Arundo Donax: Source of Musical Reeds and Industrial Cellulose Author(S): Robert E

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Arundo donax: Source of Musical Reeds and Industrial Cellulose Author(s): Robert E. Perdue, Jr. Source: Economic Botany, Vol. 12, No. 4 (Oct. - Dec., 1958), pp. 368-404 Published by: Springer on behalf of New York Botanical Garden Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4287997 . Accessed: 06/08/2014 13:13

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This content downloaded from 158.135.136.72 on Wed, 6 Aug 2014 13:13:55 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Arundo donax-Source of Musical Reeds and Industrial Cellulose Arundo donax has played an important role in the culture of the western world through its influence on the development of music. Reeds for woodwind musical instruments are still made from the culms, and no satisfactory substitutes have been developed. This grass has also been used as a source of cellulose for rayon and considered as a source of paper pulp.

ROBERT E. PERDUE, JR.'

Introduction peoples of the Middle East. The term The grass family is well known as a "reed" is of frequent occurrence in the source of many important economic Bible, and at least some of these refer- plants. The cereal grains form the most ences allude to Arundo donax. Biblical important source of food for mankind writers provide little information as to and grains and forage types provide the the utility of the plant but by simile complete diet of many domestic animals. made use of its well-known character- Sugar cane is the principal source of istics, its tenacity, rigidity, vigor and the sugar. Bamboos are widely utilized in nature of its surroundings in expressing tropical and subtropical areas and many their ideas or in creating imaginative species of grasses are employed as lawn descriptions of phenomena of their day. plants. Several grasses, notably esparto, Today, reeds for woodwind musical are used for the manufacture of paper, instruments are still made from Arundo donax species of Cymbopogon and Vetiveria culms, the same material that has provide essential oils, and the seed heads been employed throughout the history of of broom corn provide raw materials for these instruments. This is a rather un- the manufacture of brooms. usual case in which modern technology From the viewpoint of the quantity has been unable to develop a satisfactory utilized or its monetary value, Arundo substitute although, during times of donax L. is a grass of relatively minor shortages, much effort has been expended in importance, but this plant has played an this direction and, from time to time, important role in the culture of the west- musicians have turned in desperation to ern world through its influence on the a variety of other materials. A development of music. The plant has a considerable quantity of the grass long history, perhaps as long as that of has been used as a source of cellulose for any other species with the exception of rayon manufacture, and the plant has the basic food plants. Its utilization in received consideration as a source of the creation of music can be traced back paper pulp. 5,000 years. Botany The plant was well known to ancient The genus Arundo of the family Gra- 1 Botanist, Crops Research Division, Agri- mineae, tribe Festuceae, includes about cultural Research Service, U. S. Department of six species of which A. donax L. is the Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland. most widely distributed and the best 368

This content downloaded from 158.135.136.72 on Wed, 6 Aug 2014 13:13:55 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions ARUNDO DONAX 369 known. A. consppicuaForst., a native of largest of the herbaceous grasses. The New Zealand, is widely grown in Euro- fleshy, almost bulbous, creeping root- pean gardens as an ornamental. A. stocks form compact masses from which pliniana Turra is native to the countries arise tough fibrous roots that penetrate bordering the Mediterranean Sea and is deeply into the soil. The culms reach a utilized to a limited extent for forage. diameter of 1 to 4 cm. and commonly A. formosana Hack. is native to For- branch during the second year of growth. mosa; A. fulvida J. Buch. and A. rich- They are hollow, with walls 2-7 mm. ardi Endl. are native to New Zealand. thick, and divided by partitions at the Common Names. Because of its wide- nodes. The nodes vary in length from spread distribution and extensive utili- approximately 12 to 30 cm. The outer zation by man, Arundo donax has as- tissue of the stem is of a siliceous nature, sumed many common names. In the very hard and brittle with a smooth southwestern United States, the plant is glossy surface that turns pale golden sometimes called by the Mexican name yellow when the culm is fully mature. carrizo. In English-speaking countries The leaves are conspicuously two- in general, it is called bamboo reed, Da- ranked, 5 to 8 cm. broad at the base, nubian reed, donax cane, giant reed, tapering to a fine point. The leaf sheaths Italian reed, Spanish reed, or Provence are tightly wrapped around the stem and cane, as well as by such general appel- often persist long after the blades have lations as cane, reed, or bamboo. fallen. The flowers are borne in large, In other countries, the most widely terminal, plume-like panicles 30 to 60 employed names are merely translations cm. long. of the simple epithets "cane" or "common Morphologically, Arundo donax is cane". The most important names, some comparatively uniform. A variegated of which are applied also to Phraginites variety of the species, known only in communis, are as follows: Burma: cultivation, was described in Miller's alokyu; Egypt: kasab; France and Gardener's Dictionary in 1768. This French Africa: canne, canne de Prov- form is now known as A. donax var. ence, roseaux; Germany: Pfahlrohr, versicolor (Mill.) Kunth, and in most Pfeilrohr, Riesenschilf; Greece: kala- respects is a diminutive of typical A. mos; India: bara nal, gaba nal, narkul; donax. In its most familiar form, this Italy: calami, caneviera, canna, canna variety has culms up to 1.5 cm. in di- berganega, canna di cannitu, canna com- ameter that reach a maximum height of mune, canna domestica, canna montana, 4 to 5 m. but are frequently but .6 to 1 canna da rocchi, canna di stenniri, ciane m. high. This plant produces a more gergane, donaci, gutamu, virtamu; Spain dense growth than does typical A. donax and Spanish speaking countries: cana due to a greater production of culms as comun, canna de Castilla. well as to a greater production of leaves In Italy, the form with variegated and is less hardy than the latter. By leaves is known as canna zagariddara. selection of off-shoots other variegated With several exceptions in which the forms have been propagated that do not meaning will be clear from context, the differ significantly from typical A. donax term "reed" is employed in this paper except for their variegated leaves. only in reference to the sounding mecha- Cane grows very rapidly. Growth at nism of a musical instrument. a rate of .3 to .7 m. per week over a Description. Arundo donax is a tall, period of several months is not unusual erect, perennial, cane-like or reed-like wlhen conditions are favorable. Young grass, 2 to 8 m. high. It is one of the culms develop -at approximately the full

This content downloaded from 158.135.136.72 on Wed, 6 Aug 2014 13:13:55 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 370 ECONOMIC BOTANY diameter of mature cane, but their walls Donax cane has also been widely dis- increase in thickness after the initial persed in the New World, from the growing season. The new growth is soft southern United States southward and very high in moisture and has little through Central and South America. It wind resistance. occurs in most of the islands of the West Distribut.on. Arundo donax is native Indies, as well as in Bermuda and the to the countries surrounding the Medi- Bahamas. In the United States, the terranean Sea. From this area, it has plant has been cultivated successfully as become widely dispersed, mostly through far north as Washington, D. C., and intentional introduction by man, into all escapes from cultivation as far north as

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- W--LN IP: FIG. 1. A cultivated cane brake (Arundo donax) in California. (Photo courtesy of Arnold Bc ilhart) of the subtropical and warm-temperate Virginia and Missouri. It has been areas of the world. In many areas it widely planted, often as an ornamental, has become well established. The plant throughout the warmer states, especially is abundant in India, ascending to eleva- in the southwestern part of the country tions of 8,000 feet in the Himalayas, and where it is used along ditches for the has been dispersed eastward to Burma prevention of erosion. There are abund- and China. The species appears to be ant wild growths along the Rio Grande absent from central Africa but has been River. successfully introduced into the southern The cultivation of cane for woodwind part of that continent. It has been in- reeds has been largely limited to a very troduced into Australia and many islands small area in southeastern France in the of the Pacific and Atlantic oceans. adjoining Departments of Var and

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bed that become flooded only during rare flash floods. Very little cane grows at lower levels (14). The plant's ability to tolerate or grow well under conditions of apparent ex- treme drought is due to the development I4E , _.d of coarse drought-resistant rhizomes and /, N deeply penetrating roots that reach deep-seated sources of moisture. Cane can be seriously retarded by lack of moisture during its first year, but drought does not cause grave damage to patches 2 to 3 years old. From the standpoint of moisture requirement cane produces satisfactory growth in areas that are suitable for the cultivation of corn (28). Arundo donax is a warm-temperate or FIG. 2. A small ornamental planting of subtropical species. When dormant, it Arundo donax in California. This species is is able to survive very low temperatures commonly used as an ornamental in the wvarmer sections of the United States. but is subj ect to serious damage by (U.S.D.A. Photo) frosts that occur after the initiation of spring growth. The plant does not Alpes M\aritimes. Cane has also been flourish under true tropical conditions. cultivated for this purpose to a small In nature, cane is able to flourish on extent in Texas and California. Culti- soils that are apparently very infertile. vation of the plant for use as a source of Under cultivation the plant is responsive industrial cellulose has been largely to improved soil fertility and is partic- limited to northern Italy. Donax cane ularly favored by abundant nitrogen. is widely cultivated, on a small scale for In soils of low fertility, especially those local use, in Italy and other countries lacking in nitrogen, the buds of the rhi- around the Mediterranean Sea. zome are produced at a greater distance Ecology. Arundo donax tolerates a apart than in fertile soils and there is wide variety of ecological conditions much greater expansion of the under- (10, 14, 27, 28, 35, 42). It is reported to ground structures. In Argentina, annual flourish in all types of soils from heavy cane yields in infertile, partly fertile and clays to loose sands and gravelly soils. fertile soils were 4, 6, and 8 tons, respec- It tolerates excessive salinity and will tively, of dry cane per acre (28). survive extended periods of severe This species does not produce viable drought accompanied by low atmos- seed in most areas to which it is appar- pheric-humidity or periods of excessive ently well adapted. However, plants moisture. have been grown from seed collected in The plant produces the most vigorous Afghanistan, Baluchistan, and Iran. growth in well-drained soils where abun- Anatomy. Arundo donax stems ex- dant moisture is available; its favored hibit typical monocotyledonous struc- environment is along the border of lakes tures (16, 27, 40). Although the vascu- or along ditches and canals. Along the lar bundles are distributed freely Rio Grande the most abundant growths throughout the cross-sectional area of occur on fertile soils well above the river fundamental parenchyma, those toward

This content downloaded from 158.135.136.72 on Wed, 6 Aug 2014 13:13:55 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 372 ECONOMIC BOTANY the periphery of the stem are smaller cells are associated with the vascular and more numerous than are those bundles and are also located in the epi- toward the interior. The vascular bun- dermal tissue. Their presence explains dles are collateral and are surrounded by the relatively high silica content that one or more rows of thick-walled, strongly has been indicated by chemical analyses. lignified fibers. These fibers are long and narrow and taper to a fine point. Utilization: Reeds for Musical The larger bundles of the interior are Instruments commonly enclosed by a single row of Fundamentally, woodwind instruments fibers. Toward the periphery of the stem, consist of a tubular or conical resonator as the size of the bundles decreases, within which sound waves are generated the number of rows of fibers associated by the vibrations of a reed, as for the with the bundles increases. Near the clarinet or oboe, or by the passage of a exterior of the stem, where the bundles stream of air against the edge of a small are small and comparatively close to- aperture in the tube, the manner of gether, the fibers are sufficiently abun- sounding the flute. The tone generated dant to form a continuous ring of struc- by a woodwind is a function of the length tural tissue within which are scattered of the resonator and is controlled by the vascular elements. This structural opening one or more of a series of aper- ring is separated from the epidermal tures. layer by a narrow band of parenchyma Reeds for modern musical instruments cells that in mature stems are compara- are of three types. The single beating- tively small, thick-walled, and lignified. reed, employed with clarinet and saxo- The vascular bundles, with the excep- phone, consists of a tongue or strip of tion of those near the periphery of the cane, thinned gradually at one end to a stem, are embedded in thin-walled pa- broad delicate tip. The base of the reed renchyma the innermost cells of which is clamped to a mouthpiece with the thin are very large with inter-cellular spaces vibrating blade overlapping an opening at their angles. which leads into the resonator. When at The vascular bundles, including the rest, the reed is positioned in such a associated fibers interior to the struc- manner that there is a slight space be- tural fibrous ring, occupy approximately tween the blade and the mouthpiece. 24% of the total cross-sectional area of When played, the reed vibrates or beats the stem. The vascular tissue and as- against the mouthpiece. The double sociated fibers that compose the struc- beating-reed, employed with the bassoon tural ring make up approximately 33% and oboe, consists of two pieces of cane of the total cross-sectional area. Thus, arranged back to back. When played, parenchymatous tissue occupies but 43% the thin blades of the two elements vi- of the cross-sectional area of the stem. brate against each other. Reeds of both The single layer of epidermal cells is types are used in modern bagpipes al- covered with a waxy cuticle. In the though the single reed for this instru- tangential plane, the walls of most of ment differs somewhat from that de- these cells form a strongly sinuous out- scribed above. The free-reed used in the line. Scattered through the epidermis mouth organ, reed organ, and concer- are short-roundish or irregularly shaped tina consists of a thin metal element cells and typical gramineous stomata. which vibrates freely through an arc and Both leaves and stems of Arundo does not beat against any part of the donax, particularly the former, contain instrument. Arundo donax has appar- numerous highly silicified cells. These ently not been used at any stage in the

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FI.G. 3. A well-developed rhizome system of Arundo donax. (U.S.D.A. Photo)

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This content downloaded from 158.135.136.72 on Wed, 6 Aug 2014 13:13:55 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions ARUNDO DONAX 375 development of the free reed and conse- quently this type is not further discussed in the present paper. History In the music world today, Arundo donax is most familiar as the source of raw material for the manufacture of reeds for woodwind instruments. The origin of donax cane as a material associated with musical instruments is surprisingly linked, not with an ancestor of one of the above instruments, but with a primitive ancestor of the flute (5, 7). That a hollow tube could be made to FIG. 6. Modern Egyptian Pan pipe con- produce a characteristic sound and that structed of Arundo donax cane. Each tube is hollow tubes of varying lengths could be closed at the base by a node and lashed to the cane cross-pieces and adjacent tubes with made to produce different sounds could cord. The instrument is played by blowing hardly have gone long unrecognized by across the open ends of the tubes. (Photo primitive man. Thus, the opportunity courtesy of Smithsonian Institution) for the discovery of the primitive woodwind has long been before man, whether of one or more finger holes resulting in as a hollow bone or as a tube of bamboo an instrument that could sound several or donax cane. notes. Early man soon discovered that It would be difficult to estimate the a much more satisfactory instrument earliest date at which canes of Arundo could be fashioned from a tube of vege- donax were first used for making flutes. table material. Around the Mediterran- Relics of the early Stone Age show that ean basin canes of Arundo donax were man knew how to form a single-toned the classical raw material for this pur- pipe from bone. The earliest type, the pose, and their use originated independ- nay, or vertical form, was closed at the ently of the use of bamboo for the same base and sounded by blowing across the purpose in the Orient and islands of the open end of the tube. Later, pipes were south Pacific and the use of other ma- sounded by blowing across an aperture terials in North and South America. placed just below the closed upper end Primitive flutes or flute-like instruments of the tube and were held in a horizontal appear to have been developed by most position. By the late Stone Age the bone primitive peoples. flute had been improved by the addition From the most simple vertical flute, it most finger hole. A. Moroccan flute. B. Egyptian flute, ornamented with incised designs filled with black pigment. (U.S.D.A. Photo, instruments from Smithsonian Institution collection) FIG. 5 (Opp., below). Modern eastern-Mediterranean double-pipe single-reed instruments, reeds and resonators formed from Arundo donax cane. These instruments do not differ appreciably from pipes employed several thousand years ago in Egypt and Mesopotamia. Each reed is formed from a hollow piece of cane, stopped at one end by a node. A horizontal slit is cut into the tube, penetrating into the cavity, to form the vibrating tongue or reed. A. Syrian urgun. The pipes are cemented together with wax and lashed with waxed cord. The unperforated drone-pipe, below, sounds but a single note. B. Egyptian arghool. The pipes are lashed with waxed cord. C. Syrian naigha. Each of the melody pipes is fitted above with an extension. D. Iraqi cane instrument. The two melody pipes are cemented togetlher with bitumen. (U.S.D.A. Photo, instruments from Smitlhsonian Institution collection)

This content downloaded from 158.135.136.72 on Wed, 6 Aug 2014 13:13:55 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 376 ECONOMIC BOTANY was but a simple step to the develop- the end of a pliable hollow stem between ment of the Pan pipe or syrinx. This his teeth and created a non-musical primitive instrument consisted of from flutter with the pressure of his breath. several to as many as 25 pipes, varying Or possibly, the principle of the double in length from three to approximately reed was recognized when man first ten inches, each sounding a different forced his breath between two blades of note. The tubes were arranged so that grass. The most primitive type of single- their open ends were in a horizontal row reed mechanism was a squeaker of hol- and were attached, each to its neighbor lowed cane or other plant material with or to one or two cross pieces, by a crude a long rectangular section raised from its twine or adhesive. The Pan pipe was surface to create a vibrating tongue. typically constructed from culms of The first reed of this type was thus con- Arundo donax, the stopped ends of the tinuous with the resonator. A vibrator tubes formed by joints of the cane. Pan so attached to the "mouth piece" is re- pipes have persisted as folk instruments ferred to as an idioglottal reed. in the present culture of southeastern Whether the double or the single reed is Europe and are still made of donax cane. the primitive type is not known, but it The Pan pipe is believed to have appears likely that the double reed came formed the basis for the origin of the first or that both were developed at about most primitive pipe organ. The earliest the same time. As we know it today, organ of record, dated at approximately the double reed is far more complex in 200 B.C., is comparatively complex and structure and manufacture, but it is a far cry from the Pan pipe, but was actually less complex in its origin and referred to by Greek writers of the time evolution. as a syrinx or as a syrinx played by The first significant development fol- hand. The primitive organ provided a lowing the origin of the simple squeaker mechanism for creating a wind supply was the use of a longer tube perforated and included a wind chest, to which flue with one or more finger holes to vary pipes of donax cane were attached. Ad- the tone. When the fragile reed became ditional mechanisms were provided to damaged or worn, it was necessary that permit the passage of air through the the entire instrument be discarded. As pipe, or pipes, of the musician's choice. the craftsman began to devote increased The appropriate note for each pipe was attention to the perfection of the reso- created by the vibrations resulting from nator, the need for a reed attached to a the passage of air against the edge of a separate mouthpiece became evident; an slit cut into each cane tube. As the evo- arrangement that would provide for re- lution of the organ progressed, the placement of the reed but permanent craftsman abandoned Arundo donax use of the improved resonator was neces- cane for tubes of wood or metal. sary. This second important improve- While the earliest stages of the devel- ment closely followed the adoption of opment of the flute can be found in rel- the longer perforated tube. ics, early pictorial records, and among A majority of primitive peoples of the instruments in use by primitive peoples present day are ignorant of reed instru- of the world's present population, early ments. Although the reed mechanism, stages in the evolution of instruments as a simple squeaker, may have been sounded by a reed are not very well developed independently by different known (5, 7, 20, 33). The mechanism primitive peoples, the initial stages ap- of the double reed may have been dis- parently did not give rise to further de- covered when primitive man compressed velopment except in Egypt and south-

This content downloaded from 158.135.136.72 on Wed, 6 Aug 2014 13:13:55 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions ARUJNDO DONAX 377 western Asia. Advanced instruments of references in the cuneiform writings of this type have been discovered in the the Sumerians. hands of primitive peoples in various The first Egyptian reed-woodwind on parts of the world, but in most instances record was a single tube of cane with it is possible to attribute the invention finger holes. Pipes of this type are to the early peoples of the middle East. known to have been in use before 3,000 The factors primarily responsible for B.C. and by this time, both single and this origin are the unique characteristics double reeds had probably been devel- of Arundo donax which make it the fin- oped. Double pipes consisting of paral- est raw material for formation of the lel cane tubes held together by wax or reed mechanism and the original geo- bound with string were also in use. Each graphic distribution of the plant around pipe was equipped with a vibrator, both the Mediterranean Sea and along the of which were placed in the mouth to Nile. Thus, of the early civilizations, sound the instrument. These tubes were only those of Egypt and Arabia had each perforated with finger holes, but available the one material that could be probably sounded the same or nearly most effectively developed. Throughout the same notes. Representations of the entire period that reed instruments Egyptian double-pipe instruments have were under the influence of north African been identified on sculpture dated about or southwestern Asiatic peoples, donax 3,000 B. C. cane provided the preferred raw material In Mesopotamia, the double-pipe in- for the reed and the most easily adapted strument was modified to form a V- and most favored material for the reso- shaped double pipe, probably played nator as well. The structure of the cane, with two single reeds. This is the most apparently unique among plant mater- familiar type in early paintings and ials, has provided a substance with ideal sculpture. Ebony, bronze and silver, as characteristics of resilience, elasticity, well as cane, were used for the resona- and resistance to moisture. It forms a tor. An idioglottal reed was cut into a superb vibrator that responds instantly detachable mouthpiece or in the case of to minute changes in pressure and does some cane instruments cut into the end not crack or split under the adverse con- of the resonator. Some of the double ditions of intermittent but frequent con- pipes had an equal number of finger tact with moisture. holes in each tube. Others had only one Archeological evidence indicates that tube with perforations, the unperforated the reed woodwind, as a musical instru- tube sounding a single tone unless fur- ment rather than as a simple squeaker, nished with extensions. About 1600 B.C., originated in Egypt or in Mesopotamia. the V-shaped double pipe was carried At the earliest point in history at which back into Egypt and from this period on is we have evidence of the existence of represented in profusion on Egyptian sculpture, almost to the these instruments, their use was already exclusion of other types. well established in the life of these peo- These primitive instruments, changed ples. Our knowledge of these early but little from the early Egyptian pipes is based upon discoveries woodwinds from which they descended, are still in from Egyptian tombs and ruins of early use in Egypt and throughout the Moslem Sumerian cities in southeastern Iraq. world. The oldest representations have been The Moslems were largely responsi- found in the painting and sculpture of ble for the dispersal of the reed wood- the Egyptians, the most ancient literary wind. They spread the pipe into China,

This content downloaded from 158.135.136.72 on Wed, 6 Aug 2014 13:13:55 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 378 ECONOMIC BOTANY

ment by the Egyptians and Arabians 3,000 or more years previously were brought about by the Greeks. The mouthpiece, previously employed with the hinge of the idioglottal reed toward the player, and engulfed completely in the mouth, was altered so that the hinge of the reed was away from the lips. The instrument was played with the lips pressed against the reed. As the position of the lips changed, the length of ... l . . S - ...... c 1 E the vibrating tongue could be varied, ....~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~...... z. altering the fundamental pitch of the pipe. In addition, the Greeks varied the

...... ;. '. ..;X','...... length of the mouthpiece and gradually increased the number of finger holes to as many as 16 in some pipes. As the U'...... number of finger holes increased, a system for closing chosen holes of the resonator was devised by use of metal bands held in place by rings encircling the tube. The bands were perforated and arranged so that various finger holes could be partially or completely covered or left open. With the overthrow of the Greeks during the middle of the second century B.C. by the Romans, the musical pipe was carried to Rome. Little change resulted although the resonator came to be made FIG. 7. Modern Moroccan reed instrument of bone, wood, or metal as well as of constructed of Arundo donax cane, tin plate. cane. With the decline of Roman cul- and cow's horn. The s:ngle reed is an idio- ture, during the fifth century A.D., the glottal primitive-type like those shown in Fig. 5. (U.S.D.A. Photo, instrument from Smith- reed pipe as then known and its science sonian Institution collection) disappeared. During the Dark Ages, all musical in- the East Indies, Europe and North Af- struments were frowned upon by the rica, and indirectly, through the early Church and the use of the highly devel- Spaniards, to the Americas. oped reed woodwind died out in Europe. The Egyptian-Arabian pipe spread to As modified by the Greeks and used by Crete and then to Greece when Crete the Romans, this pipe was a very intri- was invaded by the Greeks about 1,100 cate instrument, not a simple folk instru- B.C. The earlier Greek pipes were mostly mnentlike the early form developed by double-reeded. The single-reed type the Egyptians and Arabians. Perform- was not used until about 300-400 B.C., ance on the pipe was a real art and thus although the Greeks were apparently required the attention of a true artist. long aware of the single-reed mechanism. It was far too complicated for survival The first important changes in the during this period in the hands of the musical pipe since its initial develop- peasant. This highly developed instru-

This content downloaded from 158.135.136.72 on Wed, 6 Aug 2014 13:13:55 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions ARUNDO DONAX 379 ment was thus an end line of evolution, Up until this time, the woodwind had completely submerged by the darkness been most consistently made of cane. of the Medieval Age, an extremity of a The reeds were typically idioglottal branch of the family tree whose main though frequently cut into cane mouth- trunk was to culminate in the modern pieces and used with resonators of other reed-woodwind. materials. As the use of these instru- For the origin of our modern reed in- ments spread farther north into Europe, struments we must return to the primi- farther from the native home of Arundo tive pipe developed by the Egyptians donax, it became necessary to employ and Arabians. Of the many folk instru- other raw materials. For the resonator, ments of the reed-woodwind type that boxwood and other European woods date from medieval times, some of which came into use. The use of such non- are in use today, most can be traced to vibrant raw materials was followed by an origin in southwestern Asia. A Sar- the development of the heteroglottal reed dinian instrument made from three cane (not continuous with the mouthpiece, tubes has evolved from a primitive in- but attached to it by string, hide, or strument brought to Sardinia by the other material). Many materials were Phoenicians about 500-700 years B.C. used for the vibrating tongue but over Reed instruments were also brought to the centuries, none proved so satisfac- Europe by the Moors who overran Spain tory as donax cane. and part of France between 700 and 800 During the 17th to 19th centuries, the A.D. and who held on in Spain for an ad- single - reed - type instrument was im- ditional 700 years. A folk instrument proved and developed into a family of of cane used in the Balearic Isles may be many instruments including the true a relic of this invasion. Knowledge of 18th century clarinet and 19th century the reed woodwind possibly reached the saxophone; the double-reed type, evolved British Isles as a result of communica- into the oboe, English horn, and bassoon tion between Moorish Spain and Wales. and their relatives. It is possible, however, that the primi- The layman generally does not recog- tive British and Balearic types devel- nize the bag pipe as a reed instrument,, oped as a result of earlier Celtic migra- although this woodwind employs bothr tions. Migration to the west eventually single and double reeds prepared fromn spread the knowledge of the reed instru- stems of donax cane. The bag of this; nmentthroughout a large part of Europe. instrument serves as a flexible wind From this widely distributed, simple, chamber from which the expulsion of air primitive woodwind, our modern clari- is controlled by pressure of the musi- nets, oboes, bassoons, etc., have evolved. cian's armn. Air is supplied by a bellows During the years following the dawn of carried under the opposite arm or by the Renaissance other musical instru- blowing into a tube connected to the ments became widely established, but bag. One to four reeds are completely the woodwinds were hardly known. The enclosed within a comparable number of tones produced by these instruments tubes wlhich are attached to one end to were oriental in nature, sensitive, pierc- the bag. One pipe, the chanter or mel- ing, whining tones that appealed to ody pipe, encloses a typical double reed eastern rather than western ears. In and is equipped with holes or keys to addition, these instruments had associ- vary the tone. The remaining pipes, ated with them certain acoustical prob- the drones, enclose idioglottal single lems which were not to be solved until reeds, and, lacking a mechanism for many years later. varying the tone, sound but a single

This content downloaded from 158.135.136.72 on Wed, 6 Aug 2014 13:13:55 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 380 ECONOMIC BOTANY note. Control is not exercised over the and atmosphere of southern France that pipes independently; all operate in uni- is responsible for the production of good son. cane. Beyond this there is little agree- The single reed of the bag pipe is of ment as to the most satisfactory condi- special interest, for even in the most tions. The opinion held by some is that modern pipes, this reed does not differ the cane should be grown in clay soils from that employed in the most primi- while others firmly believe that only tive single-reed instruments developed loose sandy soils will produce the finest some 5,000 years ago. A single reed for quality material. It is generally agreed this instrument is prepared from a that low atmospheric humidity is desir- slender tube of cane, closed at one end able. by a joint, by cutting transversely into The fact that good-quality reeds have the hollow of the cane to a depth of been made from cane obtained from about 2 mm. and then raising a tongue Spain, Italy, Sicily, Nort,h Africa, Kenya, in the side of the tube by cutting longi- South America, Mexico, Cuba, Texas, tudinally for a distance of about 5 cm. California, and Virginia suggests that The most primitive bagpipe on record soil and other conditions are not as rigid was employed by the Romans during as they are generally considered to be. the reign of Nero, but the principles of Arundo donax is well adapted to a the instrument were known at a lmuch wide variety of soil conditions. With all earlier date. During at least a part of factors taken into consideration, it ap- the early history of the instrument, pears that the most suitable habitat for donax cane was used for reeds. As the the production of raw material for reeds use of the instrument passed to the north, is a deep light soil, which provides ade- far removed from the native home of quate moisture for maintenance of con- Arundo donax, other materials were emii- tinued growth but does not contain suf- ployed. The use of cane was renewed ficient moisture for a highly vigorous at an undetermined date when supplies development that would result in the of this material were made available by formation of soft porous cane. A site improved transportation. near the sea is regarded as preferable to Today, one can only speculate as to a more inland location. what would be the nature or quality of Cane Production in France our music, both classic and modern, had not Arundo donax been available to the The production of cane for the manu- early civilizations of Egypt and south- facture of reeds is restricted to the western Asia and the later civilization coastal area of southeastern France in of Europe. Undoubtedly, the initiative the Departments of Var and Alpes Mari- of the early artisan would have culmi- times, within the district formerly nated in the successful application of known as Provence. The most impor- another material to the making of reeds. tant plantations are in the vicinity of the Can we comprehend the effect of such a coastal town of Frejus. material upon the evolution of mnusic? Cultivation. New plantings are started by vegetative propagation. Planting Growth Requirements material is obtained by digging and di- Most musicians and reed makers hold viding old rootstocks or occasionally by the opinion that the environmental re- rooting cuttings. Large canes may be quirements for production of quality cut in June and placed horizontally in cane are highly rigid and that there is shaded, moist, sandy soil. Young plants something highly specific about the soils develop at the nodes and after reaching

This content downloaded from 158.135.136.72 on Wed, 6 Aug 2014 13:13:55 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions ARUNDO DONAX 381 a satisfactory size are separated and re- of the canes to the sun and use the foli- moved to the fields. The rhizomes or age for animal feed or bedding. rooted cuttings are placed in rows 2 to Harvest. The new plantation requires 3 m. apart and covered with soil to a up to five years growth before producing depth of about 10 cm. The plants are the first full crop of good-quality cane. watered if necessary during the first In established plantations, canes to be year and are hoed once or twice. Until used for reeds are selectively cut during the ground becomes covered with cane, the winter months, when they are two the space between the rows may be uti- or three years old. During harvest, any

. . ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~......

F1G. 8. Sun-curing cane in Var Province, France. (Photo courtesy of Luther P. Hines) lized for the cultivation of potatoes, cane that is too old for use in reed manu- beets, and other similar crop plants. facture is removed to allow better grow- During the early development of a ing conditions for the following year's planting, the canes are cut periodically crop. to encourage spreading of the rhizomes Drying and Curing. Treatment of and to increase the density of the stand. the harvested cane varies greatly and Established plantings receive little at- largely depends upon the opinion of the tention other than the periodic removal individual grower or upon the preference of large weeds and the small or most in- of the reed manufacturer for whom the ferior canes. Some growers remove cane is destined. The newly harvested leaves before harvest to allow exposure canes are tied in large bundles, often

This content downloaded from 158.135.136.72 on Wed, 6 Aug 2014 13:13:55 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 382 ECONOMIC BOTANY with leaves and branches intact. These rot and often stain the outside of the bundles are stacked erect with the cane cane, producing a mottled appearance. bases spread out in such a manner as to This does not affect the quality of the form a pyramid; they may be gathered cane. In fact, mottling is regarded by into shocks around a post, or the bundles some musicians as an indication of high may be stacked erect against either side quality. The initial drying stage re-

FIG.9. Curing Mexican-grown cane in Arizona. The tubes are arranged on string to facilitate handling. (Photo courtesy of J. W. Manson) of a horizontal timber supported at a quires at least two to four months during height of 2 to 3 m. above the ground. which the moisture within the cane Certain growers prefer to initiate sea- drains out or is otherwise dissipated. soning of the cane under a tree or open Following this period the upper branch- shed or provide protection from the sun ing portions of the canes are removed, by covering the south side of the bundles the remaining leaves and sheaths are with grass or cloth. cleaned away and the canes are cut into Cane is not harmed by rain. During lengths of about four feet. Any spoiled the initial drying period, the leaf sheaths or cracked canes are discarded.

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The quality stocks are next cured in ferior appearance. Tubes, in 50-pound the sun. The selected canes are sus- lots, are packed in bags and shipped to pended horizontally on low supports or manufacturers or distributors. laid obliquely along a fence, rope, or Yield. Estimates of the average another support stretched between poles at nual yield of dry matter from Arundo a height of about three feet above the donax vary from 3.2 tons per acre for ground. Some growers arrange the sup- wild stands in India (32) to 17.5 tons ports so that they are oriented in a per acre for plantings cultivated in Italy north-south direction. This is to pre- for the production of viscose rayon (24). vent cracking of the cane and the de- The latter figure can be accepted as a velopment of an undesirable red color- maximum, and some idea of the yield of ation which may result from excessive cane suitable for reeds can be derived exposure to the sun. As soon as the sur- from it. Of the dry matter produced, face exposed to the sun turns to a creamy over 50%o consists of leaves and the color, the canes are turned so that an- upper branching portion of the cane that other surface is exposed to the sun's rays. cannot be utilized for manufacture of The cane is turned once or twice as reeds. This leaves a total production the grower prefers. Exposing the cane of less than 10 tons per acre from which in three operations is generally preferred raw material for reeds can be selected. as it results in a more uniform color. Not more than 10%oof this quantity can This period of curing takes at least three be used. Only a small proportion of the weeks, and a longer period is often con- yield has the proper diameter, and of sidered more desirable. this, much of the cane has walls either The total period of outdoor drying too thick or too thin. Many canes are varies greatly. The cane may be dried discarded because they are crooked, for six to twelve months, and some advo- cracked, or otherwise imperfect, and a cate an even longer period. In certain large portion of the stock is discarded instances, sun drying is supplemented by Nwhenthe nodes are removed. kiln drying. Following sun curing the cane is stored Cane Production in Other Areas in sheds. It may be retained in storage The Department of Var in southern for a further indefinite period of curing France is the traditional center of the or immediately marketed. By the time production of cane to be used for reeds. the cane is used by the reed maker it Var cane was widely recognized as the may be as much as three to five years only quality material, and this monop- old. The total period of seasoning, as oly of the French growers was not con- well as the growing period, is influenced tested prior to World War I. As a re- considerably by the demands of the sult of the war, cane shortages in other market. parts of the world became acute and the By the time properly-seasoned cane is shortage persisted for several years. It ready for use, it has turned to a rich was reported that during the war years, golden-yellow. The cane is sectioned Senegalese troops billeted among the into tubes by cutting about 1 cm. on French cane fields, consumed enormous either side of the nodes. Tubes of poor quantities of cane for fuel and construc- quality are eliminated. These include tion of shelters, and were responsible in tubes with walls too thin or too thick, part for the later shortages of cane and tubes of unsuitable diameter, those that its poor quality. As a result of the war- are cracked or not straight, and those time and post-war shortages, musicians that are of poor color or otherwise of in- in the United States made limited efforts

This content downloaded from 158.135.136.72 on Wed, 6 Aug 2014 13:13:55 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 384 ECONOMIC BOTANY to establish domestic sources of cane. of cane production in California with Small plantings were established in Cal- most of the same strains planted in ifornia, Texas, Georgia, and Alabama; Texas. Good-quality cane was made some were from rhizomes introduced available to musicians, several of whom from the cane plantations of southern have reported that fine-quality reeds France, and others from rhizomes of un- could be made from it. Cane produc- known origin. None of the cane from tion in California decreased considerably these plantings was reported to be satis- after World War II, as French cane factory. Sporadic efforts were made again became available, but as late as during the decade preceding World War 1950 one producer was advertising Cali- II to grow suitable cane in this country fornia cane grown from imported French but without success. With the then ade- stock. At present cane is being culti- quate supplies available from France, vated for reed manufacture by at least the main stimulus for developing an one grower. American source slackened. The search for a new supply of cane During the early stages of World War by American musicians also resulted in II the cane supply again became short, the discovery of suitable quality mater- and renewed efforts were made to de- ials in Sonora, Mexico. These natural- velop sources within the United States. ized growths were exploited to a consid- Cane from existing plantings, mostly erable extent during and just after ornamentals or escapes, was collected World War II. Cane was collected by and tested by musicians, reed manufac- one manufacturer in the vicinity of Guaymas and transported to Arizona turers, and concerns previously engaged for curing. Another concern set up a in importing cane or finished reeds. factory near Nogales to carry out the Shortly, satisfactory cane was discovered preliminary processing of local cane, and along the Rio Grande in southern Texas. the reeds were finished in New York As a result of this discovery several City. Mexican cane is currently sold in strains including materials introduced the United States, one dealer recom- from Iran and Afghanistan by the U. S. mending it for student reed-making Department of Agriculture were planted practice. This cane is now used to a for comparison at Brownsville, Texas. very limited extent by reed manufac- Details of later progress are lacking, turers. but the cane produced on 10 acres was The World War II shortage of cane reported to have been harvested in suf- resulted in the successful establishment ficient time to be made available to of plantations by the Russians in the manufacturers by early 1942. Whether Caucasian area (22). This cane is re- this cane was acceptable to the manufac- ported to have been very unreliable at turer is not known, but several musicians first but, with improvements in methods employed it successfully. This cane at of cultivation and seasoning, it is now a $1.25 to $4.00 a pound was advertised in very satisfactory raw material. trade publications at the time, the price varying according to the type of instru- Reed Making ment for which it was selected. This Prior to the middle of the nineteenth cane-growing operation was not success- century the making of all types of cane ful and was later discontinued. reeds was a craft practiced by specialists During this same period, considerable working alone or by the musician who effort was devoted to the establishment made his own. With the development of

This content downloaded from 158.135.136.72 on Wed, 6 Aug 2014 13:13:55 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions ARUNDO DONAX 385 suitable machinery, the making of single soprano saxophone require the smaller reeds has been gradually converted to a sizes; the bass clarinet and bass saxo- mass-production basis. As double reeds phone require the larger. Among the are highly intricate and must be tailored double-reed instruments, small-size canes closely to the specific requirements of are used for oboe reeds and larger ones the individual instrument and musician, for bassoon reeds. their manufacture has largely remained Single reeds are made from cane tubes in the hands of the individual reed 7 to 10 cm. long and 2 to 3 cm. in diam- maker or musician. A few manufac- eter (36, 43). The tubes are separated

FIG. 10. The worker in the background is sorting cane tubes according to diameter requirements of the various instruments. The worker in the foreground is splitting the cane by driving the tubes onto a cane-splitter. (Photo courtesy of French American Reeds Mfg. Co. Inc.) turers produce double reeds, principally into quarter sections with a cane split- for student use. ter, a tool consisting of four sharp metal Cane received by the reed maker is in blades, set perpendicular to one another the form of short tubes, varying in di- near the tip of a vertical shaft, in ap- ameter and wall thickness, cut from be- pearance somewhat like the feathers that tween the nodes of donax culms. The guide an arrow. Tubes of cane are placed tubes are sorted into sizes appropriate on the shaft and driven down over the to the instrument for which reeds are to blades with a wooden mallet. The be made. Among the single-reed instru- quarter sections are carefully cut into ments, the E- or B-flat clarinets and appropriate lengths with a saw.

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The medullar surface of the quarter wide. The tip of the blade is approxi- section is flattened with a plane, and the mately .075 to .175 mm. in thickness, cane is trimmed along the edges to the and the base of the blade is 3.20 to 3.65 exact width of the finished reed. The mm. in thickness. quarter section is then planed on the The finished reeds are spot-tested on flat surface to its final dimension. The an instrument, but none of the reeds to blade is shaped by cutting away about be sold can be so examined. Prior to half of the rounded epidermal surface, packaging, the reeds are graded as to tapering it at one end, to an edge as thin strength in five or more grades from very

ffi~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.S:o:gbz5|:.:.:eg:|ffi.: ...... l ..

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FIG. 11. Bag pipe reeds formed from Arundodonaxc cane. A and B. Base and tenor drone reeds. These single reeds do not differ appreciably from those employed with ancient Egyptian and Mesopotamian reed instruments. The cord wrapping at the base serves for tight insertion in the instrument. The upper cord wrapping can be moved up or down to adjust the tone of the reed. The reeds are stopped at the upper end by a node, the pores of which are sealed with beeswax. C and D. Double reeds for practice chanter and chanter. (U.S.D.A. Photo, reeds courtesy of William C. Stokoe, Jr.)

as paper. The portion removed is cut soft to very stiff. This quality is more away by a plane passing over a jig in an indication of the shape and thickness which the cane is set with a pattern. of the blade and is not greatly affected The surface of the blade is finished with by the nature of the cane from which sand paper; the paper-thin tip of the the reeds were made. blade is filed square and then rounded Double-reed manufacture is consider- off with a guillotine-like trimmer. ably more complex than the manufac- As an example of the dimensions of a ture of single reeds (3, 13). In contrast finished single reed, a small size for clar- to the single reed, the flat surface of inet is about 6.5 cm. long and 1.1 cm. which is clamped tightly to the flat out-

This content downloaded from 158.135.136.72 on Wed, 6 Aug 2014 13:13:55 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions ARUNDO DONAX 387 line of a mouthpiece, the medullar surface of the double reed must be transversely curved so that it can be closely attached to the staple or bocal by which it is joined to the instrument. The staple is a slender brass tube, the basal end of which is placed in cork for firm insertion in the instrument. While the single reed consists of a short section of cane, tapered at one end to a thin edge, the .~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~J double reed consists of a long piece of cane, scored and then folded at the midpoint with epidermal surfaces exposed, and tapered to a thin dimension at the midpoint. Oboe reeds are manufactured from cane tubes about 15 cm. long and 1 cm. in diameter. The tubes are split into three sections, and these are trimmed along the edges to a uniform width and sawed off at a uniform length. The sections are placed in a machine, and the ...... inner surface is gouged to such a degree that the cane is about .6 mm. thick at the thickest point and tapers uniformly to the edges. In order to close the grain left open by gouging and to smooth the surface, the cane is scraped with a circu- *~~ ~~ ~ ------~~~~~~~~ lar blade arranged somewhat like that of the familiar glass cutter. During the subsequent steps the cane is repeatedly soaked in water to simplify cutting and bending. The cane section FIG. 12. Stages in the preparation of clarinet is placed on an easel (a rounded, dowel- reeds. From top to bottom: cane tube; cane like support) and transversely scored at quarter section; reed blank, flattened on the midpoint of the epidermal surface medular surface; blank with shaped blade; with a sharp knife, just cutting through completed reed with rounded tip. (U.S.D.A. cane of the hard outer tissue. It is placed over Photo, courtesy Arnold Brilhart) the edge of a knife blade and folded to conform to the outline of the blade. double along the line of the shallow cut. The shaped cane is straightened and The wet cane is then placed in a shaper. placed on the easel, and the two ends This tool consists of a blade that is are beveled on the epidermal edge with a broad at the end and tapers somewhat file. The cane, still wet, is folded again toward the base, where a clamp is set on and the edges are smoothed with fine each of the two surfaces to hold the ends sand paper. of the cane in place. With the cane A tubular staple is inserted between folded over the shaper blade and the free ends of the folded cane to a clamped in place, the edges are trimmed distance of about 1/4 inch, and the ends

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are firmly clamped in place with fine plaque inserted between the tips of the wire in such a manner that the edges of two elements, the lay is scraped until the reed come together completely. At a the corner of the triangle most distant point just beyond the end of the staple from the tip has been rounded. The tip the reed is wound tightly with fine silk is then scraped very thin, and minute thread. The wire is then removed and adjustments are made to adapt the reed the winding completed down to the cork. to the requirements of the individual After the cane is dry the face or lay of musician and his instrument. the reed is prepared. By drawing the The base of the reed is wrapped with

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...... 7.:.. _ ...... "...... :...... :- ...... end of the double reed over a file, first a small wet sheet of filmy material that :.. . one edge and then the other, the two shrinks when dry. When .. dry, this' ...... edges are beveled to form a gently in- wrapping and the silk winding are. clined face of triangular shape. The covered with a.... special reed cement. ... two . terminal edges are filed until only a Preparation of reeds for the English.. ... few unsevered fibers hold the two reed horn does not differ significantly from elements together. The tip of the reed preparation of reeds for the oboe but is placed upon a block, and a minute requires larger cane and certain larger portion is cut off square, separating the or otherwise different tools. two cane elements. With a thin oval Double reeds for the bassoon are pre-

This content downloaded from 158.135.136.72 on Wed, 6 Aug 2014 13:13:55 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions ARUNDO DONAX 389 pared from cane tubes about 2.8 cm. in wrapped and finished more or less in the diameter. They are split, trimmed, and same manner as described for oboe reeds. gouged to a size 2 cm. wide, 12 to 14 cm. The completed reed is removed from the long and 1.25 mm. thick at the center, mandrel and attached to the bocal of tapering to about .5 mm. along the edges. the instrument. The gouged cane-section is clamped in a shaper and trimmed to conform to the Production and Prices outline of the shaper. The shaped cane Official statistics are not available on is approximately 1.8 cm. wide at the the quantity of cane produced or the midpoint and 1 cm. wide at each end. number of reeds manufactured in either The epidermal surface is scored cross- the United States or France. Production wise with a knife at points 2.5 cm. on of cane in France for the manufacture each side of the mid-point. With a knife of reeds is roughly estimated at 200,000 and finally a file, the cane is tapered to 300,000 pounds per year, of which down from each score to the mid-point 40,000 to 50,000 pounds is shipped to until the latter is about .25 mm. thick. the United States. French manufac- The edges of the cane that will form the turers produce 15,000,000 to 20,000,000 basal part of the finished reed and that reeds annually and market about one- will finally surround the tubular staple third of these in North America. Ap- or bocal are beveled with a file to an proximately 20,000 pounds of cane are angle of about 45?. With the cane laid produced in the United States, and on a block, the remaining epidermal sur- American manufacturers produce from faces are scored lengthwise with a knife 5,000,000 to 7,000,000 reeds each year. along the two portions that will form the The total quantity of reeds sold in the basal part of the finished reed. These United States amounts to between scores are cut very lightly, just through 10,000,000 to 15,000,000 annually. Prob- the hard surface, about 1 mm. apart. ably 95% of these are single reeds for The cane is folded at the mid-point and clarinet and saxophone. the two ends are doubled together with American grown cane in large lots is scored epidermal surfaces on the outside priced at about 40 cents per pound. and bound together firmly with several French and Spanish cane in large lots is pieces of fine wire. The base of the reed valued at $1.10 to $1.95 per pound for splits evenly along the scores as it is top quality and $.8.5 to $1.25 for un- forced on a mandrel, a tapering tubular selected cane of assorted thickness. On tool attached to a long handle, used to a retail basis, tubes of selected French hold the reed during the final stages of cane sell for $5.00 to $8.50 per pound. preparation. Mexican cane is currently quoted at The two faces of the reed are tapered $2.00 per pound. down to the tip with a file. The reed is Single reeds for clarinet and saxophone then placed on a block and the tip cut sell for 20 to 60 cents apiece; single reeds away squarely, separating the two cane for bagpipe drones are about 25 cents elements. A flat plaque is inserted be- each. Finished oboe reeds are valued at tween the tips of the reed, and the faces $1.30 to $1.75, and finished bassoon reeds are scraped with a knife until they at $1.50 to $3.50. Double reeds for bag- vibrate freely when played. The tip pipe chanter cost 50 to 75 cents. and edges just above the tip of the finished reed are very thin, and the mid- Quality of Cane and Reeds dle and the upper surfaces are slightly Prior to World War II, when the cane rounded. At this stage the reed is shortage was extremely acute and mu-

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sicians were forced to turn to any avail- response, it must be flexible and highly able source, it was generally accepted resilient. that high-quality cane could be obtained A favorite test is to wet a reed or only from a special strain of Arundo piece of cane and blow hard through donax and that only the environment of one end. If bubbles develop at the op- southern France could produce good posite end the material is regarded as cane. Today there is no doubt but that being too porous. each of these precepts is a fallacy; how- One correspondent has found, in a ever, a great majority of musicians still quest for a material suitable for use in insist that French cane is far superior to scientific instruments, that French cane any other. As pointed out previously in used in woodwind reeds has a density of this paper, cane from many geographic .4 while American cane has a density of sources has been successfully used for .5. From criteria established by musi- the production of reeds. Several writers cians just the opposite would be ex- have reported that Spanish, Mexican, pected. and American canes when distributed as The application of scientific methods "French" have been judged to be of to the testing of cane quality has been finest quality by outstanding musicians. very limited. The usefulness of data When the same lots of cane were cor- gained by such an approach is limited rectly labeled as to origin, they were to some degree by the varying prefer- considered to be very inferior. ences of individual musicians. One M1usicians and manufacturers are study of hardness, stiffness, and elastic- fairly well agreed that it is difficult to ity of cane indicates that the most satis- distinguish good from bad cane by visual factory reeds are made from soft canes examination unless there are obvious that show the least stiffness and the flaws. Although the characteristics of greatest amount of recovery after bend- quality cane are intangible, many cri- ing. The degree of recovery after teria have come to be widely accepted. bending was considered to be one of the Cane of a rich golden yellow color most important characteristics associ- with a shiny surface is preferred; cane ated with tone quality and response of of a greenish tinge was either too young the finished reed (31). when cut or was not properly cured and Possibility of Cane Production in the is likely to be too soft. Cane with a United States flat, dull, dirty color is also unsatisfactory. Such discoloration apparently re- The experience of American musicians sults from unfavorable conditions during during World War II with cane of the early stages of curing or from a fun- American origin establishes without gus disease of the plant. The grain must question that good-quality cane can be be fine, straight and regular with tiny grown in this country. Much must be learned, but prominent, even, parallel ribs. Ma- however, before a consistently good product can be marketed, and terial suitable for making reeds is con- it is questionable whether such an American sidered to be more dense than ordinary product can compete cost-wise with cane. Cane that is soft with loose fibers French cane under present conditions. or overly porous is unsatisfactory. As pointed out earlier in this paper, even In the finished reed, the veins should in France only a small proportion of the extend to the tip. The reed should pro- vield is considered satisfactory for mak- duce a good tone and vibrate correctly at ing reeds. A significant portion of the all pitches of the instrument. For quick French growers' income is obtained from

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the sale of lower grade supplies for use in have attempted to form reeds from a making baskets, fish poles, and other wide variety of materials including box- products. The United States does not wood, ebony, heather root, lancewood, have outlets to absorb cane that is be- teakwood, celluloid, hard rubber, syn- low reed grade, but such a market might thetic resins, ivory, and silver. All of be developed. these materials proved unsatisfactory. The only possibility that can be fore- During World War II, a musician seen for intensive cultivation of Arundo made reeds from bamboos, Phyllostachys donax in the United States is as a source bamb tsoides and Semiarundinaria fas- of industrial cellulose. Under present tuosa. These materials were much too conditions, this possibility must be con- hard and entirely undesirable. sidered as remote. Should cane be cul- Elder stems and goose quills were tivated for this purpose, economic factors formerly employed very extensively to probably would restrict its growth to make drone reeds for bagpipes. The re- the more humid areas where the highest quirements of these reeds are less rigid yields could be obtained. It is doubtful than those of other types. that cane produced in such areas would During World War II, the U. S. De- be suitable for reeds. partment of Agriculture experimented Any Amnericancane made available at with several substances in an effort to a price and quality competitive with the develop a tasteless water-proofing ma- French product will still have a great terial for cane reeds. It was found that psychological disadvantage. A majority ethyl cellulose, a tasteless chemical, of musicians are thoroughly convinced could be used for this purpose. Reports that only cane from France is suitable were received that treated reeds were for their use. This belief can be at- very satisfactory, but this metlhod has tributed to the many dismal failures of not been accepted by the most critical non-French cane as well as to the good musicians. reputation that French cane has long During recent years much experience enj oyed. has been gained in the manufacture of A careful study of atmospheric and plastic reeds and they are currently in soil conditions under which cane is pro- wide use in high school and college duced in southeastern France should bands. Plastic reeds have not gained point the way to the selection of the the acceptance of professional musicians most satisfactory American environ- who complain of poor tone and the ment. Such an environment appears slippery nature of these reeds resulting most likely to be found in the south- from their lack of porosity. If these western or western United States. Care- problems can be overcome, plastic may ful study of the botanical and agronomic in time completely replace cane, for characteristics of the plant, in connec- manufacture of reeds from plastic can tion with detailed study of the physical be much more easily controlled. Plastic and musical quality of cane, would pro- rueds are now available for clarinet, saxo- vide a firm basis on which attempts to phone, and bassoon. establish the industry could be made. It is questionable whether the industry Utilization: Industrial Cellulose could profitably support the expense of The high production of vegetative ma- the necessary research. terial by Arundo donax has long attracted the attention of those interested Cane Substitutes in the production of paper. As early as In times of acute shortages musicians 1830 samples of paper were made from

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TABLE 1 FIBER DIMENSIONS OF Arundo Donax CULMS (MM.)

Source Length Average Average Length Width Width Imperial Institute (2) ...... 0.25-4.57 1.52 Raitt (32) ...... 0.62-2.25 1.50 0.012-0.037 0.017 Onofry (27) ...... 0.6 -5.4 0.020-0.025 Jayme et al. (17) ...... 0.1 -5.0 Bhat & Virmani (8) ...... 0.80-2.80 1.45

this plant by boiling stem material that produces stronger, more finely textured had received a prolonged treatment in papers. In a comparative study of crop calcium hydroxide. Increased interest in residues and native German plants, this plant has been expressed periodically which included 25 species of non-woody during the present century in nations or semi-woody plants, Jayme et al. (17) where supplies of pulpwood have be- reported that Arundo donax fibers are of come critically low, especially during the greater length than those of any other years just before and during World War species examined except hemp. II. Onofry (27) separated a stem into Fiber Dimensions. In fiber length five sections and measured fiber lengths (Table 1), an important index of po- in each separately. In each sample, ap- tential pulp or paper strength, Arundo proximately 70%oof the fibers measured compares favorably with deciduous tree fell within the range of 1.2 to 2.0 mm. species, the average fiber length of which A test of cane sulfate-pulp on a screen ranges from approximately 1 to 1.8 mm. classifier indicated that about 50% of It compares less favorably with conifer- the fiber is retained on a 28-mesh screen ous species, in most of which the average and 35% on a 100-mesh screen, and that fiber length is 3.5 to 6.0 mm. The length 15% passes through the latter (14). : diameter ratio of Arundo fibers is ap- Chemical Composition. A sumnmary proximately 75: 1, compared with a of chemical analyses of Arundo donax ratio of approximately 100: 1 for fibers culms is given in Table 2. While it is from both deciduous and coniferous difficult to compare data of this type be- trees. Other factors being equal, pulp cause of the varying methods of analysis, with a high fiber length: diameter ratio these figures collectively give a good

TABLE 2 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF Arundo Donax CULMS *

Source Cellulose Pentosans Lignin Ash Alcohol-benzene % % solubility

Raitt (32) ...... 42.8 33.6t 9.4 7.4 Tomeo et al. (39) .40.1- 22.7- 23.4- 3.8- 10.7- 44.4 27.5 24.4 4.8 11.9 Jayme et al. (17) 24.3 16.4 2.9 Bhat & Virmani (8) .58.0 18.4 22.0 3.6 6.8 Kocevar & Javornik-Kosler (18) 43.8 (alpha) 20.8 22.4 2.5 *All figures on oven dry basis. t Includes pectose, fat, and wax.

This content downloaded from 158.135.136.72 on Wed, 6 Aug 2014 13:13:55 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions ARUNDO DONAX 393 indication of the chemical nature of the illustrating the most suitable procedures plant. for producing the highest yields of pulps The higher cellulose analysis (58%) that possessed satisfactory strength cited from Bhat and Virmani (8) can be qualities and that could be bleached to a attributed to their use of the Cross and satisfactory degree of whiteness with an Bevan method for this determination. economical amount of bleaching powder. Cross and Bevan cellulose contains a Crushing of the material and chipping it considerable proportion of hemicellulose into small fragments before processing and is here reflected in the lower content speed up penetration of the cooking of pentosans. On the basis of Cross and liquor into the stems (8). Penetration Bevan cellulose content, Arundo donax is hampered by the low permeability of compares favorably with wood (50- the outer layers of the stem due to their 60% ) 2 and bamboo (57-66%) and is high density and the presence of a con- somewhat better than most of the grain siderable amount of wax. straws (45-52%). In the previously The leaves make up as much as 45%o mentioned study by Jayme et al. (17), of the total dry weight of the raw ma- bleached Arundo donax pulp had a terial but contribute little to the pulp higher alpha cellulose content (89.3%) produced (8). Leaves digested under than any other pulp tested. conditions similar to those indicated for Arundo donax contains considerably digestions 3 and 4 yielded only 29% unless lignin than woods (25-30%), some- bleached pulp and required slightly more what more than grain straws (12-19%), alkali than was required for digestion and in this respect compares favorably of culms or mixtures of culms and with most bamboos (14-32%). Lignin leaves. Bleaching of the leaf pulp re- is the principal constituent that must be quired twice as much chemical as was remrovedto produce a fine pulp, and, as required for bleaching of the culm pulp. a rule, plants with low lignin content This refinement caused a 50% reduction can be expected to pulp easily. in weight of the leaf pulp in contrast to In pentosan content donax cane does a 14% reduction in weight of the culm not differ greatly from bamboo (15- pulp. 21%o), grain straws (25-30%), or hard- Di Felippo (11) reported that labora- woods (20-25%) but contains considera- tory tests with leaves produced a bly more than soft woods (8-14 %). Like bleached pulp yield of only 26.1%. The the other grasses donax cane has a high breaking length of this sample (the ash content (grain straws 5-10%o, bam- length of a strip of paper required to boo 1-3%), considerably higher than cause the strip to break under its own wood (usually under 1%). The silica weight) was 2,800 m. Under compar- content of the culm ranges from 1 to 2%. Experimental Digestion for Pulps. able conditions, cane accompanied by Table 3 presents selected experimental sheaths and leaves gave a bleached pulp data summarizing the currently avail- yield of 34.0 to 35.5% with a breaking able research on the soda, sulfate, and length of 6,250 to 7,000 m. Canes with- bisulfite digestion processes for the out leaves or sheaths yielded 40.7 to production of paper pulp from Arundo 45% bleached pulps with breaking donax. The digestions represented in lengths of 6,300 to 6,800 m. Leaves the table were in most cases selected produce pulp of poor strength but do not from two or more parallel treatments as effect strength properties appreciably 2 Percentages cited for wood, bamboo, and when pulped with culms. In addition to grain straws are approximate. producing lower yields of pulp and re-

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ducing, capacity-wise, the efficiency of pearance and habitat to Arundo donax, the digester, leaves increase the amount and frequently confused with it in the of material soluble in alkali which in- field (9). The digestion produced a creasesthe consumptionof chemicaland clean well-cooked pulp in an amount contributes to the formation of pulps comparable to yields obtained when with a jelly-like consistency. Washing Arundo donax was cooked alone. This of such pulps is difficult. The combina- pulp was formed into a sheet on a

TABLE 3 EXPERIMENTAL DIGESTION OF Arundo Donax FOR PAPER PULP

Total chem- Time Tempera- Yield un- Source Process ical (as (ho ) ture bleached Remarks Na20) (%) ours (?C.) pulp (%) 1. Raitt (32) ...... Soda 16.3 6 153 37.0 Starches previously extracted. 2. Dupont & Escourrou (12) ...... Soda 21.1 3 160 42.5 Raw material contained 8.1% moisture. 3. Bhat & Virmani (8) Sulfate 13.2 6 153-162 42.6 Without leaves. Yielded 36.3% bleached pulp. 4. Bhat & Virmani (8) Sulfate 13.2 6 153-162 35.0 With leaves. Yielded 30% bleached pulp. 5. Bhat & Virmani (8) Soda 14.0 6 153-162 45.0 Without leaves. Yielded 38.3%o bleached pulp. 6. Bhat & Virmani (8) Soda 14.0 6 153-162 35.0 With leaves. Yielded 27.1% bleached pulp. 7. Tomeo, Herrero, & Astor (37) ...... Sulfate 17.5 5 170 42.0 8. Bhat & Virmani (9) Sulfate 17.1 6 153-162 43.3 Mixed with equal quantity of Phrag- mites karka. Yielded 34.5% bleached pulp. 9. Dupont & Escourrou Bsulfite (gm./l.) 12 123 45.3 Raw material con- (12) ...... S02 65.6 tained 8.6% mois- (Free S02) (56) ture, extracted Na2O 9.3 with H20, 1 hr. at 1000 C.

tion of leaves with stems also leads to machine operated at a speed of 50 feet lack of uniformity in the degree of cook- per minute, producing a writing paper ing unless expensive, more drastic treat- with satisfactory strength properties. ments are used. Tests of this paper (machine direction) Item 8 in Table 3 provides the essen- indicated a breaking length of 2680 m. tial details of a pilot-plant scale diges- and a tear factor of 41.1. The burst tion of Arundo donax with an equal factor was 17.1. Since the pulp from quantity of Phragmites karka. The these two grasses is short fibered, addi- latter is an Indian grass, similar in ap- tion of a quantity of long-fibered pulp

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This content downloaded from 158.135.136.72 on Wed, 6 Aug 2014 13:13:55 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 396 ECONOMIC BOTANY would be necessary before it could be The entire culm of Arudo donax used on a high speed commercial breaks up comparatively easily, unlike machine. culms of many bamboos and other Large-scale tests have been made in grasses in which the nodes resist disinte- the United States by Gaylord Container gration. The pulps are easily and Corporation on 1000 tons of cane ob- economically bleached. In comparison tained from wild stands along the Rio with pulp from coniferous wood, they are Grande (14). Cane cooked by the sul- of but medium strength because of their fate process with 7.5 to 13.5% active comparatively short fibers. However, alkali for 2.5 to 3 hours gave pulp yields they are satisfactory for the production of 35.6 to 52.4%. The pulps were very of writing and printing papers, and their weak. In comparison with a refined strength can be increased considerably pulp from pine having a bursting by the addition of 10% of long-fibered strength of 61.4, tear strength of 93, and coniferous pulp. Strength properties of tensile strength of 19, pulps from Arundo standard sheets formed of bleached pulps donax that were refined to the same obtained in digestions 3, 4, 5, and 6 of freeness had bursting strengths of 32 and Table 3 were: breaking length 9,348 m., 37, tear strengths of 57 and 48, and 9,650 m., 9,325 m., 9,017 m.; tear factor tensile strengths of 12 and 16. A satis- 116, 113, 114, 9(0; burst factor 57, 53, 54, factory corrugating sheet was produced, 54. Raitt (32), taking into considera- but it was not comparable in strength tion all aspects of the utilization of with the sheets regularly produced by grasses for paper pulp, considered donax the mill. Mixtures of cane and pine cane to be one of the outstanding Indian pulps showed a decrease in strength nmore grasses that might be used for this pur- or less in direct proportion to the pose. This grass could be pulped sepa- quantity of cane pulp used. rately or in mixture with any of six In the mill-scale tests just discussed, other outstanding Indian species. Like mixtures of cane and Kraft pulps were pulps from other non-woody plants, used to produce papers of several types. Arundo donax pulps have a content of All were of poor strength and had foreign matter that is considerably smoother formation and higher dirt higher than wood pulp. count than Kraft papers and were Pulps with high alpha-cellulose con- slower draining on the wire. The papers tent are desirable for the production of from the mixed pulps were easier dry- special papers including those where per- ing. It was concluded that cane is not manency is a major requirement. They satisfactory if strength is important, but are also used as dissolving pulps for the it may serve for the production of manufacture of rayons, cellophane, cellu- special papers. lose-acetate, cellulose-nitrate, and other A number of mill-operating problems cellulose derivatives. A great portion of were evident during processing of the high-alpha pulp is utilized in the pro- cane. The large quantity of dust created duction of rayon. A pulp to be used for by shattering of the cane resulted in un- this purpose must have an alpha cellu- pleasant working conditions. Digesters lose content greater than 92%, a pento- did not blow clean, and washing of the san content less than 2.5%o, an ash pulp was difficult. Among other un- content less than 0.11%o and must be favorable factors, the high silica content lignin-free. The pulp must also have of the cane caused serious scaling of suitable physical characteristics. For equipment and created difficulties in the production of cellulose acetate and liquor recovery. other cellulose derivatives, the chemical

This content downloaded from 158.135.136.72 on Wed, 6 Aug 2014 13:13:55 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions ARUNDO DONAX 397 requirements are more rigid than for with nitric acid is reported by Dupont pulps to be used for rayon. and Escourrou (12). Their data include Acid hydrolysis of raw cane, prior to so many variables that generalizations digestion, favors the production of pulps are difficult. A sample previously ex- with a high alpha-cellulose content (12, tracted with boiling water to give a 10% 18, 37, 38). The content of pentosans is dry extract, when treated with 3.7% reduced, and there is a parallel reduction HNO3 at 1000 C. for 2 hours yielded in the pentosan content of the final pulp. 18.5% of dry extract containing 14% The most complete data on the acid reducing sugar. Digestion of the ex- hydrolysis of Arundo donax culms are tracted material with 9% NaOH at 1000 those given by Kocevar and Javornik- C. for 1 hour yielded 43.4% of crude Kosler (18) for experimental treatments pulp. Hydrolysis of a sample with of material described in Table 2. Pre- 2.4 % HNO3 at 100? C. for 3 hours hydrolysis of this culm material with yielded 49% dry extract containing 27% .5% and 1.0%oH2SO4 at 135? C. for 3 reducing sugars. Digestion of this ex- hours yielded extracted culms in quan- tracted residue with 12.9% NaOH at tities of 77%o and 65%, respectively, 1150 C. for 2 hours yielded 41.4% of with pentosan contents of 8.6%o and crude pulp. The crude pulp contained 7.0%. These two extracted samples, 81% alpha cellulose. By bleaching, the when digested by the sulfate process alpha cellulose content was increased to (NaOH, Na2S, Na2CO3) with 3% total 85.2%. Fermentable sugars can be re- alkali (as Na) for 5.5 hours at a maxi- covered from these acid treatments. mum temperature of 1700 C., furnished Such sugars obtained as a by-product of crude pulps in yields of 34%oand 29%. the wood pulp industry in Europe are The two crude pulps analysed as fol- inmportant in the production of alcohol lows: alpha cellulose 87.0%, 90.6%; and during World II were used to grow lignin 4.6%o, 3.1%; pentosans 6.4% a yeast which supplied a protein supple- 4.8%; ash .44%, .29%o. When refined by ment for the German army. bleaching, alkali extraction and a second Industrial Utilization. Although con- bleaching, the pulps contained: alpha siderable attention has been given to the cellulose 95.07, 96.3%; pentosans 3.6%, potential utilization of Arundo donax 2.9%; ash .13%7o,.11%o. The refined for paper and dissolving pulps, only in pulps were lignin-free and were produced one instance has this plant been used on in yields equivalent to 25%oand 22% of a large-scale industrial basis. Prior to the weight of the original material. World War II, the Italian government In contrast to the two trials cited encouraged the development of new above, less drastic acid hydrolysis of raw sources of rayon pulp (4, 24, 26). This culms with .1% H2SO4 for six hours interest was stimulated primarily by the at 1350 C. decreased pentosans only desire of the dictatorship to be inde- slightly, from 20.8% to 20.4%7o. With pendent of foreign sources of textile digestion and refinement conditions fibers and the desire for an export parallel to those cited, this trial yielded product. It was recognized that an im- 29% of refined lignin-free pulp with mediate source of raw material was 88.5% alpha cellulose, 6.6% pentosans, needed, that the designs of the dictator- and .14% ash. Closely comparable re- ship could not wait 20 to 30 years for the sults were obtained by Tomeo et al. (37, establishment of coniferous or deciduous 38) employing 1% H2SO4 at 120' C. for tree plantations. Recognizing that 30 minutes. annual crop residues could not be Experimental hydrolysis of raw cane utilized, because of technical and eco-

This content downloaded from 158.135.136.72 on Wed, 6 Aug 2014 13:13:55 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 398 ECONOMIC BOTANY nomic problems, attention was directed planted strips were densely covered with to the development of a new crop as a cane growth. Since the original rhizomes source of industrial cellulose. Snia had become exhausted, cane production Viscosa, a large textile corporation, con- in the area initially planted had greatly ducted a program of research on all ma- diminished, and it was necessary to re- terials that offered any potential for this move the dead growth. purpose. As a result of this effort, In the following years, the young Arundo donax was selected as the pre- rhizomes were allowed to expand toward ferred species, because of its large yield, the south into fresh soil, and the ex- ease of preservation, and high content of hausted rhizomes were removed from the top-quality cellulose. opposite border of the strip. By the Although later developments indicate eighth year the cane shifted completely that Arundo donax was not an eco- on to the strip that was originally bare. nomical source of pulp, the new venture This method of maintaining the fields was initiated with great enthusiasm. allowed the cane to occupy only half the Plans were drawn up for the construc- area during any one season, and the tion of a factory to use Arundo donax strips that were free of cane could be and for an accompanying plantation to planted with legumes to improve the supply the necessary raw material. fertility of the soil. Favored by the personal encouragement The Onofry system was regarded as of the dictator Mussolini, work on this the most satisfactory for maintenance of agricultural-industrial complex was in- high sustained yields. Production and itiated in 1937. A factory, town, and quality of the cane were increased by farm were established at a site later to greater exposure to the sun, improved be known as Torviscosa in the vicinity drainage, higher soil fertility, and re- of Udine, Venezia Province, in north- moval of exhausted rhizomes. eastern Italy. The farm, established on According to figures made public by land reclaimed from a marshy, pre- Snia Viscosa, the average annual produc- viously uncultivated waste, originally tion at Torviscosa was 35 tons of green covered 6,000 acres. By 1941, donax cane per acre (24). From this could be cane had been established on 7,500 acres, obtained 15 tons of dry cleaned cane and plans called for a final holding of which served as the raw material for the 15,000 acres to be in full production by production of four to five tons of high 1943. quality dissolving pulp. This yield of The establishment of new plantings pulp was considerably more than could and their maintenance apparently fol- be obtained from an acre of forest. The lowed the methods developed by Onofry ultimate goal was to obtain from this (27). This system consisted of dividing one establishment a production of 65,000 the fields into strips 2 m. wide, alternat- tons of pulp per year, 40%oof the total ing with strips about 1.3 m. in width, Italian requirement at that time. each bordered by a drainage ditch .3 m. In contrast with the yields cited wide and .3 m. deep. Rhizomes were above, natural stands of Arundo donax planted in east-west rows along the in India are reported to yield 3.2 tons of northern borders of the wide strips and dry grass per acre yearly on a sustained- were permitted to expand toward the yield basis (32). In one area a plot of south. In fields established on hillsides natural cane yielded five tons of dry planting was arranged so that expansion grass per acre but this area was not would occur up-slope. fully stocked; the yield for a fully By the fourth year, the initially stocked area was considered to be six

This content downloaded from 158.135.136.72 on Wed, 6 Aug 2014 13:13:55 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions ARUNDO DONAX 399 tons per acre. Another sample area break up fiber aggregates and separate yielded a phenomenal 43 tons per acre, out the portion that was not sufficiently but the crop consisted of many persistent disintegrated. It was then passed into a bases of old culms and undoubtedly separator, where sand and other heavy represented the growth of a number of impurities were allowed to settle out. years. In the United States, fairly good After washing, the pulp was cooked with wild stands are reported to yield 81/3 mild caustic soda to remove silica and tons of oven-dry cane per acre; poorer most other non-cellulose substances. stands yield 51/4 tons of oven-dry cane After again being washed, the pulp per acre (14). was subjected to a multi-stage bleaching Italian plantings, established with process to remove the last traces of rhizomes, reached full production after lignin. It was chlorinated, washed, and three years and were expected to con- extracted with 10%ocaustic soda. Fol- tinue at full efficiency for at least ten lowing an additional washing operation, years. Afterward, the fields were to be the pulp was treated with hypochlorite renewed by removal of the old rhizomes bleach and given a final washing. The and replanted as necessary. The fer- refined pulp was formed into sheets on tility would be restored in part by heavy a Fourdrinier-type machine. These applications of manure. sheets containing about 20% moisture The cane was harvested during the were ready for use in the rayon mill. winter and allowed to dry for several The yield of refined pulp was claimed months in the open. At a later date, the to have been 31%. The product was harvest was collected in large piles and reported to have contained 97% alpha covered with cane in such a manner as cellulose, 2.4% pentosans, and 0.1%cash. to shed water. After seasoning for The fibrous material that was not several additional months to assure a sufficiently disintegrated following the degree of uniformity, the raw material first cook and separated out before the was transported to the mill as needed. second cook was used for the manu- At the mill, bundles of cane were crushed facture of wrapping paper. between rollers and then passed through Ethyl alcohol was a valuable by- a chipping machine to cut the culms into product of the industrial process. The fragments about 3/4 inch long. Seeds, hot-water extract obtained from the leaf and sheath tissue, and a portion of crushed chips was collected in large foreign material were removed by ma- storage tanks from which it was drawn chinery and returned to the farm to be into other tanks where the sugar was used as bedding for cattle. The cleaned fermented to alcohol. Distillation of material was stored in large silos from the fermented extract yielded as much as which it passed to the boilers by gravity. 54 gallons of 95% ethyl alcohol for each The cleaned chips were conveyed to ton of pulp produced. The cane was boilers where the sugars were extracted reported to contain 14% sugar (24). with water at 100? C. The chips were Publicity associated with the opening then conveyed to storage bins above the of the factory and its 1940 expansion, in digesters. industrial and technical journals as well The extracted chips were cooked by as in press notices, indicated that the the calcium bisulfite process in large industrial utilization of Arundo donax stationary digesters to remove lignin for rayon pulp by Snia Viscosa was and some other non-cellulose substance. highly successful and apparently eco- The crude pulp was released into pits, nomical. At that time, however, certain washed, and passed to a machine to Italian sources of information indicated

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that the efforts to manufacture industrial terial. A second factor that influenced cellulose from cane were almost a com- production of this material was the plete failure and that the factory in marked decrease in demand for rayon in reality used timber imported from Yugo- Italy during the post-war years. Prior slavia. It was claimed that the cellulose to and during World War II the Italian produced was of inferior quality and was government forced the consumption of not accepted by rayon manufacturers as rayon textiles and thus strongly preju- long as pulp was available from other diced consumers against the product. sources. According to those reports, the Reaction against this policy resulted in cane pulp was used only by Snia Viscosa decreased demand when United States and its affiliates. financial aid made available large sup- More recent reports indicate that, plies of cotton after the war. while the production of rayon pulp from Arundo donax has recently been ex- cane never by any means approached ploited as a source of paper pulp in the publicized goal of 65,000 tons per Argentina. In 1952 a plantation of year, a considerable amount of this 5,000 acres was reported to have been product was manufactured just prior to established for this purpose at Ramallo. and during a part of World War II and During that season an additional 1,700 probably for several years afterward. acres were to have been planted. Estab- Recent reliable estimates indicate that lishment of the plantation followed the production reached as high as 6,600 tons methods developed in Italy by Onofry per year. (28). Additional information on this During the years immediately follow- development is not available. ing World War II, Snia Viscosa is re- Ambitious plans were formulated in ported to have used 50% Arundo pulp France in 1942 for the development of and 50% imported Swedish wood pulp a domestic industry for the production for the production of rayon. of paper and dissolving pulp from At present, the Snia Viscosa factory Arundo donax (1). These plans called at Torviscosa is the only establishment for the construction of a large factory in Italy that utilizes cane for production and the planting of 12,000 acres of cane of rayon pulp. Cane is currently used in southern France. In addition, the by this factory for the manufacture of industry was expected to utilize cane about 4,400 tons of pulp each year. The from natural stands occupying more principal raw material is now birch than 15,000 acres. The factory was to pulpwood imported from Yugoslavia. employ the methods used by Snia The Torviscosa plantation has reduced Viscosa and was expected to achieve a the acreage of cane to 5,000i acres. This final capacity of 400 tons per day, ap- planting is maintained to serve as a sup- proximately one third of the French re- plementary source of raw material and quirement. provides a source of rhizomes for rapid This industry did not become estab- extension of the acreage in the event that lished, and with the end of the war the foreign supplies of raw material are cut interest in substitute sources of raw ma- off or become sufficiently expensive to terial waned as imports of established justify the use of Arundo donax. raw materials became available. Re- Excluding the effect of war-time con- cently, however, interest in this source ditions, the failure to attain the high of cellulose has again been indicated in goal of production of rayon from cane France because of the shortage of foreign was due primarily to the high cost of currency, which has resulted in a sub- producing and processing the raw ma- stantial decline in imports. This newly

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aroused interest is so recent, however, anchoring wall plaster, and the leaves that no information is available on what serve as a satisfactory roof thatch. The path the industry will take. canes are reportedly satisfactory for use Recent interest in cane as a source of as reinforcement in concrete. The culms pulp has been expressed in Yugoslavia are also utilized in the construction of (18). Apparently efforts in this area furniture, particularly in the weaving of are still of an experimental nature. chair seats. The culms are widely used for fishing Utilization: Minor Uses rods and walking sticks and are re- Arundo donax is a very versatile ma- portedly used for pipe stems and in the terial and has been widely utilized for construction of fish traps. Straight a variety of purposes (10, 15, 21, 25). slender canes supplied arrows for the In mnanylocal areas, the plant has served Egyptians, Greeks, and other early many of the uses to which the bamboos peoples. In areas where fuel supplies are applied, within the limitations placed are limited, exhausted rhizomes are used upon it by the smaller diameter of its for this purpose. culms. This species finds many useful Employment of this plant for the con- applications in the vine and garden areas trol of erosion has received wide ap- around the Mediterranean Sea. Many proval. It is used to advantage for this farmers maintain a small cane brake in purpose along the banks of ditches and order '-obe assured of their requirements, canals and in shallow drainage paths. and the canes frequently enter commerce The plant can be established in small in times of local shortages. A large torrents by staking large clumps of quantity of split culms are made into rhizomes to the ground and protecting lattices for drying fruit and vegetables them against the full rush of water with or woven into containers to be used for a covering of soil and straw or small shipping these products as well as flowers brush (35). In Argentina the plant is and other materials. For lattices and recommended as a reinforcement for the basket work, young canes are preferred edges of mountain terraces, and in Texas as they are more supple and easily and Australia it is used for stabilizing worked. Canes are also used for garden drifting sands (42). fences and trellises, and for propping up In Australia, donax cane is reportedly vines and small trees, and the plants are well suited as a source of fodder for often grown in hedge rows to serve as livestock but the small, leafy, variegated windbreaks. Leaves are used for tying strain is preferred (35). All livestock, up vines and other plants. including pigs and poultry, are attracted In Mexico, the canes are soaked in to it; when a horse or cow gains entrance water and then crushed with a rock and to a garden in which this plant is grow- woven into mats. The mats are used to ing, it is one of the first plants consumed. construct chicken pens or to prevent the In the United States, cane is not con- spillage of grain from box car doors. sidered very palatable to cattle but is In many areas where lumber is un- grazed when other forage is not avail- available or obtained only at great ex- able (42). The plant is low in protein pense, the culms are used in light con- but has a comparatively high concentra- struction. They serve well in the tion of phosphorus in the upper portions building of crude shelters and have even when grown on soils with an ex- limited application in the construction tremely low content of this mineral. of permanent buildings. Mats formed Other investigators report that in from split culms are well suited for Turkestan camels never touch this plant

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although they readily graze other coarse pense of handling and storage. Pulping plants growing with it (29). of these materials requires larger quan- Medicinally the rhizome has been used tities of chemicals than does the pulping as a sudorific, a diuretic, and as an anti- of wood and necessitates the employment lactant and in the treatment of dropsy of special methods. As an agricultural (21). Two alkaloids, gramine (don- crop such plants must compete for space axine) and donaxarine, have been iso- with other plants currently established lated from the leaves (23, 29, 30). The in farming systems. former, originally isolated from barley, Arundo donax from natural stands is raises the blood pressure of dogs when reported to be a satisfactory pulp source administered in small doses. Large under conditions prevailing in India. doses cause a lowering of the blood pres- The plant apparently shows promise as sure of dogs. a satisfactory cultivated raw material During World War II, an American in Argentina. In Italy, however, where concern used small pieces of cane cut considerable experience has been gained from defective woodwind reeds in the in the industrial cultivation of cane, the manufacture of certain scientific instru- pulp industry relies on less costly im- ments. The combination of light weight ported pulps or pulpwoods. and good mechanical strength readily Under the limitations of our present adapted the material to this purpose. knowledge, non-arboreal plants when In southern France, during World War cultivated as a source of pulp are unable II, large quantities of cane were woven to compete with wood in well forested into large mats and used to conceal areas. Even in poorly forested countries, roads and paths from enemy view. non-woody plants used for this purpose Arundo donax has frequently been are obtained largely as agricultural grown as an ornamental. The inflor- residues or from natural growth. escences have been dyed and used for Under present conditions, A. donax decoration. does not offer very much potential as a An early English patent covered the cultivated crop for the United States. manufacture of a textile fiber from However, among the non-woody, rapidly Arundo donax (15). The process called growing plants, this species is one of the for splitting the culms into long strips highest producers of cellulose, and its by passing them between heavy rollers. present status will be altered as condi- After a treatment in caustic solution, tions of the pulp industry change. In- fibers suitable for spinning were sepa- creases in the cost of wood pulp will rated out by beating the material on create a better competitive position for wooden blocks. The fibers obtained A. donax and other non-woody plants. were about 14 inches long and could be The potential of cane as an industrial processed in the manner used for hemp. plant of the future is sufficiently great that some attention should be devoted Possibility of Industrial Utilization in now to research on its agronomic prob- the United States lems. The utilization of non-arboreous Acknowledgments plants in the production of pulp creates The following persons have supplied many problems that place these ma- information or materials for photographs terials in a disadvantageous position in or have otherwise furnished valuable relation to wood. Problems are created assistance during the progress of the by their bulk and the necessity for their work: Arnold Brilhart, Brilhart Musical seasonal harvest resulting in greater ex- Instrument Corporation; Frank Bundy,

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H. and A. Selmer, Inc.; E. Chiassarini, Production of Pulp, Paper and Board. E. ChiassariniCo.; R. A. Elder, Smith- Part I. Pulps for writing and printing J. J. papers from Arundo donax L. Indian sonian Institution; Goss, Gaylord Forest Leaflet No. 123. 1951. Container Corporation; L. P. Hines, 9. and . Ibid. Part VII. Writ- Hine's Reeds; John Huminik, U. S. ing and printing papers from Phragmites Navy Band; Jack Linx, Linx and Long karka Trin. Indian Forester 78: 127- Music Stores; Mario Maccaferri,French 137. 1952. 10. Cornu, C. L'Arundo donax (canne de American Reeds Manufacturing Co.; Provence ou roseau a quenquille). Petit P. G. Minneman and N. J. Pettipaw, Casablancais 31(1221): 3, 4; (1222): 4. Foreign Agricultural Service; Vincent 1945. Pezzi; Jack Spratt, Jack Spratt Wood- 11. Di Felippo, J. Twenty-five years of wind Shop; Lewis Skinner, Yeager's Argentine industrial experience in the pulping of straw and canes. In Pulp Music Store; and W. C. Stokoe, Jr., and Paper Prospects in Latin America. Gallaudet College. For their critical United Nations. FAO. New York. commentson sections of the manuscript, 1955. grateful acknowledgementis extendedto 12. Dupont, G., and Escourrou, R. Les E. E. Harrison and Kenneth Pasmanick, roseaux, matiere premiere pour la fabri- cation des pates a papier. Chim. & National Symphony Orchestra;William Indus. (Paris) 45: 207-220. 1941. Lichtenwanger,Library of Congress;and 13. Eby, W. M. Reed Knowledge. 1925. T. F. Clark, Northern Utilization Re- 14. Gillespie, W. F., Goss, J. J., Dyer, J. K., search and Development Division, Agri- Ratliff, F. C., and Reed, A. E. Arundo cultural Research Service. donax cane. Paper presented at annual meeting, T. A. P. P. I., New York City, Bibliography 1946. 15. Hagemann, C. G. Production of pulp and A considerable portion of the sections on textile fiber. Jour. Soc. Chem. Ind. 11: woodwind reeds is based on recent correspond- 1026. 1891. ence and information in the files of the Plant 16. Jayme, G., and Harders-Steinhauser, Introduction Section. M. Mikroskopische Untersuchungen an 1. Anonymous. La canne de Provence, Arundo donax L. und daraus hergestell- matiere premiere pour l'industrie de la ten Zellstoffen. Papier-Fabrikant 40: cellulose. La Papeterie 64(10): 294-301. 89-93, 97. 1942. 1942. 17. , Hindenburg, K. G., and Harders- 2. Anonymous. Experiments with new ma- Steinhauser, M. Eignungsvergleich ver- terials for the manufacture of paper. schiedener Einjahrespflanzenals Rohstoff Spanish reed (Arundo donax) from the fur Papiersulfatzellstoffe. Das Papier 2: Transvaal. Bull. Imp. Inst. 10: 374. 45-56, 95-105. 1948. 1912. 18. Kocevar, F., and Javornik-Kosler, S. 3. Artley, J. How to Make Double Reeds Pfahlrohrzellstoff, gewonnen aus Arundo for Oboe, English Horn, and Bassoon. donax nach dem Sulfatverfahren mit 1940. saurer Vorhydrolyse, als Rohstoff fur 4. Atchison, J. E. Present and Potential Use Chemie-fasern. Das Papier 10: 1-4. of Straw and Other AgriculturalResidues 1956. in the Pulp and Paper Industry of 19. Kotzin, E. The reed problem. Wood- Western Europe. Pulp and Paper wind Magazine 1(1): 4. 1948. Forest Products Branch, ECA. 1949. 20. Lichtenwanger, W. Instruments of the 5. Baines, A. Woodwind Instruments and Clarinet Type Before the Modern Their History. 1957. Clarinet. M.S. Thesis, University of 6. Bhosys, W. The reed problem. Wood- Michigan, School of Music. 1940. wind Magazine 1(2): 4, 8. 1948; (3): 21. Luna Ercilla, C. A. La cana commune. 5, 8. 1949. Chacra 22(257): 44-45. 1952. 7. Carse, A. v. A. Musical Wind Instru- 22. Macgillivray, J. A. Woodwind and other ments, a History. 1939. orchestral instruments in Russia today. 8. Bhat, R. V., and Virmani, K. C. Indig- Galpin Soc. Jour. 10: 3-9. 1957. enous Cellulosic Raw Materials for the 23. Madinaveitia, J. Alkaloids of Arzindo

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donax L. Jour. Chem. Soc. London 35. Spafford,W. J. The bamboo reed (Arundo 1937: 1927-1929. 1937. donax) in South Australian Agriculture. 24. Marinotti, F. L'utilizzazione della canna S. Austral. Dept. Agric. Jour. 45: 75-83. gentile "Arundo donax" per la produz- 1941. ione autarchica di cellulosa nobile per 36. Spratt, J. How to Make Your Own raion. La Chimica 8: 349-355. 1941. Clarinet Reeds. 1956. 25. Molfino, J. F. La cana de castilla; cultivo 37. Tomeo, M., Herrero, L., and Astor, M. I. interesante y productivo. Chacra 17 Materias celulosicas secundarias. Ap- (193): 60-61. 1946. provechamiento de cana de maiz, cana 26. Oliver, J. G. Arundo donax used in Italy comun y retama. X. Cong. Intern. for production of pulp for viscose rayon. Indus. Agric. 4: 3223-3230. 1954. Ind. Fibers Rev. 4: 33. 1939. 38. , , and Lajusticia, E. Materias 27. Onofry, A. La Canna Commune (Arundo Celulosicas Nacionales. VIII. Ensayos donax L.). 1940. ennoblecimiento: cana comun, subpro- 28. . El cultivo industrial de "Arundo ductos. Anal. Fis. y Quim. (Madrid) Ser. donax en el Ramallo. Rev. Argentina de B 49: 853-858. 1953. Agron. 19: 133-139. 1952. 39. , Peleato, M., and Azofra, J. J. 29. Orechoff, A., and Norkima, S. Uber die Materias Celulosicas Nacionales. III. Alkaloide von Arundo donax L. Ber. Canas y juncos. Anal. Fis. 43: Deut. Chem. Ges. 68: 436-437. 1935. y Quim. 795-800. 1947. 30. and . Alkaloids of Arundo donax L. Jour. Gen. Chem. (U.S.S.R.) 40. Vanin, S. I. On the anatomical structure 7: 673-5. 1937. and physicomechanical properties of the 31. Patterson, J. P. Bassoon Reed Variables: stem of Arundo donax L. (in Russian). A Basis for Reed Selection. M.S. Thesis, Priroda Akad. Nauk. S.S.S.R. 1939(8): University of Texas. 1954. 67-69. 1939. 32. Raitt, W. Report on the investigation of 41. Williams, A. The reed problem. Wood- savanna grasses as material for the pro- wind Magazine 1(4): 5, 6. 1949. duction of paper pulp. Ind. For. Rec. 42. Wynd, F. L., Steinbauer, G. P., and Diaz, 5(3): 74-116. 1913. N. R. Arundo donax as a forage grass 33. Rendall, F. G. The Clarinet. Some Notes in sandy soils. Lloydia 11: 181-184. on Its History and Construction. 1954. 1948. 34. Shamel, A. D. Origin of the striped cane. 43. Young, T. C. The Making of Musical Jour. Hered. 8: 471472. 1917. Instruments. 1939.

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