Democracy, Populism, and Economic Globalization — an Extension of the Selectorate Theory

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Democracy, Populism, and Economic Globalization — an Extension of the Selectorate Theory UNIVERSIDADE DE LISBOA Instituto de Ciências Sociais Democracy, Populism, and Economic Globalization — An extension of the selectorate theory Pedro Miguel Martins MENDONÇA Orientadores Prof. Doutor Filipe CARREIRA DA SILVA Prof. Doutora Nina WIESEHOMEIER Tese especialmente elaborado para a obtenção do grau de Doutor no ramo de Ciência Política, na especialidade de Política Comparada 2018 UNIVERSIDADE DE LISBOA Instituto de Ciências Sociais Democracy, Populism, and Economic Globalization — An extension of the selectorate theory Pedro Miguel Martins MENDONÇA Orientadores Prof. Doutor Filipe CARREIRA DA SILVA Prof. Doutora Nina WIESEHOMEIER Tese especialmente elaborada para a obtenção do grau de Doutor no ramo de Ciência Política, na especialidade de Política Comparada Júri: Presidente: Doutora Ana Margarida de Seabra Nunes de Almeida Vogais: – Doutor Nikitas Konstantinidis – Doutora Nina Wiesehomeier – Doutor Tiago Luís de Matos Roma Fernandes – Doutor José Luís Miranda Cardoso – Doutora Marina Castelo Branco da Costa Lobo – Doutor Pedro Miguel Dias Costa Coutinho Magalhães Financiado pela Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (SFRH/BD/86856/2012) 2018 ii “Festina lente” Wise Roman Dude iii Resumo Os três capítulos desta tese investigam, sob perspectivas diferentes, a liberaliza- ção do comércio internacional como uma arena de lutas distributivas que está inter- relacionada com as lutas distributivas de mudança de regime. No seu conjunto, os capítulos estão subordinados à seguinte questão de investigação: qual é a relação entre democracia e globalização económica? Esta questão pode ser desmontada noutras questões subsidiárias como: a globalização económica promove a democ- ratização e vice-versa? Como são os efeitos económicos da globalização internal- izados por regimes democráticos em comparação com regimes não democráticos? Quão democrática é a decisão de participar na globalização económica? Como é que as democracias tratam os perdedores da globalização económica? Quais os efeitos políticos dos benefícios assimétricos da globalização? Podemos pensar na globalização económica como um fenómeno que se dá em duas dimensões. A primeira corresponde aos fluxos concretos de bens e capital sob várias formas (investimento estrangeiro directo, compra de acções, remessas, etc). A segunda corresponde à malha de restrições a esse fluxo: barreiras às importações(e.g. tarifas e subsídios a certas indústrias), controlos de capital, impostos sobre comércio internacional, etc. A tese debruça-se sobretudo sobre a liberalização do comércio in- ternacional, ora à luz da primeira dimensão do ponto de vista dos efeitos dos fluxos, ora á luz da segunda dimensão do ponto de vista das decisões políticas sobre re- strições aos fluxos. No capítulo 1 procede-se a uma revisão da literatura empírica sobre liberalização do comércio internacional e democracia com o objectivo de desenvolver uma teoria de regimes e comércio livre. Esta literatura é depois organizada em função do apoio que dá a uma das teorias centrais na economia política da democracia e liberalização do comércio internacional, que é lá baptizada de teoria Stolper-Samuelson-Meltzer- Richard (SSMR). O objectivo central é perceber até que ponto esta teoria que é das mais bem especificadas é comprovada empíricamente pela quantidade significativa de estudos existentes sobre a relação entre comércio livre e democracia. iv A SSMR é uma combinação de dois teoremas muito apelativos e frequentemente usados para pensar sobre uma vasta gama de assuntos. O primeiro é o teorema de Stolper-Samuelson que pertence à teoria de Hecksher-Ohlin do comércio interna- cional. Este teorema, a partir das assunções da teoria Hecksher-Ohlin produz um corolário com implicações distributivas muito específicas e verificáveis. A ideia cen- tral que de lá se retira é que o comércio livre entre dois países gera perdedores e vencedores em cada país, e estes variam consoante o tipo de factor produtivo com que estão dotados (e.g. capital ou trabalho) e consoante a abundância desses factores relativa entre os dois países. O outro teorema é o do eleitor mediano, segundo o qual a decisão sobre um assunto (e.g. impostos) num sistema eleitoral maioritário corresponde sempre à preferida pelo eleitor mediano. O emparelhamento destes dois teoremas é mais ou menos explicitamente usado para explicar uma regularidade empírica encontrada pela maioria dos estudos no as- sunto: nos países em desenvolvimento a democratização tende a ser sucedida pela liberalização do comércio. A explicação oferecida é então a de que quando um país se democratiza as políticas comerciais passam a reflectir melhor as preferências do eleitor mediano, que é relativamente mais bem dotado de trabalho do que de cap- ital e por isso prefere uma política comercial que favoreça o trabalho. Segundo o teorema Stolper-Samuelson, porque os países em desenvolvimento são, comparados com o resto do mundo, abundantes em trabalho, essa política será a da liberalização do comércio internacional. Mas a SSMR também foi usada para explicar a direcção causal oposta do nexo democracia/comércio. Aqui o raciocínio é o de que, se o comércio internacional gera perdedores e vencedores, em certas não-democracias a desigualdade criada pela liberalização cria uma pressão popular para a redistribuição que tem como compro- misso redistributivo mais credível a longo prazo a democratização, porque esta fun- ciona sob a lógica do eleitor mediano. Isto quer dizer que há uma versão SSMR para cada direcção causal. E os raciocínios das duas direcções são mutuamente ex- clusivos. Quando desdobrada em todas as suas implicações lógicas é possível con- frontar com o depoimento dos estudos empíricos e verificar que o apoio é irregular e contraditório; enquanto algumas implicações são quase unanimemente secundadas pela literatura outras são liminarmente rejeitadas. O capítulo dedica-se então a explorar as fraquezas da SSMR para a reconstruir de modo a que uma versão única se aplique às duas direcções causais, i.e. que reflicta a endogeneidade entre política de comércio internacional e mudanças de regime. Um v dos problemas centrais é o de que temos um modelo (o eleitor mediano) para pensar na redistribuição em democracias mas não em não-democracias. A solução proposta é a de que abdique do teorema do eleitor mediano como forma de pensar a luta redis- tributiva em democracia e se adopte uma teoria que exprima a luta distributiva para todos os tipos de regime de modo a que se possa usar o modelo para os dois momen- tos de uma transição de regime e assim explicar a política comercial antes e depois da transição (seja em que direcção for esta transição). Para substituir o teorema do eleitor mediano propôe-se emparelhar a teoria do selectorado (Mesquita et al 2003) com o teorema Stolper-Samuelson e de seguida ilustra-se como este emparelhamento pode mitigar as fraquezas da SSMR e ser mais fiel aos factos empíricos notados pelos estudos ali revistos. O capítulo 2 desenvolve este emparelhamento introduzindo um outro mecanismo de liberalização do comércio internacional, que é a aprendizagem: a ideia de que os países observam o comportamento dos países vizinhos no que toca à sua perfor- mance económica e sua abertura comercial, para estimar qual seria o crescimento económico caso adoptassem uma política comercial fechada versus uma política comercial aberta. Esta explicação, comparada com as explicações centradas no teo- rema Stolper-Samuelson, sublinha outro aspecto do comércio internacional que é dos seus efeitos no crescimento económico. Ficamos assim com uma teoria que combina os dois aspectos centrais: o já referido efeito no crescimento económico e o aspecto (discutido no capítulo 1) dos efeitos distributivos. A necessidade de incluir os dois numa explicação é ilustrada com o experiência Mexicana de liberalização do comércio na década de 1980. E com esta ilustração também se introduzem os elementos centrais da teoria que se desenvolve de seguida, sob forma de um modelo de teoria dos jogos, que são a ideia que num sistema cap- italista cada regime exprime um compromisso de classe que é mapeável em função de poucas dimensões. Este mapeamento é feito a partir de uma extensão da teoria do selectorado um sistema coordenadas para todos os tipos de regime em função de dois eixos: o tamanho do selectorado e o tamanho da coligação vencedora. O se- lectorado é o conjunto de indivíduos numa sociedade que tem o direito formal de escolher a liderança política, e a coligação vencedora é um sub-conjunto de indiví- duos do selectorado cujo apoio é necessário para o líder se manter em funções. Cada regime político exprime uma relação de tamanhos diferentes. O líder para garantir o apoio desta coligação vencedora vai produzindo um conjunto de políticas (taxa de impostos, bens públicos, bens privados) que maximizam o seu bem-estar. vi Na teoria do selectorado a pertença a estas instituições determina a desigualdade política, e e extensão que se propõe da teoria do selectorado passa por introduzir um outro eixo que determine a desigualdade económica, e o faça em termos comuns á forma como esta desigualdade é expressa no teorema Stolper-Samuelson: a dotação individual dos factores de produção capital e trabalho. A outra principal mudança feita à teoria original do selectorado é incluir nas políticas (impostos, alocação de bens comuns e bens privados) que o líder tem de produzir para manter o apoio da sua coligação vencedora uma política comercial. Procede-se depois a uma análise dos equilíbrios do modelo, i.e. de qual é o conjunto de políticas que maximiza o bem estar da coligação vencedora quando: 1) varia o tamanho das meta-instituições do selectorado e coligação vencedora (mudança de regime); 2) varia a composição económica dessas institutições em função do número de trabalhadores e proprietários de capital (mudança de compromisso de classe); e 3) varia a aprendizagem que é feita sobre a política comercial (o quanto se espera que a economia cresça com de- terminada política comercial). Esta análise é feita com recurso a um programa de computador, desenhado para o efeito, e apresentada sob forma de gráficos, gerados por ele, que ilustram as relações de interesse.
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