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It Takes Two to Tango: Endothelial TGF/BMP Signaling Crosstalk with Mechanobiology

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It Takes Two to Tango: Endothelial TGF/BMP Signaling Crosstalk with Mechanobiology cells Review It Takes Two to Tango: Endothelial TGFβ/BMP Signaling Crosstalk with Mechanobiology Christian Hiepen, Paul-Lennard Mendez and Petra Knaus * Knaus-Lab/Signal Transduction, Institute for Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie Universitaet Berlin, 14195 Berlin, Germany; [email protected] (C.H.); [email protected] (P.-L.M.) * Correspondence: [email protected] Received: 22 July 2020; Accepted: 22 August 2020; Published: 26 August 2020 Abstract: Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) are members of the transforming growth factor-beta (TGFβ) superfamily of cytokines. While some ligand members are potent inducers of angiogenesis, others promote vascular homeostasis. However, the precise understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying these functions is still a growing research field. In bone, the tissue in which BMPs were first discovered, crosstalk of TGFβ/BMP signaling with mechanobiology is well understood. Likewise, the endothelium represents a tissue that is constantly exposed to multiple mechanical triggers, such as wall shear stress, elicited by blood flow or strain, and tension from the surrounding cells and to the extracellular matrix. To integrate mechanical stimuli, the cytoskeleton plays a pivotal role in the transduction of these forces in endothelial cells. Importantly, mechanical forces integrate on several levels of the TGFβ/BMP pathway, such as receptors and SMADs, but also global cell-architecture and nuclear chromatin re-organization. Here, we summarize the current literature on crosstalk mechanisms between biochemical cues elicited by TGFβ/BMP growth factors and mechanical cues, as shear stress or matrix stiffness that collectively orchestrate endothelial function. We focus on the different subcellular compartments in which the forces are sensed and integrated into the TGFβ/BMP growth factor signaling. Keywords: BMP; TGFβ; mechanobiology; endothelial-cell; shear stress 1. Introduction Since their discovery as cytokines extractable from bone matrix, data on pleiotropic activities by bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) belonging to the ligand superfamily of transforming growth factors beta (TGFβs) are vastly expanding. There are more than 30 known TGFβ/BMP ligands, which bind to the heteromeric receptor complexes, comprising two type I (R1) and two type II (R2) serine/threonine kinase receptors. Numerous co-receptors fine-tune signaling of these receptors [1–4]. Activated TGFβ/BMP receptor complexes signal via mothers against decapentaplegic homologs (SMADs) transcription factors or induce a number of non-canonical responses, including activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), phosphoinositide-3-kinase (PI3K), as well as Rho homologous (Rho) GTPase signaling amongst others [5]. Both TGFβs and BMPs regulate important functions of the vasculature. This is underlined by several vascular phenotypes of the TGFβ/BMP-related knock-outs, which is subject to excellent reviews [6–9]. The pivotal role of these proteins for endothelial cells (ECs) forming the most inner layer of blood vessels, is further highlighted by a number of human diseases, where perturbed TGFβ/BMP signaling impedes blood vessel formation or maintenance of vascular integrity. Of note here are pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH), Osler-Weber Rendu syndrome/hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia (HHT), and Loeys-Dietz-syndrome (reviewed in [9–12]). Cells 2020, 9, 1965; doi:10.3390/cells9091965 www.mdpi.com/journal/cells Cells 2020, 9, 1965 2 of 33 In addition to biochemical signals, mechanical signals are equally required to orchestrate blood vessel formation, patterning, branching, pruning, and to maintain their integrity. Crosstalk of TGFβ/BMP signaling with cellular mechanobiology is a growing research field and contribution thereof to the above-mentioned vascular pathologies is little understood. In this review, we focus on the current efforts to understand how biochemical TGFβ/BMP signals in conjunction with mechanical signals, are received and integrated by the endothelium. A special focus is given to the different subcellular compartments in which we and others propose crosstalk to occur. 2. Activating Versus Homeostatic TGFβ/BMP Signaling in Endothelial Cells To put endothelial mechanobiology into context, it helps to briefly introduce the different known actions of TGFβ/BMP signaling in the endothelium. ECs can transit between an activated and homeostasis state, regulated by an intricate balance between the activating and homeostatic TGFβ/BMP ligands, in addition to other potent extracellular factors [13–15]; Figure1a. BMP 2, 6, and 7, all referred to as EC activating BMPs’, induce EC migration and angiogenesis [16–20]; Figure1a, top. They signal mainly via R1s ALK2, ALK3, and ALK6, in conjunction with either R2s BMPR2 or ACVRIIs (Figure1b). Sprouting angiogenesis is the formation of new blood vessels out of pre-existing ones [21]. During sprouting angiogenesis, activated tip-cells adopt a fibroblast-like front-to-rear end polarity over the course of migration. The single migratory tip-cell at sprout’s distal end is followed by multiple adjacent stalk-cells that proliferate (Figure1a, upper) and dynamically compete with the tip-cell for its position [22]. A hallmark of tip-cell phenotype are long actin-driven filopodia at the leading edge. These protrusions are rich in integrins and form focal adhesions (FAs), connecting the extracellular matrix (ECM) with the cellular cytoskeleton, enabling the cell to sense ECM rigidity [23,24] and its nanotopography [25]. Tip-cell filopodia promote sprouting [26,27] by projecting cytokine-gradient sensing receptors to their most distal ends. Several groups have shown in vitro that different ECs, including ECs of arterial and venous origin, as well as microvascular and macrovascular ECs but also EC progenitors, respond to BMP2, 6, and 7 amongst others, by migration, sprouting, or tube-formation [17,28–44]. We could recently show that BMP6 promotes the expression of stalk-cell-associated genes, while BMP2 induced delta-like ligand 4 (DLL4) [17], a known tip-cell marker [45]. Application of BMP6 in a gradient-like fashion is sufficient to induce EC filopodia formation, alignment along, and chemotaxis within this gradient [17,30]. Whether EC activating BMP2, 6, 7 gradients exist in-vivo is still debatable. While BMP gradients are well-described in early developmental tissue patterning of invertebrates and vertebrates [46], their existence and contribution for sprouting angiogenesis in vivo is still not clearly shown. Mouse data on BMP-induced tumor vascularization, however suggest, that BMPs induce tumor angiogenesis, similar to vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-like gradients [39,40]. Interestingly, interfering with BMP signaling in zebrafish caudal vein plexus reduces the number of tip-cells and their filopodia, by a process requiring CDC42 Rho GTPase activity [47]. Interfering with endothelial SMAD1/5 signaling in mice results in less functional tip-cells during retinal angiogenesis [48]. Taken together, EC activating BMPs 2, 6, and 7 facilitate in-vitro angiogenic sprouting through regulation of tip- and stalk-cell identities in a gradient-like fashion, and it remains to be proven if this phenomenon also occurs in vivo (Figure1a). Cells 2020, 9, x 4 of 33 Although the co-receptor Endoglin is not required for BMP9/10 activation of ALK1, it enhances its signaling output [78–81]. Endoglin binds BMP9 and potentiates BMP9-ALK1 signaling, however, it interferes with TGFβ-ALK5 signaling [82], (Figure 1c–e), thereby pushing the TGFβ/BMP balance towards BMP9 and SMAD1/5. Endoglin binds to TGFβ1,3 but not TGFβ2 [78], as well as the receptor complexes mediating signaling of Activins, BMP2, and BMP7 [79]. It also interacts with VEGF receptor 2 (VEGFR2) [83], zyxin [2], and integrins. Endoglin cooperates with FSS to potentiate BMP- induced Alk1 signaling [84], which is later explained in details. Moreover, Endoglin loss-of-function mutations mediate arterio-venous malformations found in HHT or in lung pulmonary vasculature Cells 2020, 9, 1965 in PAH [85]. Taken together, TGFβ/BMPs induce different functions in the activated and quiescent 3 of 33 endothelium, which sets the base to better understand the crosstalk to mechanical cues that is introduced in the next section. Figure 1. Different BMPs/TGFβ ligands induce activating or quiescent/homeostatic functions on endothelial cells (ECs). Depicted is the outgrowth (upper), pruning (middle), and maturation (lower) of a developing vascular network, (a) with an activated region (upper/middle) and a more quiescent, homeostatic region (lower). Characteristic at the active angiogenic front (upper) is the induction of sprouting angiogenesis, with distinct tip-cells at the leading front that utilize filopodia to sense- and pull- the extracellular matrix (ECM), followed by the proliferating stalk cells. Angiogenic gradients of activating BMP2, 6, or 7 (blue) are proposed based on in vitro data. TGFβ (green) bio-availability is tightly controlled through the interactions of the latent TGFβ complexes, with the underlying ECM (yellow). Intraluminal blood flow (lower) internally provides systemic BMPs (such as BMP9/10 (purple)) to ECs, inducing their maturation and ultimately maintaining a quiescent endothelial phenotype. Hemodynamics of blood flow exert concomitantly mechanical inputs through generation of fluid shear stress (FSS). The corresponding TGFβ/BMP receptor complexes and signaling branches proposed to be involved in these processes
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