Monday Popular Demand BYLINE: By SHELLY FREIERMAN - SECTION: Section B; Column 0; Business/Financial Desk; Pg. 6 - LENGTH: 97 words

Document 300 / 313: The New York Times - July 8, 2013 Monday Privacy Group to Ask Supreme Court to Stop N.S.A.'s Phone Spying Program BYLINE: By JAMES RISEN - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; National Desk; Pg. 9 - LENGTH: 637 words

Document 299 / 313: USA TODAY - July 8, 2013 Monday Snowden advised to take offer; Russian official says asylum in Venezuela may be his 'last chance' BYLINE: The Associated Press - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 5A - LENGTH: 415 words

Document 298 / 313: USA TODAY - July 8, 2013 Monday In tech scandals, it's all about the scale; NSA didn't collect just a little info; reporters didn't hack just a few voice mails BYLINE: Michael Wolff - SECTION: MONEY; Pg. 1B - LENGTH: 884 words

Document 297 / 313: The Washington Post - July 8, 2013 Monday The president's summertime push

87 BYLINE: Zachary A. Goldfarb - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A02 - LENGTH: 1244 words

Document 296 / 313: Daily News (New York) - July 7, 2013 Sunday Bolivia's in Snowden derby BYLINE: Erin Durkin with News Wire Services - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 6 - LENGTH: 165 words

Document 295 / 313: The New York Times - July 7, 2013 Sunday A New Anti-American Axis? BYLINE: By LESLIE H. GELB and DIMITRI K. SIMES. - SECTION: Section SR; Column 0; Sunday Review Desk; OPINION; Pg. 5 - LENGTH: 1271 words

Document 294 / 313: The New York Times - July 7, 2013 Sunday In Secret, Court Vastly Broadens Powers of N.S.A. BYLINE: By ERIC LICHTBLAU - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; National Desk; Pg. 1 - LENGTH: 1659 words

Document 293 / 313: The New York Times - July 7, 2013 Sunday Russian Official Says Venezuela Is the 'Best Solution' for Snowden BYLINE: By DAVID M. HERSZENHORN and RANDAL C. ARCHIBOLD; David M. Herszenhorn reported from Moscow, and Randal C. Archibold from Mexico City. - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; Foreign Desk; Pg. 10 - LENGTH: 1120 words

Document 292 / 313: The Washington Post - July 7, 2013 Sunday Idea of Venezuelan asylum for Snowden gains steam within Russia BYLINE: Will Englund;Juan Forero - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A15 - LENGTH: 433 words - DATELINE: MOSCOW

Document 291 / 313: Daily News (New York) - July 6, 2013 Saturday LAND O' LEAKS 2 Latin nations may grant Snowden asylum BYLINE: BY DANIEL BEEKMAN NEW YORK DAILY NEWS With News Wire Services - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 12 - LENGTH: 463 words

Document 290 / 313: The New York Times - July 6, 2013 Saturday Lincoln's Surveillance State BYLINE: By DAVID T. Z. MINDICH. - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; Editorial Desk; OP-ED CONTRIBUTOR; Pg. 17 - LENGTH: 708 words

Document 289 / 313: The New York Times - July 6, 2013 Saturday Venezuela Offers Asylum to N.S.A. Leaker BYLINE: By WILLIAM NEUMAN and DAVID M. HERSZENHORN; MarÌa Eugenia DÌaz contributed reporting from Caracas, Venezuela. - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; Foreign Desk; Pg. 7 - LENGTH: 539 words

Document 288 / 313: The Washington Post - July 6, 2013 Saturday Snowden's WikiLeaks aide believes in shedding light BYLINE: Anthony Faiola;Karla Adam - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A01 - LENGTH: 1239 words - DATELINE: LONDON

Document 287 / 313: The Washington Post - July 6, 2013 Saturday Venezuelan president offers sanctuary to NSA leaker BYLINE: Emilia Diaz;Juan Forero - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A04 - LENGTH: 751 words - DATELINE: CARACAS, VENEZUELA

Document 286 / 313: The Washington Post - July 6, 2013 Saturday [no title] SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A01 - LENGTH: 19 words

Document 285 / 313: The New York Times - July 5, 2013 Friday Jay-Z Is Watching, and He Knows Your Friends BYLINE: By JON PARELES - SECTION: Section C; Column 0; Movies, Performing Arts/Weekend Desk; Pg. 8 - LENGTH: 617 words

Document 284 / 313: The New York Times - July 5, 2013 Friday France, Too, Is Sweeping Up Data, Newspaper Reveals BYLINE: By STEVEN ERLANGER - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; Foreign Desk; Pg. 3 - LENGTH: 593 words

Document 283 / 313: The New York Times - July 5, 2013 Friday RÈsumÈ Shows Leaker Honed Hacking Skills BYLINE: By CHRISTOPHER DREW and SCOTT SHANE - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; Foreign Desk; Pg. 1 - LENGTH: 1376 words

Document 282 / 313: USA TODAY - July 5, 2013 Friday IN BRIEF SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 4A - LENGTH: 484 words

Document 281 / 313: USA TODAY - July 5, 2013 Friday Box Office BYLINE: Compiled by Maria Puente - SECTION: LIFE; Pg. 1D - LENGTH: 202 words

Document 280 / 313: The Washington Post - July 5, 2013 Friday Latin leaders unite against their critics BYLINE: Juan Forero - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A04 - LENGTH: 806 words - DATELINE: BOGOTA, COLOMBIA

Document 279 / 313: The Washington Post - July 5, 2013 Friday Airport filled with everything except a sign of Snowden BYLINE: Kathy Lally;Will Englund - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A04 - LENGTH: 871 words- DATELINE: MOSCOW

Document 278 / 313: Daily News (New York) - July 4, 2013 Thursday I THEE RED Russian spy is hot for Snow BYLINE: BY STEPHEN REX BROWN NEW YORK DAILY NEWS - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 5 - LENGTH: 366 words

Document 277 / 313: Daily News (New York) - July 4, 2013 Thursday

88 SAY SPY DO! Tells Snowden: KGB my hubby Kremlin cutie's wed shocker HAPPY 4TH OF JULY FIREWORKS CONEY ISLAND HOT DOGS FREE FAMILY FUN $190,000 IN PRIZES TO BE WON SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 1 - LENGTH: 1 words

Document 276 / 313: The New York Times - July 4, 2013 Thursday Haven High on Beauty But Low on Tech BYLINE: By WILLIAM NEUMAN - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; Foreign Desk; QUITO JOURNAL; Pg. 6 - LENGTH: 1137 words

Document 275 / 313: The New York Times - July 4, 2013 Thursday How Could We Blow This One? BYLINE: By NICHOLAS D. KRISTOF - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; Editorial Desk; OP-ED COLUMNIST; Pg. 25 - LENGTH: 813 words

Document 274 / 313: The New York Times - July 4, 2013 Thursday Lawmakers Question White House Account of an Internet Surveillance Program BYLINE: By JAMES RISEN - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; Foreign Desk; Pg. 6 - LENGTH: 813 words

Document 273 / 313: The New York Times - July 4, 2013 Thursday Barring of Bolivian Plane Infuriates Latin America as Snowden Case Widens BYLINE: By WILLIAM NEUMAN and ALISON SMALE; William Neuman reported from Caracas, and Alison Smale from Berlin. Reporting was contributed by Melissa Eddy from Berlin, Steven Erlanger from Paris, Rick Gladstone from New York, and Jackie Calmes and Peter Baker from Washington. - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; Foreign Desk; Pg. 6 - LENGTH: 1220 words

Document 272 / 313: The Washington Post - July 4, 2013 Thursday Some see hunt for Snowden in Bolivian leader's detour BYLINE: Greg Miller - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A01 - LENGTH: 1045 words

Document 271 / 313: The Washington Post - July 4, 2013 Thursday France seeks to delay talks after reports of U.S. spying BYLINE: Michael Birnbaum - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A13 - LENGTH: 525 words - DATELINE: BERLIN

Document 270 / 313: Daily News (New York) - July 3, 2013 Wednesday Leaking credibility BYLINE: NLVL - SECTION: EDITORIAL; Pg. 30 - LENGTH: 438 words

Document 269 / 313: Daily News (New York) - July 3, 2013 Wednesday Air rage amid leaker frenzy BYLINE: Stephen Rex Brown With News Wire Services - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 8 - LENGTH: 145 words

Document 268 / 313: The New York Times - July 3, 2013 Wednesday Kerry, Meeting Russian Official, Seeks Syria Talks Soon BYLINE: By MICHAEL R. GORDON - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; Foreign Desk; Pg. 3 - LENGTH: 849 words

Document 267 / 313: The New York Times - July 3, 2013 Wednesday Snowden Drama Ensnares An Angry Bolivian Leader BYLINE: By RICK GLADSTONE and WILLIAM NEUMAN; Rick Gladstone reported from New York, and William Neuman from Caracas, Venezuela. David M. Herszenhorn and Andrew Roth contributed reporting from Moscow, and Monica Machicao from La Paz, Bolivia. - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; Foreign Desk; Pg. 10 - LENGTH: 806 words

Document 266 / 313: USA TODAY - July 3, 2013 Wednesday Don't let leaker's long, strange trip take NSA off the hook SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 8A - LENGTH: 568 words

Document 265 / 313: USA TODAY - July 3, 2013 Wednesday Online TODAY; What we're following SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 3A - LENGTH: 233 words

Document 264 / 313: The Washington Post - July 3, 2013 Wednesday Fugitive in limbo: It's a rich, old story BYLINE: Megan McDonough - SECTION: STYLE; Pg. C01 - LENGTH: 562 words

Document 263 / 313: The Washington Post - July 3, 2013 Wednesday [no title] SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A01 - LENGTH: 356 words

Document 262 / 313: The Washington Post - July 3, 2013 Wednesday Attorney for Snowden's father says WikiLeaks won't let him talk to his son BYLINE: Jerry Markon - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A12 - LENGTH: 696 words

Document 261 / 313: The Washington Post - July 3, 2013 Wednesday The Twenty-Sixth of June? Hmmm. Doesn't have quite the same ring. BYLINE: Al Kamen - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A17 - LENGTH: 810 words

Document 260 / 313: The Washington Post - July 3, 2013 Wednesday Leaker's options narrow as no safe harbor materializes BYLINE: Kathy Lally;Juan Forero - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A12 - LENGTH: 1333 words - DATELINE: MOSCOW

Document 259 / 313: Daily News (New York) - July 2, 2013 Tuesday Snow-y Russia NSA leaker seeks asylum as Putin tells him to cool it BYLINE: BY STEPHEN REX BROWN NEW YORK DAILY NEWS With News Wire Services - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 8 - LENGTH: 280 words

Document 258 / 313: The New York Times - July 2, 2013 Tuesday Support for N.S.A. Defies Liberal Critics and Repute 89 BYLINE: By JEREMY W. PETERS - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; National Desk; Pg. 15 - LENGTH: 1177 words

Document 257 / 313: The New York Times - July 2, 2013 Tuesday Snowden Seeks Asylum in Russia, Putting Kremlin on the Spot BYLINE: By ANDREW ROTH and ELLEN BARRY - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; Foreign Desk; Pg. 6 - LENGTH: 1120 words

Document 256 / 313: The New York Times - July 2, 2013 Tuesday Leaker Is Said To Claim U.S. Is Blocking Asylum Bids BYLINE: By RICK GLADSTONE and WILLIAM NEUMAN; Rick Gladstone reported from New York, and William Neuman from Quito, Ecuador. - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; Foreign Desk; Pg. 6 - LENGTH: 679 words

Document 255 / 313: The New York Times - July 2, 2013 Tuesday Outrage in Europe Grows Over Spying Disclosures BYLINE: By STEVEN ERLANGER; Reporting was contributed by Brian B. Knowlton from Washington; Michael D. Shear from Dar es Salaam, Tanzania; Melissa Eddy and Chris Cottrell from Berlin; Aurelien Breeden from Paris; and Rick Gladstone from New York. - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; Foreign Desk; Pg. 4 - LENGTH: 1572 words

Document 254 / 313: The New York Times - July 2, 2013 Tuesday Guardian Columnist Given Book Contract BYLINE: By JULIE BOSMAN - SECTION: Section C; Column 0; The Arts/Cultural Desk; Pg. 3 - LENGTH: 245 words

Document 253 / 313: USA TODAY - July 2, 2013 Tuesday Online TODAY; What we're following SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 3A - LENGTH: 211 words

Document 252 / 313: USA TODAY - July 2, 2013 Tuesday Russia invites Snowden, on one condition; He must stop leaking NSA secrets if he wants asylum, Putin says BYLINE: Kim Hjelmgaard, and Aaron Tilton, USA TODAY - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 5A - LENGTH: 524 words

Document 251 / 313: The Washington Post - July 2, 2013 Tuesday Big little newspaper BYLINE: Paul Farhi - SECTION: STYLE; Pg. C01 - LENGTH: 1053 words

Document 250 / 313: The Washington Post - July 2, 2013 Tuesday Ecuador's thorny ad campaign BYLINE: Al Kamen - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A13 - LENGTH: 965 words

Document 249 / 313: The Washington Post - July 2, 2013 Tuesday Kerry lauds Beijing on N. Korea BYLINE: Karen DeYoung - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A06 - LENGTH: 553 words - DATELINE: BANDAR SERI BEGAWAN, BRUNEI

Document 248 / 313: The Washington Post - July 2, 2013 Tuesday Snowden, left stranded, seeks asylum in Russia BYLINE: Kathy Lally - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A01 - LENGTH: 1111 words - DATELINE: MOSCOW

Document 247 / 313: The Washington Post - July 2, 2013 Tuesday U.S. seeks to calm Europe over spying reports BYLINE: Colum Lynch;Ellen Nakashima - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A10 - LENGTH: 1177 words

Document 246 / 313: Daily News (New York) - July 1, 2013 Monday Euro allies bugged by NSA spying BYLINE: Stephen Rex Brown With News Wire Services - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 6 - LENGTH: 217 words

Document 245 / 313: The New York Times - July 1, 2013 Monday Journalism, Even When It's Tilted BYLINE: By DAVID CARR. - SECTION: Section B; Column 0; Business/Financial Desk; THE MEDIA EQUATION; Pg. 1 - LENGTH: 1159 words

Document 244 / 313: The New York Times - July 1, 2013 Monday Snowden's Fate Is Up To Russia, Ecuador Says BYLINE: By WILLIAM NEUMAN; Ellen Barry contributed reporting from Moscow, and Eric Schmitt from Washington. - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; Foreign Desk; Pg. 8 - LENGTH: 758 words

Document 243 / 313: The New York Times - July 1, 2013 Monday Job Title Key To Inner Access Held by Leaker BYLINE: By SCOTT SHANE and DAVID E. SANGER - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; Foreign Desk; Pg. 1 - LENGTH: 1743 words

Document 242 / 313: The New York Times - July 1, 2013 Monday Europeans Voice Anger Over Reports of Spying By U.S. on Its Allies BYLINE: By STEPHEN CASTLE and ERIC SCHMITT; Stephen Castle reported from London, and Eric Schmitt from Washington. Scott Shane contributed reporting from Baltimore. - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; Foreign Desk; Pg. 9 - LENGTH: 1167 words

Document 241 / 313: USA TODAY - July 1, 2013 Monday Snowden upsets the resets with China and Russia; Cold War tune's predictable dance steps BYLINE: Richard Benedetto - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 8A - LENGTH: 547 words

Document 240 / 313: The Washington Post - July 1, 2013 Monday WikiLeaks' Assange says Snowden is 'marooned' BYLINE: David A. Fahrenthold;Juan Forero - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A01 - LENGTH: 1139 words

Document 239 / 313: The Washington Post - July 1, 2013 Monday A trail of inaccuracy about NSA programs BYLINE: Greg Miller - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A01 - LENGTH: 1563 words

90 Document 238 / 313: The Washington Post - July 1, 2013 Monday E.U. angry over spying allegations BYLINE: Michael Birnbaum - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A08 - LENGTH: 911 words- DATELINE: BERLIN

Document 237 / 313: Daily News (New York) - June 30, 2013 Sunday Washington's worst-kept secret BYLINE: BY JAMES WARREN - SECTION: EDITORIAL; Pg. 33 - LENGTH: 751 words

Document 236 / 313: The New York Times - June 30, 2013 Sunday The Better Not to See You With, My Dear BYLINE: By JENNA WORTHAM - SECTION: Section BU; Column 0; Money and Business/Financial Desk; BITS; Pg. 4 - LENGTH: 881 words

Document 235 / 313: The New York Times - June 30, 2013 Sunday Ecuador Leader Says Biden Called Him About Snowden BYLINE: By WILLIAM NEUMAN; Maggy Ayala contributed reporting from Quito, and Eric Schmitt from Washington. - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; Foreign Desk; Pg. 8 - LENGTH: 854 words

Document 234 / 313: The New York Times - June 30, 2013 Sunday Germans Loved Obama. Now We Don't Trust Him. BYLINE: By MALTE SPITZ. - SECTION: Section SR; Column 0; Sunday Review Desk; OPINION; Pg. 4 - LENGTH: 1249 words

Document 233 / 313: The New York Times - June 30, 2013 Sunday Jimmy Wales Is Not an Internet Billionare BYLINE: By AMY CHOZICK - SECTION: Section MM; Column 0; Magazine Desk; Pg. 28 - LENGTH: 4606 words

Document 232 / 313: The Washington Post - June 30, 2013 Sunday Judge defends role in spying BYLINE: Carol D. Leonnig;Ellen Nakashima;Barton Gellman - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A01 - LENGTH: 1879 words

Document 231 / 313: Daily News (New York) - June 29, 2013 Saturday Snowden's dad angles for son deal BYLINE: Larry McShane - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 12 - LENGTH: 155 words

Document 230 / 313: The New York Times - June 29, 2013 Saturday After Leaks, Obama Leads Wide Effort On Damage Control BYLINE: By PETER BAKER - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; National Desk; WHITE HOUSE MEMO; Pg. 11 - LENGTH: 1262 words

Document 229 / 313: The New York Times - June 29, 2013 Saturday While N.S.A. Leaker Stays in Hiding, Russian TV Builds a Pedestal for Him BYLINE: By ELLEN BARRY - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; Foreign Desk; Pg. 5 - LENGTH: 1315 words

Document 228 / 313: The Washington Post - June 29, 2013 Saturday In case you missed it SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A02 - LENGTH: 258 words

Document 227 / 313: The Washington Post - June 29, 2013 Saturday Snowden didn't betray Americans, his father says BYLINE: Debbi Wilgoren - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A03 - LENGTH: 414 words

Document 226 / 313: The Washington Post - June 29, 2013 Saturday Kerry tireless in quest for Mideast peace deal BYLINE: Karen DeYoung - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A01 - LENGTH: 1187 words - DATELINE: JERUSALEM

Document 225 / 313: Daily News (New York) - June 28, 2013 Friday Ah, Snow big deal! Bam shrugs off frenzy to nab leaker BYLINE: BY STEPHEN REX BROWN NEW YORK DAILY NEWS With News Wire Services - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 20 - LENGTH: 421 words

Document 224 / 313: The New York Times - June 28, 2013 Friday New Leak Suggests Ashcroft Confrontation Was Over N.S.A. Program BYLINE: By CHARLIE SAVAGE and JAMES RISEN - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; Foreign Desk; Pg. 6 - LENGTH: 1238 words

Document 223 / 313: The New York Times - June 28, 2013 Friday Quotation of the Day SECTION: Section A; Column 0; Metropolitan Desk; Pg. 2 - LENGTH: 25 words

Document 222 / 313: The New York Times - June 28, 2013 Friday Obama Seeks to Play Down Significance of Fugitive Leaker BYLINE: By ELLEN BARRY, MICHAEL D. SHEAR and WILLIAM NEUMAN; Ellen Barry reported from Moscow; Michael D. Shear from Dakar, Senegal; and William Neuman from Quevedo, Ecuador. Rick Gladstone contributed reporting from New York, Andrew Roth from Moscow, and Chris Buckley from Hong Kong. - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; Foreign Desk; Pg. 6 - LENGTH: 992 words

Document 221 / 313: The New York Times - June 28, 2013 Friday Retired U.S. General Is Focus Of Inquiry Over Iran Leak BYLINE: By THE NEW YORK TIMES - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; National Desk; Pg. 18 - LENGTH: 408 words

Document 220 / 313: USA TODAY - June 28, 2013 Friday U.S. trade with Ecuador on the line?; Snowden's trek a concern BYLINE: Girish Gupta, Special for USA TODAY, - SECTION: MONEY; Pg. 4B - LENGTH: 733 words

Document 219 / 313: USA TODAY - June 28, 2013 Friday In Senegal, Obama touts gay rights; Visits country where homosexuality is illegal, discrimination is norm BYLINE: Jennifer Lazuta, Special for USA TODAY, - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 2A - LENGTH: 647 words 91

Document 218 / 313: The Washington Post - June 28, 2013 Friday Law denying benefits to gays divided Justice BYLINE: Sari Horwitz - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A04 - LENGTH: 602 words

Document 217 / 313: The Washington Post - June 28, 2013 Friday NSA collected data with private sector after 9/11 BYLINE: Robert O'Harrow Jr.;Ellen Nakashima - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A06 - LENGTH: 1341 words

Document 216 / 313: The Washington Post - June 28, 2013 Friday NSA director tries to boost staff's morale, urges employees to stay focused on work instead of controversy BYLINE: Joe Davidson - SECTION: METRO; Pg. B04 - LENGTH: 838 words

Document 215 / 313: The Washington Post - June 28, 2013 Friday Ecuador pulls out of trade deal with U.S. BYLINE: Juan Forero - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A06 - LENGTH: 486 words - DATELINE: BOGOTA, COLOMBIA

Document 214 / 313: The Washington Post - June 28, 2013 Friday Security clearances questioned BYLINE: Tom Hamburger;Zachary A. Goldfarb - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A01 - LENGTH: 924 words

Document 213 / 313: The Washington Post - June 28, 2013 Friday Surveillance aided 54 cases, NSA says BYLINE: Peter Finn - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A06 - LENGTH: 465 words

Document 212 / 313: The Washington Post - June 28, 2013 Friday Diplomacy applied late in the game BYLINE: Philip Rucker;Sari Horwitz - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A06 - LENGTH: 1486 words

Document 211 / 313: Daily News (New York) - June 27, 2013 Thursday Snowden in '09: Shoot leakers! BYLINE: BY STEPHEN REX BROWN NEW YORK DAILY NEWS - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 6 - LENGTH: 324 words

Document 210 / 313: Daily News (New York) - June 27, 2013 Thursday Get Snowden BYLINE: NLVL - SECTION: EDITORIAL; Pg. 30 - LENGTH: 387 words

Document 209 / 313: Daily News (New York) - June 27, 2013 Thursday SECRETS OF MR. SECRET JOURNALIST BEHIND THE BOMBSHELL BYLINE: BY DAREH GREGORIAN NEW YORK DAILY NEWS - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 6 - LENGTH: 1131 words

Document 208 / 313: The New York Times - June 27, 2013 Thursday The End Of Fannie And Freddie? BYLINE: By JOE NOCERA - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; Editorial Desk; OP-ED COLUMNIST; Pg. 31 - LENGTH: 835 words

Document 207 / 313: The New York Times - June 27, 2013 Thursday Under Leaker's Screen Name, '09 Chat Berates Leaks BYLINE: By SCOTT SHANE - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; Foreign Desk; Pg. 12 - LENGTH: 1145 words

Document 206 / 313: The New York Times - June 27, 2013 Thursday Ecuador Hints Snowden May Need to Wait Awhile BYLINE: By DAVID M. HERSZENHORN and RICK GLADSTONE; David M. Herszenhorn reported from Moscow, and Rick Gladstone from New York. Reporting was contributed by Ellen Barry and Andrew Roth from Moscow; Peter Baker from Washington; and William Neuman from Quito, Ecuador. - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; Foreign Desk; Pg. 12 - LENGTH: 754 words

Document 205 / 313: USA TODAY - June 27, 2013 Thursday Ecuador reviews Snowden request; Embassy asks U.S. to submit objections to asylum for fugitive BYLINE: Anna Arutunyan and Oren Dorell, USA TODAY, - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 9A - LENGTH: 546 words

Document 204 / 313: The Washington Post - June 27, 2013 Thursday In 2009, Snowden denounced leakers BYLINE: Peter Finn;Julie Tate - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A01 - LENGTH: 1531 words

Document 203 / 313: The Washington Post - June 27, 2013 Thursday Kerry: No deadlines for bringing Israel, Palestinians to table BYLINE: Karen DeYoung - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A14 - LENGTH: 1183 words - DATELINE: AMMAN, JORDAN

Document 202 / 313: The Washington Post - June 27, 2013 Thursday Another effort at nuclear cuts BYLINE: Walter Pincus - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A19 - LENGTH: 945 words

Document 201 / 313: Daily News (New York) - June 26, 2013 Wednesday U.S. SWEATS IT AS PUTIN TALKS TOUGH He won't return Snowden Taunts Bam with 'human rights' talk BYLINE: BY STEPHEN REX BROWN NEW YORK DAILY NEWS With News Wire Services - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 4 - LENGTH: 684 words

Document 200 / 313: Daily News (New York) - June 26, 2013 Wednesday Apple co-founder sour on snooping BYLINE: Erik Ortiz - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 4 - LENGTH: 200 words

Document 199 / 313: The New York Times - June 26, 2013 Wednesday With Snowden in Middle, U.S. And Russia Joust, and Cool Off BYLINE: By DAVID M. HERSZENHORN, ELLEN BARRY and PETER BAKER.; David M. Herszenhorn and Ellen Barry reported from Moscow, and Peter Baker from Washington. Reporting was contributed by Andrew Roth from Moscow; David E. Sanger, Steven Lee Myers and

92 Charlie Savage from Washington; and Michael R. Gordon from Jidda, Saudi Arabia. - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; Foreign Desk; Pg. 1 - LENGTH: 1332 words

Document 198 / 313: The New York Times - June 26, 2013 Wednesday China Shrugs at U.S.'s Snowden Warning BYLINE: By JANE PERLEZ and CHRIS BUCKLEY; Jane Perlez reported from Beijing, and Chris Buckley from Hong Kong. Keith Bradsher contributed reporting from Hong Kong. - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; Foreign Desk; Pg. 10 - LENGTH: 750 words

Document 197 / 313: The New York Times - June 26, 2013 Wednesday Ecuador Risks Trade Problems With U.S. if It Grants Asylum to Snowden BYLINE: By WILLIAM NEUMAN and MARK LANDLER; William Neuman reported from Quito, Ecuador, and Mark Landler from Washington. Maggy Ayala contributed reporting from Quito. - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; Foreign Desk; Pg. 10 - LENGTH: 1145 words

Document 196 / 313: The New York Times - June 26, 2013 Wednesday Obama Unveils New Plans To Address Climate Change BYLINE: By MARK LANDLER and JOHN M. BRODER - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; National Desk; Pg. 17 - LENGTH: 1167 words

Document 195 / 313: The New York Times - June 26, 2013 Wednesday A Stakeout Grinds On in Airport Limbo BYLINE: By ANDREW ROTH and ELLEN BARRY - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; Foreign Desk; Pg. 10 - LENGTH: 396 words

Document 194 / 313: USA TODAY - June 26, 2013 Wednesday Russia refuses to extradite Snowden to U.S.; Putin says fugitive is at airport -- but not technically in country BYLINE: Anna Arutunyan,, Kim Hjelmgaard, and Zach Coleman - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 8A - LENGTH: 519 words

Document 193 / 313: The Washington Post - June 26, 2013 Wednesday [no title] SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A01 - LENGTH: 31 words

Document 192 / 313: The Washington Post - June 26, 2013 Wednesday Putin: No grounds to extradite Snowden BYLINE: Kathy Lally;Will Englund - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A04 - LENGTH: 1160 words - DATELINE: MOSCOW

Document 191 / 313: The Washington Post - June 26, 2013 Wednesday Two area troupes hit the road this summer BYLINE: Jessica Goldstein - SECTION: STYLE; Pg. C02 - LENGTH: 1012 words

Document 190 / 313: The Washington Post - June 26, 2013 Wednesday NSA head says surveillance fact sheet was Ô¨‚awed BYLINE: Greg Miller;Ellen Nakashima - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A04 - LENGTH: 537 words

Document 189 / 313: The Washington Post - June 26, 2013 Wednesday In NSA leak, foes of U.S. see a chance to return fire BYLINE: Colum Lynch - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A04 - LENGTH: 1081 words

Document 188 / 313: Daily News (New York) - June 25, 2013 Tuesday CUT & RUN Snowden: Lower-pay job part of my plot to nab info BYLINE: BY ADAM EDELMAN and STEPHEN REX BROWN NEW YORK DAILY NEWS - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 10 - LENGTH: 556 words

Document 187 / 313: The New York Times - June 25, 2013 Tuesday Assange, Back in News, Never Left U.S. Radar BYLINE: By DAVID CARR and RAVI SOMAIYA - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; Foreign Desk; Pg. 1 - LENGTH: 1570 words

Document 186 / 313: The New York Times - June 25, 2013 Tuesday Leaker's Hasty Exit Started With Pizza At Cramped Hide-Out BYLINE: By KEITH BRADSHER - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; Foreign Desk; Pg. 7 - LENGTH: 1168 words

Document 185 / 313: The New York Times - June 25, 2013 Tuesday A Panda Escapes From the Zoo, and Social Media Swoop In With the Net BYLINE: By TRIP GABRIEL; Erin Banco contributed reporting. - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; National Desk; Pg. 17 - LENGTH: 659 words

Document 184 / 313: The New York Times - June 25, 2013 Tuesday Empty Seat Deepens A Mystery In Moscow BYLINE: By ELLEN BARRY and DAVID M. HERSZENHORN - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; Foreign Desk; Pg. 6 - LENGTH: 965 words

Document 183 / 313: The New York Times - June 25, 2013 Tuesday Leaker's Flight Raises Tension For 3 Nations BYLINE: By PETER BAKER and ELLEN BARRY; Peter Baker reported from Washington, and Ellen Barry from Moscow. Reporting was contributed by Scott Shane, Steven Lee Myers and Charlie Savage from Washington; David M. Herszenhorn from Moscow; Michael R. Gordon from New Delhi; Rick Gladstone from New York; William Neuman from Quito, Ecuador; and Victoria Burnett from Havana. - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; Foreign Desk; Pg. 1 - LENGTH: 1811 words

Document 182 / 313: USA TODAY - June 25, 2013 Tuesday Who do you trust? Your banker; But your doctor? Not so much, survey finds BYLINE: Mark Veverka, Special for USA TODAY, - SECTION: MONEY; Pg. 1B - LENGTH: 854 words

Document 181 / 313: USA TODAY - June 25, 2013 Tuesday Right to charge whistle-blower with espionage SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 7A - LENGTH: 134 words

Document 180 / 313: USA TODAY - June 25, 2013 Tuesday Anger, admiration follow NSA leaker Snowden 93 SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 7A - LENGTH: 298 words

Document 179 / 313: USA TODAY - June 25, 2013 Tuesday Assange calling the shots on Snowden; From inside embassy, WikiLeaks founder helping NSA leaker flee BYLINE: Oren Dorell, @OrenDorell, USA TODAY - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 5A - LENGTH: 491 words

Document 178 / 313: USA TODAY - June 25, 2013 Tuesday Snowden chase reveals secret double standard; Some public servants and some secrets are more equal than others BYLINE: Jonathan Turley - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 6A - LENGTH: 803 words

Document 177 / 313: USA TODAY - June 25, 2013 Tuesday What we're following SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 3A - LENGTH: 209 words

Document 176 / 313: USA TODAY - June 25, 2013 Tuesday Obama finally fighting on climate change SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 7A - LENGTH: 557 words

Document 175 / 313: USA TODAY - June 25, 2013 Tuesday Snowden sets off global dispute; NSA leaker is out of sight but much on minds of leaders BYLINE: Zach Coleman and Kevin Johnson, USA TODAY, - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 1A - LENGTH: 442 words

Document 174 / 313: The Washington Post - June 25, 2013 Tuesday [no title] SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A01 - LENGTH: 14 words

Document 173 / 313: The Washington Post - June 25, 2013 Tuesday U.S. is worried about security of documents Snowden has BYLINE: Ellen Nakashima;Greg Miller - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A07 - LENGTH: 963 words

Document 172 / 313: The Washington Post - June 25, 2013 Tuesday Ecuadoran leader invites tussle with U.S. over Snowden BYLINE: Juan Forero - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A07 - LENGTH: 1022 words - DATELINE: BOGOTA, COLOMBIA

Document 171 / 313: The Washington Post - June 25, 2013 Tuesday Snowden out of sight as U.S. pressures Russia BYLINE: Kathy Lally;Anthony Faiola - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A01 - LENGTH: 1138 words - DATELINE: MOSCOW

Document 170 / 313: The Washington Post - June 25, 2013 Tuesday Kim case a hard nut to crack BYLINE: Walter Pincus - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A13 - LENGTH: 993 words

Document 169 / 313: The Washington Post - June 25, 2013 Tuesday Bill seeks limits on call data collection BYLINE: Aaron Blake;Ellen Nakashima - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A06 - LENGTH: 550 words

Document 168 / 313: The Washington Post - June 25, 2013 Tuesday Details of Snowden's Hong Kong stay emerge BYLINE: Jia Lynn Yang;Peter Finn;Sari Horwitz - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A01 - LENGTH: 1495 words - DATELINE: HONG KONG

Document 167 / 313: The Washington Post - June 25, 2013 Tuesday Focus should be on government secrecy,not Snowden, whistleblower advocates say BYLINE: Joe Davidson - SECTION: METRO; Pg. B04 - LENGTH: 950 words

Document 166 / 313: The Washington Post - June 25, 2013 Tuesday Obama's approach to crisis draws Ô¨re BYLINE: Philip Rucker - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A07 - LENGTH: 972 words

Document 165 / 313: Daily News (New York) - June 24, 2013 Monday LEAKER'S MAD DASH Moscow, Havana aid Snowden Turns back on U.S., seeks asylum in Ecuador BYLINE: BY ADAM EDELMAN and STEPHEN REX BROWN NEW YORK DAILY NEWS With News Wire Services - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 9 - LENGTH: 1048 words

Document 164 / 313: The New York Times - June 24, 2013 Monday N.S.A. Leak Puts Focus on System Administrators BYLINE: By CHRISTOPHER DREW and SOMINI SENGUPTA - SECTION: Section B; Column 0; Business/Financial Desk; Pg. 1 - LENGTH: 1133 words

Document 163 / 313: The New York Times - June 24, 2013 Monday China Said to Have Made Call to Let Leaker Depart BYLINE: By JANE PERLEZ and KEITH BRADSHER; Jane Perlez reported from Beijing, and Keith Bradsher from Hong Kong. - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; Foreign Desk; Pg. 9 - LENGTH: 1036 words

Document 162 / 313: The New York Times - June 24, 2013 Monday U.S. Traces Path As N.S.A. Leaker Flees Hong Kong BYLINE: By PETER BAKER and ELLEN BARRY; Peter Baker reported from Washington, and Ellen Barry from Moscow. Reporting was contributed by Scott Shane, Steven Lee Myers and Charlie Savage from Washington; Keith Bradsher from Hong Kong; Michael R. Gordon from Doha, Qatar; Rick Gladstone from New York; and Andrew Roth from Moscow. - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; Foreign Desk; Pg. 1 - LENGTH: 1681 words

Document 161 / 313: The New York Times - June 24, 2013 Monday Offering Aid, WikiLeaks Gets Back in the Game BYLINE: By SCOTT SHANE - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; Foreign Desk; Pg. 1 - LENGTH: 1433 words

94 Document 160 / 313: USA TODAY - June 24, 2013 Monday Online TODAY; What we're following SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 3A - LENGTH: 209 words

Document 159 / 313: USA TODAY - June 24, 2013 Monday I spy very little reason to worry; Government bureaucracy not known for efficiency in today's digital world BYLINE: Michael Wolff - SECTION: MONEY; Pg. 5B - LENGTH: 875 words

Document 158 / 313: USA TODAY - June 24, 2013 Monday Snowden on the run again; Flight raises concerns of foreign aid BYLINE: Anna Arutunyan, and Zach Coleman - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 1A - LENGTH: 495 words

Document 157 / 313: USA TODAY - June 24, 2013 Monday Where, oh where is Edward Snowden? SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 9A - LENGTH: 598 words

Document 156 / 313: The Washington Post - June 24, 2013 Monday [no title] SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A01 - LENGTH: 52 words

Document 155 / 313: The Washington Post - June 24, 2013 Monday In Moscow, media scramble as rumors of Snowden swirl BYLINE: Kathy Lally - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A06 - LENGTH: 728 words - DATELINE: MOSCOW

Document 154 / 313: The Washington Post - June 24, 2013 Monday Is Glenn Greenwald more than a reporter? BYLINE: Paul Farhi - SECTION: STYLE; Pg. C01 - LENGTH: 783 words

Document 153 / 313: The Washington Post - June 24, 2013 Monday WikiLeaks pledges its 'full help and assistance' BYLINE: Anthony Faiola - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A06 - LENGTH: 908 words - DATELINE: LONDON

Document 152 / 313: The Washington Post - June 24, 2013 Monday Snowden saga moves to Moscow BYLINE: Kathy Lally;Anthony Faiola;Jia Lynn Yang - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A01 - LENGTH: 1528 words - DATELINE: MOSCOW

Document 151 / 313: The Washington Post - June 24, 2013 Monday Snowden could Ô¨nd friendly soil in Latin America BYLINE: Juan Forero - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A07 - LENGTH: 1112 words - DATELINE: BOGOTA, COLOMBIA

Document 150 / 313: The Washington Post - June 24, 2013 Monday Political, legal maneuvers let fugitive fly out BYLINE: Sari Horwitz;Jia Lynn Yang;Peter Finn - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A01 - LENGTH: 1382 words

Document 149 / 313: Daily News (New York) - June 23, 2013 Sunday Who's vetting the vetters? BYLINE: NLVL - SECTION: EDITORIAL; Pg. 32 - LENGTH: 420 words

Document 148 / 313: The New York Times - June 23, 2013 Sunday Where Did Our 'Inalienable Rights' Go? BYLINE: By MAX FRANKEL. - SECTION: Section SR; Column 0; Sunday Review Desk; OPINION; Pg. 1 - LENGTH: 1262 words

Document 147 / 313: The New York Times - June 23, 2013 Sunday U.S. Asks Hong Kong to Extradite N.S.A. Leaker BYLINE: By GERRY MULLANY and SCOTT SHANE; Gerry Mullany reported from Hong Kong, and Scott Shane from Baltimore. Sarah Lyall contributed reporting from London, and Keith Bradsher from Hong Kong. - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; Foreign Desk; Pg. 4 - LENGTH: 1382 words

Document 146 / 313: The New York Times - June 23, 2013 Sunday TBR; Inside the List BYLINE: By GREGORY COWLES - SECTION: Section BR; Column 0; Book Review Desk; Pg. 26 - LENGTH: 595 words

Document 145 / 313: The Washington Post - June 23, 2013 Sunday He's clear: Stimulus will taper off in time SECTION: BUSINESS; Pg. G02 - LENGTH: 1351 words

Document 144 / 313: The Washington Post - June 23, 2013 Sunday U.S. publicly raises pressure on Hong Kong to arrest Snowden BYLINE: Sari Horwitz;Jia Lynn Yang - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A14 - LENGTH: 1013 words

Document 143 / 313: The Washington Post - June 23, 2013 Sunday 5 Myths about the National Security Agency BYLINE: James Bamford - SECTION: OUTLOOK; Pg. B03 - LENGTH: 1010 words

Document 142 / 313: The Washington Post - June 23, 2013 Sunday [no title] SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A01 - LENGTH: 33 words

Document 141 / 313: Daily News (New York) - June 22, 2013 Saturday YOU'RE FRIED! Deen canned for racial slur PAGE 3 Gandolfini autopsy: No booze Page 6 FREE FAMILY FUN $190,000 IN PRIZES TO BE WON PAGES 20-21 Jacko's 60 days of no sleep PAGE 9 BYLINE: NLVL - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 1 - LENGTH: 1 words

Document 140 / 313: Daily News (New York) - June 22, 2013 Saturday

95 Feds - leaker is a spy Snowden may face 30 yrs. BYLINE: BY CORKY SIEMASZKO NEW YORK DAILY NEWS - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 12 - LENGTH: 367 words

Document 139 / 313: The New York Times - June 22, 2013 Saturday Leaker Charged With Violating Espionage Act BYLINE: By SCOTT SHANE; Charlie Savage contributed reporting from Washington, Gerry Mullany from Hong Kong and John F. Burns from London. - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; Foreign Desk; Pg. 1 - LENGTH: 1537 words

Document 138 / 313: The Washington Post - June 22, 2013 Saturday U.S. Ô¨les charges against Sno wden BYLINE: Peter Finn;Sari Horwitz - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A01 - LENGTH: 1047 words

Document 137 / 313: The New York Times - June 21, 2013 Friday Documents Detail Surveillance Rules BYLINE: By SCOTT SHANE - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; Foreign Desk; Pg. 9 - LENGTH: 936 words

Document 136 / 313: The New York Times - June 21, 2013 Friday Of Songs, Stories and WikiLeaks BYLINE: By JON PARELES - SECTION: Section C; Column 0; Movies, Performing Arts/Weekend Desk; MUSIC REVIEW; Pg. 5 - LENGTH: 695 words

Document 135 / 313: USA TODAY - June 21, 2013 Friday Is Snowden a traitor or a hero?; That kind of debate is missing the point BYLINE: Rem Rieder, USA TODAY, - SECTION: MONEY; Pg. 6B - LENGTH: 714 words

Document 134 / 313: The Washington Post - June 21, 2013 Friday Firm that vetted Snowden is probed BYLINE: Thomas Heath - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A04 - LENGTH: 397 words

Document 133 / 313: The Washington Post - June 21, 2013 Friday An investigation of government background investigators is due BYLINE: Joe Davidson - SECTION: METRO; Pg. B04 - LENGTH: 1092 words

Document 132 / 313: Daily News (New York) - June 20, 2013 Thursday HOME DRONE FBI aircraft spying on U.S. soil, boss reveals BYLINE: BY JOSEPH STRAW NEW YORK DAILY NEWS - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 12 - LENGTH: 477 words

Document 131 / 313: The New York Times - June 20, 2013 Thursday WikiLeaks Says It Is Working to Negotiate Asylum in Iceland for N.S.A. Leaker BYLINE: By SCOTT SHANE and CHARLIE SAVAGE; Michael S. Schmidt contributed reporting. - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; Foreign Desk; Pg. 6 - LENGTH: 1011 words

Document 130 / 313: The New York Times - June 20, 2013 Thursday Obama Says Surveillance Helped in Case in Germany BYLINE: By JACKIE CALMES; Alison Smale, Melissa Eddy and Chris Cottrell contributed reporting. - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; Foreign Desk; Pg. 6 - LENGTH: 1213 words

Document 129 / 313: The New York Times - June 20, 2013 Thursday Prying Private Eyes BYLINE: By THE EDITORIAL BOARD - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; Editorial Desk; EDITORIAL; Pg. 26 - LENGTH: 511 words

Document 128 / 313: The New York Times - June 20, 2013 Thursday Silicon Valley and Spy Agency Bound by Strengthening Web BYLINE: By JAMES RISEN and NICK WINGFIELD; James Risen reported from Washington, and Nick Wingfield from Seattle. Kitty Bennett contributed reporting. - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; National Desk; Pg. 1 - LENGTH: 1349 words

Document 127 / 313: The Washington Post - June 20, 2013 Thursday [no title] SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A01 - LENGTH: 340 words

Document 126 / 313: The Washington Post - June 20, 2013 Thursday Extraditing Snowden may be complicated BYLINE: Sari Horwitz;Jia Lynn Yang - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A04 - LENGTH: 1246 words

Document 125 / 313: The Washington Post - June 20, 2013 Thursday Snowden case exposes holes in whistleblower protections BYLINE: Joe Davidson - SECTION: METRO; Pg. B04 - LENGTH: 921 words

Document 124 / 313: The Washington Post - June 20, 2013 Thursday FBI chief admits agency uses drones in domestic surveillance BYLINE: Phil Mattingly - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A16 - LENGTH: 937 words

Document 123 / 313: Daily News (New York) - June 19, 2013 Wednesday Snooping KOd plot vs. stock exchange: feds BYLINE: BY JOSEPH STRAW NEW YORK DAILY NEWS - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 6 - LENGTH: 295 words

Document 122 / 313: The New York Times - June 19, 2013 Wednesday Surveillance Programs Defended as Officials Cite Thwarted Attacks BYLINE: By CHARLIE SAVAGE; Benjamin Weiser contributed reporting from New York. - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; National Desk; Pg. 18 - LENGTH: 1111 words

Document 121 / 313: USA TODAY - June 19, 2013 Wednesday Google challenges U.S. gag order on data requests; Legal filing cites First Amendment BYLINE: Byron Acohido and Jon Swartz, USA TODAY, - SECTION: MONEY; Pg. 2B - LENGTH: 428 words 96

Document 120 / 313: USA TODAY - June 19, 2013 Wednesday NSA: Surveillance foiled 50 terror plots; Director says NYSE was among targets BYLINE: Kevin Johnson, @bykevinj, USA TODAY - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 5A - LENGTH: 559 words

Document 119 / 313: The Washington Post - June 19, 2013 Wednesday Officials: Dozens of plots derailed BYLINE: Ellen Nakashima - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A01 - LENGTH: 1095 words

Document 118 / 313: Daily News (New York) - June 18, 2013 Tuesday Fliers jump jet lunatic BYLINE: Edgar Sandoval and Daniel Beekman - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 11 - LENGTH: 85 words

Document 117 / 313: Daily News (New York) - June 18, 2013 Tuesday Slap at 'traitor' hater Cheney BYLINE: Stephen Rex Brown - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 13 - LENGTH: 134 words

Document 116 / 313: Daily News (New York) - June 18, 2013 Tuesday Kelly to NSA: Be honest! BYLINE: BY BARRY PADDOCK and STEPHEN REX BROWN DAILY NEWS - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 13 - LENGTH: 311 words

Document 115 / 313: Daily News (New York) - June 18, 2013 Tuesday Tapped into lunacy BYLINE: NLVL - SECTION: EDITORIAL; Pg. 24 - LENGTH: 519 words

Document 114 / 313: The New York Times - June 18, 2013 Tuesday Put the Spies Back Under One Roof BYLINE: By TIM SHORROCK. - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; Editorial Desk; OP-ED CONTRIBUTOR; Pg. 25 - LENGTH: 968 words

Document 113 / 313: The New York Times - June 18, 2013 Tuesday N.S.A. Leaker Denies Giving Secrets to China BYLINE: By CHARLIE SAVAGE and SCOTT SHANE; Peter Baker contributed reporting. - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; Foreign Desk; Pg. 5 - LENGTH: 1216 words

Document 112 / 313: USA TODAY - June 18, 2013 Tuesday Snowden should be tried, poll finds; But Americans split on U.S. surveillance programs he exposed BYLINE: Susan Page, @susanpage, USA TODAY - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 1A - LENGTH: 461 words

Document 111 / 313: USA TODAY - June 18, 2013 Tuesday Snowden to dish out more info on NSA BYLINE: Doug Stanglin, USA TODAY, - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 2A - LENGTH: 287 words

Document 110 / 313: The Washington Post - June 18, 2013 Tuesday Snowden says he can't get a fair U.S. trial BYLINE: Ellen Nakashima;Sari Horwitz - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A06 - LENGTH: 988 words

Document 109 / 313: The Washington Post - June 18, 2013 Tuesday Assange nears a year at embassy BYLINE: Karla Adam - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A06 - LENGTH: 861 words - DATELINE: LONDON

Document 108 / 313: The Washington Post - June 18, 2013 Tuesday Obama defends broad surveillance BYLINE: Juliet Eilperin - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A06 - LENGTH: 474 words

Document 107 / 313: The Washington Post - June 18, 2013 Tuesday Obama, Putin confirm divide on Syria BYLINE: Scott Wilson - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A10 - LENGTH: 933 words - DATELINE: ENNISKILLEN,

Document 106 / 313: The New York Times - June 17, 2013 Monday Big News Forges Its Own Path BYLINE: By DAVID CARR. - SECTION: Section B; Column 0; Business/Financial Desk; THE MEDIA EQUATION; Pg. 1 - LENGTH: 1176 words

Document 105 / 313: The New York Times - June 17, 2013 Monday European Commission President Criticizes Opposition to Globalization BYLINE: By ANDREW HIGGINS and STEPHEN CASTLE - SECTION: Section B; Column 0; Business/Financial Desk; Pg. 3 - LENGTH: 1464 words

Document 104 / 313: The New York Times - June 17, 2013 Monday New Leak Indicates U.S. and Britain Eavesdropped at '09 World Conferences BYLINE: By SCOTT SHANE and RAVI SOMAIYA; John M. Broder contributed reporting from Washington, and John F. Burns from London. - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; Foreign Desk; Pg. 7 - LENGTH: 985 words

Document 103 / 313: The New York Times - June 17, 2013 Monday Living With the Surveillance State BYLINE: By BILL KELLER - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; Editorial Desk; OP-ED COLUMNIST; Pg. 17 - LENGTH: 1369 words

Document 102 / 313: USA TODAY - June 17, 2013 Monday Did leaks of top-secret U.S. activity damage security? SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 2A - LENGTH: 235 words

Document 101 / 313: USA TODAY - June 17, 2013 Monday From public servant to traitor? SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 2A - LENGTH: 1356 words

97 Document 100 / 313: USA TODAY - June 17, 2013 Monday 2 degrees from terrorism: How 9/11 changed things SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 2A - LENGTH: 705 words

Document 99 / 313: USA TODAY - June 17, 2013 Monday Former vice president Cheney weighs in on Snowden, disclosures BYLINE: Susan Page, USA TODAY, - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 2A - LENGTH: 264 words

Document 98 / 313: USA TODAY - June 17, 2013 Monday Big questions loom SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 2A - LENGTH: 290 words

Document 97 / 313: USA TODAY - June 17, 2013 Monday We told you so SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 1A - LENGTH: 78 words

Document 96 / 313: The Washington Post - June 17, 2013 Monday Booz Allen stays quiet in surveillance story aftermath BYLINE: Catherine Ho - SECTION: Pg. A15 - LENGTH: 760 words

Document 95 / 313: The Washington Post - June 17, 2013 Monday Obama's chief of staff defends NSA surveillance BYLINE: Sean Sullivan - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A02 - LENGTH: 479 words

Document 94 / 313: Daily News (New York) - June 16, 2013 Sunday Hong Kong fury to keep leaker safe BYLINE: Corinne Lestch With News Wire Services - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 8 - LENGTH: 225 words

Document 93 / 313: The New York Times - June 16, 2013 Sunday A Life of Ambition, Despite the Drifting BYLINE: By JOHN M. BRODER and SCOTT SHANE; Reporting was contributed by Ian Lovett from Waipahu, Hawaii; Theo Emery from Ellicott City, Md.; and Steve Lohr and Richard A. Oppel Jr. from New York. Kitty Bennett contributed research. - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; National Desk; Pg. 20 - LENGTH: 1621 words

Document 92 / 313: The New York Times - June 16, 2013 Sunday After Profits, Defense Contractor Faces the Pitfalls of Cybersecurity BYLINE: By DAVID E. SANGER and NICOLE PERLROTH; David E. Sanger reported from Washington, and Nicole Perlroth from San Francisco. - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; National Desk; Pg. 1 - LENGTH: 1735 words

Document 91 / 313: The New York Times - June 16, 2013 Sunday Sources With Secrets Find New Outlets for Sharing BYLINE: By MARGARET SULLIVAN - SECTION: Section SR; Column 0; Sunday Review Desk; THE PUBLIC EDITOR; Pg. 12 - LENGTH: 1097 words

Document 90 / 313: The Washington Post - June 16, 2013 Sunday The high cost o f encryption BYLINE: Timothy B. Lee - SECTION: BUSINESS; Pg. G01 - LENGTH: 1771 words

Document 89 / 313: The Washington Post - June 16, 2013 Sunday Leaker of secrets preferred to keep his own life hidden BYLINE: Carol D. Leonnig;Jenna Johnson;Marc Fisher - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A01 - LENGTH: 2681 words

Document 88 / 313: The Washington Post - June 16, 2013 Sunday Tracking the life of Edward Snowden SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A08 - LENGTH: 492 words

Document 87 / 313: The Washington Post - June 16, 2013 Sunday Out at Booz Allen after leaking NSA secrets SECTION: BUSINESS; Pg. G02 - LENGTH: 1348 words

Document 86 / 313: The Washington Post - June 16, 2013 Sunday In Hong Kong, pressure mounts to avoid extraditing Snowden BYLINE: Jia Lynn Yang - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A09 - LENGTH: 818 words - DATELINE: HONG KONG

Document 85 / 313: The Washington Post - June 16, 2013 Sunday U.S. surveillance architecture includes collection of revealing Internet, phone metadata U.S. surveillance architecture includes collection of revealing Internet, phone metadata BYLINE: Barton Gellman - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A01 - LENGTH: 2064 words

Document 84 / 313: Daily News (New York) - June 15, 2013 Saturday 'Snow'-fly zone for the NSA leaker BYLINE: BY OREN YANIV NEW YORK DAILY NEWS With News Wire Services - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 4 - LENGTH: 263 words

Document 83 / 313: The New York Times - June 15, 2013 Saturday This Isn't How to Stop Hacking BYLINE: By JOE NOCERA - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; Editorial Desk; OP-ED COLUMNIST; Pg. 21 - LENGTH: 790 words

Document 82 / 313: The New York Times - June 15, 2013 Saturday Player in Leaks Case, Out From Behind Camera BYLINE: By NOAM COHEN - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; National Desk; Pg. 1 - LENGTH: 977 words

Document 81 / 313: The New York Times - June 15, 2013 Saturday Snowden's Disclosures on Hacking in China Could Affect Its Role in His Fate BYLINE: By KEITH BRADSHER - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; National Desk; Pg. 14 - LENGTH: 1254 words 98

Document 80 / 313: The Washington Post - June 15, 2013 Saturday Tech firms in talks on disclosure BYLINE: Brian Womack - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A11 - LENGTH: 560 words

Document 79 / 313: Daily News (New York) - June 14, 2013 Friday VOICE OF THE PEOPLE A fine day to celebrate our flag BYLINE: NLVL - SECTION: EDITORIAL; Pg. 42 - LENGTH: 1340 words

Document 78 / 313: Daily News (New York) - June 14, 2013 Friday Snowden eyed as spy for China BYLINE: BY Joseph Straw and Stephen Rex Brown With News Wire Services - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 12 - LENGTH: 133 words

Document 77 / 313: The New York Times - June 14, 2013 Friday New Book Expected On Surveillance BYLINE: By FELICIA R. LEE - SECTION: Section C; Column 0; Movies, Performing Arts/Weekend Desk; ARTSBEAT; Pg. 2 - LENGTH: 202 words

Document 76 / 313: The New York Times - June 14, 2013 Friday Chinese State Media Suggest That N.S.A. Disclosures Will Hurt U.S. Ties BYLINE: By GERRY MULLANY and DIDI KIRSTEN TATLOW; Gerry Mullany reported from Hong Kong, and Didi Kirsten Tatlow from Beijing. Patrick Zuo contributed reporting from Beijing. - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; National Desk; Pg. 18 - LENGTH: 758 words

Document 75 / 313: The New York Times - June 14, 2013 Friday A Promise of Changes For Access to Secrets BYLINE: By DAVID E. SANGER and JEREMY W. PETERS; Michael S. Schmidt contributed reporting. - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; National Desk; Pg. 18 - LENGTH: 1152 words

Document 74 / 313: USA TODAY - June 14, 2013 Friday FBI chief: Leak caused 'significant harm' to U.S.; In first public remarks, Mueller defends phone surveillance program BYLINE: Kevin Johnson, USA TODAY - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 6A - LENGTH: 557 words

Document 73 / 313: USA TODAY - June 14, 2013 Friday New views on the week's top talkers SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 13A - LENGTH: 363 words

Document 72 / 313: USA TODAY - June 14, 2013 Friday Snowden's claims intrigue Hong Kong; Protests praise American, denounce U.S. hacking BYLINE: Zach Coleman, Special for USA TODAY - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 6A - LENGTH: 606 words

Document 71 / 313: The Washington Post - June 14, 2013 Friday U.S. officials fear leaker has more classified files BYLINE: Greg Miller;Sari Horwitz - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A03 - LENGTH: 1236 words

Document 70 / 313: Daily News (New York) - June 13, 2013 Thursday SAVIOR SNOOPS NSa brass: Many plots foiled BYLINE: BY JOSEPH STRAW in Washington and STEPHEN REX BROWN NEW YORK DAILY NEWS With News Wire Services - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 6 - LENGTH: 640 words

Document 69 / 313: The New York Times - June 13, 2013 Thursday N.S.A. Chief Says Phone Record Logs Halted Terror Threats BYLINE: By DAVID E. SANGER, CHARLIE SAVAGE and MICHAEL S. SCHMIDT - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; National Desk; Pg. 18 - LENGTH: 1124 words

Document 68 / 313: The New York Times - June 13, 2013 Thursday N.S.A. Leaker to Fight Extradition in Hong Kong BYLINE: By KEITH BRADSHER - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; National Desk; Pg. 18 - LENGTH: 1314 words

Document 67 / 313: USA TODAY - June 13, 2013 Thursday Defiant Snowden says he'll 'stay and fight'; Declares it's up to Hong Kong to 'decide my fate' BYLINE: Zach Coleman - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 4A - LENGTH: 475 words

Document 66 / 313: USA TODAY - June 13, 2013 Thursday NSA chief: Surveillance programs protect BYLINE: Jim Michaels, USA TODAY, - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 4A - LENGTH: 337 words

Document 65 / 313: USA TODAY - June 13, 2013 Thursday Tech hiring binge may pose security risks for government BYLINE: Jim Michaels, USA TODAY, - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 4A - LENGTH: 658 words

Document 64 / 313: USA TODAY - June 13, 2013 Thursday NSA threatens our liberty; Cal and Bob consider Snowden's leaks and the need to thwart terrorism SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 8A - LENGTH: 999 words

Document 63 / 313: USA TODAY - June 13, 2013 Thursday When discovering a leak is a good thing; Decisions about U.S. society should be up for debate, not imposed BYLINE: Rem Rieder - SECTION: MONEY; Pg. 4B - LENGTH: 825 words

Document 62 / 313: USA TODAY - June 13, 2013 Thursday Controversy revives debate over secrecy; Will U.S.' intelligence efforts suffer? BYLINE: Aamer Madhani, and David Jackson, USA TODAY - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 4A - LENGTH: 793 words

Document 61 / 313: USA TODAY - June 13, 2013 Thursday Robust debate on snooping depends on having the facts

99 SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 8A - LENGTH: 595 words

Document 60 / 313: The Washington Post - June 13, 2013 Thursday Dozens of attacks foiled, NSA says BYLINE: Ellen Nakashima;Jerry Markon - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A01 - LENGTH: 1522 words

Document 59 / 313: Daily News (New York) - June 12, 2013 Wednesday Drip, drip, drip Still more NSA leaks expected from vanished tattler BYLINE: BY JOSEPH STRAW in Washington and STEPHEN REX BROWN NEW YORK DAILY NEWS With Ron Cassie, Bill Sharp and News wire services - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 8 - LENGTH: 382 words

Document 58 / 313: Daily News (New York) - June 12, 2013 Wednesday Maybe he can go to Russia with love BYLINE: Stephen Rex Brown with News wire services - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 8 - LENGTH: 82 words

Document 57 / 313: The New York Times - June 12, 2013 Wednesday Blowing A Whistle BYLINE: By THOMAS L. FRIEDMAN - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; Editorial Desk; OP-ED COLUMNIST; Pg. 27 - LENGTH: 878 words

Document 56 / 313: The New York Times - June 12, 2013 Wednesday A.C.L.U. Files Lawsuit Seeking to Stop the Collection of Domestic Phone Logs BYLINE: By CHARLIE SAVAGE - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; National Desk; Pg. 18 - LENGTH: 1074 words

Document 55 / 313: The New York Times - June 12, 2013 Wednesday Disclosures on N.S.A. Surveillance Put Awkward Light on Previous Denials BYLINE: By SCOTT SHANE and JONATHAN WEISMAN; Jeremy W. Peters contributed reporting. - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; National Desk; Pg. 18 - LENGTH: 1062 words

Document 54 / 313: The New York Times - June 12, 2013 Wednesday Snowden's disclosures do not amount to treason BYLINE: By THE EDITORIAL BOARD - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; Editorial Desk; EDITORIAL; Pg. 26 - LENGTH: 582 words

Document 53 / 313: USA TODAY - June 12, 2013 Wednesday How a low-level insider could steal from NSA; It's a no-brainer, say those in the know on security BYLINE: Byron Acohido and Peter Eisler, USA TODAY, - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 5A - LENGTH: 697 words

Document 52 / 313: USA TODAY - June 12, 2013 Wednesday Hong Kong: Great place for escape; Snowden has many travel options out BYLINE: Zach Coleman - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 5A - LENGTH: 281 words

Document 51 / 313: USA TODAY - June 12, 2013 Wednesday Did leak help or hurt nation? SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 7A - LENGTH: 236 words

Document 50 / 313: USA TODAY - June 12, 2013 Wednesday ACLU files lawsuit over NSA case; Google asks to share its own details about federal snooping BYLINE: David Jackson, @TheOval, USA TODAY - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 1A - LENGTH: 340 words

Document 49 / 313: USA TODAY - June 12, 2013 Wednesday Where was Snowden in 2006?; When USA TODAY revealed a massive NSA database, phone companies denied contracting with the government. BYLINE: Ken Paulson- SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 6A - LENGTH: 811 words

Document 48 / 313: USA TODAY - June 12, 2013 Wednesday Online TODAY; What we're following SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 3A - LENGTH: 227 words

Document 47 / 313: The Washington Post - June 12, 2013 Wednesday Snowden's girlfriend shocked by events BYLINE: Carol D. Leonnig;Julie Tate - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A04 - LENGTH: 784 words

Document 46 / 313: The Washington Post - June 12, 2013 Wednesday NSA leak puts focus on area Ô¨rm owned by the Carlyle Group BYLINE: Thomas Heath;Marjorie Censer - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A06 - LENGTH: 779 words

Document 45 / 313: The Washington Post - June 12, 2013 Wednesday Moore's Law, J. Edgar Hoover and the real roots of the NSA surveillance scandal BYLINE: Neil Irwin - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A12 - LENGTH: 777 words

Document 44 / 313: The Washington Post - June 12, 2013 Wednesday The low-proÔ¨le, tech-savvy intelligence risk BYLINE: Greg Miller - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A01 - LENGTH: 1213 words

Document 43 / 313: Daily News (New York) - June 11, 2013 Tuesday Secrets and privacy both under attack BYLINE: BY JAMES WARREN NEWS WASHINGTON BUREAU CHIEF - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 8 - LENGTH: 362 words

Document 42 / 313: Daily News (New York) - June 11, 2013 Tuesday VANISHED! NSA leaker leaves sexy gal pal behind BYLINE: BY RON CASSIE in Ellicott City, Md., JAMES WARREN and STEPHEN REX BROWN NEW YORK DAILY NEWS With Priscila Ortiz, Jamie Noguchi and News wire services - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 8 - LENGTH: 602 words

Document 41 / 313: Daily News (New York) - June 11, 2013 Tuesday

100 So righteous, so wrong BYLINE: NLVL - SECTION: EDITORIAL; Pg. 26 - LENGTH: 400 words

Document 40 / 313: Daily News (New York) - June 11, 2013 Tuesday Fighting terror, neglecting guns BYLINE: BY BILL HAMMOND - SECTION: EDITORIAL; Pg. 27 - LENGTH: 741 words

Document 39 / 313: The New York Times - June 11, 2013 Tuesday Booz Allen Reaps Big Benefits From U.S. BYLINE: By CATHERINE RAMPELL - SECTION: Section B; Column 0; Business/Financial Desk; ECONOMIX; Pg. 5 - LENGTH: 823 words

Document 38 / 313: The New York Times - June 11, 2013 Tuesday The Solitary Leaker BYLINE: By DAVID BROOKS - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; Editorial Desk; OP-ED COLUMNIST; Pg. 23 - LENGTH: 836 words

Document 37 / 313: The New York Times - June 11, 2013 Tuesday Debate on Secret Data Looks Unlikely, Partly Due to Secrecy BYLINE: By SCOTT SHANE and JONATHAN WEISMAN; David E. Sanger contributed reporting from Washington, Somini Sengupta from San Francisco, and Megan Thee-Brenan from New York. - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; National Desk; Pg. 1 - LENGTH: 1152 words

Document 36 / 313: The New York Times - June 11, 2013 Tuesday Guardian Makes Waves, and Is Ready For More BYLINE: By CHRISTINE HAUGHNEY and NOAM COHEN - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; National Desk; Pg. 12 - LENGTH: 942 words

Document 35 / 313: The New York Times - June 11, 2013 Tuesday U.S. Preparing Charges Against Leaker of Data BYLINE: By MICHAEL S. SCHMIDT, ERIC SCHMITT and KEITH BRADSHER; Michael S. Schmidt and Eric Schmitt reported from Washington, and Keith Bradsher from Hong Kong. Jonathan Weisman and James Risen contributed reporting from Washington, and Richard A. Oppel Jr. from New York. - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; National Desk; Pg. 12 - LENGTH: 1020 words

Document 34 / 313: The New York Times - June 11, 2013 Tuesday Cryptic Overtures and a Clandestine Meeting Gave Birth to a Blockbuster Story BYLINE: By CHARLIE SAVAGE and MARK MAZZETTI; Christopher Drew and Richard A. Oppel Jr. contributed reporting from New York, and Theo Emery from Ellicott City, Md. - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; National Desk; Pg. 13 - LENGTH: 1507 words

Document 33 / 313: The New York Times - June 11, 2013 Tuesday A Real Debate on Surveillance BYLINE: By THE EDITORIAL BOARD - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; Editorial Desk; EDITORIAL; Pg. 22 - LENGTH: 587 words

Document 32 / 313: USA TODAY - June 11, 2013 Tuesday Views on Snowden case may depend on what people fear most: terrorists or snoopers. BYLINE: Rick Hampson, @RickHampson, USA TODAY - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 1A - LENGTH: 1416 words

Document 31 / 313: USA TODAY - June 11, 2013 Tuesday 'A grave breach of trust and law' BYLINE: Steven Bucci - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 6A - LENGTH: 411 words

Document 30 / 313: USA TODAY - June 11, 2013 Tuesday Charges explored against NSA leaker; Extradition with Hong Kong has successful history BYLINE: Kevin Johnson, and Zach Coleman, USA TODAY - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 2A - LENGTH: 604 words

Document 29 / 313: USA TODAY - June 11, 2013 Tuesday Is NSA whistle-blower a hero, a villain, or some of both? SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 6A - LENGTH: 565 words

Document 28 / 313: The Washington Post - June 11, 2013 Tuesday A surveillance history lesson BYLINE: Walter Pincus - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A13 - LENGTH: 998 words

Document 27 / 313: The Washington Post - June 11, 2013 Tuesday 7 facts about Booz Allen Hamilton BYLINE: Neil Irwin - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A05 - LENGTH: 701 words

Document 26 / 313: The Washington Post - June 11, 2013 Tuesday NSA leaker's access examined BYLINE: Peter Finn;Greg Miller;Ellen Nakashima - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A01 - LENGTH: 1476 words

Document 25 / 313: The Washington Post - June 11, 2013 Tuesday A Ô¨lmmaker's key role in NSA blockbusters BYLINE: Paul Farhi - SECTION: STYLE; Pg. C01 - LENGTH: 829 words

Document 24 / 313: The Washington Post - June 11, 2013 Tuesday Should private contractors do national security work? BYLINE: Joe Davidson - SECTION: METRO; Pg. B04 - LENGTH: 942 words

Document 23 / 313: The Washington Post - June 11, 2013 Tuesday Amid riseof outsourcing, shakier vetting BYLINE: Robert O'Harrow Jr.;Dana Priest;Marjorie Censer - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A05 - LENGTH: 1321 words

Document 22 / 313: The Washington Post - June 11, 2013 Tuesday Reaction to news of government actions blurs party lines BYLINE: Karen Tumulty - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A04 - LENGTH: 1189 words

Document 21 / 313: The Washington Post - June 11, 2013 Tuesday

101 Will disclosures put programs in legal jeopardy? Some experts have doubts. BYLINE: Jerry Markon - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A06 - LENGTH: 768 words

Document 20 / 313: The Washington Post - June 11, 2013 Tuesday In NSA leak, a well-deserved hosing BYLINE: Dana Milbank - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A02 - LENGTH: 815 words

Document 19 / 313: Daily News (New York) - June 10, 2013 Monday I'M LEAKER 'Sacrifices' to save privacy from NSA BYLINE: BY STEPHEN REX BROWN NEW YORK DAILY NEWS With Adam Edelman - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 15 - LENGTH: 433 words

Document 18 / 313: The New York Times - June 10, 2013 Monday Leaker's Employer Became Wealthy By Maintaining Government Secrets BYLINE: By BINYAMIN APPELBAUM and ERIC LIPTON; Christopher Drew contributed reporting from New York. - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; National Desk; Pg. 12 - LENGTH: 946 words

Document 17 / 313: The New York Times - June 10, 2013 Monday Lawmakers Mostly Defend Surveillance BYLINE: By BRIAN KNOWLTON - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; National Desk; THE CAUCUS; Pg. 12 - LENGTH: 771 words

Document 16 / 313: The New York Times - June 10, 2013 Monday Ex-C.I.A. Worker Says He Disclosed U.S. Surveillance BYLINE: By MARK MAZZETTI and MICHAEL S. SCHMIDT; Reporting was contributed by Keith Bradsher from Hong Kong, Nicole Perlroth from San Francisco, and Emmarie Huetteman and David E. Sanger from Washington. - SECTION: Section A; Column 0; National Desk; Pg. 1 - LENGTH: 1632 words

Document 15 / 313: The New York Times - June 10, 2013 Monday Conservatives as Defenders of the Media BYLINE: By AMY CHOZICK - SECTION: Section B; Column 0; Business/Financial Desk; Pg. 1 - LENGTH: 1377 words

Document 14 / 313: The New York Times - June 10, 2013 Monday Data-Driven Tech Industry Is Shaken by Online Privacy Fears BYLINE: By DAVID STREITFELD and QUENTIN HARDY - SECTION: Section B; Column 0; Business/Financial Desk; Pg. 1 - LENGTH: 1303 words

Document 13 / 313: The New York Times - June 10, 2013 Monday Quotation of the Day SECTION: Section A; Column 0; Metropolitan Desk; Pg. 2 - LENGTH: 72 words

Document 12 / 313: USA TODAY - June 10, 2013 Monday Source of intelligence leaks now in Hong Kong BYLINE: Zach Coleman - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 6A - LENGTH: 223 words

Document 11 / 313: USA TODAY - June 10, 2013 Monday Add Snowden to list of high-profile leakers in U.S.; Joins Ellsberg and Manning BYLINE: Ray Locker, @rlocker12, USA TODAY - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 6A - LENGTH: 327 words

Document 10 / 313: USA TODAY - June 10, 2013 Monday 'I have done nothing wrong'; After coming out on NSA leaks, man is in hiding in Hong Kong BYLINE: Gregory Korte, @gregorykorte, USA TODAY - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 1A - LENGTH: 520 words

Document 9 / 313: USA TODAY - June 10, 2013 Monday Contractor: Government has intruded on privacy; May look for asylum BYLINE: Donna Leinwand Leger, @DonnaLeinwand, USA TODAY - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 6A - LENGTH: 703 words

Document 8 / 313: USA TODAY - June 10, 2013 Monday Security clearances held by millions BYLINE: John Bacon and William M. Welch, USA TODAY, - SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 6A - LENGTH: 318 words

Document 7 / 313: USA TODAY - June 10, 2013 Monday Three secret programs no longer secret SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 6A - LENGTH: 290 words

Document 6 / 313: The Washington Post - June 10, 2013 Monday In note, Snowden explains why he leaked secrets BYLINE: Barton Gellman;Jerry Markon - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A04 - LENGTH: 1369 words

Document 5 / 313: The Washington Post - June 10, 2013 Monday To leaker, personal risks were clear BYLINE: Barton Gellman - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A01 - LENGTH: 1219 words

Document 4 / 313: The Washington Post - June 10, 2013 Monday NSA contractor's self-outing puts him in spotlight BYLINE: Ellen Nakashima - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A04 - LENGTH: 926 words

Document 3 / 313: The Washington Post - June 10, 2013 Monday Post-9/11 outsourcing of U.S. intelligence raises risks BYLINE: Robert O'Harrow Jr. - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A02 - LENGTH: 763 words

Document 2 / 313: The Washington Post - June 10, 2013 Monday [no title] SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A02 - LENGTH: 508 words

Document 1 / 313: The Washington Post - June 10, 2013 Monday

102 Man who leaked NSA secrets steps forward BYLINE: Barton Gellman;Aaron Blake;Greg Miller - SECTION: A-SECTION; Pg. A01 - LENGTH: 1658 words

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103 Appendix B

All scripts included in this appendix were written and executed in the freeware R. The following examples illustrate the analyses used for the British sub-corpus (analyses for the American sub-corpus rely on adapted data paths).

Frequency analysis

R version 3.0.1 (2013-05-16) -- "Good Sport" Copyright (C) 2013 The R Foundation for Statistical Computing Platform: x86_64-apple-darwin10.8.0 (64-bit)

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Tippen Sie 'demo()' für einige Demos, 'help()' für on-line Hilfe, oder 'help.start()' für eine HTML Browserschnittstelle zur Hilfe. Tippen Sie 'q()', um R zu verlassen.

[R.app GUI 1.61 (6492) x86_64-apple-darwin10.8.0]

[Arbeitsbereich wiederhergestellt aus /Users/anita/.RData] [Verlauf wiederhergestellt aus /Users/anita/.Rapp.history]

> rm(list=ls(all=T)) > > textfile.uk<-scan(file="/Users/*/Desktop/corpus_neu/uk.txt", what="char", sep="\n", quote="", comment.char="") Read 3548 items > > textfile.uk<-tolower(textfile.uk) > > words.list.uk<-strsplit(textfile.uk, "\\W+") > words.vector.uk<-unlist(words.list.uk) > > freq.list.uk<-table(words.vector.uk) > sorted.freq.list.uk<-sort(freq.list.uk, decreasing=T) > > sorted.table.uk<-paste(names(sorted.freq.list.uk), sorted.freq.list.uk, sep="\t")> cat("WORD\tFREQ", sorted.table.uk, file="/Users/anita/Desktop/corpus_neu/ freq_uk", sep="\n") > > cat("WORD\tFREQ", sorted.table.uk, file="/Users/*/Desktop/corpus_neu/ freq_uk.txt", sep="\n")

104 Cluster analysis (word pairs)

> rm(list=ls(all=T)) > > textfile.uk<-scan(file="/Users/*/Desktop/corpus_neu/uk.txt", what="char", sep="\n", quote="", comment.char="") Read 3548 items > > textfile.uk.3<-strsplit(textfile.uk, " ") > > file.create(file="/Users/*/Desktop/corpus_neu/interim.uk.txt") [1] TRUE > file.create(file="/Users/*/Desktop/corpus_neu/output.file.cluster.uk.txt") [1] TRUE > > interim.file<-file.choose() > output.file<-file.choose() > > for (i in 1:length(textfile.uk.3)) { + cat(i/length(textfile.uk.3), "\n") + current.line<-textfile.uk.3[[i]] + + for (j in 1:(length(current.line)-1)) { + cat(current.line[j], " ", current.line[(j+1)], "\n", sep="", file=interim.file, append=T) +} +} 0.0002818489 0.0005636979 0.0008455468 […] 0.9994363 0.9997182 1 > all.word.pairs<-scan(interim.file, what="char", sep="\n") Read 134962 items > > freq.table<-table(all.word.pairs) > sorted.freq.table<-sort(freq.table, decreasing=T) > write.table(sorted.freq.table, file=output.file, sep="\t", quote=F)

105 Cluster analysis (groups of three)

> rm(list=ls(all=T)) > > textfile.uk<-scan(file="/Users/*/Desktop/corpus_neu/uk.txt", what="char", sep="\n", quote="", comment.char="") Read 3548 items > > textfile.uk.3<-strsplit(textfile.uk, " ") > > file.create(file="/Users/*/Desktop/corpus_neu/interim.uk.txt") [1] TRUE > file.create(file="/Users/*/Desktop/corpus_neu/ output.file.cluster.uk.txt") [1] TRUE > > interim.file<-file.choose() > output.file<-file.choose() > > for (i in 1:length(textfile.uk.3)) { + cat(i/length(textfile.uk.3), "\n") + current.line<-textfile.uk.3[[i]] + + for (j in 1:(length(current.line)-2)) { + cat(current.line[j], " ", current.line[(j+1)], " ", current.line[(j+2)], "\n", sep="", file=interim.file, append=T) +} +} 0.0002818489 0.0005636979 0.0008455468 […] 0.9991545 0.9994363 0.9997182 1 > all.word.three<-scan(interim.file, what="char", sep="\n") Read 131674 items > > freq.table<-table(all.word.three) > sorted.freq.table<-sort(freq.table, decreasing=T) > write.table(sorted.freq.table, file=output.file, sep="\t", quote=F)

106 Concordance lines

> rm(list=ls(all=T)) > > textfile.uk<-scan(file="/Users/*/Desktop/corpus_neu/uk.txt", what="char", sep="\n") Read 3548 items > > textfile.uk.2<-gsub("(\\W)", " \\1 ", textfile.uk, perl=T) > textfile.uk.3<-unlist(strsplit(textfile.uk.2, " +")) > > (matches.snowden.uk<-grep("\\bsnowden\\b", textfile.uk.3, ignore.case=T)) [1] 15 62 137 629 661 720 799 920 1194 [10] 1228 1529 1595 1604 1675 1695 1731 1845 1949 […]

[1261] 158020 158345 158864 159233 160174 160258 160289 160517 161895 [1270] 161901 162066 162119 162237 162307 162382 162489 162556 162577 > > beginning.of.range<-max(1, (matches.snowden.uk[1]-6)) > for (i in matches.snowden.uk) { + cat(file="/Users/*/Desktop/corpus_neu/conc.snowden.uk.limrange.txt", append=T, + textfile.uk.3[max(0, i-6):max(0, i-1)], + "\t", + textfile.uk.3[i], + "\t", + textfile.uk.3[(i+1):min(i+6, length(textfile.uk.3)+1)],+ "\n") +}

107