American Samoa Subregion

Home , Hawaiian islands, Islet, Kawainui Marsh, Moku Manu, Sanderling

Hawaiian Islands Subregion

chain. Limited landmass, only 6,540 mi2 (16,939 km2), Description of the Subregion translates to limited land base for shorebirds. Add to this the mostly mountainous nature of the Main The Hawaiian Archipelago lies within the tropical Islands, and it becomes clear that there is little and subtropical North Pacific, and consists of 132 space for lowland wetlands and coastal strands. Thus islands, reefs, and shoals stretching 1,523 miles impacts on coastal habitats, used by shorebirds, are Hawaiian Islands (2,452 km) from the Island of Hawaiì at Latitude amplified. There is a distinct wet (windward) and dry 18˚ 54’ N to Kure Atoll at 28˚ 15’ N. There are (leeward) side to each island. Windward coasts and eight, large volcanic islands, collectively called the slopes have rainfall areas that can exceed 400 inches Main Islands (Figure 3, Appendix 3) and numerous (1,016 cm) per year, whereas leeward habitats can be associated rocks and islets. The Leewards, or quite arid with less than 10 inches (250 cm) per year. Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, comprise nine small islands/atolls extending from Nihoa to Kure. As a result of this inequity of precipitation, most of Hawaiì’s wetlands are located in river valleys and estuaries on the windward coasts of the Main Islands. There are exceptions. For example, Pearl Main Hawaiian Islands Harbor is located on Oàhu’s south (dry) coast. In addition, basaltic islands possess perched freshwater As one proceeds northwest along the chain from lenses in the porous rock, resulting in coastal springs the island of Hawaiì (also known as Big Island), and groundwater wetlands, even on the leeward the largest and youngest island, the islands become shores. The USFWS estimates the area of coastal progressively older. Niìhau, the oldest of the Main plain wetlands decreased by 31 percent between Islands, is privately owned. Until 1990, Kahoòlawe, 1780 and 1990, from 22,475 ac (9,095 ha) to 15,474 the smallest of the Main Islands, was used as a Navy ac (6,262 ha) (Dahl 1990). Approximately 70 percent bombing range. Access is restricted on both islands. of the remaining wetlands are overgrown with invasive plants and have altered surface and ground The Main Islands lie completely within the tropics hydrology (Shallenberger 1977). Many of and comprise 99 percent of the landmass of the

FIGURE 3. Hawaiian Islands Subregion

175˚ W 170˚ W 165˚ W 160˚ W 155˚ W

30˚ N

Kure Atoll

Midway Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Atoll Pearl and Hermes Reef

Laysan Island Lisianski Island Maro Reef

25˚ N Gardner Pinnacles

Necker French Frigate Island M Shoals ain Hawaiian Islands Nihoa Island Kaua'i

O'ahu

Ni'ihau Moloka'i Maui Lana'i Kaho'olawe 20˚ N

Hawai'i

Miles 0 200

Hawaiian Islands Subregion 19 Hawai`i’s largest wetlands have been protected (Kure, Midway, Pearl and Hermes, French Frigate by State and Federal agencies as sanctuaries and Shoals) have fringing coral reefs and interior lagoons refuges. However, protection of the remaining that are open to the ocean. Laysan Island has a areas, restoration, and active management are high closed lagoon (technically a lake) that is hypersaline, priorities. and the only natural wetland in the leeward islands. Historically Midway, Kure, and French Frigate In contrast to the loss of wetlands, grassland Shoals were operated as military installations and habitats on the Main Islands have increased since consequently have been highly altered. All have human colonization. Much of this increase was at runways and permanent buildings. Midway, with the

the expense of native forests, which were cleared longest history of human occupation, has a well- Hawaiian Islands and converted for agriculture, pastures, and human developed, non-native ironwood forest (Casuarina dwellings. Large ranches, especially on the islands equisetifolia). Midway Naval Air Station closed of Hawaiì and Maui, provide extensive areas of non- in 1996, and the Coast Guard Loran Stations on grazed and grazed grasslands. Grassland acreage on Kure and French Frigate Shoals were closed in these islands has declined over the past thirty years, 1991 and 1979, respectively. Today, all are protected due to shifts in land values and crop economics, and as National Wildlife Refuges or State Wildlife Hawaiian Islands development for an expanding human population Sanctuaries and public access is restricted and (Table 3). The Island of Hawaiì accounts for over 55 controlled by permit. USFWS maintains a small percent of the total farm acreage, mostly as pasture, permanent staff at Midway and French Frigate and Maui accounts for an additional 20 percent, Shoals and a private contractor maintains staff at mostly as diversified agriculture (Morgan 1983, Midway Atoll to support the airfield. State of Hawaiì 1999). Increasing human population has resulted in Shorebird Habitat Use increased amounts of non-agricultural grasslands in the form of parks, golf courses, cemeteries, and lawns. The majority of this habitat type is privately Wetlands, estuaries, tidal flats, grasslands, and owned or owned by city, county or State agencies uplands are the most important habitats for and managed for uses other than wildlife. However, migrant and resident shorebirds. Wetlands and tidal these parklands are widely used by golden-plovers, flats support the highest diversity and density of and to a lesser degree other shorebirds. shorebirds. Grasslands and beaches are important for two priority species, Pacific Golden-Plover and Bristle-thighed Curlew. Historical notes highlight the importance of tidal flats for migrant shorebirds The Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Perkins 1903, Munro 1945, Cogswell 1945). Tidal flats of Pearl Harbor were especially important These small islands are in stark contrast to the through at least the late 1950s (R. L. Pyle pers. Main Islands. In general, they are highly eroded, comm.). In 1945, surveys in Pearl Harbor yielded low sand islands and atolls that support extensive over 1,600 shorebirds (Cogswell 1945, Table 4). Most coastal strands and reefs relative to their landmass. are now overgrown with introduced mangroves. Nihoa and Necker (the youngest) are small, steep rocky islands supporting only tiny sand beaches. During high tide, golden-plovers that are utilizing Gardner and La Perouse pinnacles are also rocky tidal flats move inland, but readily return to tidal outcroppings. Sandy beaches and bunchgrass flats at low tide. Today, high numbers of golden- dunes are the dominant habitat on the remaining plovers can be found on Oàhu in Kewalo Basin, Northwestern Islands. These islands support a low Pearl Harbor, the southeastern shore from Diamond diversity of plants, mostly herbaceous species and Head to Koko Head, and on Molokaì’s south small shrubs and trees. By definition, the atolls shore (SIGHTINGS Database, Audubon Society

TABLE 3. ��

��

�� 2,300 (932) 1,340 (543) 526 (213) �� 1,970 (798) 1,150 (466) 420 (170) �� 1,720 (625) 1,010 (412) 290 (118) �� 1,440 (588) 870 (355) 290 (118) �� 37% 35% 45%

��

20 U.S. Pacific Islands Shorebird Conservation Plan Hawaiian Islands Subregion 21 Christmas Counts, A. Engilis, Jr. unpub. data). TABLE 4. Summary of Birds Counted (mean) on Pearl Ephemeral playas and alkali wetlands also support Harbor Tidal Flats September - December 1945 large numbers of shorebirds, and are next in (Cogswell 1945) importance for diversity and abundance. Kealia �� Pond, during fall migration (August through October), supports over 1,000 golden-plovers and �� 583 14 species of shorebirds (USFWS unpubl. data). �� 585 The small hypersaline lagoon on Laysan regularly supports over 4,000 shorebirds (Ely and Clapp �� 35

1973). Most other playas in the State have become �� 1 Hawaiian Islands overgrown with pickleweed and fleabane and are �� 251 not used by shorebirds. Aerial surveys (DOFAW winter waterbird survey records) indicate Niìhau’s �� 163 playas are important for shorebirds. However, �� 1,618 ground surveys are needed to more accurately assess shorebird abundance and diversity. The last Hawaiian Islands reported ground survey, in 1939, provide only a glimpse of the potential of these ephemeral playas. This pattern of dependence and loss of habitat Wetland complexes comprised of wildlife refuges has occurred numerous times in the past 15-20 and aquaculture facilities (involving playas, seasonal, years with the collapse of the sugar cane industry semipermanent and permanent ponds, aquaculture, (resulting in the loss of reservoirs and wastewater and cane waste ponds) historically supported ponds) and fluctuations of the heavily subsidized numerous birds; particularly on Oàhu’s North mariculture (shrimp) industry. Data from Hawaiì’s Shore from Kahuku to Wailua (Figure 4). Peak Kona Coast verifies this over-dependence on waste shorebird numbers, in diversity and population are ponds and aquaculture (Figure 5). Reservoirs in the middle of the fall migration (Oct. – Nov.). are widely used by shorebirds, particularly when drawn down (Shallenberger 1977). Kauaì and Maui Many managed water projects in the Main Islands support the largest concentration of reservoirs, all have become important habitat for shorebirds of which are now being lost due to the collapse of the and the scant data available is summarized for the cane industry. Waipiò Peninsula in Pearl Harbor first time in this plan. Indeed some of the highest was used by the Oàhu Sugar Company as a site for concentrations of shorebirds can be seen at the disposal of cane water. Several ponds were created State’s aquaculture farms. However, the endemic that were managed to catch water and sludge. These Hawaiian Stilt as well as migratory shorebirds, ponds were the most popular sites in the State become dependent upon these managed sites for bird watchers because of the high numbers of and when economic pressures result in closure, shorebirds (both diversity and density). The ponds the ponds are abandoned and allowed to dry. dwindled in numbers as production curtailed in the

FIGURE 4. Shorebird Counts on wetland complexes of O`ahu’s Kahuku Plain (A. Engilis 1988, unpubl. data)

Pacific Golden-Plover 900 Ruddy Turnstone 800 Totals 700 600 500 400 300 Birds Counted Birds 200 100 0

8 8 88 88 88 88 98 98 /1988 /1988 19 19 19 /1988 /1988 19 /8/1 2/ 9/ 2 /3/1 /15/ /2 /2 /26/ 9/10 9/17 9/24/1988 10/1/1988 10 11/5 1 12 10 10 10 11/1 11/19/19881

20 U.S. Pacific Islands Shorebird Conservation Plan Hawaiian Islands Subregion 21 mid-1980s and then were lost entirely when the mill need only look at the small facility on L naì as an went under in the early 1990s. During that time example. L naì is a dry island and up until 1989 shorebird numbers declined at Waipiò (Figure 6). did not support native waterbirds. This changed with the opening of the L naì City oxidation ponds. As elsewhere in North America, wastewater Pioneering Hawaiian Stilts quickly found this facility treatment ponds attract large numbers of and are now nesting on L naì. Surveys of the shorebirds. Normally these would not be mentioned ponds in 1999 yielded seven species of shorebirds in a plan of this nature, but with limited wetlands, in small numbers (A. Engilis, Jr. pers. obs.). As their mere presence has altered patterns of bird use. long as these managed ponds exist, they will be an

In some cases they represent the only “wetlands” important resource for Hawaiian Stilt and migratory Hawaiian Islands on an island or a particular region of an island. One shorebirds.

FIGURE 5. Hawaiian Stilts in Aquaculture and Waste Ponds vs. Natural Wetlands, Kona Coast, Hawai`i (Ducks Unlimited 2002) Hawaiian Islands

300 Waste Ponds/Industry Natural Wetlands 250

200

150

100

Number Hawaiian Number StiltsHawaiian 50

0 8/21/1997 2/21/1998 5/21/1998 8/21/1998 2/21/1999 5/21/1999 8/21/1999 2/21/2000 5/21/2000 8/21/2000 2/21/2001 5/21/2001 11/21/1997 11/21/1998 11/21/1999 11/21/2000

FIGURE 6. Shorebird Decline Since the Collapse of the O`ahu Sugar Mill in Early 1990s(Source: NAS 2000, 2001)

1200

1000

800

600

Total Birds Total 400

200

0 77 78 79 80 81 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 97 98 99 Year

22 U.S. Pacific Islands Shorebird Conservation Plan Hawaiian Islands Subregion 23 The beaches, bunch grasslands, and sparse Turnstone, Wandering Tattler, and Sanderling. shrublands of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands support a surprising number of shorebirds (Amerson, Jr. 1971, Woodward 1972, Ely and Ni`ihau Clapp 1973). Ample food, seclusion from human disturbance, and predator-free conditions are As mentioned earlier, the ephemeral wetlands ideal for wintering species. Historically, beaches on Ni`ihau, are among the most important for on the Main Islands no doubt provided important migratory and endemic shorebirds in the Hawaiian shorebird habitat, and still do, to a limited degree. Islands (Munro 1940, T. Telfer pers. comm.). State

Unfortunately most of the Main Island’s beaches are waterbird surveys have documented large numbers Hawaiian Islands key components to the tourist industry and human of Hawaiian Stilt (perhaps as many as 50 percent disturbance is high. A few secluded or protected of the world population) nesting and foraging on beaches do provide limited habitat for shorebirds Niìhau during wet years (Engilis and Pratt 1993). (e.g. on L naì, Kauaì’s Na Pali Coast, and Kaena Three playas, when flooded, provide 1,900 ac (770 ha) and Kahuku points, Oàhu). of shallow basins. These are privately owned (as is the entire island). Little is known about importance Hawaiian Islands The final habitat type used by shorebirds is of the upland habitats and beaches on Niìhau for grassland. These vary from urban parks and golf shorebirds. Munro (1940) mentions Bristle-thighed courses to large grazed pastures on the Island of Curlews present in November 1939 but did not Hawaiì. These habitats support a large number directly associate them to habitat. Understanding of golden-plovers, as well as a few turnstones, and the role of Niìhau’s habitats for shorebirds remains Hawaiian Stilts (lowlands only). There are no data to a high priority in the Hawaiian Islands for recovery quantify the importance of upland pastures, but field of endangered waterbirds (Ducks Unlimited 1998, observations during the past decade indicate they USFWS 1999). Niìhau has not been surveyed by are important for golden-plovers (A. Engilis, Jr. and ground since 1939 so numbers and trends are poorly K. Uyehara pers. obs.). documented.

Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Kaua`i

Laysan Lagoon (735 ac [300-ha]) is a closed system Kauaì is the wettest of the archipelago’s Main that undergoes seasonal fluctuations in both depth Islands and supports the highest number of and salinity. Brine flies and shrimp are abundant and wetlands. Unfortunately many of the larger sites provide an excellent food source for shorebirds. The have been drained for agriculture. The 5,000- lagoon along with adjacent sandy beaches provides ac (2,024 ha) Mana Marsh was once the largest important habitat for Pacific Golden-Plover, Bristle- wetland in the islands but was drained in 1923 for thighed Curlew, and Ruddy Turnstone. Numbers sugar cane. Other coastal wetlands on Kauaì were exceeding 5,000 shorebirds are regularly counted altered due to extensive hydrologic changes (e.g., during winter months (USFWS unpubl. records, reservoirs for sugar cane and flood control). The NAS 2000, 2001, Ely and Clapp 1973). Another remaining wetlands on Kauaì are mostly overgrown closed system is located on Spit Island, Midway with exotic vegetation and provide little habitat Atoll. Smaller numbers of turnstone and tattlers for shorebirds. Aquaculture is widespread and the winter there (A. Engilis pers. obs). An artificial extensive taro fields of the Hanalei River Valley and water catchment on Midway Atoll also provides smaller fields in other valleys (Lumahai, Waimea, some wetland habitat for migrant shorebirds. Huleià) support many shorebirds (Hawaiian Stilt, golden-plovers, turnstones, Calidris sandpipers). The most significant shorebird habitat in the Kauaì used to support several sugar cane effluent Northwestern Hawaiian Islands is the secluded, ponds, most of which have become recently inactive. uninhabited beaches and associated dry grasslands. These ponds, when active, supported numerous The most extensive areas of this habitat type are shorebirds; primarily turnstones, tattlers, golden- on Kure, Midway, Pearl and Hermes, Lisianski, plovers, and Hawaiian Stilt (SIGHTINGS). The Laysan, and French Frigate Shoals. Fringing reefs most common shorebird on Kauaì is the Pacific also occur in association with the islands and support Golden-Plover. It occurs in numerous habitats from a few shorebirds, but are virtually unexplored coastal beaches up to the Alakai Swamp at 4,000 and unsurveyed. The high counts of shorebirds feet (1,219 m). There are no estuaries or playas on Christmas counts of Laysan and Midway show of significance for shorebirds on Kauaì. USFWS the importance of these islands (and habitats) for manages two refuges for waterbirds on Kauaì migratory shorebirds. These remote island habitats, (Hanalei and Huleià NWRs) and the State has two particularly bunchgrass, are critical for Bristle- small reserves on the Mana Plain. A few Hawaiian thighed Curlew (especially when they are flightless Stilt breed at refuges and during molt) (Marks et al. 2002), but also support large numbers of Pacific Golden-Plover, Ruddy

22 U.S. Pacific Islands Shorebird Conservation Plan Hawaiian Islands Subregion 23 State wildlife areas such as Hanalei and Huleìa include Paiko Lagoon, Kaneohe Bay, Kewalo Basin, NWRs when conditions are suitable. and the series of ponds at Nuùpia (Kaneohe Marine Corps Station Hawaiì). All are used by flocks of Most of Kauaì’s uplands are forested and steep, shorebirds for foraging at low tide, but mangroves harboring only remnant patches of open grasslands have overgrown most flats and threaten others. and some bogs. Although golden-plovers can occur Mangroves have been effectively removed from in these, they represent a small fraction of birds Nuùpia Ponds with positive benefits to shorebirds on the island. Lowland grasslands are associated (Drigot 2001). with agricultural fields. The collapse of the sugar

cane industry in Kauaì jeopardizes much of the Most of the freshwater, ephemeral and managed Hawaiian Islands remaining agricultural lands, which has declined in wetlands on the windward and north shores of acreage nearly 30 percent since 1970 (Morgan 1983, Oàhu are protected but exist in a degraded state State of Hawaiì 1999). Much of this land is slated (Kawainui Marsh, Heèia Marsh, Kaèle`pulu for urban development. In addition, pastures in some Pond). Only the main complex of ponds at James of the river valleys, e.g., Hanalei and Wailua rivers, Campbell NWR in Kahuku is widely used by support migrant shorebirds, if they are grazed. shorebirds. Several playas exist on State land at Hawaiian Islands Kauaì has extensive golf courses and small parks Kahuku Point; most are overgrown by invasive that support numerous golden-plovers, but few other plants. Historically, one of Hawaiì’s largest wetland shorebirds. complexes was Waikiki. It was drained in the early 1920s paving the way for the development The more extensive beaches have resorts and parks of Honolulu. Another critical wetland drained in and thus, support few shorebirds. the 1950s was Kaèle`pulu Wetland in the town of Kailua. The USFWS manages two refuges for waterbirds on Oàhu, James Campbell and Pearl Oàhu Harbor NWRs. The State of Hawaiì manages four refuges, Hamakua, Kawainui and Heèia marshes Oàhu is perhaps the most diverse island in the and Paiko Lagoon. The U.S. Marine Corps manages chain in regards to shorebird habitat, with excellent Nuùpia Pond, one of three critical sites for nesting tidal flats, estuaries, playas, ephemeral and Hawaiian Stilt (Drigot 2001). Other smaller outlets permanent marshes, managed wetlands, and urban and estuaries, such as Kaiaka Bay, Opaeula, and grasslands. However, many of the largest wetland Poamoho support small numbers of shorebirds. and lowland sites have now been urbanized. Pearl Harbor, the largest estuary in the Pacific Islands, Oàhu’s historic shorebird habitats are mostly is heavily developed and industrialized. West Loch urbanized, but part of this development has been is the least developed portion of Pearl Harbor, but the creation of extensive mowed grass parks, golf red mangroves (Rhizophora mangle), an invasive courses, and lawns that support a surprising number species, have overgrown most of the mudflats of golden-plovers (Johnson and Johnson 1993). In historically used by shorebirds. Prior to mangroves, addition, urban Oàhu rooftops provide important West Loch was heavily used by migratory shorebirds roosts for golden-plovers (Johnson and Nakamura for foraging during low tide (Cogswell 1945, R. 1981). Grasslands associated with dunes (Kahuku L. Pyle, pers. comm.). Other important tidal flats and Kaena points) provide habitat for golden-plovers and Bristle-thighed Curlews. At times curlews have been observed on North Shore Golf Courses

Waikiki circa 1920 and 1990. One of Hawai`i’s largest wetland reclamation projects.

Photo by: Bishop Museum Photo Archives. Photo by A.J. McCafferty.

24 U.S. Pacific Islands Shorebird Conservation Plan Hawaiian Islands Subregion 25 (SIGHTINGS Database, A. Engilis, Jr. pers. obs.). Most of Maui’s beaches and dunes have been Lowland grasslands are generally associated with developed or degraded due to human alterations. agricultural fields, as fallow fields in crop rotation. Volcanic benches on Maui are exposed during low The collapse of the sugar cane industry in Hawai`i tides and are used by tattler, turnstone, golden- jeopardizes many of the agricultural lands that plover, and Hawaiian Stilt. Tattler, turnstone, and are now slated for urban development. These cane Sanderling sometimes use the beach fronting Kealia lands provided open space buffers for wildlife areas, Pond. Maui’s grasslands are diverse, ranging from minimizing human disturbance to shorebirds and golf courses to mid-altitude pasture, 3,000 to 6,000 native waterbirds. feet (914 - 1,829 m) up Haleakala’s slopes. Golden-

plovers commonly use these grasslands throughout Hawaiian Islands Some fringe coral reefs are exposed at low tides the winter. (Paiko Lagoon and North Shore of Oàhu) and frequented by golden-plovers, turnstones, tattlers, Molokaì’s shorebird habitats are located principally and Hawaiian Stilts. Oàhu’s windward shore is in wetlands and playas along the southern coast. dotted with several small islets and exposed rocks. Most are degraded and have lost their wetland These are important night roosts for migrant function, but the Palaàu Flats comprise a 6-mile Hawaiian Islands shorebirds that forage on the main island during (11 km) long stretch of coastal wetlands which, when the day (A. Engilis, Jr. pers. obs.). Oàhu’s offshore flooded, are some of the most diverse in the islands islets (e.g. Moku Manu and Manana) are protected as (Table 5). Palaàu Flats was recently identified as seabird sanctuaries by the State of Hawaiì. an overwintering site for Bristle-thighed Curlew (A. J. McCafferty and A. Engilis, Jr. pers obs). Active restoration at several sites on the Palaàu Flats Maui Nui has provided excellent habitat for large numbers of shorebirds, including Hawaiian Stilt (Ducks Maui Nui comprises the four islands of Maui, Unlimited 1996). At the Ohiapilo Wetland restoration Molokaì, L naì, and Kahoòlawe. Kahoòlawe is project Hawaiian Stilt production went from zero the driest and smallest island of Maui Nui. L naì is successful nesting prior to restoration, to 20 - 30 also a dry island and contains no natural wetlands. stilts fledged per year after restoration (K. Uyehara Maui is a relatively young island and consequently pers comm.). does not possess the diversity of wetlands seen on Oàhu, despite its larger size. The windward slope Moòmomi Dunes are remote and support a few of Haleakala creates high rainfall, but there are curlews and golden-plovers. Molokaì has large limited coastal flats to support wetlands. The main stretches of undeveloped dunes and coastal flats, but wetlands of Maui are located in the valley between their importance remains unquantified. Mangrove Haleakala and West Maui. Kealia Pond, 740 ac (300 invasion along the south shore has jeopardized most ha), is the largest wetland on Maui, and remains of these coastal flats. Grasslands are uncommon one of the most important sites in the Pacific for but some agricultural fields support golden-plovers. migratory shorebirds. It is part of Kealia Pond NWR There are few parks or golf courses, and the latter and is a prime example of a coastal alkali marsh. are concentrated on Molokaì’s west shore. They Human modifications to the outlet have altered provide for a minimal number of golden-plovers. the hydrology and Refuge staff must now manage draining of the pond. These draw downs remain L naì has no natural wetlands, but the wastewater a critical management action needed to initiate treatment ponds now support a small number of nesting by Hawaiian Stilt and provide foraging shorebirds. Parks of L naì City, golf courses, and habitat for stilts and migrant shorebirds. In early fallow agricultural lands provide habitat for golden- fall when small amounts of water sheet across this plovers. Coastal beaches are frequented by only a unvegetated pond, thousands of shorebirds can few shorebirds. occur comprising as many as 14 species (plovers, turnstones, stilt, tattlers, Calidris sandpipers, Kahoòlawe is the driest of the Main Islands, dowitchers) (M. Nishimoto, USFWS pers. comm.). however small ephemeral playas exist in the Nearly 50 percent of the world’s population of craters in normal and wet years. Lua Keàliàlalo Hawaiian Stilt use Kealia during this period is the largest one at 2 ha (4 acres) (P. Higashino, (USFWS 1999). Numerous ephemeral basins occur pers comm.). Both Pacific Golden-Plover and in Kihei and along West Maui’s southern shore, but Black-bellied Plover have been recorded at this most have been destroyed by development. Kanaha site in past years (R.E. David pers. comm.). Open Pond, a deep-water habitat with some ephemeral space and the few beaches of the island support habitat, is a State waterbird sanctuary surrounded only a few shorebirds. There is a potential for by development on all sides. Despite this, the habitat restoration on Kahoòlawe, and introduced ephemeral basins are an important shorebird mammals are currently being eradicated. The latter resource. Another small wetland, important for action could prove important for wintering curlews. Hawaiian Stilt, is Nuù Pond on Haleakala’s southeast coast (USFWS 1999).

24 U.S. Pacific Islands Shorebird Conservation Plan Hawaiian Islands Subregion 25 ��

��

�� Hawaiian Islands

��

Hawaiian Islands ��

Hawaiì greater than 60 inches (152 cm) of rainfall per year, are regularly grazed, and have fairly flat topography Hawaiì is the youngest and largest of the Main (A. Engilis, Jr. pers. obs). An example is the pastures Islands, and its wetlands are associated with the of the Kehena region of windward Kohala. These perched groundwater lenses along the Kona Coast become increasingly wet as you proceed towards and, to a lesser degree, several ponds along the the summit ridge. At the 60 inch isocline, pastures windward coast. A few small lagoons occur as well. remain wet and sedges and other wetland indicators Two of the most important wetlands Àimakapa are common plants. In these zones flocks of up to and Opaeùla, are found on the Kona Coast. These 75 golden-plovers are recorded (K. Uyehara pers. two wetlands and several smaller ponds provide obs). Lowland pastures also provide habitat for the only natural habitat for nesting Hawaiian Stilts golden-plovers and turnstones, and are also used on the island. Migratory shorebirds also use these sparingly by Bristle-thighed Curlews (e.g., pastures wetlands. Windward coastal wetlands are deeper on Hawaiì’s South Point). and heavily overgrown with emergent vegetation and provide limited habitat for shorebirds. The Kona Wastewater Treatment Plant and Cyanotech Shorebird Species aquaculture facility are heavily used by stilts, golden-plovers, turnstones, tattlers, and Calidris Forty-seven species of shorebirds have been sandpipers (Ducks Unlimited 2002) recorded in the Hawaiian Islands (Appendix 4). These can be grouped into three categories – resident, Hawaiì has large tracts of short-grass pastures, winter visitors, and migrants. The Hawaiian the most extensive in the Pacific. These pastures are Islands are of primary importance, for four species: widely used by Pacific Golden-Plovers and Ruddy Hawaiian Stilt, Pacific Golden-Plover, Bristle- Turnstones. They range from sea level to 8,000 feet thighed Curlew, and Wandering Tattler. Only the (0 – 2,440 m) elevation on Hawaiì’s mountains: Hawaiian Stilt is resident (and endemic). Other Kohala, Mauna Kea, Mauna Loa, and Hualalai. The common winter visitors include Ruddy Turnstone most important are those of windward Kohala and and Sanderling. Winter visitors that occur annually Mauna Kea (K.Uyehara pers obs.). Typically the in small numbers include Black-bellied Plover, best pastures for shorebirds are those that receive Lesser Yellowlegs, Least Sandpiper, Pectoral Sandpiper, Sharp-tailed Sandpiper, Dunlin, and Long-billed Dowitcher. The remaining species are irregular or accidental. Pacific Golden-Plovers use the widest range of habitats and can be seen from sea level to 13,000 feet (3,960 m). They are most common in uplands, parks, pastures, and open wetlands. Ruddy Turnstones utilize high elevation

26 U.S. Pacific Islands Shorebird Conservation Plan Hawaiian Islands Subregion 27 pastures, isolated beaches, flats and park lawns. are implemented. Suggestions for strengthening �� Sanderlings are most faithful to mudflats, beaches, the Statewide survey are listed in monitoring and open marshes. Bristle-thighed Curlews prefer recommendations, below. In addition, the State of �� undisturbed, predator-free habitats and most over- Hawaiì is working with the USFWS, the Hawaiì winter on secluded islands, beaches, and dunes. Natural Heritage Program, Tufts University, and �� Small numbers winter on the Main Islands where the University of Hawaiì, Manoa to compile all �� dogs are controlled, or water is available for escape. data from State waterbird counts and analyze them using a GIS based framework. This data will provide �� The Hawaiian Stilt is endangered, but at present a valuable means of assessing population status �� the population is relatively stable, at low numbers. and trend for Hawaiian Stilt and other wetland Hawaiian Islands associated shorebirds in the State. �� Limiting factors include habitat loss, predation by non-native vertebrates (e.g., mongoose, cattle egrets, �� and bullfrogs) and habitat degradation. Stilt share habitat with three other endangered waterbirds, �� Hawaiian Subregional Population Goals Hawaiian Coot (Fulica alai), Hawaiian Moorhen

Hawaiian Islands �� (Gallinula chloropus sandvicensis), and Hawaiian Duck (Anas wyvilliana) and a draft recovery plan - Support recovery actions in the Hawaiian for these four Hawaiian waterbirds provides detailed Waterbird Recovery Plan (USFWS in prep.). information and recovery actions for this species Increase populations of Hawaiian Stilt to levels (USFWS 1999, USFWS in prep.). The Hawaiian identified in the Recovery Plan for delisting and Stilt is coastal in its distribution and it is found on all ensure multiple viable breeding populations on the Main Islands except Kahoòlawe. Inter-island Kauai/Nihau, Oàhu, Maui/Molakaì/L naì and movements are common on a seasonal and perhaps Hawaiì even daily pattern (Reed et al. 1998). As with other recurvirostrids, the Hawaiian Stilt is a bird of open, - Protect and enhance populations of Bristle- early succession marshes and mudflats. Ephemeral thighed Curlews wintering in the Main Islands wetlands, managed wetlands, and coastal playas are and maintain increasing or stable populations in important habitats. the NWHI Islands

No comprehensive surveys of the entire archipelago - Maintain or enhance populations of priority are available to assess the status of migratory shorebirds species shorebirds in Hawaiì. Various surveys of specific habitats or individual islands are available but the - Accurately assess the population size and trends trends indicated by these incomplete surveys are of over-wintering and migrating Pacific Golden- often contradictory. Engilis (1988) examined the Plovers, Bristle-thighed Curlews, and Wandering Statewide waterbird surveys for trend data for a Tattlers and coordinate with Alaska to develop period of ten years and found the data set too limited quantitative population goals to assess shorebird population trends (other than stilt). Other data sets include Audubon Christmas Bird Counts, field counts by agency biologists and Hawaiian Subregional Habitat Status, birders, regular surveys of wildlife refuges (e.g., Threats and Management Goals Kealia Pond NWR, Hanalei NWR, Hamakua Marsh Wildlife Sanctuary), surveys for wetland restoration The following are specific recommendations for the projects (e.g. Ducks Unlimited), and Oàhu golf Hawaiian Subregion. course surveys for golden-plovers (Johnson and Johnson 1993). Audubon Christmas count data Tidal Flats and Estuaries provided the most comprehensive coverage of shorebird habitats, but these were also limited by The primary threats to this habitat are the spread years of coverage. For Pacific Golden-Plover, these of red mangrove and contaminants. Restoration data suggest an increase in the islands since the through eradication of mangrove, followed by 1940s. A significant action occurring at the beginning maintenance has met with success in the Nuùpia of the count (early 1940s) was the curtailment Pond complex, Oàhu (Drigot 2001), but if of golden-plover hunting in the islands in 1941 maintenance does not follow removal, the flats (Schwartz and Schwartz 1949). quickly become overgrown again as in the West Loch Project, Pearl Harbor (A. Engilis, Jr. pers. obs.). The Statewide Waterbird Survey could provide Pearl Harbor has experienced countless fuel and a valuable data set once efforts to standardize chemical spills over the past half century and more protocol and enhance counts to cover shorebirds can be expected in the future. Four hazardous

26 U.S. Pacific Islands Shorebird Conservation Plan Hawaiian Islands Subregion 27 waste sites at Pearl Harbor Naval Base have been identified by the U. S. Environmental Protection - Protect and restore degraded playa wetlands such Agency (EPA) as superfund National Priorities. as Mana Plains (Kauaì), Palaàu Flats (Molokaì), The Navy has identified 31 potential hazardous Kealia and Kihei wetlands (Maui) and Kahuku sources in Pearl Harbor alone. Hawaiì’s estuaries Point (Oàhu) are also impacted by non-point source pollution and sedimentation of flats has accelerated as a result of - Eradicate/control exotic plants (e.g., pickleweed land use in the watershed (USFWS 1996). Thus as a and fleabane) and restore the natural hydrology to wetland habitat type, tidal flats are among the most playa wetlands

degraded in the Islands. Hawaiian Islands - Work with landowners and the local communities - Remove and control mangrove encroachment in to survey and assess the Niìhau playas, and tidal flats specifically in West Loch of Pearl develop management strategies as needed Harbor, Kaneohe Bay, Kewalo Basin, Molokaì’s south shore, and in smaller impacted areas on all - Work with private landowners to restore and islands manage wetlands through cooperative and Hawaiian Islands incentive programs (WRP, WHIP, PIF, NAWCA) - Continue mangrove control at Nuùpia Pond complex Permanent, Semi-permanent Wetlands - Protect remaining habitat from development and fille.g. , Kewalo Basin, Pearl Harbor, Kaneohe Bay, Coastal permanent and semi-permanent wetlands and other estuarine systems are used with less frequency by shorebirds than coastal strands, tidal flats, ephemeral wetlands, - Monitor habitats and shorebirds for contaminants and playas. Most are also hydologically linked to and coordinate with response teams for clean-up montane watersheds. They suffer the same threats of hazardous spills as ephemeral wetlands, overgrowth with invasive plants, and loss to urban encroachment. Most of the large, remaining wetlands in Hawaiì are Playas and Ephemeral Basins protected by agencies but most have limited value to shorebirds due to poor habitat quality. Habitat The protection, restoration, and management of restoration, vegetative clearing, and long-term playa wetlands in the Hawaiian Islands is deemed management are required on these wetlands. The crucial for the recovery of Hawaiian Stilt and reader is referred to the Hawaiian Endangered maintenance of migratory shorebird populations Waterbirds Recovery Plan (USFWS 1999) for (USFWS 1999). Major playas are still functional on detailed needs and actions related to Hawaiì’s Niìhau, Oàhu, Maui, and Molokaì. On all islands, wetlands. the main threat to playas has been the introduction of pickleweed and Indian fleabane. These aggressive plants have completely covered most coastal Managed Water Projects (primary purpose is not playas resulting in increased rates of siltation and wildlife related) accretion. In addition, accelerated sedimentation resulting from poor management of upland Managed water projects, whose primary purpose agricultural and ranch lands has heavily impacted is not related to wildlife (e.g. taro, lotus, shrimp), playas (particularly on Oàhu and Molokaì). The include aquaculture, wastewater ponds, recreation largest protected playa is Kealia Pond, but fleabane areas, irrigation reservoirs, etc. These cultivated and pickleweed continue to encroach on the site. wetlands are most common on Kauaì, Oàhu, Annual drawdowns of Kealia Pond have created Molokaì, Maui, and Hawaiì. Cultivated wetlands problems with the local community due to the stench are transient, in relation to long-term efforts to of dead fish, midge Chironamidae( ) blooms, and conserving habitats and maintaining populations of blowing dust (a natural deflation event characteristic shorebirds. However, birds do become dependent of coastal playas), but this management action is upon them and local populations of Hawaiian critical for Hawaiian Stilt and migratory shorebirds. Stilt and migratory shorebirds can be impacted Wetland management should continue to investigate if the practices are abandoned due to economic the manipulation of native and naturalized/exotic pressures, (e.g., collapse of the sugar cane industry vegetation (moist-soil management) that provides in Hawaiì). Minimizing dependence on cultivated important habitat for nesting, foraging, brooding, wetlands must be made a priority by agencies as loafing, thermal/escape cover as well as minimizes part of the recovery actions needed for endangered impacts from human disturbance.

28 U.S. Pacific Islands Shorebird Conservation Plan Hawaiian Islands Subregion 29 - Restore dunes on O`ahu, Moloka`i, and Maui and restrict ORV access to support native vegetation and habitat used by shorebirds, principally the Bristle-thighed Curlew

- Maintain secure beach and dune habitat in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands

- Control introduced mammals in all Natural Area Hawaiian Islands Wastewater Pond, Hawai`i, Hawaiian Islands. Reserves (State) and Federally protected beaches Photo by A. Engilis, Jr. and maintain Northwestern Hawaiian Islands as mammal free

Hawaiian waterbirds. These actions will also benefit - Monitor the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands migratory shorebirds. Balancing the restoration and for trash accumulation, and clean periodically to Hawaiian Islands management of wetlands dedicated for wildlife with maintain suitable beach and strand habitat reducing dependence on these habitats will remain a conservation challenge for some time to come. - Monitor beaches for oil and other contaminant issues and participate in response teams for - Identify standards for implementation of taro emergency actions agricultural practices (drawdowns, weed control, fertilization) that avoid impacts to nesting, brooding and foraging shorebirds Grasslands

- Minimize dependence on these habitats through Open and grazed grasslands are important habitats improved shorebird habitat management on State for wintering shorebirds, particularly those and Federal refuges and reserves, particularly for associated with small upland stock and wildlife Hawaiian Stilt ponds. The largest tracts are on private ranch lands located on Hawaiì and Maui where current - Seek Safe Harbor Agreements or Habitat management restricts public access and human Conservation Plans for managed water projects to disturbance is low. The primary issue with these improve habitats for shorebirds grasslands is the best long-term use of the land, both from an economic and ecological perspective. Reforestation of native forests (for native forest Sand Beach and Dunes birds) has been initiated, as have plantations for commercial production of Koa (native) and The most important beach and dune resources are Eucalyptus (non-native). As the cattle industry located in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. becomes less lucrative, private landowners may These are critical habitat for wintering Bristle- explore other uses of pastoral lands. Management thighed Curlew and important for turnstone and of pastoral lands has been proposed on Hawaiì Pacific Golden-Plover. The main threats include and Kauaì to support Hawaiian Goose (Branta human generated trash, contaminants, oil spills, and sandvicensis) recovery and migratory shorebirds tarballs that wash up on the beaches. There are few could also benefit. beach sanctuaries in the Main Islands; exceptions include Kaèna Point, Oàhu and Moòmomi Dunes, - Develop Safe Harbor Agreements with landowners Molokaì protected under the Natural Area Reserve to protect grazed pasture for shorebirds and System, and National Park Service lands on Hawaiì coordinate with ongoing efforts to provide habitat and Maui. Beach access is not fully restricted by for Hawaiian Duck and Goose these agencies although in most cases vehicles and other destructive uses are prohibited. The main threat to shorebirds on Main Island beaches continues to be human related disturbance.

Maui Golf Course. Photo by: Hawai`i Tourist Industry

28 U.S. Pacific Islands Shorebird Conservation Plan Hawaiian Islands Subregion 29 - Develop Regional Habitat Conservation Plans for predator specific actions are restated in habitat wetland and grassland management, incorporating sections (above). shorebird needs, in coordination with landowners and agencies targeting key grassland regions (e.g., - Develop and maintain a predator control program upslope Maui, Kohala Mountains, and upslope particularly on Oàhu, Molokaì, Maui, and Mauna Kea) Hawaiì, to protect Hawaiian Stilt and Bristle- thighed Curlews - Coordinate with reforestation efforts to incorporate grassland habitats to benefit a broad - Monitor all islands and especially the

group of organisms Northwestern Hawaiian Islands to detect new Hawaiian Islands predator introductions and initiate immediate - Manage State and Federal protected, lowland eradication efforts grasslands in a state free from invasive plants such as Indian fleabane, fountain grass, and other - Prevent introduction of brown tree snakes to the invasive shrubs Hawaiian Islands

Hawaiian Islands - Seek to include grazing regimes in diversified - Prevent spread of mongoose to mongoose free farming operations by coordinating with islands ( L naì, Niìhau, Kahoòlawe, and landowners Kauaì)

- Promote integrated pest management practices of lawns and golf courses to minimize pesticide use Monitoring Priorities

- Continue and fine-tune Statewide biannual Rocky Shoreline/Offshore Islets monitoring of Hawaiian Stilt populations

This habitat resource is relatively secure and is - Monitor response of Hawaiian Stilt and migratory important for Wandering Tattlers, but provides shorebirds to different management practices for limited habitat for other shorebirds. Uninhabited managed wetlands offshore rocks and islets are important as roost sites for shorebirds. Several offshore islets have - Monitor shorebird response to habitat restoration been invaded by introduced mammals (rats, cats, to support an adaptive management approach and rabbits). There is an ongoing program by the to wetland and tidal flat conservation and Hawai`i Division of Forestry and Wildlife (DOFAW) management to remove these predators. The re-colonization of islets by mammalian predators and human - Develop a monitoring program for migratory disturbance remain the principal threats to roost shorebirds with initial emphasis on Pacific Golden- sites for shorebirds. Human access is currently Plover, Bristle-thighed Curlew and Wandering restricted, but increased activity could pose a threat Tattler. Assess and track changes in population to shorebirds. size and habitat utilization

- Remove all introduced mammals from offshore - Work with private landowners and local islets and maintain predator free, relatively communities to monitor shorebird use of undisturbed roost habitats ephemeral playas, beaches, and dry grasslands on Niìhau - Restrict human access to minimize disturbance - Monitor trash accumulation (to target clean Predator Control up efforts) on Northwest Hawaiian Islands to minimize impact on wintering shorebirds Hawaiì has no living native, terrestrial mammals (except for a single species of bat). Introduced Research Priorities mammals, particularly Indian mongoose (Herpestes javanicus), rats (Rattus rattus, R. norveigicus, - Investigate population dynamics and inter-island R. exulans), feral cats (Felis sylvestris) and dogs movements of Hawaiian Stilt and determine (Canis familiaris) depredate native shorebirds the importance of playa wetlands (especially on reducing their populations and limiting suitable Niìhau) to the maintenance of stilt populations habitat. Rats were recently eradicated from Midway and Kure Atolls and the only remaining introduced - Analyze and summarize Hawaiì Statewide mammal in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands waterbird survey data for past 25 years. Modify is the house mouse at Midway Atoll. Additional, the survey as needed to improve the applicability to shorebirds

30 U.S. Pacific Islands Shorebird Conservation Plan Hawaiian Islands Subregion 31 - Investigate the migration routes of curlew, golden- - Investigate the implementation of a Statewide fall plover, and tattler and determine Hawai`i’s role survey to capture the peak migration numbers, and linkages to Alaska and Asian populations. which will allow for comparison for over-wintering Identify important wintering sites, migratory numbers as expressed by the mid-winter count stopover sites, and staging areas

- Analyze data from USFWS and DU restoration Education Priorities projects and initiate new studies to develop best management recommendations for shorebirds, - Educate the public about migratory and resident shorebirds and shorebird habitats (wetlands, tidal especially Hawaiian Stilt, and distribute Hawaiian Islands information to land managers flats, grasslands, beaches)

- Evaluate the effects of different management - Expand education curricula looking at bird techniques on vegetation, water levels, and migration for grade school students shorebirds. Continue research to identify management strategies for control of native and - Maintain and expand Kolea Watch that involves Hawaiian Islands naturalized/exotic vegetation to produce habitat schools and the public in monitoring golden-plover for nesting, brooding, foraging, and loafing habitat for shorebirds - Establish Kolea, Pacific Golden-Plover, as a centerpiece for a wildlife festival. Seek support - Evaluate the effects of contaminants, including from Hawaiì Tourism Office pesticides on shorebirds (e.g., golden-plovers utilizing managed grass lands: golf courses, lawns, - Maintain and enhance the Shorebird Sister pastures, etc.); shorebirds utilizing Pearl Harbor Schools’ Education Kit with region specific and other contaminated tidelands; shorebirds information, activities, games, books, etc. utilizing wastewater treatment ponds Implementation and Coordination - Identify important wintering sites, migratory stopover sites, and staging areas The conservation of shorebirds (endemic and migratory) must be undertaken as part of a broad, - Study the ecology of Bristle-thighed Curlew on landscape approach from wetlands and beach the wintering grounds including foraging habits, strand to grassland and upland conservation. habitat requirements, population trends, and Recently the Pacific Coast Joint Venture expanded limiting factors its area of coverage to include Hawaiì. A technical subcommittee for shorebirds should be formed to - Assess the incidence of disease in migratory provide input to the Joint Venture. Partners in this birds, particularly the spread of West Nile Virus. effort could include such agencies as USFWS, State Coordinate with animal disease specialists on the Department of Land and Natural Resources, NRCS, Mainland USEPA, NPS, NOAA Fisheries, USDOD, Hawaiì Department of Education, Hawaiì Department of - Assess Pacific Golden-Plover populations Agriculture. Private Sector would include groups wintering and migrating through the region such as DU; TNC; HAS; Hawaiì Nature Center, especially as it relates to habitat use and selection and research universities. Coordination with private landowners, aquaculture and agriculture interests - Research the removal and control of invasive will be instrumental in applying a landscape plants including red mangrove, Indian fleabane, approach to shorebird conservation. pickleweed, and California grass - Coordinate activities with Endangered Species - Investigate competition with Tilapia, design Recovery efforts managed wetlands to control Tilapia invasions - Encourage, on the ground, private and public - Quantify use of wastewater treatment ponds in partnerships to achieve habitat and population relation to managed or natural wetlands objectives - Investigate the impacts of different grazing regimes on shorebird habitat use in pastures

30 U.S. Pacific Islands Shorebird Conservation Plan Hawaiian Islands Subregion 31 Mariana Islands Subregion

FIGURE 7. Description of the Subregion Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands The Mariana Islands include the island of Guam (U.S. Territory) and the Commonwealth of the Uracas Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI) (15 islands) (Farallon de Pajaros) (Figure 7). The chain extends from 13˚ to 21˚ North Latitude and 144˚to 146˚ East Longitude in the Maug western Pacific Ocean. Guam, Rota, Tinian, and Asuncion

Saipan are inhabited by humans, small settlements s d n a also occur on a few of the other islands. The entire l s landmass of the chain is approximately 1,015 km2, I a Agrihan n

a less than one tenth the size of the single island of i r Hawai`i. The largest island is Guam (554 km2). The a M Pagan

n Mariana Islands are comprised of a combination of r

h volcanic and uplifted limestone rock. The northern t r Alamagan

o Mariana Islands

islands are mostly steep rock islets with rocky N e Guguan

coastlines that receive little rainfall. The southern h t f

islands (including Guam, Rota, Aguijan, Tinian, o

l Sarigan

Saipan, and Farallon de Medinilla) are generally a e

larger, forested, and support coastal plain woodlands w Anatahan n and grasslands. These islands are characteristically o Farallon

m de Medinilla

m flat: the highest peak is 1,506 ft (459 m) on Rota, o highest elevations on Guam reach only 1330 ft (406 m). C

Saipan The Mariana Islands provide limited resources for Tinian migrant shorebirds due to their small size, narrow Aguijan intertidal zone, and lack of extensive mudflats

(Parish et al. 1987). The best habitat is on Guam Rota and Saipan, the largest islands, with intertidal beaches, mudflats, freshwater wetlands, and grassy areas (Stinson et al. 1997a, 1997b). During the wet Guam season, approximately June through November, 0 50 100 150 ephemeral basins with short grass, exposed mud, Kilometers and shallow pools provide habitat for migratory 0 50 100 150 shorebirds wintering in the islands. These basins Miles are dry by December or January and migrant birds concentrate on the few remaining wet areas or depart the islands (Stinson et al. 1997b). Many of the Shorebird Habitats seasonal freshwater wetlands are choked with reed thickets and other weedy species and are not used Wetlands of Importance to Shorebirds by shorebirds. Farming activities help to reopen some choked sites and farm fields provide habitat, Guam. Guam supports the most diverse setting of especially in the wet season. Larger expanses of wetlands in the Marianas. Permanent wetlands are short grass habitats associated with military bases, centered in four geographic regions (Talofofo River, airports, golf courses, fields, and residential parks Fena Valley, Atantano Marsh, and Agana Marsh). are utilized by golden-plovers and, to a lesser extent, These wetlands are deep water habitats comprised turnstones. As in Hawai`i, acreage of these latter of Pago tree swamps (Hibiscus tiliaceus) and are habitats has increased over the last century due to over grown by reeds (Phragmites) and California removal of native forests. grass. Thus, they provide little available habitat for shorebirds. More important for shorebirds are the numerous depressions that fill as ephemeral ponds. Most are in agricultural settings and have degraded hydrology and support grasses and sedges. The importance of these wetlands is punctuated by the increase in acreage associated with seasonal rains. The base wetland

Mariana Islands Subregion 33 acreage on Guam averages 316 ac (128 ha) during migrant shorebirds. Tinian is the only other island the dry season (USFWS 1996). These are expanded with semi-permanent wetlands. The most important to greater than 740 ac (300 ha) during the wet is Lake Hagoi, at 10 ac (4 ha). It is surrounded season. Man-made wetlands such as Fena Reservoir by 48 ac (20 ha) of ephemeral pools. Today, only have further altered the wetlands landscape on about 2.4 ac (1 ha) of Lake Hagoi remain in open Guam. Guam’s western shore is lined with tidal water, the remaining is overgrown with Scirpus flats and small estuaries that are used by wintering and Phragmites. Tinian was heavily bombed shorebirds. Over 170 ac (69 ha) of mangrove exist. during WWII creating depressions that fill in Unlike Hawai`i, these mangrove forests are native the wet season. A cluster of potholes are located and important for local fish and coastal species. They near Tinian’s northern, abandoned runway. Rota support some shorebirds, particularly tattlers. supports limited ephemeral wetlands but the runway seasonally accounts for most shorebirds observed Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands. The (Figure 8). Wetlands that existed on Pagan were islands of the CNMI have restricted wetlands used destroyed by a volcanic eruption in May 1981 by shorebirds. Lake Susupe complex, located on (USFWS 1996). Saipan, comprises over 60 percent of the wetland habitat. Lake Susupe, a brackish 42 ac (17 ha) pond, supports stands of Phragmites, Scirpus, sedges Tidal Flats, Beaches, and Rocky Shoreline of and water ferns along its shore and few shorebirds. Importance to Shorebirds Associated with Lake Susupe is a complex of semi- permanent ponds approximately 458 ac (185ha) in The remote islands of the northern Marianas are Mariana Islands size. More important for shorebirds are the small uninhabited and support rocky shoreline and limited ephemeral basins scattered along Saipan’s western strand beaches used by shorebirds such as golden- shore comprising approximately 90 ac (37 ha) of plovers, turnstones, and tattlers (Lusk et al. 2000). habitat. Many are overgrown with grasses, reeds, Beaches with intertidal zones, mud or sand flats and sedges. The remaining wetlands of Saipan are are preferred. Key among beach sites are Tanapag Mariana Islands seasonal in nature, filling during wet months and and Puerto Rico mudflats and beaches (Saipan) providing important foraging habitat for migrant and Dungcas flats and Beach (Guam) (Stinson et shorebirds (turnstones, golden-plovers, tattlers, al. 1997b). On the larger islands, beaches provide Tringa spp). Other significant habitats used by little habitat for migrant shorebirds, in part due to shorebirds are coastal flats, tidal estuaries and human recreation and resorts. Rocky shorelines native mangrove swamps near Garapan. Limestone are extensive, especially on the northern islands. benches and exposed reefs dot Saipan’s western This habitat is utilized by tattlers, but is extremely shoreline. Emergent surfaces of these support remote and difficult to survey.

FIGURE 8. Seasonal Variation in Wetland Sites on Rota, 2000 - 2002. (Source: Dept. of Fish and Wildlife, Saipan)

��

� ��

��

� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � ��

34 U.S. Pacific Islands Shorebird Conservation Plan Mariana Islands Subregion 35 Grasslands and Open Spaces of Importance to Red-necked Stint (Stinson et al. 1997b). There are Shorebirds no resident shorebirds in the Mariana Islands. Few estimates of shorebird numbers are available Guam and Saipan support the only pastoral lands for the Marianas. Baker (1951) and Owen (1977) that are used by migrant shorebirds. Urban parks, summarized early 20th century accounts. The most golf courses, antenna fields, and grass edges of recent estimates of relative abundance are provided runways are frequented by golden-plovers and by Jenkins (1981) and Stinson et al. (1997b). Reichel turnstones. On Tinian, the large concrete runways, and Glass (1991) and Stinson (1994) provide a abandoned after WWII, are used as loafing sites by checklist of birds of the Mariana Islands with golden-plovers and a few other species. During rainy general categorization of abundance. Stinson et al. periods, concrete runways can flood and shorebirds (1997b) estimates between 5,000 and 20,000 golden- congregate to bathe and loaf, some ancillary foraging plovers pass through the islands and a few thousand may occur in pools on the tarmac. Interior grassy over winter, and Ruddy Turnstone wintering patches on Farallon de Medinilla are frequented numbers fluctuate at several hundred birds. They by Whimbrel, golden-plover, and turnstone (Lusk give no estimates for tattlers in the Marianas et al. 2000). The golf course on Rota supports a few probably due to identification problems associated shorebirds annually. with separating the two species. All other species occur in low numbers (< 200 birds). Radar studies indicate that only a small percentage of migrants stop at the Marianas. Most over-fly, probably on

Shorebird Species Mariana Islands non-stop flights from Asia to the South Pacific, but exact patterns are poorly understood (Williams Forty species of shorebirds have been recorded in and Williams 1988). Recent studies suggest that the Mariana Islands, most breed predominately shorebird populations in the islands naturally in Asia, but the islands also support some North fluctuate, probably as a result of movements of birds American populations (Reichel and Glass 1991, Wiles through the islands en route to southern wintering

Mariana Islands et al. 1993) (Appendix 4). Of these only the Pacific quarters; October - December support the highest Golden-Plover is abundant (Jenkins 1981, Stinson numbers of birds (Figures 9, 10). According to et al. 1997b). Asiatic Whimbrel, Ruddy Turnstone, Stinson et al. (1997b), shorebird abundance and Wandering Tattler, and Grey-tailed Tattler are variety in the Marianas is greatest from September common to uncommon (Table 6). Another four to April. Autumn migration, enhanced by first-year species, all Palearctic breeders, are regular in very young, occurs longer than spring migration and small numbers (10 – 50 birds per year): Mongolian involves larger numbers of birds. Plover, Wood Sandpiper, Common Sandpiper, and

TABLE 6. Shorebirds recorded on the 2000 Christmas Counts, Guam, Saipan, and Rota. (Source: NAS 2000, 2001)

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�� 48

�� 47

�� 5

�� 10

�� 110

34 U.S. Pacific Islands Shorebird Conservation Plan Mariana Islands Subregion 35 FIGURE 9. Monthly Variation in Wetland/Wading Bird Counts on Siapan, 1999 -2002. (Source: CNMI Dept. of Fish and Wildlife, Saipan)

700

600

500

400

300

200

BirdsObserved 100

0 Mariana Islands Jun-00 Jun-01 Jun-02 Feb-00 Feb-01 Feb-02 Oct-99 Oct-00 Oct-01 Oct-02 Dec-99 Apr-00 Aug-00 Dec-00 Apr-01 Aug-01 Dec-01 Apr-02 Aug-02 Month and Year Mariana Islands

FIGURE 10. Seasonal Variation in Numbers of Shorebirds Along Saipan’s Coasts. (Source: CNMI Dept. of Fish and Wildlife, Saipan)

120

100

20 # of WADERS 1999-2002

0 Jun-00 Jun-01 Jun-02 Oct-99 Oct-00 Oct-01 Oct-02 Feb-00 Feb-01 Feb-02 Apr-00 Apr-01 Apr-02 Dec-99 Dec-00 Dec-01 Aug-00 Aug-01 Aug-02 MONTH AND YEAR

36 U.S. Pacific Islands Shorebird Conservation Plan Mariana Islands Subregion 37 Marianas Subregional Population and aquifers, which support perched wetlands along the coast of larger islands. Little emphasis has Habitat Goals been placed on the protection of ephemeral basins and they continue to be farmed and hydrologically The population status of migrant shorebirds in the altered. Most major wetlands are protected, but Marianas is unknown. Several species wintering in without active management these systems will the Marianas exploit a variety of habitats. Pacific become choked with vegetation. Although this Golden-Plovers over-winter in close association degrades shorebird habitat, Phragmites and Scirpus with humans. They forage on lawns, fields and thickets do provide habitat to a varying degree other short-grass habitats, and roost on tarmacs for the endangered Mariana Moorhen (Gallinula of military fields, and rooftops. Without a better chloropus guami) and Nightingale Reed-Warbler understanding of existing populations and trends, (Acrocephalus luscinia) and thus a balance of it is impossible to set population goals. Key in the open wetlands vs. vegetated wetlands must be Marianas is the protection and management of tidal maintained (USWFS 1992, USFWS 1995). Recovery flats, beaches, ephemeral wetlands and grassy areas actions recommended for the Mariana Moorhen utilized broadly by many species of shorebirds. and Nightingale Reed-Warbler address the need to restore and manage habitat and reduce predation - Conduct island-wide shorebird surveys to by introduced mammals and brown tree snake quantify population levels and habitat (Boiga irregularis). As in Hawai`i and continental associations populations, Mariana Moorhens use ephemeral wetlands as dispersal and nesting habitat and these Mariana Islands - Manage existing wetlands, with emphasis on needs should be coordinated with shorebird habitat protection and restoration of wetlands and tidal needs (Nagata 1983, Stinson et al. 1991a, Takano flats 2003). The protection, restoration, and possibly even the creation of wetland complexes that support - Develop a GIS system that identifies and ranks permanent wetlands associated with ephemeral Mariana Islands key shorebird habitats in the Mariana Islands basins should be developed on Guam, Tinian, and Saipan.

Marianas Subregional Habitat Status, - Incorporate habitat considerations for Threats, and Management Goals shorebirds into wetland management on Guam (Agana Marsh, Atantano Marsh) and CNMI Wetlands (Lake Susupe, Lake Hagoi). Restore ephemeral marshes at key wetland complexes through Impacts to wetlands in the Mariana Islands are vegetation removal or control generally divided into two categories: agriculture prior to WWII and urbanization and military - Develop management strategies to maintain development after WWII. Agricultural development ephemeral wetlands free of invasive vegetation has resulted in the loss of numerous ephemeral basins through land leveling and plowing. Larger - Coordinate habitat management for shorebirds wetlands were drained and diked to cultivate rice with recovery actions for endangered wetland and taro, and for public health reasons (USFWS species (reed warbler and moorhen) 1992). During WWII, Japanese occupation expanded rice and taro production at the expense of wetlands - Coordinate mitigation wetlands to maximize on Guam, Saipan and Tinian. Forest clearing complexes of ephemeral and permanent sites increased evapotranspiration drying ephemeral pools in forests (Nakajima 1944). Over the past Tidal Flats, Beaches, and Mangrove Estuaries two decades, the economies of the Mariana Islands have become more dependent on tourism and have Historical loss of tidal habitats was accelerated moved away from subsistence-based lifestyle. The by the USDOD between 1945-1950. During this military continues to have a major presence in the period an estimated 1,200 ac (485 ha) that included Marianas. As the human population increases, so mangroves and permanent wetlands were filled too will the need for more development. To support along the west-central coast of Guam (USFWS tourism, pressures have been placed on wetlands, 1996). The majority of tidal flats, beaches and estuaries, and beaches particularly on Guam and mangrove estuaries that remain on Guam are owned Saipan; the islands that support the highest numbers by territorial or Federal agencies. Threats to these of shorebirds. No estimates as to the loss of wetlands systems include pollution, contaminants, and fuel on Guam are available, but nearly 65 percent of spills associated with increasing human populations Saipan’s wetlands have been lost due to human and military activities, particularly on Guam and actions (Stinson et al. 1991). Coastal wetlands can Saipan. Numerous oil spills, offshore of Saipan, also be affected by well development, impacting

36 U.S. Pacific Islands Shorebird Conservation Plan Mariana Islands Subregion 37 Guam, and Tinian, have been documented by the endangered species such as Hawai`ian Stilt or USFWS (1996). Increasing tourism will undoubtedly Tuamotu Sandpiper could be catastrophic for these put pressures on developing prime beach locations and other endemic species. An international effort on Saipan, Guam, and Tinian. Specific recommended has been developed to prevent the spread of the actions include: brown tree snake to other Pacific Islands (USFWS 1996). Introduced mammals, especially rats and feral - Coordinate with USDOD to support habitat dogs are a limiting factor in the survival of resident protection of tidal and beach habitats as part of and migrant waterbirds. The impact on migrant overall land management strategy shorebirds is undocumented.

- Seek protection status for key beach and tidal - Control and ultimately eradicate brown tree snake flat habitats,e.g. , Tanapag and Puerto Rico (Saipan) and Dungcas (Guam) - Control introduced mammalian predators at key wetland complexes in the islands - Address potential contamination of Puerto Rico Mudflat from the Saipan Dump and effect - Eradicate introduced mammals and reptilian cleanup if needed predators from islands where feasible

- Monitor habitats and shorebirds for contaminants - Rigorously implement measures to ensure the brown tree snake does not spread to other - Coordinate with response teams for damage Mariana Islands or other USPI Mariana Islands assessments, contaminant clean-ups, or emergency response to spills - Develop a response plan for quick detection and eradication in the event predators are introduced

Agricultural Lands Mariana Islands Monitoring Priorities Agricultural lands on Guam and Saipan and the seasonally flooded basins are threatened from - Implement regular surveys to assess species, expanded human development and conversion to abundance, population trends and habitat other uses. Easement programs through NRCS utilization of migratory shorebirds might serve to help establish land easements. - Develop and standardize Guam and CNMI Cultivated wetlands are not a significant resource in biannual waterbird monitoring program inclusive the Mariana Islands. of migrant shorebirds

- Identify and map key agricultural areas that - Monitor shorebird response to habitat support ephemeral wetlands and target for restoration to support adaptive management restoration and protection strategies as a component of wetland and tidal flat conservation - Expand opportunities for agricultural land, easements, or cooperative agreements to protect - Establish a monitoring program for the early open space from development pressures (NRCS, detection of brown tree snake and introduced USFWS programs) mammals on predator free islands

- Monitor for contaminants and spills on beaches, Predator Control wetlands, and tidal flats that are important for shorebirds The extinction of most of Guam’s avifauna has been directly attributed to the spread of the introduced brown tree snake (Savidge 1987). The impact of the Research Priorities brown tree snake on migrant shorebirds is unknown, but should be addressed in any conservation plan - Identify where wetlands can be created in an involving migrant shorebirds. It could become effort to balance shorebird habitat needs with a serious problem throughout the Pacific if urban growth (GIS coordinated) accidentally introduced to other islands. Currently it is restricted to Guam, but records from Saipan - Investigate habitat use and shorebird occurrence and Hawai`i continue to occur as snakes stow-away in the islands and quantify the importance of on airplanes and boats. Introduction to islands habitat type to maintenance of shorebird numbers that support Bristle-thighed Curlews or resident - Develop adaptive management strategies for ephemeral wetlands 38 U.S. Pacific Islands Shorebird Conservation Plan Mariana Islands Subregion 39 - Continue research of life history and effectiveness of control/eradication efforts on Implementation and Coordination brown tree snake CNMI Division of Wildlife and USFWS (Guam, Rota) have expanded efforts to develop an island- wide ecosystem planning effort through the Education Priorities development of Habitat Conservation Plans (HCP) for each island. These HCPs address habitat - Educate the public about migratory shorebirds fragmentation, important wetlands resources, and and the importance of shorebird habitats attempt to address conservation with economic (wetlands, tidal flats, grasslands, beaches) growth and development within watersheds. They also attempt to link the recovery actions for - Develop educational resources for USDOD endangered species in the islands. Two endangered personnel on shorebird ecology, threats species use wetland habitats in the Marianas, the (predators and disturbance) and important Mariana Moorhen and Nightingale Reed-Warbler. habitats: beaches, dunes, mudflats, wetlands, and Recovery plans call for protection of wetlands grassy areas for both species. Although the conservation of migratory shorebirds in the Mariana Islands will not - Develop education curricula on migration to be of primary focus in the development of HCPs and promote an understanding of the connectivity of other planning efforts, resource managers should the Mariana Islands to other regions of the globe integrate the maintenance of shorebird populations Mariana Islands in the Marianas. The USFWS has developed a - Involve schools and the public in the monitoring multi-agency partnership with the USDOD for the program for golden-plover, expand Kolea Watch protection, development, and management of fish efforts and wildlife resources on Guam and Tinian. Natural areas on public and private lands are protected by

Mariana Islands local and Federal regulations but are not under cooperative management. Key areas need to be prioritized by local governmental agencies and the USFWS. Coordination with development and economic plans for expanding tourism needs to be a continuing focus by resource agencies.

Ephemeral freshwater wetlands on Guam. Farmed wetland with overgrown wetland in near foreground (left). Unfarmed wetland basin (right). Photos by Andrew Engilis, Jr.

38 U.S. Pacific Islands Shorebird Conservation Plan Mariana Islands Subregion 39 American Samoa Subregion

Description of the Subregion Refuge Complex) and is the world’s smallest atoll with two islets on a nearly circular reef. Rose Island American Samoa comprises five high volcanic islands is dominated by shrub vegetation and harbors a (Tutuila, Aunuù, Taù, Olosega, and Ofu) and two small Puàvai (Pisonia grandis) forest. Sand Island coral islands (Rose Atoll and Swains Island) (Figure is a sandy islet with no vegetation. The combined 11). This plan does not cover the independent nation area of the two islets is approximately 24.7 ac (0.1 of Samoa (Savaiì and Ùpolu). American Samoa is km²). located at 14˚ south Latitude and from 168˚ - 171˚ west Longitude. All of the high islands rise steeply Shorebird habitat in American Samoa is limited, from the ocean, supporting rugged interior forests and the migrant shorebird community is low in and narrow coastal plains. The islands receive from both species diversity and abundance. Habitats 125 – 300 inches (317 – 762 cm) of rainfall annually, used by shorebirds include beaches and rocky most falling between October and March, with shorelines, enclosed lagoons, mudflats, littoral and higher precipitation in the uplands. The islands mangrove forests, and to a lesser degree, wetlands. range in size from 395 ac (1.6 km²) (Aunuù) to 54.8 The Pacific Golden-Plover is the most numerous mi² (142 km² ) (Tutuila) and the highest peak is species and uses a wide array of habitat including 3,166 ft (965 m) (Taù). Wetland acreage is limited, lawns, grasslands and other open spaces associated occurring primarily along the coastal plains. Swains with human development in the Pacific. Wandering Island and Rose Atoll are low coralline islands less Tattlers are most common on rocky beaches but than 10 m high. Swains Island is a small raised they also utilize a wide range of habitat from high atoll enclosing a 259-acre (105 ha) central, brackish mountains to grassy runways (Amerson, Jr. et al. 1982). lagoon bordered by 4 acres (1.61 ha) of coastal marsh. Similar to Laysan Island, Hawaiì, this water body functions more as a lake than a true lagoon. Rose Atoll is a USFWS National Wildlife Refuge (part of the Pacific Remote Islands National Wildlife American Samoa

FIGURE 11. American Samoa

Swains Island

American Samoa

Western Samoa

uʻa G Maun roup Olosega Tutuila Ofu Taʻu Aunuʻu Rose Atoll

American Samoa Subregion 41 Shorebird Habitats Estuaries, Littoral Forests, Mangroves, Flats Wetlands and Enclosed Lagoons There are few estuaries in American Samoa and those that exist are small as a result of short, American Samoa supports 495 wetland acres (200 steep watersheds on the high islands. On Tutuila, ha): 350 ac (142 ha) on Tutuila, 112 ac (45 ha) on Nuùuli Pala Lagoon is an embayment with Aunuù, 20 ac (8 ha) on Taù, and smaller sites are extensive mudflats near its upper end. This area scattered on other islands. Only 100 acres (40 ha) provides important shorebird habitat. Other areas, are freshwater wetlands and most harbor emergent notably the Leone Pala on Tutuila and the Aunuù stands of ferns (Cyclsorus interruptus and wetlands have mudflats that are used by shorebirds. Acrostichum aureum) and spike rush (Eleocharis Mangroves reach their eastern limit in American sp.). The majority of these acres are at Nuùùli Samoa. Mangrove forests are found only on Tutuila Pala lagoon and on the small offshore island of and Aunuù and are characterized by red mangrove, Aunuù. Along river bottoms, swamps predominate grasses and sedges. The largest mangrove forest with a dense understory of ferns. Some ephemeral remaining in American Samoa (100 acres [40 ha]) wetlands exist but to a lesser degree than in the is located at Nuùuli Pala. Amerson, Jr. et al. (1982) Marianas and Hawaiì, a result of Samoa’s steep recorded good numbers of golden-plovers and topography and narrow coastal plains. Except for tattlers in mangrove forests. Much of American Aunuù, these wetlands are of limited importance Samoa’s mangrove forests have been degraded for shorebirds, but habitat restoration and or destroyed by humans. The Nuùuli Pala forest management could improve conditions for migrant contains a unique plant community that has almost birds. disappeared from American Samoa (Amerson, Jr. et al 1982). Protection of the remaining forests should Aquaculture is common in American Samoa; taro is be coupled with protection of surrounding wetlands the predominate crop. In 1989, taro covered 1,240 ac and lagoon mudflats. (495 ha) in American Samoa, mostly as small family farms and local commercial farms (Am. Samoa The littoral forests of American Samoa support a Comm. College web site 2002). Since then the taro surprising number of shorebirds including golden- blight affected numerous acres in production and plovers and tattlers (Amerson, Jr. et al.1982). This forest type has been mostly cleared by humans hence has become a limited habitat for shorebirds. American Samoa Dry land taro is now the predominate variety grown. for rural development and settlements, and as a Wetland taro is grown in limited acreage on Aunuù result has become a threatened habitat. As with and Taù. On these islands, taro fields are not mangroves, the clearing of this forest type may have flooded, as they are in Hawaiì. However, exposed had detrimental impacts to shorebird numbers, but mud and fallow ground during early growth stages the impact remains undocumented. Littoral forests of taro can support low numbers of shorebirds. are dominated by lau fala (Pandanus), Pisonia, American Samoa or futu (Barrintonia). The dominant tree depends Beaches and Rocky Shorelines on the substrate and soils. Protection of remaining littoral forests and possible reforestation is an Sandy beaches are a common feature of these important conservation action. eroded islands, especially along the south shores, and they are an important habitat type for curlews, Grasslands of Importance to Shorebirds golden-plovers, turnstones and, to a lesser degree, tattlers (Amerson, Jr. et al.1982). There are Similar to other Pacific Islands, ornamental approximately 21 miles (53 km) of coralline beaches grasslands, grazed areas, lawns, runway edges, and in American Samoa, and many remain undeveloped, parks support Pacific Golden-Plovers. Village lands although sand-mining has depleted natural beaches are of particular importance for golden-plovers in some areas. These beaches also are important (Amerson, Jr. et al.1982). Large pastoral lands, such for nesting sea turtles. In particular, the beaches as those that occur in the Hawaiìan Islands, do not bordering lagoons at Rose Atoll and Swains Island exist in American Samoa. are important wintering habitat for Bristle-thighed Curlews (Amerson, Jr. et al. 1982). Another important habitat is the rocky shoreline where most of American Samoa’s Wandering Tattlers over- winter. The use, distribution, and actual numbers of shorebirds in these habitats remains unclear and better quantitative data are needed to assess conservation needs. The beaches and dunes of Rose Atoll and Swains Island are known to support Bristle-thighed Curlews, but overall shorebird use on these remote islands is poorly documented.

42 U.S. Pacific Islands Shorebird Conservation Plan American Samoa Subregion 43 Shorebird Species The USFWS estimates that nearly 25 percent of historic wetlands have been lost in American Only seven species of shorebirds have been recorded Samoa. The highest percentage of wetland loss has in American Samoa, although undoubtedly others been in littoral and mangrove forests (Amerson, have occurred (Appendix 4). The most common are Jr. et al. 1982). Most of the losses are the result Pacific Golden-Plover, Wandering Tattler, and Ruddy of reclamation projects in conjunction with the Turnstone. Bristle-thighed Curlews are regular development of Pago Pago Harbor and human winter visitors on Rose Atoll and Swains Island, and settlements. Protection of remaining habitats on have been recorded from Nuùuli Pala Lagoon on Nuùuli Pala Lagoon and the Aunuù wetlands are Tutuila, and from Aunuù. The golden-plover, tattler, important to conservation of wintering shorebirds in and turnstone can be found in a variety of habitats. American Samoa. Habitat restoration efforts could Amerson, Jr. et al. (1982) conducted an inventory be investigated on the high islands. The wetlands and have provided the only estimates of these of American Samoa historically supported two rare species in American Samoa. They estimated 4,500 species, the Spotless Crake (Porzana tabuensis), Pacific Golden-Plovers, 900 Wandering Tattlers, and the Pacific Black Duck Anas( superciliosa) and 550 Ruddy Turnstones. These numbers are rediscovered in the early 1990s (USFWS pers. small relative to total USPI populations, except for comm.). The Spotless Crake was rediscovered Wandering Tattlers. in a coastal wetland in the mid-1980s (Engbring and Engilis 1988), but now is known to occur in American Samoa only on the summit of Taù Island. American Samoa Subregional The Pacific Black Duck occurs in low numbers in wetlands on Manuà and Aunuù. The cultural Population and Habitat Goals importance of wetlands, both in maintaining the natural biota and cultivated wetland practices, The population status of migrant shorebirds in should be built into agencies’ efforts to conserve American Samoa is poorly known. As with Hawaiì wetlands. and the Marianas, common species wintering in the islands exploit a variety of habitats. Introduced mammalian predators hinder conservation efforts in American Samoa. The - Determine the population size and trends in Polynesian rat has been eradicated from Rose abundance of shorebirds and identify critical Atoll, but persists on Swains Island. Cats have American Samoa habitats for long-term protection and monitoring, been liberated on Swains Island to address the rat emphasis on Pacific Golden-Plover, Wandering problem and their impact on nesting seabirds and Tattler, and Bristle-thighed Curlew migrant shorebirds is unknown. Cats, dogs, pigs, and rats occur on the high islands. - Determine, the breeding origin, migration

American Samoa routes and turnover rates for golden-plovers and - Protect existing wetlands, placing an emphasis on Wandering Tattlers Nu`uuli Pala, Aunu`u, and Swains lagoon

- Evaluate restoration potential for wetlands that Habitat Status, Threats, and support shorebirds Management Goals - Work with farmers to provide protection for wintering shorebirds that use aquaculture fields A major issue facing America Samoa’s marine and coastal resources is non-point source - Identify important remaining littoral and pollution. Tutuila’s coastal environments and mangrove forests and seek their protection coral reefs have shown degradation as a result of landfill contamination, oil spills, pesticide runoff, - Restore littoral and mangrove forests where industrial waste, and incineration (USFWS 1996). feasible Human sewage disposal and waste disposal from piggeries contaminate nearshore resources and - Eradicate all introduced mammals from Swains estuaries, including Nu`uuli Pala Lagoon. In 1993, Island a commercial fishing vessel (the Jin Shiang Fa) ran aground at Rose Atoll and dumped more than - Establish a monitoring program for the early 100,000 gallons (378,500 liters) of diesel fuel and detection of introduced mammals on predator free 2,500 lbs (1,134 kg) of ammonia onto the reef, causing islands and a response plan for quick eradication widespread damage in the lagoon (USFWS 1996). in the event predators are introduced Although oil spills of this nature are not common in Pacific atolls, a single occurrence can be catastrophic to the ecosystem.

42 U.S. Pacific Islands Shorebird Conservation Plan American Samoa Subregion 43 Monitoring Priorities - Develop primary and secondary school curricula on shorebird migration, emphasize connectivity of American Samoa with Alaska, Siberia, and the rest of Oceania - Develop a standardized biannual waterbird monitoring program for American Samoa that - Involve schools and the public in a monitoring includes migrant shorebirds, with initial emphasis program for golden-plover, e.g. expand Kolea on curlews, golden-plovers, and tattlers Watch and the shorebird sister schools program - Monitor shorebird response to habitat restoration to support an adaptive management approach to wetland and tidal flat conservation Implementation and Coordination

- Monitor for contaminants and spills on beaches, Conservation and restoration of shorebird habitats wetlands, and tidal flats that are important for in American Samoa requires close cooperation and shorebirds coordination with the Government of American Samoa and the agencies and individuals responsible - Work with local authorities to assess damage and for environmental protection and planning for outline restoration needs economic development in the territory. The USFWS has developed a multi-agency partnership with the Government of American Samoa to develop a coastal ecosystem restoration and enhancement Research Priorities program. Key to cooperative efforts on behalf of shorebirds is the improvement of information about wetlands, shorebird use, and other native - Assess species richness, abundance, trends wetland-dependent species. Protection of low in abundance, and habitat use of migratory coral islands and atolls is paramount not only for shorebirds (emphasis should be placed on shorebirds but also breeding seabirds, sea turtles, variation in abundance and habitat use of golden- and maintenance of coral reefs. Coastal conservation plovers, Bristle-thighed Curlews, and Wandering efforts have become established in American Samoa Tattlers) through the American Samoa Coastal Management Program, the Department of Marine and Wildlife - Determine if land crabs accumulate toxins Resources, and the American Samoa Environmental harmful to humans when exposed directly or Protection Agency. Shorebird conservation should secondarily to rodenticides be incorporated into coastal conservation planning strategies.

American Samoa - Examine limiting factors for shorebirds using lagoon systems

- Develop habitat-based GIS data layers to compare

the distribution of important shorebird habitats Central Pacific Islands with the distribution of human activities and conservation projects

- Develop a coordinated strategy to create and enhance habitats that can be used by migrant shorebird and resident waterbird species

Education Priorities

- Educate developers, economic planners, and the public about the importance of littoral forests, mangroves, wetlands, and beaches in maintaining Samoan wildlife

- Educate the public about migratory shorebirds

44 U.S. Pacific Islands Shorebird Conservation Plan Central Pacific Islands Subregion 54 Central Pacific Islands Subregion

Description of the Subregion

U.S. possessions in the Central Pacific are scattered across millions of square kilometers of ocean and include islands in three different archipelagos: Howland and Baker Islands (Phoenix Archipelago), Jarvis Island, Kingman Reef, and Palmyra Atoll (Line Archipelago), Wake Atoll (Marshall Archipelago), and Johnston Atoll (Figure 1). The combined land area of these islands is only 12.9 mi2 (33.4 km2) (Table 7). All are arid islands with low annual rainfall except Palmyra, which supports a dense rain forest. Human habitation is restricted to military installations on Johnston and Wake, and a Johnston Atoll. USFWS Photo small civilian population on Palmyra. The military base at Johnston is closing and USDOD is currently Beaches of Importance to Shorebirds working with contractors and USFWS to remove buildings and contaminants from the atoll. The Beaches, especially on uninhabited islands, are USFWS manages Howland, Baker, Jarvis, Kingman an important resource for shorebirds. Most of Reef, Johnston, and Palmyra NWRs as part of the these islands are so small that they consist almost Pacific Remote Islands National Wildlife Refuge entirely of beach strands with associated dunes. Complex. The largest island at Palmyra is not Only Palmyra has dense littoral forests (comprised included in the NWR and it is owned and managed of Pisonia trees), which are used by shorebirds. by The Nature Conservancy; USFWS manages the The other islands support short grasses and sparse submerged lands and the rest of Palmyra’s emergent shrubs. lands.

Margins of Lagoons Shorebird Habitats Atoll lagoons are a common feature in this subregion Wetlands of Importance to shorebirds and their margins offer habitat for migrant

American Samoa shorebirds, particularly curlews and golden-plovers. There are no natural wetlands in this subregion. Those of noted importance for shorebirds include the lagoon margins and intertidal flats at Palmyra and lagoon margins at Wake and Johnston. Central Pacific Islands

��

44 U.S. Pacific Islands Shorebird Conservation Plan Central Pacific Islands Subregion 54 Shorebird Species Habitat Status, Threats, and Management Goals Thirty-five species of shorebirds have been recorded in this subregion, and it is of primary importance Similar to other subregions covered in this plan, for the Bristle-thighed Curlew and Pacific Golden- the Central Pacific Islands provide a variety of Plover. Other species occurring regularly include habitats used by wintering shorebird species. Pacific Ruddy Turnstone, Sanderling, Wandering Tattler, Golden-Plovers forage in anthropogenic habitat Gray-tailed Tattler, and Bar-tailed Godwit. Few on lawns, tarmacs of military fields, and they roost estimates of shorebird abundance exist because on rooftops. They also use beaches, wetlands, and these islands are extremely isolated and visited only other natural habitats. Upland and beach habitats rarely by biologists. More than 200 Bristle-thighed are priorities for protection on developed islands. Curlews have been recorded at Palmyra (USFWS Protection of beaches and lagoon edges that support 1992), and fewer than 50 have been observed at wintering Bristle-thighed Curlews (e.g., Wake and Howland and Baker (Marks and Redmond 1994). Palmyra) should be emphasized. Many islands in Eleven curlews were counted on Johnston Island this subregion have experienced major alterations during the 1999 Christmas Count conducted by of their natural environments as a result of military the USFWS (NAS 2000, 2001). Although the total activities during and since World War II. Nuclear wintering population of Bristle-thighed Curlews tests, military dumping, munitions storage and in the Central Pacific Islands remains virtually removal remain a concern, particularly on Johnston unknown, the limited data from this region indicate and Wake islands. Groundwater and nearshore that these islands provide important habitat for pollution from these storage facilities is suspected this species. The Tuamotu Sandpiper has not but not documented. Daily sewage discharges are a been recorded from the USPI in this region, but regular occurrence on Johnston and Wake islands, the type specimen was collected at Kiritimati despite modernization of facilities in the early Island (Kiribati), in the Line Islands. Palmyra and 1990s (USFWS 1996). Sources of contamination Jarvis are also located in the Line Islands and on Howland and Baker have been linked to WWII these two islands, along with other Central Pacific and post-war military activities. Chemical weapons Islands, should be evaluated as potential sites for and nuclear materials were stored at Johnston establishing additional populations of this rare Atoll. These munitions at Johnston have recently shorebird. been destroyed and cleanup is underway. Ground contamination by dioxins and PCB-containing fuel is high in places, and three aborted thermonuclear Central Pacific Islands Subregional warheads resulted in plutonium contamination of the Population and Habitat Goals entire atoll (USFWS 1996).

The population status of migrant shorebirds in the Introduced species are a major problem in this Central Pacific Islands is unknown. The abundance subregion. Over the past 25 years, USFWS has and distribution of shorebirds, and their habitat use, eradicated rats and cats from all islands in the in the region should be documented. Of particular subregion, except for Wake and Palmyra. In

interest is the status and distribution of the Bristle- 2004, a collaborative effort by the Endangered Central Pacific Islands thighed Curlew. Species Recovery Council, Wildlife Management International of New Zealand, and Marine - Determine the population size and trends of Endeavors, completed a project to eradicate cats wintering Bristle-thighed Curlews and identify from Wake. Initial surveys are very promising, important habitats for long-term protection and and follow-up surveys over the next few years will monitoring determine if all of the cats were removed. Complete eradication of rats and cats at Wake and rats at - Assess population size and trends of other Palmyra are high priorities. Introduced scale insects Central Pacific Islands regularly wintering species of shorebirds and ants at Palmyra are attacking the Pisonia forest on Palmyra and the effects on shorebirds are unknown.

- Remove introduced mammals from Wake and Palmyra

- Develop interdiction programs to prevent reintroduction of predators

46 U.S. Pacific Islands Shorebird Conservation Plan Central Pacific Islands Subregion 74 - Eliminate or control introduced scale insects at Education Priorities Palmyra and limit the potential for introduction to other islands in the region - Education of USDOD personnel on shorebird ecology, threats (predators and disturbance) and - Eliminate contaminant sources from military/ important habitats: beaches, dunes, and lagoons island base resources - Work with The Nature Conservancy to develop an education and outreach program regarding Monitoring Priorities shorebirds, their ecology, and importance of predator free islands - Monitoring priorities are similar to those in American Samoa. Lack of knowledge about shorebird numbers, habitat use, and threats limit Implementation and Coordination our ability to develop conservation priorities Howland, Baker, and Jarvis Islands; Johnston and - Develop a monitoring program to assess shorebird Palmyra Atolls; and Kingman Reef are part of the species diversity, abundance and variation in Pacific Remote Islands NWR Complex. Wake Atoll abundance, distribution, population trends, and is a military installation. USFWS and The Nature habitat use. Focus on Pacific Golden-Plover and Conservancy jointly own Palmyra Atoll. Efforts to Bristle-thighed Curlew clean contaminated sites are being addressed by the USFWS and USDOD. Removal of rats and cats is - Monitor for contaminants on beaches, in lagoons, a priority for nesting seabirds as well as wintering and on tidal flats shorebirds. USGS is working with the USFWS to investigate control of scale insects at Palmyra. - Monitor the response of curlews to predator eradication at Wake and Palmyra

Research Priorities

- Work with the international shorebird community to collect basic information on the ecology of the Tuamotu Sandpiper in Polynesia and determine if suitable habitat exists on U.S. Islands to establish and sustain Tuamotu Sandpiper populations

- Study the ecology of the Bristle-thighed Curlew on low and coral islands and atolls with emphasis on Palmyra

- Investigate the effects of introduced scale insects

Central Pacific Islands on the habitat and shorebird populations at Palmyra.

- Develop strategies to control or eradicate introduced invertebrates with initial emphasis on scale insects and ants

46 U.S. Pacific Islands Shorebird Conservation Plan Central Pacific Islands Subregion 74