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3 The RayleighHilts in south-eastEssex: patterns in exploitation of a woodland by StephenRippon

This paper examines certain aspects of landscape evolution Rackham(1986b) and Rodwell (1978; 1993) on thesurviv- in south-east , where three broad topographical areas ing planned landscapesof prehistoric and Roman date, can be identifled: the low-lying Clay basin east of while researchin south-eastEssex has suggesteda later , an olltcrop of the Bagshot Beds forming the Saxon origin for a similarly regular pattern of fields and Rayleigh Hills at the centre, and lower-lying gravels and roads(Rippon 1991),a hypothesiswhich hasreceived sup- brickearths to the east.The Rayleigh Hills are curently well port from the publicationof large-scaleexcavations at North wooded and a range of evidence shows this to have been the Shoebury(Wymer & Brown 1995).A nr-rmberof other stud- case since the Saxon period, though later prehistoric and ies havealso shed new light on the medievalfield systemsof Roman settlement had been extensive. Following post- certain Essex parishes,notably Cressing (Hunter 1993b; Roman woodland regeneration and later Saxon clearance, 1995),Havering (Mclntosh 1986), (Rodwell & the establishment of an extensive royal estate,which includ- Rodwell 1985; 1993),Saffion Walden (Cromarty 1966), ed three deer parks, transformed part of the region. In con- (Newton 1960), (Britnell 1983; Rodwell trast, the remaining areas were exploited in a piecemeal 1993) and Writtle (Newton 1970). Such work shows a t-ashionas individual smallholders and great monastic land- marked bias towardscentral and northernEssex (seeGray lords alike created a landscape through gradual assarting. 1915and Roden l9l3 for moregeneral discussions of Essex The abundance of woodland and common pasture on the field systems). Rayleigh Hi1ls was in sharp contrast to surrounding. lower- This paperwill examinethe previouslyneglected south- lying areas and, thor-rgh land on the Hills had the lowest eastcorner of the county,in which the role of a numberof value in the 11th century, by 1334 they were more highly major landlordsand the local peasantcommunity in shaping valued than the London Clay area to the west. the landscapecan be compared.It will show how powerfui estate owners could radically reshape the countryside, INTRODUCTION though it was not alwayspossible nor desirablefor them to The medievailandscape of Essexwas very diff-erentfrom do so. This paper will also show how smallholdersin this the open flelds and nucleatedvillages of Midland , areatended not to cooperatein creatingplanned fietd sys- and during the 16th century the terms 'woodland' (as in 'champion' tems,but worked individually in the clearanceof woodland. south-eastEngland) and (as in the Midlands) - creatingdistinctive, irregular landscapes. were given for thesecontrasting areas (Rackham 1986a, 1- 5; Williamson1988). Essex typifies a 'woodland'landscape: THE STUDYAREA the mainly enclosedfields were often held in severalty,and The RayleighHills, betweenSouthend and Basildon, stretch the abundanthed_eerows gave the countrysidea very bosky from Hockley in the north, through Rayleigh and appearance.The settlementpattern was largely dispersed, ,to Hadleigh and South Benfleetin the south. with farmsteadsand cottagessprawling aroundgreens and The Hills comprisea complex sequenceof clays, sandsand commonsthroughout the parish. gravelsof the Claygateand Bagshotseries, which in places 'ancient' Rackham(1986a) has usedthe terms country- give rise to podsolized heaths,contrasting sharply with 'planned' side (south-eastEngland) and countryside(the heavy London Clays to the west and lighter terracegravels Midlands)for thesesame two areas,though this broadclas- and brickearthsto the east (Scarfe 1942.448: Wvmer & sificationhas rather misleading chronological overtones and fails to recognisethe wide rangeof processesthat led to the 'ancient' creationof landscapes.Some areas in the 'ancient' zone were in fact planned with great precisionduring the Iron Age (Drury 1916), and the Roman (Rodwell 1978), Saxon(Rippon I99I,55-8), and medievalperiods (Hunter 'ancient' 1995,138), while other areasof countrysidewere created through the gradual and piecemeal assarting of woodland.It is the last processthat is exploredin this paper. While Essexhas benefited from a long historyof archae- oiogical and documentary research on the Saxon and medieval periods, there has been relativeiy little enquiry as to the originsof its presentlandscape. Notable exceptions Fig 17 South-eastEssex: reLief, and loccttionof places referred 'The have included the work of Bassett(1982), Drury (7916), to by Rippon in RayleighHills in south-eastEssex...'.

20 The RayleighHills in south-eastEssex: patterns in exploitationof a woodland

20) and soilswere agricr-rlturallyless prodr,rctive than on the adjacentlowlands, such as Shoeburyand Wakering to the east(Table 1).

TableI Agriculturalproductivity in HadLeigh,Shoebury and Wakeringin 1795 (basedon VancotwerI795, tablefacing 76). yalue(shillings) yields(bushels per acre) enclosedenclosed parish arable pasture wheat barley oats LONDON GRAVEL ^1 a1 f4 Hadleigh t2s 12s LA JL JL tI E-r= Shoebury 16s l6s 28 34 40 l*l | 0km r,' Wakering 16s l6s 28 34 40 E l* ,l BRICKEARTH ALLUVIUM

Fig 18 South-eastEssex: simpLffied geology. THE ANTIQUITY OF 'ANCIENT WOODLAND': PREHISTORIC AND ROMAN SETTLE,MENT Brown 1995,3). The southernedge of the Hiils is markedby The well-woodedlandscape and lower agriculturalproduc- a relativelysteep degraded cliff, fringedby post-glacialestu- tivity in the postmedieval period might lead to the assump- arine alluvium along the margins of the ThamesEstuary tion that the RayleighHills havenever been extensively set- (Figs l8 and 19).The westernand northernedge of the Hiils tled and are a marginallandscape: an areanot ideally suited is marked by a steepscalp slope,with a much gentlerdip to agricultureand only settledat times of high population slopeto the east. pressure(Bailey 1989; Dyer 1990b;Rippon 1997).This Landscapecharacter on the RayleighHi11s was summed impressionis certainlyconfirmed by the reportof the Land 'The up by Woodward( 1903,9): land is lesscultivated than Utilisation Survey carried out in the 1930s,when it was 'much on otherformations, and commons, village greensand much arguedthat of the sandysoil turnedout to be too poor woodland help to diversify the scenes'.At the end of the to cultivateafler clearanceand becameheath and common' 1Sthcentury there was a great abundanceof woodland(Fig (Scarfe1.942,448).

SOUTH-EAST ESSEX c181,0

Fig l9 Field boundcLrvpatterns in south-east Essex (based on theTithe Ayvardmaps of c. 1840). Note the reguLorly Laicl-otLt landscapes on the London Clat (sorah of Wickford) and brickearths and grcnels (north of Southend), which contrast with the more irregular landscape on the Ra.vleigh Hills.

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StephenRippon

Bedwin 1989).A substantialRoman settlementexisted to the north of Hadleighat Dawes Heath.at the centreof what is stiil one of the most wooded parts of the Rayleigh Hills (seebelow; Delderfield & Rippon i996; Drury et ttl l98l'5. A number of unstratified finds have also been found throughoutthe parish,including a mortarof Purbeckmarbie tiom GreatWood (SM TQ 88 NW 7, pottery and a bronze statuefrom Hadlei_shCastle (ECC SMR 9533-4,SM TQ 88 NW 13;Drewett 1915,135-8), and coins from six locations: Bilton Road (ECC SMR 9154;SM TQ 88 NW 37). Castle Farm (SM TQ 88 NW 2l), ChurchRoad (SM TQ 88 NW 39), MeadowRoad (SM TQ 88 NW 87), ScrubLane (ECC SMR 9124;SM TQ 88 NW 51) andWest Wood (SM TQ BB Nw 68). The coastlinewas also an important focus of activity (Fig 21). To the southof the RayleighHills lay an extensive areaof saltmarshwhich, in the Romanperiod, was the set- 'red ting for at least three hills' used for salt production (Fawn et al 1990, 52).On the adjacentfen edge Roman material has been found at the easternend of the Castle Saddleback(ECC SMR 9519),while a largeamount of very

Fig 20 ExtrctctJ'rom the Ordnance Surveyfirst edition six-inch 'ru ntcLpof south-eastEssex (surveyed in 1876). This forms the basis ' ///t ' '1_ "4(/////////t for the lcLndscctpeanaly.sis in Figure 21. For example,recent // .-'r/u1//' '(/1,.t7 enclosures,such us the woodLandassart from WestWood north- 1 . west of Solby's (compareFig 21) and Hadleigh Common,have ct clrrpci L rnr crrclosurc ,_/(,///,.4,,/////Z Z - %, HAIJL t tC H / ", far more regulur Loyoutthun the earlier fieldsaround the vilLage. . ( //12:' O '-*'/ :, SayersFam ta - /'), O double ditched cnclosurc I 2(, Key issues are the date when this clearance was under- (^ \-,\ taken and the age of the surviving woodland. If the Land ,(//\J\'1t'\,_s \--1t^_gi.- __J Utilisation Survey was correct then we shouid expect an \^/\'-, ',- a ,/) \- rorn abundance of woodland and less settlement on the Rayleigh l{l\,-+ L', \ \ --= Hi1ls compared to the adjacent areas (except at times of high population pressure). Unfortunately there has been relative- ly little archaeological work on the Hills, though bearing in mind that the vast majority of archaeological discoveries are, therefore, antiquarian and other chance finds, there is in fact a remarkable number (Buckley 1980; Pollitt 1953). For example, taking just one parish, Hadleigh (Fig21), later pre- historic finds include an Eariy Iron Age enclosure off Chapel Lane (Brown 1987), several Late Iron Age bunal urns trom Sayer's Farm (ECC SMR 1208-9,9610; SM TQ 88 NW 74), and the cropmarks of a substantial double- Fig 2l HadLeigh: Jindspots marking late prehistoric and Romctn ditched enclosure of a type dated elsewhere in Essex to the settlement. The densin of findspots is greatest in the southern Late Iron Age and the Roman periods (Priddy & Buckley part of the parish, because this arect ltcts seen the grecttest urban 1.981,61-6). Other examples of this type of enclosureare at clevelopment. Note that severcrLfindspots occur in or on the edge Mucking (Clarke, A 1993, 2A-l), Orsett (Toller 1980), of areas known to have been wooded in the late lSth cerltur\) Rainham (Greenwood i982) and Stansted (Brooks & (source: ECC SMR und Southend Musemn).

)2 The RayleighHills in south-easrEssex: patternsin expioitationof a r,voodland pooriy tired tile (tegttLa.imbrex, and comb-decoratedbox land' (WAM 8039).All traceof this f-armsreadhas now dis- t-1uetiie), though cr-rriousiyno pottery,has beendiscovered appeared,and it is not shownon the map of 1177(Chapman on the edge of the marshesat the southernend of Chapel & Andr6). although post-medievalbuilding debris can be Lane,south of Sayer'sFarm (ECC SMR 9718). found in the field alongsideRoman tegulue. This density of late prehistoricand Roman sites and By the late Saxon period the Rayleigh Hills appearro irndspotsis repeatedover much of the RayieighHi11s and is have been relatively well wooded,indicated by the almost comparabieto most of the sunounding lower-lying areas completepredominance of -LecLhnames in Domesday(Fig (Pollitt 1953); this does not appearto have been marginal 19 Hockley, Leigh, Rayleigh, Thundersley,Wheatley, 1and.in contrast,however, there is just one findspotof Eariy Hadleigh).Most botanicallyancient woodlands are not doc- Saxon date on all of the Rayleigh Hiils: a possibleburial umenteduntil the 13th century,though some,for instance from PlumberowMount in Hockley (Jones1980, 92; Pollitt Britcherley (now PotashWood, ), Fennley (now 1953,74) the suggestionthat an iron spearand knife point , Thundersley.Fig 22), Goldingsley (Leigh), from DawesHeath are Saxon(Pollitt 1953,76) is regarded Horseley(south of Barnes-juxta-Hadleigh,Fig 22). Kingley by Jones(1980, 92) as doubtful.This lack of Saxonfind- (Rayleigh) and Tilehurst Woods (Thundersley,Fig 22), may spotscontrasts sharply with the Southendarea to the eastof havepre-Conquest names (Rackham 1986b, l6). the RayleighHills, which hasan abundanceof Saxonsettle- Domesday records surprisingly little woodland in mentand burial sites(Crowe 1996.fie 1: Wvmer & Brown manorson the RayleighHills (Rippon 1991,tig 3). though 1995,figs 99-100). it is quite likely that woodlandrecorded on other manorsin south-eastEssex THE ORIGINS OF THE PRESENT LANDSCAPE: was actually located in enclaveson the POST-ROMAN REGENERATION Hiils. In the sameway thesemanors had grazing ri_ehtson distantcoastal marshes (see below: It would seem,therefore, that the RayleighHills were set- Cracknell1959, l0-11: Rackham1986b, 16, fig 14; Rippon tled by the Roman period,but during the Early Saxonperi- 1991:Round 1903, 369). od activity was much less intense.This leadsto the critical The well-wooded natureof the Rayleigh questionof whetherthe present.well-wooded character of Hills may in tact be illustratedthrough the area derives from a post-Romanregeneration (Day analysingthe acreageper popula- tion, plough and shiilin_eof value in 1066 (Table 1993).Botanicaily, most woodlandon rhe RayleighHills is 2). This date was chosenrather than 1086to exclude regardedas'ancient', thoughthis only provesthat it is at the eff-ectsof any disruption to leastseveral hundred years old (Rackham1986b). the landscapecaused by the Norman Conquest (see In southernEngland as a whole palaeoenvironmental below). The bounds of the numerous Domesdaymanors is not known, evidencefor post-Romanwoodland regenerationis very so for this anaiysisthey havebeen grouped by medievalparishes. limited; overall, the landscapeappears to have remained Most of the parish- es whose centreslay on the Rayleigh open (Bell 1989,273-1, Murphy 1994;Williamson 1993, Hilis also extended onto the surroundinglowlands; only Leigh 58-9).The closest pollen sequence to south-eastEssex, from and Hadleigh were containedwholly on the Hills. Hart's (1957b) the Mar Dyke in , suggeststhat there may have idenrif-i- cation of Lea(m) as Hadleighis accepted beenlimited regenerationin the post-Romanperiod in that here. Rawrerhis not namedin Domesdayand is assumedto area(Wilkinson 1988, 125), but too muchshould not be read havebeen includ- into this one diagram. ed under Wickfbrd. Table 2 shows that in Domesday the Rayleigh Hills had lower densitiesof ploughs,popularion Severalfragments of evidence,however, suggest that and valueper acrecompared with areas to (the some at least of the woodland on the Rayleigh Hills is both the west London Clay) and especiallythe east(the indeedpost-Roman. A possibleRoman villa at DawesHeath brickearths). was first identifiedin the 1970s(Drury et al 1981).The Tabte2 Comparisonof agricultural conditionson the structure's character is unclear, though the presenceof RayleighHills and areasto the westand eastin ceramicroof tiles indicatesa villa, or a f'armsteadof suffi- 1066 and 1334. cient statusto have had a stone-builtbath-house (like the westernarea Rayleigh easternarea recentlyexcavated site at GreatHolts Farm,Boreham: Essex (LondonClay) Hills (brickearttr/gravels) Archaeology1995,12). Though it cannotbe proventhat the acreage acres acres acres DawesHeath site itself was subsequentlywooded, the pre- 1066per plough 398 491 294 sentpattern of field boundariesin the vicinity clearly sug- 1066per tenant 92 111 159 gestsa woodlandassart from PoundWood to the southand 1066per shilling 21 26 11 east,and to the west (Fig 22).The assartis cailed 'Haggatt 1334per shilling 64 4'/ 33 Lande alias Brett Lande' in 1613 (WAM Lease Book XI, f. 1l7b) and may equarewith the land held in By 1334,however, the situationhad changed(Glasscock Thundersleyby Stephenle Bret in the l3th century (WD 1915),and though the acreageper shilling of valuewas still temp.Hen. III, f. 609;remp. Edw. I, f. 609).In ll17, 'Brers much lower than for the areato the east.the Hills were now 'a aiias Haggetts'amounted to 28 acresof land and mes- more highly vaiued comparedto the London Clays to the suagewith barnsouthouses and severaltrelds of customary west.Assuming conditions on the Clay had not deteriorated

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SrephenRippon in any significantwav. this must mark a positiveimprove- FFI "'oodland ment in the value of land on the Rayleigh Hills. The very - | I COmmOn varied resourceson the Rayieigh Hi11s,including the abun- lr]ll m"sir dant woodland,thus supporteda higher valuationthan the I whoily clearedareas .i/ 60 nt) to the west. aa There is no firm evidencein Domesdayfor clearance between1066 and 1086.A decreasein woodlandbetween these two assessmentshas been noted throughoutEssex, thoughthis was not necessarilydue to clearancefor cultiva- tion (Lennard 1945).For example,the changein Eastwood from woodlandfor 50 swine to that for 30 was matchedby a decreasein ploLrghsfrom l0 to 7. This may in fact repre- sentwasting affer the Conquest(Lennard 1945, 36), and 30 'wasted Sal,ers Farm acresof wood' are indeedrecorded in FantonHall. ai/ StockField , which were probably located on the -. '\s''(__rli:i:r:f.! i '' r \ P"t' RayleighHills (Rackhamt9B6b. 16). reat Fieid.- iift park lodge An indication of active woodland clearancemight be \\ ,rb,.,r"Fam found in the region'ssocial structure. Harvey (1979,107-9) ,d-1. P,ARK has suggestedthat the Domesday tenantscalled bordarii \\ \ ::\ 'a were classof people,perhaps formerly servile,who dwell r_ -,:" . in cottageson the edgeof the existingvillage and its fields, { who had takenin a few acresof land from the waste,com- '' mon and heathiand,to form a small holding'. Thesehold- ((; \t J. t\\ ings might amountto around5 to 10 acresof land (Harvey \,1ARSHE,S '*) o ilu 'l 79Bl, 254). If this hypothesisis correctwe might expectfar 'L larger numbersof bordarli on the RayleighHills compared to the lower-lying sumoundingareas. Tabie 3 givesthe per- centagesof bordarii on the Rayleigh Hiils and surrounding lowland areasin 1066 and 1086.The percentagesof hor- Fig 22 Hadleigh: reconstructedplan of the medieval landscape, darii on the Hills in 1066and 1086are in fact iower thanthe including the vilLageand outlying farmstectds.The extentof regionalaverage, and much lower comparedto the areasfur- woodlandin the Iate lSth centuryis shown:some at leastof this ther east,though higher than the London Clay areasto the may be post-medievalregeneration. ( Cartographic sources; wesJ.In Essexas a whole bordarii were367o of the villeins, Hadleigh Park, (?) late L6th century (HRO M16/54); Hadleigh bordarsand slavesin 1066,and 537o in 1086(Welldon-Finn Marshes, 1670 (HRO M16/54); Barnes [Great] Wood,1750 1912.131). Thus, either Harvey's suggestion as to thenature (ERO D/Dmq E7/1); Chapntanand Andrd (1777); Tithe Mctp, of the bordarii is incomector there was not a particularly 1817 (ERO D/CT 154/A); Enclo.rureMttp, 1852(ERO TS/M significant level of assartingon the Rayleigh Hills during 63/9).) the third quarterof the 11thcentury.

Other woods certainly existed around these parks, recorded Table 3 Domesdaybordarri as a percentage of bordars, for example in Hadleigh (CIPM vol I, Hen. III, 249; CPR villeins and sLaves,in 1066 and 1086,on the Rayleigh Rich. II vol. II, 536-7), Thundersley (FF I, 232; Burrows Hills and in neighbouring lower-lyingareas. 1909, 28; Delderfield 1982, l4) and Dawes Heath west Rayleigh east average (Delderfield & Rippon 1996). In fact, out of twelve Feet of Hills south-eastEssex Fines from 1254-5 to 1430 that describe holdings wholly in Vo To Va %o Hadleigh, six included small parcels of woodland, usually 1066 4r 48 54 50 between 3 and 8 acres (see Table 4). 1086 49 52 1I 61 Large areas of woodland existed in the post-medieval period (Figs 20-22). Much of this is probably a direct descendent of the post-Roman regenerative woodland, The extent of woodland on the Rayleigh Hills becomes though some was derived from medieval or later regenera- more evident during the high medieval period. The existence tion. For example, the Dean and Chapter of St Paul's had of three royal deer parks suggests that in the late l1th to part of West Wood (Fig 22) on the Hadleigh-Thundersley early 13th century, when the parks were created, there was a parish boundary, which covered 81 acres in the l8th centu- concentration of woodland in the area; in England as a ry (ERO D/DU 56011411:ERO D/DHI P5 1; Delderfield whole, wherever licences to impark state former land use in 1982, 14). Of this 64 acres were in Thunciersley, which pre- over half the casesthis was woodland (Rackham 1980, 191). sumably represents the bulk of the 74 acres that St Paul's

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The RayleighHills in south-eastEssex: patterns in exploitationof a woodland

heldin thatparish during the late 1250s;of thisjust 22 acres the other threeparishes do not appearto havecontained any werewooded (FF I,))6,232;Delderfleld 1982.l4). ancientwoodland: Rookery Wood in Canewdon,and Barton The abundantpost-Roman woodiand on the Rayieigh Hall Groveand Steward'sWood in GreatStambridge, are all Hills is in sharpcontrast to the lower-lying areasin the rest of recentorigin (Rackhami986b, 103, 107).Some of the of south-eastEssex which lack -Leahplace-names. To the detachedparcels of woodland on the Rayleigh Hills may west of the Rayleigh Hiils the potentialsurvival of a recti- date back to the period when the common wood-pastures 'Shoebury linear Roman field system south of Wickford (Fig 19) were enclosed,such as Grove' which later came (Rippon l99I; Rodwell 1978) suggeststhat the landscape into the hands of Prittleweil Priory (ERO D/DMq T3l7 remainedopen throughoutthe Saxonperiod. To the eastof Rackham 1986b, 18) Shoebury manor also retained 30 the Rayleigh Hills the carefullyplanned road and field sys- acresof woodlandin Hadleigh(CIPM 1,249, CIPM VII, temsappear at leastin part to be of later Saxonorigin rather 125;CIPM XVI, 119). than a survivaltrom Romantimes (Fig 19) (Rippon 1991; Wymer& Brown 1995,110-2). Though there is no evidence THE HIGH MEDIEVAL PERIOD Clearanceof the post-Romanwoodland on the Rayleigh that they were createdafter woodlandclearance, there areno -leah place-namesnor is thereabundant evidence for Early Hills appears to have started during the Middle to Late period: -leah and Middle Saxon settlement(Crowe 1996; Jones l9B0; Saxon nationally, namesare rarely recorded (Cox Wymer & Brown 1995). before c. 130 1916,50; Gelling 1993, 198). By Domesdaythe RayleighHills wereclearly well settled,with numeroussettlements and plough-teamssuggesting exten- Table4 Feet of Finesfor Hadleigh 1254/5-1430 (source:FF I-lV). sive open areas.It was during this later Saxon period of clearancethat the basicframework of the medievaland post- messuagesland pasture wood marsh heath medievallandscape, including the broad pattern of settle- acres acres acres acres acres ments, roads, fields and commons, came into being (see t25415 1 8 Warner 1987 for the origins of green-sidesettlement in t254t5 5 Suffolk). However,the subsequentcenturies saw a seriesof 1261.12 | 20 major modifications,including the creationof three large r268t9 r t2 deer parks, further erosion of the common land, and the t21516 1 15 resulting proliferation of dispersedsettlements. Together, 1288t9 80 these amountedto an increasedintensitv with which the r30sl6 JU landscapewas exploited. 1320il 1 3 3 The dispersedsettlement pattern of the Rayleigh Hills 132314 r 23 1 8 has not left much in the way of documentation.Reaney t324- I 10 3 (1935) collatedthe evidencefor the datewhen many of the 1324 I 14 1 3 farmsteadsare first documented,though in many casesit is 1430 | 4% actually a family name that is first recorded; for instance, Garrold's: Walter Gerold, 1,324(Fig 22) (Reaney i935, In the post-Romanperiod, therefore,large parts of the 185).It is dangerousto assumethat the eariiestdate when a RayleighHills appearto havebeen abandoned and saw the farm is documentedis closeto that of its foundation: a farm- regenerationof woodland.However, the surroundinglow- steadmay go undocumentedfor many centuries.What can land areascontinued to be occupiedand settlementsthere be said,however, is that the dispersedsettlement pattern on held grazingrights up on the Hills. An analogycan be drawn the RayleighHills certainiyexisted by the early l4th centu- with the extensiveintercommoned pastures on TiptreeHeath ry. Examples are, at South Bentleet, Jarvis Hall, 1254 betweenChelmsford and ,on which 16 parishes (Reaney1935, 143); at KerseyMarsh, Poynett's. 1308, and 'an had rights of pasturein unappropriatedwaste' (Britnell Reed'sHill, 1285 (Priestley1984,23); and at Thundersley, i983, 52; Hunter1995, 140; Round 1903,310). This pattern Haresland,I3I9 (Reaney1935, 112). of continuous occupation in certain lowland areas, and A number of other farms are not documenteduntil the regenerationon the higher hills, is also mirroredin Norfolk 15thand 16thcenturies, and it is not clearwhether they rep- where the central watershed appears to have been p4rtly resent earlier farms that had escapeddocumentation or late abandonedin the post-Romanperiod (Williamson 1993). medievalassarting of woodlandand common land when the By the medieval period many lowland farms are record- already weak manorial authority of this region was further ed as having woodland on the Rayleigh Hills (Rackham eroded.Examples are, at Hadleigh,Bramble Hall, 1412,and 1986b,16-17, fig 14). For example,tn 1462an estateis Sayer's,1491 (Reaney 1935, i85); at SouthBenfleet, Boyce recordedas comprising 1 messuage,240 acresof 1and,3 Hiii, (?)1412,1563(Reaney 1935, 143); and atThundersley, acres of wood and 40 acres of marsh in Paglesham, Claydon's,1554 (Reaney 1935, 143). Canewdon,Great Stambridge (all betweenthe riversCrouch The estate of Westminster Abbey at Dav,zesHeath, in and Roach)and Hadleigh,about 10 miles to the south-west Hadleigh and Thundersley, is relativeiy well documented (FF IY 58). Presumablythe woodlandlay in Hadleighsince and hasbeen studied by Bob Delderfield(whom I thank for

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I StephenRippon allowin_s me to lefer ro his unpubiished work). Macleod1980, 6). In l22l thrs_srant rvas contirmed (CChR Westminster'smain holding in south-eastEssex was a large vol I Hen. III. 1?),and in 1230a licencewas obtainedto compactestate in South Benf-leetacquired after the Norman build a castleat Hadleighon a hill overiookingthe Thames Conquest(DB 6.1; Benton 1867-88,55). In conrrast,the Estuary(Figs 16 and 22) (CPR Hen. IlI, vol II, zll1). In Abbey's lands around Dawes Heath appearto have been 1239, however, de Burgh was disgracedand his estates obtainedin a piecemealtashion with a numberof acquisi- revertedto the crown. In 1250the royal manor comprised tions in the 13th century,including lands,woods and tene- 140 acresof arable,2 acresof meadow,a curtilage,pasture ments in Hadleigh (1222-46:WD f.491) and Thundersiey aroundthe castleand the barnsof the castlefor supportinga (temp.Hen. III: WD 609,610; 1222-46:WD f.614; remp. plough,pasture on the marshtor 160sheep. a watermil1, toll Edw.I: WD f.609; 1283-1307:WD f.616).There were also of the tair and a park (Sparvel-Bayly1818,92). In 1214-5 acquisitionsin Wheatley(Fig 19) which give an impression thereis evenreference to a vineyard(Colvin 1963,662). of how the l3th-century landscapemay have appeared.A The earliestreference to a park at Hadleigh is in 1235 grantin 1253-83comprised 86 acres,of which 14 acreslay (CCR Hen. III, vol III, 57). In addition 'the ro sport and recre- in field called le Westt-eldat Wateleye',along with 19 ationaluse (CPR Hen. III, vol VI, 55t), the parkwas a vaiu- 'le 'le acresin Estfeld',20 acresin Bernef-eld',33acres in able sourceof timber (CCR 'le Edw. I vol I, 200), underwood Medefeld', and 21 acresin an unnamedlocation (WD f. (CPR Rich. II, vol I, 482), and fresh meat borh f'or the king 616). In c. 1300 Alice Watelegegranted Wesrminster 18 (CLR vol VI, 291) andas gifts to others(CCR Hen. III, vol acresof land in Thundersley,which was surroundedby a VII, 325). Horseswere rearedin a stud there(CPR Edw. II, ditch and called'Bernfeld',as well asthe two roadsleading vol I, 392).Various enclosures and assartsare recordedthat 'Bernfeld'to 'Pirifeld' 'Almshale' tiom and (temp.Edw. I: would havecompartmentalised the park (CFR Edw. I, vol I, WD f. 582).At aboutthe sametime Westminsterwas granr- 325 Min Acc II, 102), allowing tor 'Thielherst' more intensiveman- ed the tenementof (Tilehurst)(Fig 22), which agement,for exampleby coppicingwoodland (CpR Rich. was to becomethe centre of their estatesat Dawes Heath II, vol I,482,487). The earthworksof a dam acrossthe val- (temp.Edw. I: WD f. 609;see Rackham 1986b ,IJ , for a sur- Iey north of the castlemay indicatea fishpondin the park vey of 1315).The overali impressiongiven by theseand (Fig 22), and a stank (or fishpond) is recordedin rhe lare otherreferences (and seethe discussionof Hadleighbelow) 14thcentury (CPR Edw. IlI, vol XVI, 63; CpR Rich. II. vol is that during the medievalperiod the Rayleigh Hills were IY 406). The park also servedan importantsocial function still relatively well woodedwith a patternof dispersedset- asthe objectof patronageand gift; its keepershipwas clear- tlement scatteredaround numerous commons and heaths. ly a prizedpossession with rights of grazing,cutting timber HADLEIGH: LANDSCAPEAND and a quota of deer (CPR Edw. IlI, vol XI, 96). Ttre royal estate LORDSHIP also containeda coastalflshery in HadleiehRav (Fis - 22) (CPRRich. II, vol II, 531). The early history of Hadleighis somewhatobscr_rre as it The creation of the deer park represenrsan important does not appear to be mentioned in Domesday.Benton statementabout the authorityof a major landholder.Just as (1867-88,228) andMorant (I166-8,279) suggesr rhat ir was rising population placed increased pressure on rural included under Raylei-qh,whereas Priestley (1984, 64-j) resources,a large areaof land was devotedto non-agricul- suggeststhat Hadleigh is in fact the otherwiseunidentified turaliproduction.It is not known whether arable land was Atelia. Hart (1957b) arguesmore plausibly that Hadleigh used,although the locationof the park,just to the south-east was in fact St Paul's manor of Lea(m). although Reaney of the vil1age,must makethis likely. Much of the land to the (1935, 163) and Round (1903, 422)had, assumed this was west, north and east of the village was either common or Lee Chapelnear Basildon. part of the St Paul's Cathedralestate, suggesting that most The earliestret-erence to Hadleigh(Haeplege) rs in a list of the arablemust havelain to the areasouth of the village. of the estates of St Paul'sdared c. 995-8(Hart l95Ja,l9). It out of which the park was carved. is recordedas Hadleg rn Il2I (Reaney 1935, 185) and A mill (first documentedin 1250:CLR Hen. III. vol III. HadLeain 1182, when rhe church is first referredto (pipe 11).and a smalllanding-stage lay on rheedge of the marsh- Rolls vol. XXXI, 103).Unfortunateiv very little is known of es below the castle,adjacent to a tidal creek later called the St Paul's estate.The description 'Mill in a leaseof 1695-6 Fleet' (shownon a map of the marshdated 1670: HRO (ERO D/DU 56011411) matches a map of 1750 (ERO 1176154)(Fig 22). During the consrrucrionof the railway D/DMq El lI) by showing the esratein rwo almost wholly acrossthese marshestimber planks were recoveredat a woodedblocks: West Wood and Barnes(now Great)Wood. depthof 12 feet, from a vesselladen with Kentish ragstone However, the estate was formerly more extensive and (Burrows 1909, 255). This boat may have been delivering included several messuagesand parcels of land in and stonefor the constructionof the castleor mill, or subsequent aroundHadleigh village (FF I, 240; HMC 29,34,3l.). modifications.In I3l2 there is even referenceto barges Sometimebefore I2l1 Hubertde Burgh was grantedthe being made at Hadleigh,underlining the importanceof the honour of Rayleigh, which includedHadleigh and a large maritime role of the royal estate(CPR Edw. III, vol Xy number of other manors (Burrows 1909, 253: Helliwell & 2r9).

/f) The RavleighHills in sor-rth-eastEssex: patterns in expioitationof a woodland

The largestprogramme of work on the castleand other HadleighCastle was, therefore, not simply a tortressand elementsof the estatewas canied out duringthe 1360sand occasionalroyal residence.It lav at the centreof an estate 70s,when vast amountsof materialmust havebeen shipped that expioitedthe variedresources of this rural landscapeto in (Colvin 1963;Sparvel-Bayly 1878). In 1366,for exam- the full; therewas a demesnefarm, a vineyard,a deerpark ple, 111tons of stonewere brought by boatfiom Kent,and servinga wide rangeof functions,a fishpond,a coastalfish- 'other l0 cartloadsof stone, lime, sand.chalk and neces- ery,coppiced woodland, a watermill and a quay.Several fea- saries'were carriedfrom the mili to the castle(Min Acc II, turesthat might havebeen expected are missing;there is no 103).At the sametime extensiverepairs were also carried mention of rabbit warrens (althou-ehthey are recordedin out on the mill, park lodge and pale (CPR Edw. IIl, vol XY Rayleigh and Thundersleyparks: CChR vol II, 27), and 224-6,CPR Edw. III, vol XVI, 340-I , 445,473;Min Acc I, meadow was scarce, explained by the decision not to 78; Min Acc II, 102-1). Clearly this estatewas a valued reclaim the marshesas they were alreadyso highly valued resourcethought worthy of considerableinvestment. for their sheepgrazing. The possibiiity of salt production The royal estateinciuded part of the marshesbelow the cannotbe ruied out althoughevidence is lacking. 'Rousande' castle.such as a marshcalied (CCREdw. III vol XIV 3B).Other areasof marshlandhad beengranted to two HADLEIGH: SMALLHOLDERSAND THE 'Russells 'Rushe Essexmonasteries. Marsh'(or Hullesalias LANDSCAPE PriorsMarsh') was held by PrittlewellPriory (CPREdw. VI, The rest of Hadieigh's medieval landscaperepresents a vol IV 81; ERO TIP 8312; D/DU 5l1l29l2\), while sharpcontrast to the intensivelyused royal estate.Much of 'Clerkenwick alias Abbott's Marsh' was tormerly held by the settlementappears to havebeen spread along the south- Stratford LangthorneAbbey (CPR Edw. VI, vol IY 87). ern edge of the common, close to the church and moated Other marsheswere held by smallholders:tor example,a manor house. Excavations to the south of the chr"rrch 'all grantof 1412inciuded the lands,marshes, rents and ser- revealeda long seqLrenceof occupation.with the earliest vices in Hadleigh called Passages,Mascales and Johnsatte pottery dated to the l2th century (Helliwell & Macleod Mersshe,and the whole marsh called Wodehammescotte' 1969).In addition there were a number of farmsteadsout- (CCR Hen IV vol IV 395). [n commonwith most of rhe side the main village that probably existed from the Essexcoastal marshes, the Hadleighmarshes were left unre- medievalperiod (Fig 22). Sayer'sFarm may date back to at claimedand usedfbr grazing sheep(Cracknell 1959, 10; least1491, when one Wiiliam Sayeris recordedin Hadleigh 'Pollington's Hart 1957b,40). (Reaney1935, 185). Solby's (formerly alias It is curiousthat there appearsto be no evidencefor the Strangeman'splace'), on the northernside of the common, productionof salt on the marshes,since this valuablecom- may be at least l4th-cenrury (Benron 1867-88, 231). It modity was certainlyused tor preservingmeat from the deer farmed an assartfrom West Wood and may have been moat- park (CLR Hen. III. vol IV,319; CLR Hen.III, vol IV 350; ed (Heygate1859, cited in Hancock& Harvey 1986,52). CLR Hen. III, vol IY 256). Medievaisalterns, quite distinct Two farms in the far north of the parish represent other from their Roman predecessorsin having more prominent woodland assarts:Bramble Hall is documentedin l4l2 moundsand larger tanks, and lacking distinctiveburnt red (CCR Hen.IY vol IV 395),whiie Ganold'smay be related earth. are known trom around both the Blackwater and to Waiter Gerold recordedat Hadleigh in 1324 'Geroldes Crouch estuaries (Barford 1988a; Christy 1901, 445 heth'(heath)is documentedfrom 1450(Reaney 1935, 185). Christy & Dalton 1928;Fawn et al 7990,49 Wilkinson & Rackham(1986a, 112, ll8) suggeststhat 'someregions. Murphy 1995, 197), though there is no evidenceat all tor suchas the south-easthalf of Essex,seem never to havehad suchsites on the Hadleigh marshes. open tields at all'. However, nomenclaturesuch as 'le 'le 'le The location of the original manor house is unciear, Westf-eld', Estfeld', Bernefeld', 'le Medeteld' and 'Pirifeld' althoughit probably lay at the moatedHadleigh Hall close in Wheatley,and the fact thesefields containedat to the church (Fig 22). After the royal estatewas sold in least20-30 acres (see above; WD f.616),suggest that there 1551 (CPR Edw. VI, vol III, 158-9) the manor passed may in fact havebeen a multiplicity of smallcommon fields. throughthe Riche, Warwick, St John and Sparrowfamilies Very little is known about the fields that surrounded (Benron 1867-88,233-4). By rhe 19th century the manor Hadleigh. Eariy referencesare few, although a pattern of and its court was locatedat CastleFarm (Benton1867-88, smallenclosed fields is certainlyapparent as early asc. 1700 234). Hadleigh Hall had been owned by the Heber family (1696:ERO D/Ds 128129 1732ERO D/Ds l28l3t). The 'manor since the 18th century, though in 1112 the of Tithe Map (ERO D/CT 154) showsa wholly enclosedland- HadleighHall' was held by the St Johnfamily whoseesrate scape,though the field boundarypattern to the southof the also included Castle and Park Farms (HRO DDm 61119). village is rather different from that of the rest of the parish: Thus it would seemthat the medievalroyal estatewas divid- fields are slightly larger, more rectilinear and there are sev- ed into threefarms, corresponding to the landsof the castle, eral examplesof two or more adjacentfields having the manor and park, and when the Heber family acquiredHal1 same name (for example, Broom Field, Great Field and 'Stock' Farm in the 18th century the manorialrights were retained Stock Field; the three namesoccur on either side of by the St John family and so transf'erredto CastleFarm. CastleLane and in total cover a sizeabiearea south of the

2i -

StephenRippon village: Fig 22). It is possible that these are the remnants of England. were lett unreciaimed (Rippon forthcoming). 'smail areas of subdivided arable, often subject to joint or Cleariy,in certaincases. these natural resources were more communal regulation' similar to those at Wheatley, which highiy valued than the increaseda-ericuitural production 'woodland were characteristic of the iandscape' of south- achievablethrough assarting and drainage. east England (Hunter 1995; Newton 1910; Williamson Another reason why the Westminster estates were 1988,5). exploitedin this fashion concernsthe distributionof their The averagesize of landholdingsin Hadleighappears to land. The Abbey's estateswere acquiredpiecemeai during havebeen small. In the early 14thcentury a surveydescribes the l2th and i3th centuries.Though their original extentis 'moneday 22rlz'terre'and 6 londs'inHadleigh (Gray 1915, not known, the holdingsappear to havebeen scattered rather 392). The Feet of Fines for Essexhave beenpublished for than nucleatedin one largeblock, which would clearly limit 1182-1541 (FF I-IV). There are twelve holdings whose the scope tor large-scalelandscape reorganisation (see lands were wholly within Hadleigh,dating from 125415to Rippon forthcomingfor similar considerationsapplying to 1430 (Table4). Each typically consistedof a messuage, marshlandrecl amation). between3 and 23 acresof land. and 3 to 30 acresof wood- land. Severalholdings also had small parcelsof pasture, CONCLUSIONS while there were single examplesof marsh and heath.No In l9l5 Gray wrote that'the earlv tield system of tew meadow is listed, which supportsthe impressionthat none Engiish countiesis so difficult to describeas that of Essex' of the coastalmarshes was reclaimed. (1915, 387). The early plannedlandscapes of Essexhave In the landscapeof Hadleigha clear division can there- attractedmuch a[tention,yet thereis a much greaterdiversi- fore be drawn between the estate of a single powerful ty in the Essexcountryside: notably, large areaswith more landowner,in this casethe Crown, and the remainingareas irregular patterns derived trom woodland assarting. In wherethe landscapewas createdthrough gradual and piece- south-eastEssex the RayleighHills. the London Clay region meal assartingof woodlandand heathby smallholders.The to the west and the brickearthsand gra.velsto the east had same two-fold division between seigneurialand peasant markedly different medieval landscapes.Physical factors Iandscapescan be detectedalso in Cressing(Hunter 1995) such as soil quality may have been a f'actor in the greater and Writtle (Newton 1970),with the areascontrolled by the woodland regenerationseen on the Hi1is, for example great lords having a markedly more regular morphology throughpodsolisation due to over-exploitation.At a time of and, in certain cases, open fields (Hunter 1995, frg 4; rising population,however, the variationsin soil quality and Newton1970.31). resulting arable potential cannot explain why the area remainedso wooded;the explanationmust in part havebeen DISCUSSION: THE ROLE OF LORDSHIP a consciousdecision, taken by the numerouslandowners, IN THE LANDSCAPE large and small, to leave them that way. Tho exploitation of the Rayleigh Hills during rhe posr- The pattern of landholding and the diversity of rural Roman period demonstrates a number of points with regard resourceswere major factorsin determininghow this land- to the role of lordship in landscape exploitation and man- scapewas shaped.The extensiveroyai estatessaw the cre- agement. The creation of Hadleigh Park clearly demon- ation of threedeer parks, reserved tor huntingand pleasure. strates that during the medieval period major landowners In contrast,the remaining areashad a weak and tiagmented could transform their estates.The resulting landscapes tend manorial structureand landscapeswere createdin a piece- 'grand to have certain characteristics in common, they were meal fashionby numeroussmallholders. designs', intended to intensify the exploitation of rural The way in which a landscapewas exploiteddepended resources for the maximum economic. recreationai and thereforeupon a rangeof naturalfactors, such as soils, and sometimessocial gain. cultural variables, such as population and landholding. Major landlords did not always manage their estates in Powerful estateowners could radically reshapethe land- this way, however. For example, Westminster Abbey and St scape,though it was not always possibleor desirablefor Paul's Cathedral were both major landowners on the them to do so becauseof the scatterednature of their hold- Rayleigh Hiils, although the exploitation of their estateswas ings. In sharpcontrast, large areasof this landscapewere based upon woodland management and the grazing or culti- createdby smallholderswho gradually clearedthe wood- vation of small assarts.The reason why these estates were land and heath, taking advantage of the rich natural not simply converted to large arable fields illustrates the resourcesthat this landscapeoffered. value placed by contemporary society on the varied ACKNOWLEDGEVIENTS resources of a woodland region, rather than its being in any I would like to thankKen Croweand Bob Delderfieldfor way a marginal landscape. Woodland itself was a valued their assistancewith this researchand for accessto unpub- resource, as were the coastal Thames-side saltmarshes lishedmaterial. which, unlike those in the rest of southern and eastern

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