Durham University Philosophical Society Phil.Soc@Durham.Ac.Uk CRIŦIQUE Issue 3, June 2010 Critique a Durham University Philosophical Society Publication June 2010

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Durham University Philosophical Society [email protected] CRIŦIQUE Issue 3, June 2010 Critique A Durham University Philosophical Society Publication June 2010

Editor: Toby Newson

Sub-editor: Sarah Brown

Designer: Matt Lunberg

Cover Image: Lyubov Popova, Portrait of a Philosopher, 1915 Contributors

James Roberts Philosophy, Continentally Page 4

Stephen Ingram Anti-Paternalism and Quasi-Slavery Page 7

Robert White Is Logic Applicable at the Quantum Mechanical Level? Page 10

Nick Constantine Why Vegetarians Should Eat Meat : A Refutation of the Philosophy Bites Podcast “Jeff McMahan on Vegetarianism” Page 13

Sam Crutchley Modern Art: The Difficulty for Aestheticians Page 16

William van der Lande Does “Morally Right” Simply Mean “Approved of by a Certain Culture”? Page 19

Tamsin Boatman Language-Learning Page 21

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[email protected] Critique A Durham University Philosophical Society Publication Issue 3

Language-Learning Tamsin Boatman

theory really comes to the fore is in process (think about trying to learn all non-normal language acquisition. those irregular verbs in French) and yet Europeans and North Americans Chomsky has explained why it appears relied strongly on the African slave so easy for young children to learn. trade in our (tragically) recent past. Unfortunately this extraordinary ability However, amongst the struggles these to pick up a language without effort is workers experienced was one that sup- lost within the first few years of a per- ports our nativist theory: that of the son’s life. The answer to our question struggle to communicate. These work- posed at the beginning of this article is ers invented a pidgin language required therefore, ‘yes’ we should be amazed for basic but necessary tasks. When at a child’s language-learning abilities. these workers had children their chil- It may appear easy to learn a language dren ‘creolised’ the language and intro- (as Descartes points out ‘there are no duced grammatical complexity which men so dull and stupid, not even idiots, had not existed in the original pidgin as to be incapable of joining together language. This example shows two different words, and thereby construct- things: firstly, that learning language ing a declaration by which to make requires exposure at the right time (the their thoughts understood’), yet this is adults were unable to learn a fully only the case because of the unique grammatical language) and that lan- situation nature has provided for us. guage-learning requires more than a simple experience of spoken language. Marcus, G. F., 1993. ‘Negative evi- Further support is given by Pinker who dence in language acquisition’. Cogni- provides the example of ‘Simon’, a tion 46(1) 53- deaf nine year old boy, who was only 85 exposed to sign language by his parents who learnt it in their teenage years and McNeill, D., 1966. ‘Developmental psy- therefore only had a rudimentary grasp cholinguistics’ The Genesis of Language of the language. Whilst he wasn’t com- F. Smith and G. Miller, ed. Cambridge, pletely isolated from language, Simon’s MA: MIT Press. ‘signing was far better ASL (American Sign Language) than theirs’ (Pinker, Pinker, Steven ‘The Language In- 1994) ; effectively Simon creolised his stinct’ (Penguin Group, London, 1994) parents ‘pidgin’ language. These children all developed their own grammati- Tomasello, M, 2000. ‘First steps to- cal language independently of the rele- wards a usage-based theory of language vant input. It remains to be seen how acquisition’, Cognitive Linguistics, 11- an empiricist can explain these aston- 1/2 (2000), 61-82 ishing feats of syntax learning. Language-learning is a difficult

22 Critique A Durham University Philosophical Society Publication Issue 3 Language-Learning

Tamsin Boatman Everybody is used to seeing a child hits all the language-learning new mother ‘baby-talking’ to her pride benchmarks apparently without their and joy, or a proud grandparent ex- parents’ well-meaning interference. An claiming over the new words their answer is provided by Chomsky: lan- youngest relation has learnt. But is this guage-learning is unlike any other really necessary? Should we be so learning ability we possess in that we amazed at a child’s language-learning have a specific language-learning abil- abilities? After all, we all learnt to ity. We are born with a universal gram- speak and can now communicate in a mar, a (very) general grammar that (mostly) clear and coherent way. How- every child is born with and that every ever there does seem to be something language adheres to. When children magical about the speed children learn make mistakes, they make very specific a language, emphasised by our depress- mistakes that may not be mistakes in ing attempts at learning a second lan- other languages. Children learn language at secondary school. Further- guage by setting the parameters in more, children are incredibly uniform their native language and forgetting when it comes to learning language: other possible grammatical constructs. after only a few days old, infants can Chomsky argues children are simply not discriminate between their mother exposed to enough data to learn a lan- tongue and a foreign language from a guage at the speed they do without different rhythmic class (e.g. English some kind of innate knowledge (UG) and Mandarin), after 9-15 months they and innate ability (specific language- use words that have meanings of whole learning ability). This is just a theory, sentences (e.g. Milk! meaning ‘I would however, that not everyone accepts, like some milk’), and by the age of 4 but I shall try to show you that, in real- children have acquired a full grammati- ity, it is the only possibility. cal language. There is evidence that Normal language acquisition has this uniformity is in no way related to other explanations, just one of these any effort on the part of the parents to being Tomasello’s theory that children encourage their child to speak. Parents learn by imitating specific pieces of do sometimes try to correct their chil- language, then, as they come to under- dren’s grammar but this is inconsistent stand what is being said they discern (Marcus, 1993). Furthermore, McNeill patterns of language use. These pat- (McNeill, 1966), argues that in many terns lead to the construction of differ- cases any corrections are in vain, chil- ent categories of linguistic unit and the dren simply ignore them. ability to construct unique sentences So what are we to make of this? (unique in the sense the child is not Children learn languages with regular simply imitating what has been said) success and regularity. Every normal (Tomasello, 2000). Where Chomsky’s

21 Critique A Durham University Philosophical Society Publication Issue 3 Editorial

Toby Newson Many thanks to all our contribu- you how a problem might, from a dif- tors and to the Philosophy Department ferent perspective, be seen as in fact for continuing to fund our publication. no problem at all. This edition of Critique is a little longer *** than usual, with the hope of making up My first K&R lecture was given by for the lack of an edition in first term. a now retired member of staff, but he Bearing in mind that this is the edition was such a good speaker I can still re- that hopefully a few first years will be member a lot of it even now. He spoke reading as they start courses or mod- about the importance of speech in do- ules in philosophy next academic year, ing philosophy, saying that, for exam- I thought I’d write a little with them in ple, though you should write notes and mind. essays to organise your thoughts, so I’m just finishing my last year of you should also try to discuss issues as a philosophy degree. Looking back, phi- much as you can with friends, in addi- losophy has for me, I think, been a tion to tutorials. Moreveover, the most worthwhile course of study. Of course useful tip he gave to my mind was that everyone involved in it from time to often the only way to understand a time feels that they’re wasting their really difficult text is to read it out time, slogging away at problems that loud, the intonation being what makes have been kicking around for hundreds, such a text comprehensible, as well as if not thousands of years. This means keeping you from getting bored. He it’s always tempting to look for hard also suggested you shouldn't be intimi- and fast answers as though one were dated by how reading philosophy is of- doing a natural science, but often to do ten such slow going; better that you so would not do justice to the irreduci- understand it rather than skim it super- ble complexity and ambiguity of life. ficially. My limit is about twenty pages Rather than definite answers, a day. Some of this he linked to Plato’s philosophy teaches you a certain flexi- Phaedrus, which has related things to bility of thinking about things from dif- say about the difference between writ- ferent perspectives. For Instance, the ten and spoken philosophy. most interesting areas I’ve studied in It’s often difficult to grasp the subject, and I think many fellow what’s being asked of you in philosophy students would agree, have not so essays. One thing it can take a while to much been particular solutions to par- realise is that the essay questions you ticular philosophical problems, rather are set are mostly far too general to be ways of approaching philosophical answered well in the word limit. Hence problems, or indeed problems in any in essays and particularly exams, don’t area. Often the most interesting ap- be afraid to narrow your concerns. proaches of all are those that can show State in your introduction that you’re

2 Critique A Durham University Philosophical Society Publication Issue 3

Editorial Toby Newson

just going to analyse one particular Maurice The Phenomenology criticism, distinction, recent article, or Merleau-Ponty of Perception, whatever. Other than that, you should Preface aim to be as clear as possible, argue to the greatest depth you can, read the Nietzsche Beyond Good and reading list and beyond and if at all Evil, Chp 1 & possible show a bit of passion and flair. The Gay Science, As a first year student, you’re Book3 likely to have a fair bit of time on your hands, so in addition to using it to keep Eugen Herringel Zen in the Art of up with your course, make friends, get Archery involved with societies and the like, reading around in philosophy is also Perhaps better yet read some fiction. worthwhile. You will rarely get as much Some books of particular relevance to time again to discover things that philosophy include: might interest you. I’m not suggesting locking yourself away in a library to P.D. Ouspensky The Strange Life of start preliminary research on your dis- Ivan Osokin sertation, just start thinking about how you will approach philosophy. Tolstoy The Death of Ivan Basically, just read as widely and Illych diversely as you can. If you’re doing straight philosophy, make good use of David Lodge Thinks... your electives to enrich your year; not all courses give you such free reign Scarlett Thomas The End of Mr Y over all modules. Along similar lines to what I mentioned earlier about philoso- Sophocles Oedipus phical methodologies, below are some books that might make for stimulating Euripides Medea reading in comparison with the kind of philosophy you’ll encounter. Milan Kundera The Unbearable Lightness of Being Wittgenstein The Blue Book

Richard Rorty Philosophy and Mirror of Nature

David Cooper Existentialism: A Reconstruction

3 Critique A Durham University Philosophical Society Publication Issue 3

Does “Morally Right” Simply Mean “Approved of by a Certain Culture”? William van der Lande

Benn enunciates the illogicality of this „unclean‟. The negatives for the notion by asking: “Is it not common to woman would include the loss of sexual engage in moral debate, with the hope pleasure; great pain; and possibly walk- of getting closer to the truth?”. Surely ing difficulties in later life. Are we, in the fact that when faced with a differ- response to this practice, to consider ent culture people can, and do, apply the society where this happens to be their existing notions and reflect upon perfectly legitimate in its actions, since them, articulates that the “ethical that is the way things are done there? thought of a given culture can always Or are we to think that it is the mark of stretch beyond its boundaries”. Rela- a society that has not yet reflected tivism supposedly encourages respect upon itself enough to know that this for other cultures, an issue few would practice is truly wrong? dispute; yet does it not show a certain Thus far I have undermined the lack of respect not to engage critically principle of cultural relativism, but with these cultures? perhaps the example which does so What cultural relativism fails to most conclusively is that of the Nazis. address is that the difference in moral The brutality enacted by them during and cultural practices between socie- Hitler‟s time in power was in tune with ties may in fact reflect one culture‟s their society‟s moral code, but can we moral superiority over another, articu- honestly suggest that the Nazis were lated by James Rachels as follows: „morally right‟ in their views and ac- “The premise that there is diversity of tions because of their status as an es- belief cannot support a conclusion that tablished culture? To believe so would there is no universal truth to morality. simply be inhumane. The Nazis go to Some people – or everybody, even – show that “some individuals and cul- might be mistaken.” tures may be radically mistaken about So just because a particular habit basic moral principles”. is approved by a culture does not mean It is clear, then, that „morally that it is morally right. The possibility right‟ does not simply mean „approved of a culture being wrong must be al- of by a certain culture‟, and that this lowed. An example would be the cul- alignment is a simplistic and misleading tural tradition of female genitalia muti- comparison. While cultural differences lation. The benefits of such an act (if will doubtlessly always exist, funda- they can be called such) include a re- mental human moral values maintain duced promiscuity in women, thus mak- within rational cultures; and to con- ing them less likely to commit adultery; strict what is right and wrong by where and an increase in the attractiveness of and how you live is naive, and misun- the woman (girl) from a male point of derstands what morality really is. view, since those who have not under- William van der Lande is a first year gone the process are considered natural sciences undergraduate. 20 Critique A Durham University Philosophical Society Publication Issue 3 Does “Morally Right” Simply Mean “Approved of by a Certain Culture? James Roberts In her book Patterns of Culture moral progression within a society is Ruth Benedict states: “Morality is a fundamentally impossible, because it convenient term for socially approved would sway from the original, correct habits.” But in describing morality like moral code. While it is natural for peo- this, she is confusing societal traditions ple to deliberate morally, if an opinion and etiquette with a society‟s ethical is prevalent in a culture, and is there- framework. There is a difference be- fore true, the very process of deliber- tween the morals one should adhere to ating is a counterintuitive undertaking. and the manners one should adhere to. The moral progress contradiction Morality is rather more than just a of cultural relativism is most succinctly “socially approved habit”; to do some- expressed by Julia Driver: “Moral pro- thing immoral is not simply frowned gress is often achieved through the ef- upon, it is widely condemned. forts of rebellious individuals with be- This differentiates and elucidates liefs that do not conform to popular slightly the loose language used by cultural beliefs. It seems odd to say Benedict. What of course she meant to that they were wrong and everyone say was that morality differs culture by else was right, until others just hap- culture, with each culture being mor- pened to start sharing their beliefs.” ally right in their own way, because The process whereby a society is they are their own culture, and no cul- able to reach a furthered state of ture can be seen to be better or worse, „enlightenment‟ is achieved through morally speaking, than any other. This reflection. Only by stopping and truly rather confusing statement goes to the reflecting, either as an individual or as heart of the most popular form of a society, upon whether certain issues moral relativism: cultural relativism. are actually right, is moral progress But is this really true? Can one culture possible. It is by questioning the cur- be seen to be just as morally right as rent state of things that societies mor- another? I think not. ally change, mostly for the better. But In accepting cultural relativism cultural relativism prevents us from one must accept certain conditions criticising our own society, since why which go with it. One condition would question something which cannot be be the assumption of each society as a seen to be wrong? perfect society; the word „perfect‟ There could never be moral here means that for the people of that judgement on other cultures, and it society, the society‟s moral code is the would be theoretically impossible to right code to follow, and there can be have a debate with a member of an- no possible divergence from this code other culture about their moral beliefs, without it being wrong. Thus, in short, since they could never be wrong. Piers 19 Critique A Durham University Philosophical Society Publication Issue 3 Philosophy, Continentally

James Roberts There isn't a hotter subject than whispered in the corridors of the hu- philosophy in Madrid. I decided to do manities faculty of the Autonomous my second year over in Spain's gorgeous University of Madrid. This means how- capital, and, although studying in Span- ever, that philosophy students can't ish has at times been akin to being the rely on the name of their top ten uni- bull in a bullfight, now, with my return versity to get them a job outside of to the UK dawning on me, I'm realising Academia. how amazing this experience has been. It also entails that there are very I've discovered a place where philoso- few philosophy students, with the aver- phy is done differently, a school of age class size being about 8, and they thinkers proud not to be analytical. The tend to be committed passionate mar- content of philosophy here is less truth tyrs to their subject. They have this and more expression, less logic, more sense of “I'm going to be a philosophy hearty portions of the passions. Basi- teacher or unemployed.” They're clever cally, there is a different priority in the souls who have made a sacrifice in discipline, and this is apparent in the choosing to study philosophy, so, education. That's what I'm going to they're going to throw themselves into write about here. it. The philosophy department is a In Spain the education is close-knit community of chain smokers weighted towards studying more voca- to be found reading Derrida on the ex- tional subjects at the end of secondary tensive campus grounds, absorbing the education. So, when I tell Spaniards sun and looking delightfully hippy- no that I want to go into the PR industry, preppy-ness to be found here. I know they give me strange looks and say “but I'm trading in generalisation right now, you do... philosophy?” There's not the but that's something I've found is a custom of doing an academic discipline great intellectual tool this year; a primarily- right now I would be ex- stress on rules being more interesting pected to be studying Public Relations than their exceptions. or Media (what we might regard as All the philosophers know each Mickey Mouse subjects over in the UK). other, and, have a real chummy rela- Furthermore, the public university sys- tionship with the professors too. Spain tem is by law not elitist. That means, isn't the biggest world exporter of phi- there is no official ranking of universi- losophy, but, the Autonoma is probably ties and departments. So while in the Spain's philosophical powerhouse right UK you know exactly where one is in now. So, I've spent the year with a the system, here no university is twenty hour-a-week schedule of tutori- 'officially' better than others. Though als with some of the most esteemed some, in reality, are; “We're the best philosophers in Spain. We haven't heard philosophy department in Spain,” is of them, but anyone who reads the na-

4 Critique A Durham University Philosophical Society Publication Issue 3

Philosophy, Continentally James Roberts

tionals here has. Philosophy is done here don't seem to be looking for uni- more personally, and that shows in the versal logical articulations of absolute course content too. It's not “What did truths so much as fashions in contem- Kant think about this and how can we porary thought. It's philosophical cool- criticise him?”, it is “Why did Kant hunting. think this? What was he feeling? At This trend is also prevalent what stage in his career? How did he amongst the philosophers-to-be (keep develop from this position?”, even in mind that, unlike most of us they “Who were Kant's friends?”. Though I've will not be leaving philosophy for the barely read The Phenomenology of the City.) There is an active dislike for all Spirit, I feel like I know Hegel's whole things analytical. One of my first essays social life. It's quite refreshing. came back with a note “good, errors in Hegel was mates, by the way, Spanish don't prevent expression but with thinkers such as Fichte and Schel- many obvious analytical prejudices”. ling, who I'd never heard of until the There is a sentiment here that the con- names were written on the board in tinental discipline which they favour is History of Modern Philosophy, and I undervalued- that the analytical tradi- think they're not taught in the normal tion has hegemony in the philosophy syllabus in the UK. Wikipedia them- industry. 'Post-modernity' is where they're hot stuff. Another thinker I've these new thinkers see their opportuni- discovered this year was Machiavelli, ties, to trade in historicism and gener- who has practically become a love- alisation, to talk about the ever- affair of mine. He's so naughty, but so present and ever-expanding post- nice. The January exam question here modern world, where the analytics was by the way, “Write about Machia- must be silent; it's not their place to velli.” Not very specific, but a great talk about truths contingent on the chance to write three pages on the role present. These are thinkers in awe of of marketing in Machiavelli. Friedrich Jameson, who gave a confer- The key term this year has been ence for the university recently, and “Post-modernity”. I've not had a sub- bored of Bertrand Russell. ject which didn't in some way mention So philosophy here is more per- trends in modernity, except perhaps sonal and more trendy, but finally, it's Philosophy of Logic, the subject which also more emotional. Ethics was a small the Spanish philosophers-to-be did not class which was particularly full of pas- cease moaning about. Ethics was “post- sions, these fiery thinkers with opinions modern”, theory of culture was about often grounded in “that's just how I “globalization of postmodernity”, aes- feel.” For example, a really interesting thetics was “issues in contemporary class was centred on “Why can you go art”, philosophy of religion was even to court for breaking a window, but not “how is belief today?”. The professors for breaking a heart?”. Professors aren't

5 Critique A Durham University Philosophical Society Publication Issue 3

Modern Art: The Difficulty for Aestheticians Sam Crutchley

need to look deeper into why there are such discrepancies. Any theory of aesthetic appreciation must run alongside and compli- ment contextual elements of an artwork. Returning to the Punk Example, it would seem senseless to evaluate the Punk movement without acknowledging the rebellious culture and the dis- jointed Britain that manifested such resentment towards those in authority. With the clashing guitars mocking the decadence of the system, the Pogo- dancing satirising their own apparent idiocy, and the haircuts, piercings and outlandish clothes, the Punks stuck two fingers up to middle-England. Never mind the Bollocks, Punk was not just The Clash or The Sex Pistols, it was a whole aesthetic construct. There was nothing ugly about The Pistol‟s blas- phemous rehashing of the National An- them; if anything it signified total musical liberation; a thing of real beauty.

Danto, A.C.: After the End of Art: Con- temporary Art and The Pale of History, Princeton University Press 1997

Kieran, M.: „Aesthetic Value: Beauty and Ugliness and Incoherence‟, in Phi- losophy, Vol.72, 1997

Nietzsche, F.: „Gay Science: With a prelude in German Rhymes and an ap- pendix of songs‟, ed. Bernard Williams, Cambridge University Press 2001

Zemach, E.: „Real Beauty‟, Pennsyl- vania State University 1997

18 Critique A Durham University Philosophical Society Publication Issue 3

Modern Art: The Difficulty for Aestheticians Sam Crutchley

ing is that any artwork can be tackled thing so revered one minute, seem ugly using a certain set of guidelines, and and outmoded the next? „How can real- whether or not we come to the conclu- ists explain a change in judgement sion that the artwork has aesthetic where there is no change in the object merit is a personal matter. By stating judged?‟ (Zemach, p71). Will we learn that arriving at the conclusion that a to love contemporary art? The answer work has cognitive significance is a is – unsurprisingly - not as clean cut as “personal matter” may seem somewhat the questions asked. We have to an- misleading. What I mean by this is that swer whether or not art works are in- my theory of Cognitive Ethicism will deed works of art in themselves or provide a perfectly viable set of pa- merely a dialogue on an epoch of art rameters which will assist the “agent” history. in aesthetic appreciation, yet other suitable theories can be used to finish „What is new is always evil, being that at a different conclusion. I.e. if one which wants to conquer and overthrow was also bothered with the authorial the old boundary markers and old pic- intention element of the artwork, then tures; and only what is old is this would supplement my Cognitive good.‟ (Nietzsche, 78) Ethicism. I see the latter as providing a skeleton for other theories (such as In Hieronymus Bosch‟s Christ Carrying authorial intentionalism, historicism et the Cross (Ghent) he portrays the al) to flesh out, thereby noting that “persecutors” heavily pierced, swarthy- Cognitive Ethicism is set in a pluralistic skinned, bedraggled; the classic physi- framework. We should give the artwork cal definition of a savage or barbarian, the greatest chance to benefit us cog- whilst the Punk culture deliberately set nitively. out to achieve these pinnacles of This is a good juncture to bring „maximal ugliness and incoher- in the problems of historical progres- ence‟ (Kieran, p384). Furthermore, sion and show how it effects the way there are elements within the Punk we aesthetically appreciate Art. I shall music genre – and contemporary classi- give an historical explanation as to why cal music (see John Cage) – that ac- we may find an artwork in one epoch tively seek out discordance and clash- aesthetically redundant, whilst coming ing musical paradigms. This offers the to bask in its new found glory in a later idea that aesthetic appreciation is de- era. Is everything just a matter of per- pendant on how the viewer wants to sonal taste; just a construct founded perceive the work; if they are looking upon environmental and societal up- for discordance and so-called “musical bringing; just a reflection of what so- ugliness” then they will find it. Al- called-critics believe and impart upon though it would be easy to utter the their ignorant subjects? How can some- old chestnut: “it‟s all just relative”, we

17 Critique A Durham University Philosophical Society Publication Issue 3

Philosophy, Continentally James Roberts

afraid to get their opinions out, these are adults who saw the demise of a dictatorship and the speedy construction of modern Spain. Politics doesn't seem so distant to people who have lived under a dictatorship; this isn't abstract discussion, this is heated debate. With a longer stint here in Spain than in Durham overall, I'm going to admit- Madrid and continental philosophy have both stolen my heart.

6 Critique A Durham University Philosophical Society Publication Issue 3 Anti-Paternalism and Quasi-Slavery

Stephen Ingram Most people do not want to be slaves. traction of preserving both freedom This much seems uncontroversial, so it and security. But, it seems that the is unlikely to be a serious practical harm principle can lead to strange re- problem if a government legislates sults. against voluntary-slavery. However, Mill only prohibits harm to oth- prohibiting voluntary-slavery does seem ers. He believes that one should be to be problematic in principle for a free to harm oneself because liberty liberal society of the kind advocated by consists in doing what one desires. As John Stuart Mill. Mill‟s anti-paternalism long as one is aware of the danger, seems to lead to some counterintuitive chooses autonomously and does not results, such as the legitimacy of volun- harm others in the process, one may do tary-slavery, which only inconsistency oneself harm. This seems to legitimise can avoid. I will try to show that, voluntary entry into a slavery-contract though Mill‟s argument against volun- as long as the choice to do so is one‟s tary-slavery is not successful, by devel- own, and the action does not genuinely oping a notion of „quasi-slavery‟ we can harm others. This is an intuitively trou- make his approach consistent. bling result because slavery is so con- Mill‟s anti-paternalism stems trary to most modern moral thinking. mainly from his belief that we should How can Mill consistently avoid this promote “utility in the largest outcome? sense” (Mill 1991, p15). For Mill, the Mill attempts an evasion by well-being of individuals and mankind claiming that “[i]t is not freedom, to involves each person‟s ability to flour- be allowed to alienate [one‟s] free- ish characterologically. This requires dom”. Selling oneself abdicates all fu- freedom with regard to one‟s choice of ture freedoms, and this defeats “the action. However, Mill recognises that very purpose which is the justification anarchistic freedom will be detrimental of allowing him to dispose of him- to overall utility. This leads him to self” (ibid, 114). This seems weak. If mitigate his anti-paternalism with the one is truly free to harm oneself as „harm principle‟: “[t]he sole end for long as one is aware of the dangers, which mankind are warranted, indi- surely all that is required for voluntary- vidually or collectively, in interfering slavery to be legitimate is that the with the liberty of action of any of wannabe-slave knows they will be their number, is ... to prevent harm to alienating their future freedom and others” (ibid, 14). The claim that lib- still chooses autonomously. erty is justifiable derivatively (from The argument against voluntary- utility) is not uncontroversial, but this slavery can be strengthened. Alan E. is not my concern here. It is (at least) Fuchs highlights that what is objection- not counterintuitive, and has the at- able is the irrevocable nature of the

7 Critique A Durham University Philosophical Society Publication Issue 3 Modern Art: The Difficulty for Aestheticians

Sam Crutchley Has the shift from Cezanne to conjuring trick! Therefore, do we con- The Cubist School constituted a direct clude that this represents the pristine break from our traditional conceptions vision of art that Hegel envisioned? It of the aesthetic? Have works by con- should be noted that we can still advo- temporaries such as Duchamp, Warhol cate a position where we are capable and Serrano volte-faced our precon- to appreciate this artwork aestheti- ceived notions of the ideas of the ugly cally, but we must realise that it will and the aesthetic? By using Serrano‟s be far more difficult to do so. Piss Christ as an exemplar, I shall show how aesthetic appreciation has become “(It) becomes clear that there is no a much more complicated pursuit. On special way a work of art must be – it the face of it, we see a Crucifix en- can be a Brillo box, or it can look like a closed in a vat of Andres Serrano‟s soup can.” (Danto, p35) urine; not exactly a masterpiece by Manet! Is this just a blatant, even puer- It seems that art no longer needs to ile misuse of artistic licence; perhaps conform to a particular philosophical or even the “ugly” side of art that should aesthetic mandate; it has been reduced be abandoned? There appears to be no to an ultimately subjective level aesthetic merit that we can glean from wherein the appreciators of art are at this; the artist‟s quest was to repulse, liberty to form their opinions totally and it appears that he has succeeded. irrespective of others‟ views. With re- We should conclude that this artwork is gards to Serrano‟s Piss Christ, I person- aesthetically deficient. Yet, one needs ally recognise the ugliness of its me- only to alter the boundaries slightly to dium: “piss”, the submerged Christ/ interpret Piss Christ as a legitimate, Crucifix, and the obvious intention to aesthetically meritorious work of art. shock the viewer – if we fail to ac- Hegel promotes art which is pristine knowledge these facts (especially the and free from the shackles of produc- latter), then I believe that it makes tion, free from conjuring tricks and – aesthetic appreciation difficult if not most importantly – represents the ulti- impossible. If you are appalled to the mate freedom of the artist. Through extent that you are denying yourself the medium of Piss Christ it is obvious access to the work due to Serrano‟s that Serrano is not inhibited by any impudence, then any form of aesthetic shackles of production and the fact appreciation, cognitive or otherwise, that he has had the audacity to pro- seems somewhat pointless. I don‟t par- duce such an artwork represents the ticularly think that I need to give an ultimate freedom bestowed upon him opinion as to whether or not I believe to do this. Furthermore, it is a crucifix that this artwork has any particular in a vat of piss; this is not exactly a aesthetic value; all I‟m intent on show-

16 Critique A Durham University Philosophical Society Publication Issue 3

Why Vegetarians Should Eat Meat... Nick Constantine

sume and buy only free range animal products. To not eat (or rather, not buy) meat is akin to not voting because the BNP field a candidate in an elec- tion. Anyone who feels that the suffering is morally unacceptable must buy meat that has been reared in a humane way (even if they do not then eat it). McMahan is right about the morality but wrong about the method. If de- mand were great enough, factory farm- ing would stop; no producer would be indifferent to cruelty if it were unprof- itable.

Nick Constantine is a first year physics undergraduate. Next year he hopes to switch to natural science.

15 Critique A Durham University Philosophical Society Publication Issue 3

Anti-Paternalism and Quasi-Slavery Stephen Ingram

act. It is possible that “the desires and promise. This is where „quasi-slavery‟ values of one or more of the parties comes in. A quasi-slave will live as [could] change significantly over time, though a slave, but can appeal to the such that ongoing arrangement is now state to free him if he can convincingly alien to their fundamental higher-order show that being a quasi-slave is no and settled interests” (Fuchs 2001, longer any part of his higher-order in- 244). This means that the slavery- terests. The state is not entitled to contract can no longer be considered to legislate against quasi-slavery, but is have been autonomously self-imposed, entitled to decide not to enforce quasi- because, for Fuchs, the non-revisability slavery-contracts. Quasi-slaves are of one‟s plan of life is inimical to therefore not absolutely alienated autonomy (ibid, 246). So, it does not from freedom, but can still abdicate seem problematically paternalistic to their freedom to act in every other prohibit voluntary-slavery, because the sense. I admit that this seems an odd decision to be enslaved can never be notion, but I think it is promising. made completely autonomously. It ap- Though it cannot apply to all problem pears to follow that the state should cases (quasi-prostitution seems a bit legislate against voluntary-slavery. far-fetched) it may lead us to a frame- However, it is not clear that this work through which we can deal with does follow. Derek Parfit has plausibly apparent inconsistencies for the harm argued that acting to protect a future principle. version of oneself is generally bad for The notion also faces another us because, for example, we would problem regarding contract law: why have less fear of growing old and dying would a wannabe-quasi-slave-owner (Parfit 1984, 174-177). If this is ac- enter into a contract whose enforce- cepted, it seems that we cannot legiti- ment was not guaranteed?1 I do not mately legislate against voluntary- think this problem is insoluble. We may slavery. Claiming that non-revisability legitimately allow some contractual implies lack of autonomy expresses a clause stipulating that quasi-slaves who bias towards the future that we would successfully appeal their quasi-slavery be better off shedding. A person whose must compensate the slave-owner in a desire to be enslaved is integral to way that is agreeable to the quasi-slave their higher-order interests should, -owner, fair to the former quasi-slave therefore, not be dismissed as lacking and does not cause harm to others. I autonomy. Yet it still seems immensely confess; no mean feat. But it is not, in counterintuitive to require the state to principle, impossible. enforce a contract if the slave does What I have said, I have said experience a radical shift in their roughly. However, I believe that the higher-order interests. notion of quasi-slavery could poten- Perhaps we should endure a com- tially give a plausible framework for

8 Critique A Durham University Philosophical Society Publication Issue 3

Anti-Paternalism and Quasi-Slavery Stephen Ingram

dealing with apparent inconsistencies in Mill‟s anti-paternalism. Whatever other objections we may have, Mill‟s liberalism cannot be dismissed as grossly counterintuitive.

Fuchs, Alan E. 2001. “Autonomy, Slav- ery and Mill‟s Critique of Paternalism”. Ethical Theory and Moral Practice 4, no. 3. pp 231-251.

Mill, John Stuart. On Liberty and Other Essays. (Oxford: Oxford University Press)

Parfit, Derek. Reasons and Persons. (Oxford: Oxford University Press) Stephen Ingram is a second year philosophy undergraduate. 1I am grateful to Holly Savage for em- phasising the importance of this objection to me

9 Critique A Durham University Philosophical Society Publication Issue 3

Why Vegetarians Should Eat Meat... Nick Constantine

We may wish happiness to considering creatures’ good as well as other creatures; a minimum of suffer- bad experiences. You are doing wrong ing; but life presents a series of choices not just by causing pain, but also by in which we tend to put ourselves (as not facilitating animals’ happiness! Us- humans) first. We value our own, hu- ing a CH methodology any conceivable man, interests much higher than those action could seem immoral. of animals. To be fair to McMahan, he Though I think there are some does accept a moral order of impor- problems with my argument, namely tance of animals. He draws a line, be- how to feasibly consider the negative low which the animals’ enjoyment of impact of the infinity of non-performed life is negligible or irrelevant, at simultaneous positive actions, I have a around shrimps and prawns. However pragmatic argument against vegetari- the “chimpanzee” example is meant to anism that I think is irrefutable. To show that my objection is relevant misquote the apocryphal proverb, “All even if CH is meant to apply only to it takes for evil to flourish is good men higher order creatures. to do nothing.” I see ethical vegetari- I believe the only distinct line ans in this light. Imagine everyone in that can be drawn is between persons the world were to reassess whether and non-persons. If a madman threat- they could continue to eat meat or not. ened to kill two cows or one human, Let’s also assume McMahan is correct in the authorities would tell him to kill his assertions. Thus, from his point of the cows (and think they had got off view, the ideal result is that everyone relatively lightly). If he had given the (well, maybe almost everyone) decides ultimatum but with two-hundred cows they will immediately become vegetari- the answer would be much the same. ans. Unfortunately even this, the best Though this example is rather crude, it possible outcome from McMahan’s point is indicative of the discretely superior of view, would not remove cruelty from moral importance of humans. It is why the meat industry. a simple addition of experiences be- The only people continuing to tween species in CH does not work. The eat meat (and fund the livestock indus- tangible consumption of the steak can- try) would be those to whom the suf- not be linearly subtracted from the fering of the animals is morally accept- hypothetical happiness of a cow in such able. Assuming the taste is not detri- a simple way with any coherent mean- mentally affected, which for the sake ing. of argument is completely reasonable, CH is not a viable way to make then all meat would become factory moral decisions with any recourse to farmed. I am as concerned as McMahan life. An action is detrimental to all spe- about the suffering caused to animals cies it does not bring net pleasure to. in the livestock industry, but I vote This arises because McMahan insists on with my feet. My prerogative is to con-

14 Critique A Durham University Philosophical Society Publication Issue 3

Why Vegetarians Should Eat Meat: A Refutation of the Philosophy Bites Podcast “Jeff McMahan on Vegetarianism” Nick Constantine Jeff McMahan is a vegetarian pleasure is negative therefore we purely on ethical grounds. He thinks should not do it. that the practice of raising livestock for I shall call McMahan’s method- food essentially necessitates cruelty. ology, somewhat facetiously, cumula- He also makes a novel point, the con- tive hedonism (CH). That is to say striv- sideration of any future enjoyment of ing to bring maximum happiness and life the animal might have had, which I minimal suffering to all animals have christened a “cumulative hedon- (including humans) over their full lives. ism” argument, that I shall outline and This is my generalisation of his equa- refute. I will then give a separate argu- tion for calculating the morality of ac- ment explaining why I believe all ethi- tions. I admit to being a bit cavalier cal vegetarians should eat meat. with how I have formulated CH, but McMahan acknowledges that it will give examples to refute more ro- might be possible to eat, for instance, bust versions of it. road kill, or free-range eggs that have If the “aim” of life (or just a not engendered any cruelty. He weighs good way to live) were to let as much up eating a piece of steak thus: happiness and as little suffering flourish in every species at once, one would Net pleasure = lead a very strange life. Imagine a cu- My enjoyment of the steak mulative hedonist, named Jaff, is hav- —Health problems from red meat, en- ing a picnic. He notices a stream of vironmental concerns, suffering at ants creeping out of the picnic basket, slaughter stage carrying away his (vegetarian) sand- —The future happiness the cow would wiches. Jaff should rejoice at his ethi- have enjoyed for the remaining years cal existence. Though he will “suffer” of its life slightly from temporary hunger, many thousands of ants will experience the He assumes that the creature pleasure of his sandwiches. Say the takes some small pleasure in fulfilling same cumulative hedonist later held a its needs, such as eating (just as I lentil flatbread up to take a bite, and a would from enjoying the steak), so chimpanzee charged past and grabbed ending its life early is a pleasure- it, he should once more be satisfied by negative act. This is the “future happi- his very ethical life. The chimpanzee ness” term. Factoring it in, he suggests would certainly be happy, but the CH the sum will be negative; more cruelty conclusion that Jaff would feel morally (pain) than happiness (pleasure) is in- fulfilled does not quite ring true in my volved in its consumption. The net ears.

13 Critique A Durham University Philosophical Society Publication Issue 3 Is Logic Applicable at the Quantum Level

Robert White Logic is one of the cornerstones result predicted through logic was in- of intellectual thought, allowing phi- consistent with later experimental evi- losophical, mathematical and physical dence. This leads to the question: is reasoning to be pursued in an effective logic applicable at the Quantum Me- manner. It has allowed thought experi- chanical scale? ments to be considered and inductively A brief summary of the EPR worked through in order to envisage thought experiment is as follows. The situations far too complicated for ex- EPR experiment considers a nucleus periment, and produce theories with which emits two photons (particles of testable predictions. One of the crown- light). Photons can either be polarised ing glories of this technique was the (i.e. they point in a certain direction) development of special and general up or down (A. Rae, pp. 17). Due to relativity by Albert Einstein. Whilst far- empirically tested laws of physics if the ing well on the scales we meet in eve- polarisation of one of the photons is ryday life, this method has fared less known the polarisation of the other can well on the scale of Quantum Mechan- be deduced. This would not be a prob- ics. lem in a system governed by Classical Quantum Mechanics is a physical Mechanics (the physical laws that gov- theory mainly dealing with interactions ern the macroscopic world). However, at very small scales (of the order of the in Quantum Mechanics the photons are size of atoms) and is one of the most not pointing in any direction until they empirically supported theories in the are measured (A. Rae, pp. 59); only history of physics. From modelling the after a measurement is made on them atom, to understanding the inner work- are they pointing in a set direction. ings of the sun, it is truly fundamental This means that a measurement on one in our understanding of the universe. photon causes the other photon to be The predictions of Quantum electrody- measured indirectly. As the property of namics (a branch of Quantum Mechan- polarisation was not predetermined it ics) give an error in their predictions of implies that one photon is interacting less than the width of a human hair, in with another. If this was done so that comparison with the distance from New faster than light transmission of infor- York to Los Angeles (J. Polkinghorne, mation was required, this would go pp. 40). Importantly Quantum Mechan- against Special Relativity (which again ics has never been shown to be incon- is an empirically tested theory). This sistent with experimental data. How- thought experiment seems to be a ever, in a seminal thought experiment strong argument against Quantum Me- devised by Einstein, Podolsk and Rosen chanics, as this interaction between (EPR), which used logic to show a con- the two particles is regarded as impos- tradiction in Quantum Mechanics, the sible. (J. S. Bell, 1964), (A. Einstein et

10 Critique A Durham University Philosophical Society Publication Issue 3

Is Logic Applicable at The Quantum Level? Robert White

al, 1935). to the inefficiency of the detectors The physicist John S. Bell devised used to measure the direction in which an experimental way of determining the photons are pointing. Therefore whether this communication (known as only a small subset, around 5% (G non-locality) took place (J. S. Bell, Weihs et al 1998) in the most recent 1964), which was subsequently tested experiments, of the photons is being in a lab when the technology became measured. This forces an experiment to available. The most recent experimen- assume that this subset is representa- tal data supported Quantum Mechanics tive of all the photons (A. Rae, pp. 45). and was inconsistent with the conclu- As there is no data on whether a pho- sions of the thought experiment, show- ton is more likely to be detected if it ing that the system displayed non- disobeys the expected Quantum Me- locality (A. Aspect 1999), (M.A. Rowe chanical prediction, this assumption et al 2001), (G Weihs et al 1998). looks premature (G Weihs et al 1998). As the logic used in the EPR ex- The macroscopic world at the periment is universally considered to level at which we interact with it be watertight, the results of the ex- agrees with logic as we understand it; periment suggest one of four things: this is supported by both our everyday there is a problem with Quantum Me- interaction with the world and more chanics; there is a problem with the scientifically through the results of assumptions made by Bell to make a thought experiments which rely on testable experiment; there is a prob- logic. As there is no understanding of lem with the experiments themselves; why logic would break down at smaller or there is a problem with the use of scales; the default position must be logic at the scales in question. As men- that logic holds until sufficiently strong tioned above, Quantum Mechanics is evidence is provided. incredibly successful at dealing with Although there is significant evi- this type of phenomena it is unlikely dence with which to attack inductive that this is the issue with Bell’s experi- logic at the Quantum Mechanical Scale, ment (J. Polkinghorne, pp. 40). The the experimental evidence is not yet assumptions made by Bell in the ex- strong enough and constitutes a signifi- periment have been under scrutiny for cant flaw in any attack. This leaves the 45 years and the assumptions are conclusion that logic is still applicable widely regarded to be valid by the at the Quantum Mechanical Scale. physics community (A. Rae, pp. 42). However, there are still issues with the experiments which leave flaw in this argument. Even the most recent experiments have one major flaw. This is due

11 Critique A Durham University Philosophical Society Publication Issue 3

Is Logic Applicable at The Quantum Level? Robert White

A. Aspect, Bell's inequality test: more ideal than ever, Nature, Vol.398, pp. 198-190, 1999

J. S. Bell, On the Einstein Podolsky Rosen Paradox, the Physics, Vol. 1, No. 3, pp. 195-200, 1964

A. Einstein et al, Can Quantum Me- chanical Description of Physical Reality Be Considered Complete? , Physical Review, Vol. 47, pp. 777-780, 1935

J. Polkinghorne, A Very Short Introduc- Robert White is a second year theoreti- tion to Quantum Theory cal physics undergraduate.

A. Rae, Quantum Physics: Illusion or Reality

M. A. Rowe et al, Experimental violation of a Bell’s Inequality with effi- cient detection, Nature, Vol. 409, pp. 791-794, 2001

G Weihs et al, Violation of Bell’s inequality under strict Einstein locality conditions, Physical Review, Vol. 81, pp. 5039-5043, 1998