CEU eTD Collection THE IMPACTOFREVOLUTIONS ONMEDIAFREEDOMIN THE TRANSITION COUNTRIES: ON THE EXAMPLE OF In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Masters ofArts GEORGIA ANDKYRGYZSTAN GEORGIA Supervisor: Professor Miklos Sukosd Department of Political Science Political of Department Central European University European Central Budapest, Hungary Elena Parfenova Elena Submitted to Submitted 2007 By CEU eTD Collection could have been reasonably expected. changes major any trajectory and dynamics revolutionary the on based not or whether tobeamongexplanations.tension discusses Thesis aresuggested the possible also Elite lackinsecurity continuity, of domestic change, regime and post-revolutionary looks explanatory factorsThe for alsoatthe inboth thesis suchtendencies countries. - journalistic accordingcriteriathat tothelast has situation culture the deteriorated. of and changes, positive no are there four criteria the to according that given picture overall onthe influence media have in independent nosubstantial scopeof the improvements minor Kyrgyzstan, In criteria. other five to according trends negative predominantly or changes of lack either by counterbalanced are legislation in Georgian improvements years). Certain (1,5-3 intheshort run media democratization towards tendencies positive brought revolutions ‘color’ recent Kyrgyzstan for not Georgia for neither expectations, popular the despite is that, analysis present the of conclusion The overall journalists andmedia experts. with interviews conducted in-depth as as the on well sources of secondary variety the is wide reviewof the the basedon research The media for democratization. crucial offersIt countries. in both development media the and freedom media for brought have revolutions analysisexactly what discusses and revolutions the after media of area in the saw counties of the post-revolutionarychanges these what andsystematizes traces research empirical present The Kyrgyzstan. tendencies according to the six criteria such contemporary as events contemporary such The goal of this thesis is to examine the major changes in the area of media following Rose Revolution Abstract i in Georgia and Tulip Revolution in CEU eTD Collection ultimate completion of this work. endingduring love andsupport year this unforgettable inBudapest werecentral my for never- all myfiends whose andto my Parfenova mother Tatiana to this work I dedicate phonedistance connections. long- and challenging sometimes and face-to-face conversations recordings, meetings, muchpossible. I appreciate time andsupport provided byall them duringof our without people whom metI during the interviews this research wouldnot have been forTynchtynbek Tchoroev theirideas professional advice, andmaterials. And of course, and Saryeva, Elvira Abassov, Shain Albion, Smith Adam thank deeply also I research. materials and provided necessary publications forand byFreedom drafts this House Very special thanks Alsoprocess. to Imuch helpappreciate provided byourcoordinator Noemi Kakucs. Jeannettetheir valuable onmy comments anddrafts for recommendations throughout work the GoehringI am very grateful Carstento Schneider, Andras Bozoki, Katewho Coyer and Tom Rooney for helped a lot with in workshop Warsaw providedme very for useful experience andfeedback for this work. the collectionenormous source of advice, comments and motivation. The participation at the SSRC of research. Ourevery presentmeeting mean was for the and andconsultation encouraged supported constantly and year whole the throughout subject in the interest my developed I would firstof all likeexpress to deep gratitude my to supervisor Miklos Sukosdwho Acknowledgments ii CEU eTD Collection APPENDIX B: List of main questions for journalists interviewees A: List of APPENDIX Bibliography Conclusion 4.2. Fragility currentthe post-revolutionaryof andgovernments domestic instability Elites4.1. lack continuity of and regime change Chapter 4: Explanations for the current state of the post-revolutionary media...... 92 Kyrgyzstan and in Georgia changes media post-revolutionary the on Conclusion 3.3. 3.2.2. Developments and trends in Kyrgyz media after Tulip Revolution 3.2.1. Media in Kyrgyzstan March prior 2005 3.2. Analysis of theKyrgyz Media Revolution after the Rose media in andGeorgian Developments trends 3.1.2. 3.1.1. Media in priorNovemberGeorgia 2003 3.1. Analysis of the Georgian Media...... 51 and Kyrgyzstan...... 50 Chapter 3:Analysis of in the tendencies the post-revolutionary mediaGeorgia in 2.3. Outline of the methodology for the current research...... 44 approaches andand International media watchdogs scores 2.2. organizations 2.1 Theoretical frameworks applied for comparing media systems Chapter 2: Elaboration of theoretical framework and criteria...... 24 1.4. Tulip Revolution in Kyrgyzstan 1.3 Rose Revolution in Georgia 1.2 Triggers of ‘color’ two the revolutions 1.1 Theoretical for framework comparison of revolutionary the uprisings Tulip Revolution in Kyrgyzstan...... 8 Chapter 1: Politicalbackground context and oftheRoseRevolutionin Georgia and Introduction ...... 106 ...... 1 ...... 110 ...... 13 Table of Content ...... 116 ...... 71 ...... 17 ...... 11 iii ...... 71 ...... 51 ...... 94 ...... 117 ...... 25 ...... 73 ...... 8 ...... 39 ...... 54 ..101 ...86 CEU eTD Collection democratizing the state 3 revolutions: recent‘color’ the in Central Eurasia 2 1 is research is focusthis of that prior the inmedia question development The revolutions. the after areaof the to The sameapplies is rule taking. leadership new the direction wecansee which occur, However, bylooking taking new atreforms place are that and prohibitions violations or that capture” Beata Rozumilowicz, and testingStefaan various theoretical questions relatedG. to revolutions Verhulst and their outcome. As Monroe Price, writeKyrgyzstan.a goodground for revolutionsin ‘color’ They Georgia, and Ukraine represent “transitions are, by definition, so-called territory: events inmajor years post-Soviet have half the three seen The last three and not easy to argues that“the association of and revolutions democracy is nomore than an ‘illusion’” Goldstone John theorist Revolutionary revolutions. of results such about skeptical more remain believedit regional could that experts be areasonable Others expectation. and well-grounded democracy. would promote in developments Many and positive bring a country and practitioners rulers of is authoritarian corrupted regimewhich oustingrevolutionary and the purpose uprising centuries. for scientists political and anthropologists, sociologists, of minds has occupied that study of area The causes, dynamics have of and outcomes alwaysrevolutionary a fascinating been uprisings Introduction Monroe E. Price, Beata Rozumilowicz, and Stefaan G. Verhulst, Jeremy D. Popkin, Michael Kimmel S., 3 and there are many factors that influence the performance of influence performance factors many and newgoverningelite. the of the that are there 1 The question that contemporary political scientists may puzzle about is whether a is whether about puzzle may scientists political contemporary that question The whether revolutions recent‘color’ Media and Revolution: Comparative Perspectives Revolution: a Sociological Interpretation . I will consider this question on the example of two out of three instances of (Routledge, 2003), xii. Rose Revolution 4 in Georgia and brought positive changes for themedia broughtpositivechangesfor freedom 1 , (Polity Press, 1990), 3. Media Reform: Democratizing theMedia, (University Press of Kentucky, 1995),10. Tulip Revolution inKyrgyzstan. 2 . CEU eTD Collection University Press), 402. Press), University 5 Ukraine in November2004 (Orange Revolution), and Kyrgyzstanin in March 2005(Tulip Revolution). 4 politics istaking. attitude The government what new the trends media’ wetrace foralso can and as a reflection of the complicated political situation in index the countries.socio-political By looking important an as at theseen be ‘fight also can media in the happening is what believe I revolutions. governmentduringyears.last three goodgroundfor They testingrepresent theimpact of the in changes the seen have countries these of Both Asia. Central and Caucasus – South countriesinvestigation under important represent two regions in international current the affairs mediadevelopmentforidentifying thecurrent likelykey situation. Both and trends drivers the fill in existing media gapby the post-revolutionary research the acomparative of offering my I hope will that work Therefore, media freedom. on the revolutions impactof color the the on beendone work nosystematic is currently there However, societies. in these democratization step countriestowards first viewed asthe of intwo Central Eurasia were Color Revolutions is prerequisite for “media successful Mughan write anecessary democratization” liberalization Anthony and Gunther As Richard government. new a of commitment the test and changes, of trajectory the progress, post-revolutionary cantrace via we which theareas Media isoneof Therefore, this will be the second focal question of this thesis. the way itdoes, how could we explain the current situation inmedia Georgia andKyrgyzstan. is follows that question next the identified, countries both After we have the main changes analyzed and post-revolutionary trends in the area of media in Richard Gunther and Anthony Mughan, By ‘color’ revolutions I here understand recent mass uprisings in GeorgiaNovember in 2003 (Rose Revolution), in Democracy and the Media. A Comparative Perspective 2 why thesituationremainsorunfolds (Cambridge 5 6 . CEU eTD Collection http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=72&release=432 7 phone conversation, November2006. 6 standards” rights human and democratic principles to adherence broader of barometer “a as may bemedia seen independent the of and treatment towards the post-revolutionary media development trends. media development post-revolutionary the of comparison and analysis the for examples good represent cases both Therefore, revolutions. Kyrgyzstan and on Georgia whichfocus due to I factor Another for comparison. case selection limit is their relevantrelative similarity in thesocio-politic and historical backgroundinfluenced also my decision to similarity andfactorsKyrgyzstan’s be such and described. Georgia’s understood to Other are still as of in in The more understudied rather trends currentpolitical the Georgiadiscourse. andKyrgyzstan the trajectorypurposefully of mediaexcludeEven though itit is useful developmentto alsofrom look at Ukraine for its media Asia). my developmentCentral and aftercurrent(Caucasus revolution, part Eurasian I Central its in place taking changes the on analysisrather but prioras I chose totospace on whole post-Soviet the isaimednot thisinterest research of focusis the that revolutions ‘color’ the on the countries so-called experienced that of three countries out two focusthese on I why main reason The that are Kyrgyzstan. trends that follow such major events in the region as recent revolutions in Georgia and tothoroughly important itbelieveits issituationviathe study inthecountry I overall. the prism the media there (understanding of this is, of course, crucial in itself) but also to be able to analyze in the new‘establishing democracies’not isimportant inonly toseewhatorder is going in on stability inin thinklooking country general.I,therefore, that issue atthe media of development JenniferWindsor and ChristopherWalker, “Press Freedom's Grim Turn in the Former Soviet Union”, accessed at Iwould like to acknowledge that this view onmedia was first expressed by my colleague Adam Smith Albion, via 3 on 25 December2006. 7 as well as of the political CEU eTD Collection revolutions under scrutiny have actually brought. These criteria can also be used for further for be used also can criteria These brought. actually have scrutiny under revolutions should allow us to assess revolutionary checklist usedby international of questions Iidentified media six watchdogs two main tht criteria outcomes in the area of the is goal central the This specified. of media and to see what the two whichto identify,we can and compare and changescontrast incountries both time mustover be andmain according mustbe criteria framework elaborated asystematictheoretical revolutions, the after countries different in two systems in themedia trends analyze effectively to In order research. thesis following aimsthus, tofill in existingthe gapin areathis and presentbackgroundinformation for the Georgia and especially of importance changes political thathavehappenedthe countries, inboth the Despite same. be the not should leadership the of change subsequent and revolutions both from results the of expectations our thus and dynamics different completely had events these not or whether conclude and events Kyrgyz and Georgian of development inthe factors that have led to the revolutionary2003 and inKyrgyzstan in March 2005. In this Ianalyzechapter and identify mainfactorsthe uprisings in both countries. I also compare the role of these demonstrations the protestors were holding roses as symbols of non-violence. of symbols as roses holding were protestors the demonstrations uprisingmass and a subsequent peaceful change in thegovernment in Georgia on November2003. During the 8 the changes, media the and post-revolutionary analysisthe of to before proceeding their Therefore, dynamics. understandfor years,first needto media the last these brought and revolutions we 2-3 during they revolutions andcolor what be theoutcome recent of abletotalkthe In order to about ‘Vardebis Revolucia’ inGeorgian means Revolutionthe of Roses, or Rose Revolution. This name was given tothe first chapter first Tulip Revolution of what in look at hashappened thesis of this Georgiawill inNovember 9 in Kyrgyzstan First chapter, largely inKyrgyzstan are understudied. second chapter 4 . Based on the existing literature and literature existing . Basedonthe (Tsitsishvili, David. 2006/13: 1). Rose Revolution 8 in CEU eTD Collection revolutions and will compare the changes between two countries. The research I conducted I research The countries. two between changes the compare will and revolutions analyze the main tendencies that are taking place in the media developmentfew years after the agreement on the flower or color during the revolution at all. People were wearing pink, yellow and red bands. red and yellow pink, wearing were People all. at revolution the during color or flower on the agreement 9 the of aim be countriesEurasia.Central will in for mediathe This the brought two of freedom revolution The central focus of the research is to examine and thesis. this for of the research original major the part represent describe the impact and and the approachconductingto changes interviews the in-depth with journalists and which media experts, the color selection justification interview objects of the Iusedfor the theanalysisandwill sources present data for my research. In the last section of the second chapter I will introduce the major empirical ( media watchdogs international of methodology the briefly discuss Iwill chapter second of the part next In the context. in post-revolutionary media the the systems discusses justifies and applicability identifyingthe forof criteria these comparing and changes in 5) journalistic culture and professionalism; 6) violencejournalists. against The second chapter implementation; its and regulation information of freedom including information, of accessibility of theimplementation and legislation media 1) countries: in other laws; systems media studying to extended 2) government revolutionary media developmentsin cases the Georgia andKyrgyzstan of and also that could be post- of analysis for realistic and applicable useful, most the find I criteria six following The control countries. more even or two between in systems media of comparison at aiming research of state media; 3) scope of independent media; 4) Tulip Revolution(or also People’s Revolution) is a name givento the mass uprising in Kyrgyzstan. There was no third chapter Freedom House of the thesis. In this chapter, using the criteria identified above, I will and Reporters WithoutBorders 5 ) and the applicability of their of applicability the and ) CEU eTD Collection revolutions were well-grounded and justified. first chapter, the at information provided is in Alsomediacountries been situation post-revolutionary the bylookingshaped. back atthe way tothe instability contribute domestic and post-revolutionary threats security dependence", independency and professionalism, equal and unconstrained access to information, and the absence of pressure and ofpressure absence the and information, to access unconstrained and equal professionalism, and independency 10 happened. it has after events the to assigned already aname was “Tulip” assumption, which is to be countries media freedominthesepost-revolutionary thecurrentstateof factors for elaborated in the last formediaessential chapter. freedom in developed second the areas is getting even worse. I will analyze the specific changes by looking atanumber of criteria improvednot hasmedia, situation andincertain thatthe tendenciesthe report to related wecan all at looking overall developments, positive minor some name can we though even that shows fourth chapter fourth questionimportant in byfocusing on Iwill three, next chapter investigation the the continue situation is improving getting or within worse short-term the after period revolutionsthe in the whether and Kyrgyzstan and in Georgia take they direction what and be traced can freedom media in development of trends exactly what on question first my answered having After Decemberand 2006, in Kyrgyz –from March 2005 till December 2006aswell. endthe year.last of at Ilook Thus changesthe inGeorgian media from 2003till November for time a revolution from limit until theperiod included thisset moment research the occurred international organizations and monitoring watchdogs themedia situation incountries. both The For purpose the of this research, of of Thus my work. this secondis: mainquestion media freedom media I shall discuss to which extent our expectations of such ischaracterized by the liberal legislation, level of journalistic 6 fourth chapter fourth 10 what arethepossibleexplanatory I will also look at scores by the , is that elite continuity, "path- continuity, elite is that , ? My ? My initial CEU eTD Collection broadcasters. and outlets ofmedia scheme ownership open and plural bythe and workers, media and journalists towards violence discussingmain their triggers, andcauses dynamics. In by chapter, Ishallstart followingthe first introducingby theRose and Revolutions Tulip and 7 CEU eTD Collection 13 12 to Pr.Andras Bozoki forhis feedback comments and on this paper. 11 and analysis for the we canapply that frameworks astheoretical aswell definitions various of Classical as well as contemporary studies of such phenomena as revolution offer even deeper. revolutions particular a broad range differencesboth uprisings of but and will of their us causes, also allow eachof understand the Kyrgyzstan incomparative revolutions perspective will help not only seethe similarities and us singularitythe iseach thingthatof being compared. us in twoways - to identify the general aspects that underline both things and tosee more clearly to understand it” rightly livingin us that observed withan such attemptage “presents special ethicalimperative to Kimmel Michael countries), bloc andNorthern eastern Ireland to Iran and(from the Nicaragua classicalWritinghis on mass works during time revolutions uprisingsall the of over world 1.1 Theoretical framework for comparison of therevolutionary uprisings Kyrgyzstan in Revolution Tulip and Georgia in Revolution Rose of the background and context 1:Political Chapter anything...of Frenchthe Revolution”. According“(w)hoever Tocqueville looks atFrance only studies to never understand and will scientist. political a contemporary for imperative” ethical a“special as aswell investigation for triggers, dynamics andpresentespecially maynow a challengeoutcomes and opportunity unique years: revolutions in Georgia, Ukraine and Kyrgyzstan. The importance of understanding of their Tocqueville (1970: 111) Kimmelin S.Michael, Michael Kimmel S., grateful I am class. State” the and “Revolution for conducted research and paper final on the based is chapter This 12 . Three major events in the post-Soviet territory took place during last three Revolution a Sociological Interpretation 13 And Otto Hintze correctly writes that comparison helps comparison that Hintzewrites And correctly Otto Revolution a Sociological Interpretation 8 14 , viii. I believe that looking at both Georgian and Georgian both at looking that believe I 11 , 13. CEU eTD Collection evaluations the offor the be used revolutions can they that nonetheless already took revolutions, place. predicting for asinsufficient factors three these Isee State”. the 15 14 alone model Goldstone’s within allowed revolutions. However, in order to have amore complete and comprehensive analysis than the one ‘color’ two the evaluating for Goldstone A. by Jack described criteria will three apply I research. for this comparative of departure point as mymain framework onetheoretical choose of severalsynthesis the apply will I ideasKyrgyzstan and Georgia in processes expressed revolutionary the of comparison by different authors. evaluation of and forrevolutions of processes. purpose revolutionary the In paper this Due to the size limitations of this work I will the possiblethe revolutions ortoseewhether they couldhave been predicted. way towardsarevolutionary Goldstone’sprocess. usethis mainsuggestion is model predict to to is the on meta society we can are say that when three conditions all Goldstone, to According over the redistribution massesmobilized beof power; 3) of populations for can demonstrations. tension and increased is an there from state the alienated become elites demandobedience; 2) three basic trends: 1) the state loses effectiveness and itis nolonger able controlto resources and a move revolutionary share majorsituation stateswhich the is toward claim Goldstone’s that analysis. an such Theda Skocpol, Michael Kimmel and Nikkie Keddie on shouldwhat factors be considered for two cases. two in differed they extent what to and revolutions of development the to contributed factors these whether test will and place taken already have that revolutions evaluate to factors these use only will I research. this of purpose the not is anticipated been have could revolutions not or whether In more detail I have discussed the approach of Goldstone in my PositionPaper #5 forthe class “Revolution and Otto Hintze (1975: 23) in Kimmel S. Michael, 15 Revolution a Sociological Interpretation , Iwill integrate somealso suggestions of Eric Selbin, 9 , 13. 16 The argument The CEU eTD Collection Revolutions 19 Foran ed., 18 17 Revolutions Revolution is downplayed. largely actors role of international Theda Skocpol and NikkieKeddie.Keddie isalsosayingin right that Goldstone’s model the the following framework and aspects for comparison of the the andcombinations Ipropose of approaches, above Therefore, works basedonthediscussed countries. two these in different substantially was role their that is assumption My Kyrgyzstan. and played actors other inGeorgia and role inrevolutions whatorganizations consider international 16 of the The importance two uprisings underinvestigation. individuals andespecially oppositionleaders particular to be assigned can revolutions what role ‘color’ inthe at look ideas, Iwill their studiesofrevolutions. towards approach agent-based individualistic, in the process of revolution” activity human “conscious of role the overlook to not important is it that writes correctly Kimmel Nikki R. Keddie, “Response to Goldstone”, in Nikkie R. Keddie (ed.): Eric Selbin, “Revolution and the Real World: Bringing Agency Back In” in John Michael Kimmel S., Nikki R. Keddie, “Response to Goldstone”, in Nikkie R. Keddie (ed.): Theorizing Revolutions (New York: NYU Press, 1995). (New York: NYU Press, 1995). inKyrgyzstan: Révolution a Sociological Interpretation international factor (London: Routledge, 1997). 17 . Eric Selbin is also one of the supporters of more emotional, in revolutionary the isprocess byboth underlined and their aspirations and how their role differed in 10 19 In this analysis, I believe it is necessary to is necessary it believe I analysis, Inthis , 218. Rose Revolution Debating Debating 18 Therefore, drawing upon Therefore, in Georgia and Georgia in Tulip CEU eTD Collection third place while a pro-Shevardnadze bloc third while apro-Shevardnadze place became clear that November 2 elections were falsified and popular and falsified were elections November 2 that clear became spark from a match caused a hugefirethat a as served in factors they place of other combination the this time with However, elections. parliamentary than previous andthe more open “free democratic they andwere fair”, completely be to failed elections these OSCE to according though even Georgia, in like Kyrgyzstan, deceit, steeped in the corrupt practices, was the reason for the reason wasthe practices, in corrupt the steeped deceit, and manipulation of politics the of rejection “the Cole Eden and Fluri Phillip to According Rose Revolution The 1.2 Triggers of the two ‘color’ revolutions of detailed examination fivethese factors. Building and Security SectorReform”, Vienna and Geneva, July 2005: 9. 21 Révolution a Sociological Interpretation 20 I shall start by looking at what was the Influence of international 5. actors Role of the individuals and strength of the opposition 4. leaders Easily Mobilized 3. population Alienation of the 2. elites Ineffectiveness of 1. the state Table 1:Comparative framework for the analysis of the ‘color’revolutions Philipp H. Fluri and Eden Cole, “From Revolution to Reform: Georgia’s Struggle with Democratic Institution Kimmel is comparing triggerof the revolution to the spark from a match in his book Michael Kimmel S., trigger for both revolutions was fraudulent parliamentary elections. Ironically enough in enough Ironically elections. parliamentary fraudulent was revolutions both for , 10. trigger 20 For a New Georgia . of both revolutions and then will move on moreto 11 received themajority of the seats, Rose Revolution National Movement ” 21 . When it When . wasin CEU eTD Collection Security and Cooperation in Europe, 7April 2005. Accessedat 24 1. 23 Soviet Union 22 fashion” familiar in now street the to take masses and opposition wouldmonthslast successionthe sabotage struggle during hismade of the presidential the term, president the that fear the and corruption, “poverty, Kyrgyzstan about writes Olcott Martha As Tulip Revolution Shevardnadze from wasousted andforced power to sign his resignation. beganoppositiongrow. Twenty to daysprotests November lateron 232003 Eduard evaluation and comparison of at bylooking revolutions two of the comparison evaluation and my main the start will focusthe I areof led leadership research. change the that countries’ of to trajectory’ ‘revolutionary of development the in a role played that factors The countries. both main defining factors the revolutionary process as well revolutionary outcome may indiffer of contribution the However, same. the was revolutions both for trigger the that is obvious It good-will. political “fedFebruary theserumorsAkaev’s squandering aswell most27 andMarch of 13 as remaining in election affect parliamentary the to tried his allies Akaev and fact that Andthe elections. change the constitution and runfor president againin October2005presidential planned he couldthat parliament’ so electhis ‘pocket Akaev to decided manybelieved that elections Martha Brill Olcott, “Lessons of the Tulip Revolution”: 3. Martha Brill Olcott, “Lessons of the Tulip Revolution”, Wheatley, Jonathan (Burlington, USA, 2005), 184-185. Georgia fromNational Awakening toRose Revolution: Delayed Transition in theFormer 24 12 Carnegie Endowment, www.carnegieendowment.org Rose Revolution 23 Testimony before Commissionon . Prior to the parliamentary the to Prior . 22 , 12 December2006: and the first CEU eTD Collection unable to solve.unable to 2003 wasobviously facing anumber of serious problems, problems thattheruling elitewas inNovember elections tothe prior Georgia Thus fragility inGeorgia. of peace showedthe also 26 Press, 199), 71. forpossibilities smuggling, increased capture” incentivesstate for lucrative and,up byopening state Georgian the of authority the followed them undermined that conflicts’ ‘frozen the and andAbkhazia Ossetia “thewarsinSouth writes Wheatley As Jonathan Ossetia Abkhazia. and inSouth warconflicts inthe resulted timesSoviet of Union the from inherited structure administrative-territorial its - Georgia of problems main the of One for Corruption population.was widespread as extremelymanage asitnot unsuccessful in did toprovide anything thepublic regard to goods strength to face the problems of what then became a“failingstate” became then face of what problems the to strength control country the in butalso secondthe term (1998-2003), his touch with reality and political his term first had(1992-1997) seen a substantial decline notonlyin his popularity and ability to inOusted from power November 2003presidentEduard Shevardnadze thoughpopularduring ofthestate Ineffectiveness Revolution1.3 Rose inGeorgia 25 and command in“its obedience” ability resources to effectiveness ‘condition’ and assessing whether we can say that prior to the revolution the state was losing This reference in fact was often applied to characterizing Kyrgyzstan as well. as Kyrgyzstan characterizing to applied often was fact in reference This Nikki R. Keddie, “Response to Goldstone”, in Nikkie R. Keddie (ed.): 27 both on the top level and the everyday situations. everyday the and level top the on both 13 Debating Revolutions 25 28 . 26 . The Pankisi Crisis of 2002 of Crisis Pankisi The . . His government was seen (New York: NYU (New York: CEU eTD Collection 33 Eastern Europe”, in Nikkie R. Keddie (ed.): 32 31 30 29 28 Freedom House 27 process. revolutionary the of for theprerequisite population largegroups was mobilize and organize and opposition well-motivated elite with experienceprevious inthegovernment”. One of the main factors definingof theelites Alienation successful outcome of the Rose Revolution was the “skillful Freedom Square in the capital Tbilisi. capital inthe Freedom Square Charles Tilly in his ‘From work toRevolution’Mobilization Mobilization ofPopulation and his opponents. Shevardnadzebetween split irreversible These markedthebeginning of the Parliament. events later becameZurab who Zhvania Minister. asaJustice resigned time Atthat Saakashvili became apparent. one resources of distribution the for elites political between struggle the camps, ‘conservative’ of the 2001, when mainparty the CUG Union (Citizen’s ‘reformist’ into broke Georgia) of and leading figures during the revolution resigned as Chairman of ability of Mikheil Saakashvilihave allowed for such fast and efficient mobilization of population andin the Georgian case.his The close allies to use their network of contacts around the Jonathan Wheatley, Jonathan Jack AGoldstone, “Why We Could (andShould) Have the ForeseenRevolutions of the 1989-1991 inUSSA and Charles Tilly, Jonathan Wheatley, Jonathan Jonathan Wheatley, Jonathan Jonathan Wheatley, Jonathan “Nations in Transit 2006. Democratization from Central Europe to Eurasia” 32 On November 21, 2003 between fifty and hundred thousand people gathered in 2003 between gathered andhundred people fifty thousand OnNovember 21, , Budapest, 2006: 258. From Mobilization to Revolution 30 Georgia fromNational Awakening toRose Revolution Georgia fromNational Awakening toRose Revolution Georgia fromNational Awakening toRose Revolution Georgia fromNational Awakening toRose Revolution, Debating Revolutions 33 It is possible to distinguish among the main factors that (Addison-Wesley, 1978). 14 (New York: NYU Press, 1995), 51. , 184. , 172. , 191. 221. , e , 31 dited by Jeannette Goehring, by Jeannette dited claimed that the ability to 29 Starting in Starting CEU eTD Collection 35 34 they united their forces to oppose the results and National Movement was therefore joined with however aftertheelections were competitors, they elections place. the During revolution took andsubsequent contested elections fraudulent were of the results leadershipthe which of Zurab Zhvania andNino Burjanadze formed avery andstrong under dynamic the triumvirate The role of individuals three onthe process revolutionary was Mikheilenormous. Saakashvili, Role of the individuals intelligentsia and this gave the demonstrations certain air of respectability. demonstrating on and streets the Freedom Square weremainly middle-aged members of place.timedemonstrations would People what take announcingandexactly at where importantly Rustavi-2by Milosevic. helped toorganize protestors andpro-opposition Most radio played a movie ‘Bringing down a Dictator’ on the role of OTPOR during the overthrow of showed the “Kmara”of advertisement Rustavi-2 movement. had also twice duringthosedays Saakashvili-Burjanadze-ZhvaniaNovember ‘triumvirate’ actively 2elections supported and either. Oneof mainchannelsthe Rustavi-2and pro-opposition the daysfollowingradio during in engage violence. canmedia Role popular of groups be inmobilizing hardly downplayed not did streets the on brought they whom people that sure making for responsible also were They substantial. rather but one, a primary not though was, (“Enough!”) “Kmara” movement factors playedA number revolutionthe in a different of during role Georgia. Role of student the regions travelingandaddressingelections tothe parliamentary there. people country played significant role. Saakashvili has also spent substantial amount of time prior the to Jonathan Wheatley, Jonathan Jonathan Wheatley, Jonathan Georgia fromNational Awakening toRose Revolution Georgia fromNational Awakening toRose Revolution 15 , 184 and 187. , 184 35 34 CEU eTD Collection 37 36 Party. Democratic US tothe affiliated Institute, Democratic National wasthe was enormous impact whose Rustavi-2 channel and newspaper 24 Saati (24 Hours) in US-based2002. Another organization had not trips Serbiaalso fundedGeorgian butactivists andtheir establish only to helpedto The influence of Open Society Institutefalsified bytheauthorities. elections were population results persuade that to counting helped Georgia Foundation (OSI) was substantial parallel vote whose (ISFED), andDemocracy for FairElections Society wasInternational a lot as well. OSI contributed also NGOthat Another OTPOR. Serbian of the predecessor “Kmara”, the movement students’ played the a pivotal inestablishing role Liberty theexamples. Institute is oneof youngininsuring activists andtraining Communication Georgian process. Serbia of its peaceful experience countries of other was indecisive makingthe happenRose Revolution and in Georgia alsoInfluence of international actors serves as an example process. revolutionary the in shaping role important an play actors that shows Georgia of where an international country. overthe all Georgians all addressing and theregions, travelingto streets, the from leavebringing goal office,andheneverdeviatedon people making to this Shevardnadze community, became Saakashvili’s goal manipulated, were results the that he understood when elections, Westernthe after days first very the From happened. have never might revolution whole the him Without NGOs and revolution. the of outcome successful to the most contributed Mikheil Saakashvili Movement leader of National the and charismatic well-educated Young, plannedachieve results. the United Democrats. All of the leaders combined different qualities, which together helped them to Jonathan Wheatley, Jonathan Jonathan Wheatley, Jonathan 37 Georgia fromNational Awakening toRose Revolution Georgia fromNational Awakening toRose Revolution 16 , 186 and 187. , 185. 36 Thecase CEU eTD Collection 39 suffered civil war) wasamongleastinspace. developed post-Soviet the Kyrgyzstan unlike that country (the Tajikistan with together and world in the countries poorest publicfor goods population. the by Infact, early the founditself2000s Kyrgyzstan among the control of main businesses in the country, Akaev was unable to provide the economic growth and 38 of andsupporters” asmallgroup develop the rule oflaw. Instead the political system was increasingly by dominated his family According to Internationalthe Akaev report Crises Group above “failedstem all to or corruption effectively.to managestate the was in startinggetting weaker 1999-2000andAkaev grasp losing of andability was situation the number facing economicsigns that state of evidentare a There enormous politicalproblems. and And once called ‘Central Asian Island of Democracy’ Kyrgyzstan prior to the revolution was Akaev his committed losing popularity wastakingand was rule amoredirection. authoritarian rule” fourteen-year authoritarian In March 2005 popularbrought revolt toan endAskar President Akaev’s“increasingly ofthestate Ineffectiveness 1.4. Tulip Revolution in Kyrgyzstan wereinfluential there. same factors the whether and similartrajectory followed revolution in more detailrole in the revolutionary process and in determiningat its outcome. I willthe now continue by looking Tulip important hadvery factors mentioned above fiveof the all in Georgia caseof the that I believe Revolution in Kyrgyzstan to determine whether or not Kyrgyz “Kyrgyzstan: After the Revolution”, “Kyrgyzstan: After the Revolution”, ICG, International Crisis Group 38 39 . Following controversial oncepopular2000 elections, and . In light of his family deep involvement in the politics and politics in the involvement deep family his of light In . 2005: 1. 17 , Asia Report #97, 4 May 2005: 1. CEU eTD Collection in spring 2005. events of escalation the to contributed undoubtly has This resources. of distribution and politics dominated North in the represented not are elites southern that grievances increasing also were There elites. national and regional key of backing the of lost the facing was Akaev population, his term in the prison at the time of elections. However, along with losing trust and support of his between his and any other well-defined elite group. His main opponent, Felix Kulov, was serving 2004, opposition was still relatively fractious and weak. There wasnoclear fight open for power in formed party Kyrgyzstan) of Movement an Despite (People’s NDK elections. parliamentary GeorgiaIn comparison to opposition Akaevdidnothaveany (and Ukraine), strong tothe prior of theelites Alienation 2000th. was democracygrowing. of Signs tendenciesthe towards seen in early 1990th were vanishing by judicial system credibility was undermined, and the criminalization of the situation in the country borders. During the years ofhis rule“failed Akaev also todevelop key institutions”state Independence August Day on 1999when country’sthe soldiersin were killed southern the in celebrating an for andAkaevcriticized conflicts country, the Batken was weakened also afterbut this his event popularity even among declined hisThe bordersupporters. northern war manage to Akaev’s inalways such inthe than problems. position thewas South weaker North, dead by people wereshot leading police the showed monthsthe Akaev’s to inability of protests, The notorious example of the situation in Ak-Sui district in 2002 (south of the country), when six 18 40 , CEU eTD Collection 40 large urban population, astrong civil andsociety, movement anational-level student – were mobilizations that led to peaceful transfer of power, the engines of change in the formermass all saw Kyrgyzstan and Ukraine, two“while Georgia, – Radnitzobserved correctly a As Scott among wasonly demonstrators 50to100maximum.about toholdrights andinstructions demonstrations onhow toavoid violence. Thenumber of students leadersinexplain partmainly but in of to to students took opposition the their order protests the limited to the discussion of politics were activities was asmall whose It of group intostudents demonstrations. the and involvedactively organization of small forums. At the‘Pora’ end insome Ukraine of thesein fact never had as its purpose the mobilizationStudent of movementthe protestors and was‘KelKel’ not that some observers rushNGOs workers among theto protestors neithercompare in the provinces nor later in the capital. with ‘Kmara’ impoverishedthe hardly southern inGeorgia, And any or provinces. were there unlike students in Georgia or from wererural people of protestors the Most Bishkek. capital to the transported were partially demonstrators the later then and Osh and Jalalabad cities southern the were March and February protests in Kyrgyzstan did not start in the capital at all; the main stage for action through House’ on March 24, 2005when Akaev fromAskar wasousted Unlikepower. inGeorgia, the five thousand demonstrators about - small noticeably was protestors of number the in Kyrgyzstan Georgia, to comparison In Mobilization ofPopulation “Kyrgyzstan: After the Revolution”, 41 and acouple more in ofbystandersthousands werefront of ‘White ICG, 2005: 1. 19 CEU eTD Collection 2006: 133. 42 http://www.rferl.org/featuresarticle/2005/03/00ccc086-6a7d-48f1-9b1b-1d3cb9105b73.html 41 of any strategy” overall opposition “notpart butthey local were overall events’, dissatisfaction, and ‘scattered concerns expressing were protests the in Kyrgyzstan is that point important most The in Kyrgyzstan. masses studentmovementnot be for mobilizationand decisive provedto network NGOs of popular but ties level local clan-kinship and the village on connections Therefore, the protests. Kyrgyz republics” Asian Central other in are they as Kyrgyzstan, in weak to Rustavi-2 channel, one and of mainthe Kyrgyz channels KTR could (that reachtoboth main inin revolutionary Kyrgyzstan.tool hands no thecaseof of Thereopposition is equivalent protests and some of the journalists were critical of Akaev and his politics, the media was not the about wave the of find out could people country the newspapers across of free circulation Media was hardly used by the opposition mobilizeto population. Even though a due relativelyto loyalties and opportunitiescase if he towould make winthat elections, in of whom candidate support the would orwerepromisedthey inextra protection engage protests the dollar police on the was side provinces and villages. Allegedlymany easily wereprotestors also paid a small amount of money to were bribedtoo strong” as well.in in support theirthe tomobilize andfriends protestors partners business relatives, employees, As Borut Grgic writesthe “clanfirst round of elections locally,protestors any without involvementof NGOs. The candidates whodid not pass through or were not evenin weregathering local inprovinces elites recruitKyrgyzstan wereused activists, the to networks allowed to register a whereNGOs’ structure mobilization andGeorgian through top-down was arranged party’s were sporadically using their Scott Radnitz, “What Really Happened in Kyrgyzstan?”, Happened Really “What Radnitz, Scott Jean-Christophe Peuch, “ Kyrgyzstan: Eyewitness to the Revolution”, 25 March 2005, accessed at 44 assuch. 20 Journal of Democracy , Volume 17, Number 2,April 42 . According to him, while him, to According . on 1 April 2007. 43 during the CEU eTD Collection 48 2005, accessed at 47 2007. at accessed 46 trends”, 8 January 2007. revolution inmy paper “Kyrgyz Georgian and Media after the Revolutions: review of the changes and current 45 44 43 were much more modest” goals Their a revolution. have to planned opposition Kyrgyz the in one no Georgia, and Ukraine surroundingalso but tothe opposition leaders themselves. Many “unlikeanalysts agreethat in notonlyAskarWhathis onMarch24cameasasurprise close Akaevand happened to Role of the individuals sources. media local the from than media foreign from first squire main the on happening documentaries nature showing was it revolution, of day the on and broadcaster state-owned is a country) the of part Southern and Northern minister. Kurmanbek was them of One events. March antigovernmental the behind figures visible most two however, Bakiev, for were thepotential of could There presidentcandidate been have predicted. replacement strong no head revolution the to prior days the during Kyrgyzstan in Shevardnadze, to successor a as of the People’s Movement of Kyrgyzstan and a former prime movement itself. the post revolutionary process, however, he playedno substantial role during the revolution released from the prison the same day Akaev left the country, became one of the main leaders at Liz Fuller, “Profile: Roza Otunbaeva”, 25 March 2005, accessed on March 24 President?”, Next be Kyrgyzstan’s Bakiev Leader Opposition Will “Kyrgyzstan: Saidazimova, Gulnoza Jeremy Bransten, “Kyrgyzstan: Was ‘Revolution’ a Worthy Successor to Rose and Orange?”, 8 April 2005, during of KTR role this to refer I also 148. independence”: media of survey global a 2006: Press of the “Freedom Scott Radnitz, “What Really Happened in Kyrgyzstan?”: 135. Borut Grgic, “Revolution, Kyrgyz Style”, 47 http://www.rferl.org/featuresarticle/2005/04/ce2bcfdb-6ed6-4f2c-b63e-b66dde862248.html Second one was Roza Otunbaeva, head of Kyrgyzstan’s (Fatherland) Ata-Jurt was Otunbaeva, one headof Second Roza 48 and former foreign minister. Feliks Kulov, former internal minister, who was who minister, internal former Kulov, Feliks minister. foreign former and www.rferl.org 46 on 9March 2007. . Unlike people Mikheil where could inGeorgia envision Saakashvili IP-Transatlantic Edition 21 45 and many citizens learned about what was learned about andmany citizens , Fall 2005: 49. www.rferl.org on 9 March 2007. on 1April CEU eTD Collection people speak to outand demand butexcept their rights, for such possible inspiration wasnothere might and some hashappenedin what inspiredRevolution. Perhaps have Georgia Ukraine ties” andpatronage networks, informal was involvementno from sidethe of international organizations. “Independent business interests, there is that cases Kyrgyz and Georgian between differences main the of one and dynamics own its had Kyrgyzstan in change The protests. March the during role all) at any (if minor a played independentsingle printinternational However, houseinBishkek. organizations and donors Many local andfunding, Western NGOs inenjoyed support Freedom addition fundedHouse the there. unrestricted predominantly were international organizations of activities country and the violations.highlighted Kyrgyzstan, like Georgia,had alarge numberof NGOs spreadin a Like inGeorgia and fraud in USEmbassy condemned OSCE and elections Bishkek the Influence of international actors very this leading massesto culmination. than deliberately rather chaos, happening their without control on March 24andawholeleadershipleftwithout country in overthrow government fact of faced the who groups opposition fragmented ofthe leaders was present during the unfolding of Kyrgyz events. Rather there was a number of with relatively weak themselves identify population of majority the that figure “romanticized” charismatic single Kyrgyzstan role of individuals and their ideologiesin that playedbelieve I much smallerTherefore, role country. than the for in Georgia.vision and No ideology alternative strong any have where Bakiev didnot win a seat, he did not have any plan to overthrow Akaev. Neither did he parliamentary fraudulentelections against isexceptfor organizing that difference protestors inas importantThe main asSaakashvili’sGeorgia. not was process during therevolutionary Even though Kyrgyzstanof Bakiev became president the followinga March hisrole revolution, 49 – these are the key driving forces behind –theseforces key Tulip arethe driving 22 CEU eTD Collection the expectations were met and whether we can trace any positive dynamics in the area of media.in dynamics areaof any the met andwhether wecantrace were expectations positive the media systems in the next chapter, I will look in the thirdrevolutions.formainin Afteranalyzing havingspecified the changes criteria the and comparing chapter of the thesis at whether or not high of both were expectations the processes, in revolutionary differences the these despite revolutionary outcome and the reasons for a particular state of media in both countries. However, collapse’ ‘state of a process a revolution butjustandwhat many has happened stands situation wasnot there apart argue that Kyrgyz countries. in these effect’ ‘domino the about talk to insufficient still is it elections, space and was post-Soviet triggerrevolutions the of parliamentary the same–fraudulentthe Tulip Revolutions 50 49 international and actors individual strength of leaders opposition and theirideology, andnetworks toolsfor in werethis cases. used purpose And two asinregardtothe influence of different completely however countries, both in mobilized quickly also was Population alienated. were elites and revolutions the to prior weak wasincreasingly state the seethat can we Georgia in as well as Kyrgyzstan In countries. both in same the were revolutions these influenced that factors the whether see to was goal main My Kyrgyzstan. and in Georgia revolutions ‘color’ has applied Via examined revolutions,this evaluating offive factors chapter recent for the prism Conclusion of Chapter One Georgia. that in the dimension case is interesting an therefore Kyrgyzstan Georgia. Serbia and or Ukraine, and Georgia between of the significancelike leaders inthecase opposition or organizations student between transferexperience of of outside influences stands apart from the case of “Kyrgyzstan: After the Revolution”, Scott Radnitz, “What Really Happened in Kyrgyzstan?”: 132. differ substantially. Therefore, though both situations unfolded in the same the in unfolded situations both though Therefore, substantially. differ 50 ICG . These differences may be crucial later in explaining the in explaining later becrucial may differences These . : 9. : 23 Rose and CEU eTD Collection Eurasia”, second draft presented at the SSRC workshop in Warsaw, 14 April 2007: 4. 53 University Press, 2005). highlighted” proand be changecan againstdemocratic areaandthe factors institutional problem in media’regime case typeoccurred asan bea given ’the country. In this can “conceptualized analysis of the changes anduse for I will elaboratedcriteriathe in specifythosewhichIrecommend to discussed thispart tendencies in the mediahave experienced revolutionary in recently of transitions of power a post-communist region. Out system after change of willthe also present government my own argumentsI on applicabilityauthors. other by works of of number theira using criteriaby or extend will I to the that case of discussion countriesthe for background that 52 taught by Catherine Coyer. 51 media offering their conclusions as well as recommendations. But whatmethodology do they International monitor situation the media watchdogsalso organization and relatedto and changes canbe of The variations in only not found literature andapproaches debates. academic the Politics” and Media of Models Three Systems: Media “Comparing in Mancini Paolo and Hallin Daniel by framework The countries. between and time across both systems media comparing for scientists communication and political of number a by used criteria freedom after the revolution.evaluation In the first The mainelaborate is a goal chapter to this systematicof frameworkthat would analytical allow partof ofthe this democraticchapter compared be can revolutions the after I and before media willto which review andperformance discuss according criteria and framework theoretical of Elaboration 2: variousChapter of media and the level of changes in the media Miklos Sukosd, “Media democratization, hegemony and social movements: views from East/Central Europe and Europe East/Central from views movements: social and hegemony democratization, “Media Sukosd, Miklos Daniel C. Hallin and Paolo Mancini, class Resistance” and Power Media, “Global for conducted research and paper final on the based 2 is chapter This 53 . Comparing Media Systems: Three Models of Media and Politics 24 52 will serve as the main the as serve will (Cambridge 51 CEU eTD Collection process of identifying similar trends and causal factors somewhat process of identifying similar examples the Oneof elusive. and trends causalfactors country of this region rather then following an established model for comparison. This makes the each inside performance media areas of different at looking continue still region particular a in media presenting when scholars the of some However, peculiarities. political and historical their in countries, variations the by justified be perfectly may This others. the aside leaving while within one even authors many that bookshows countries different in focussystems media on literature the of A review on different aspects forcomparison The importance ofthesystematicframeworks of media development 2.1 Theoretical Frameworksemphasizing applied for comparing media systems some of them countries. in both is place taking system ofmedia democratization the see whether allow to us that and Kyrgyzstan and Georgia of in cases the media post-revolutionary for comparing applicable any brought positive changes,Iwill conclude byoutlining criteriaI find that most useful and revolutionaryassess would usto specify is allow that of tocriteria focus research special the As the outcomes in the area Reporters withoutof Borders media and usedby framework to see whetherpart of paperIwillthe answer look questions these methodological to bybriefly the reviewing or not ‘color’important in order to evaluate the democraticrevolutions performance of a given government? Inbe to they freedom consider do the andmedia of performance media the Which aspects use? exactly second Freedom House (Paris-based NGO advocating freedom NGOadvocatingfreedom (Paris-based of press). the (Washington-headquartered non-for-profit (Washington-headquartered organization) and 25 CEU eTD Collection 56 University Press, 2005), 2. 55 theoretical framework for comparing post-revolutionary media, I will go beyond frameworks gobeyond Iwill media, post-revolutionary for comparing framework theoretical inestablishing Therefore, of development. aspects country specific or aregion countries within developed less at look we when validity their lose may democracies Western in media the of to the region of the worldhe or she focuses on. Some criteria of comparison useful for analysis application its justify be ableto but to analysis for frameworks theoretical working develop the and identify to only not is scientist comparative the of challenges the of one believe I Thus ones”. Asian perhaps advanced mediaabout politics have and limited valuefor developing especially countries, appliedanywhere” unproblematically be it could literatureasthough thatborrowed treat –andto literature French the American or pattern often emerges: atendency borrowto the literature of other countries – usually the Anglo- another research, media of traditions developed less with countries “in observed rightly Mancini As another. model works in Hallinpart of than world the to rather one that transferring and be developed, to framework adjusted new or completely weneeda region for adifferent Often, countries. inbetween particular differences and similarities whole region, itlacks the systematic framework for comparison the for trends that major couldshow to also allow attempting us to see countries American Latin the of in each tendencies development media the of overview historical enriching an offers it While Fox. Elizabeth 54 of issuch works in America: “Media and the StruggleLatin forDemocracy” Politics Duncan McCargo, Duncan Daniel C. Hallin and Paolo Mancini, Elizabeth Fox, Media andPolitics in Latin America: the Struggle for Democracy Media and Politics in Pacific Asia 56 Comparing Media Systems: Three Models of Media and Politics 55 . And Duncan“many according to McCargo arguments (London, 2003) 1. 2003) (London, 26 (Bristol,London, 1988). (Cambridge 54 by CEU eTD Collection time after the revolutions. the area mediaof in transition countries or are hard to objectively measure within short period of in main changes of fortracing thepurpose important not asthey are either canbeomitted believe I parallelism) political and development market (media criteria two first The analysis. media post-revolutionary the for used be can professionalism journalistic of level and intervention state system. media inthe intervention development; 2) political parallelism; 3) journalistic professionalism; and 4)the level of the state media 1) market andcompared: democracies areanalyzed inconsolidated which media systems to according criteria, main four offer Mancini and Hallin revolutions. of a wave experienced recently have that republics developing post-Soviet Kyrgyzstan, and Georgia as countries countriestarget andargue which for will of be the mediathem could adopted analysis insuch of few next Iwill atparagraphs look framework the they comparative analysis the used for in their and Gurevitch. They framework exclusivelyapply their for consolidated the democracies. In the European American and such building on previousdemocracies the North works byBlumeras book Three Models InWestthey of Politics”. media ineighteen this Media and institutions study Systems: Media “Comparing in Mancini Paolo and Hallin by Daniel is presented systems media of the for comparison framework theoretical on the works comprehensive recent One of the Review oftheexisting approaches anddevelopmentframework ofthetheoretical mediaincrease or of of freedom. media and decrease the performance democratic inbe during able important order theto changes transitional phases the especially totrace in the are which criteria those andwill specify regimes for thedemocratic established already 57 I will argue that out of these four dimensions the degree of 27 CEU eTD Collection 59 58 57 deep implications for the development mediathe of as institutions” political has press amasscirculation absenceof “the or presence that authors the agreewith I absolutely segments. divide newspapers; andmedianational languagefactors into whethertheseparate market and local, regional, of have presence markets abalanced whether newspaper readership’), newspapers exist, of readership inthe notgenderdifferences or comparison arewhether into included aspects they what is Other the communication. social and quality political the in role their and newspapers, these of audience of the papers (whethernature andtarget number specific adults, aims, atthe of look atthe quantity pressper the of to it is just ‘yellow development press the masscirculation of or weakness press’ or ‘eliteIn firstthe criteria appliedby specialHallin andMancinithe emphasisis putupon MarketDevelopment Media effort, I believe should be directed at such aspects as changes in the legislation, journalistic as inlegislation, changes such the at aspects I bedirected believe should effort, underdeveloped countries. In analyzing Georgian andKyrgyz media recentafter revolutions, our the prior change that we would expect to take placenot is it after is that the criteria regime first change Mancini’s and inHallin the omit me to economically for reason important most the Also obviously for needed changes in numberthe newspapers, of their quality and readershiptooccur. is time More revolutions. after time of period short within system media in the changes be for comparing applied cannot democracies, for consolidated relevant very though criteria, criteria shows one of the main differences among media systems. However, I believe that this Daniel C. Hallin and Paolo Mancini, Daniel C. Hallin and Paolo Mancini, Daniel C. Hallin and Paolo Mancini, 58 Comparing Media Systems Comparing Media Systems Comparing Media Systems 28 , 24. , 22-26. , 21. . Within suggest. criteria theauthors this 59 and that this the strength CEU eTD Collection country authors recommend to look at a number of indicators particular a in strength its and parallelism’ ‘political of level the assess to in order And world. in neutral anywhere the journalism be can absolutely that state hardly is argument wecan that 1. Media Media content; the extent to which media reflects their political orientation. 1. Table 2:Indicators of the strength ofthepresence of‘political parallelism’ professionalism. This is the next, third criteria that Hallin and Mancini discuss. journalistic isthe level of culture of of journalistic asone aspects the bethe considered could infact, criteria that, important very Another overall. revolutions after culture journalistic such and for changes of reviewingthe practices’ indicators, role,as ‘journalistic orientation the analysis of Georgian over thelimited periodAnd of ratherthen time. forapplying this criteria with andall six indicators Kyrgyz media, I think trace to areimpossible indicators these of insome changes However, leadership. country’s the it would in be change useful revolutionary the after changed loyalties political to how see to adoptnecessary is it believe I some of these Source: Adopted from: Daniel C. Hallin, Paolo Mancini, Journalistic “Comparing Media Systems”:role, 28. orientations and practices. 6. Partisanship of media 5. audiences Tendency for the careers of media personnel to 4. be shaped by pol. Tendency affiliations. of media personnel to be active in political 3. life. Organizational connections between media and political parties 2. is Mancini and Hallin by highlighted criteria second The Political Parallelism regime. previous to incomparison of ‘censorships’ asways journalists of harassment and intimidation media, and ease the control the of to newauthorities willingness of the culture, 29 60 ‘political parallelism’ : . The main CEU eTD Collection Public Spheres as Contexts of Professionalism”, 62 Contexts of Professionalism”, Contexts 63 Eurasia”, second draft presented at the SSRC workshop in Warsaw, 14 April 2007: 8. 65 64 61 by market. been continuously challenged logic of the the is journalists of ‘autonomy’ The difficulties. financial survive and profit receive to necessity the from pressure sideof influencestheirthe butalso economic performance authorities the pressure, by Hallin and Mancini and widely by aswellused authors other can beappliedfor analysis the introduced this criteria that believe I journalism. investigative the to of weakness the contribute andlack of salaries fortime on a story)” working of limited resources publishers(low the from journalists Laura basic dimensions of Ruusunoksa the that writes include“autonomy the of professionalism thechanges reflects independence. in media ‘watchdog’ the government. of the watchdog asthe voiceconcerns and serving their to out public for possibility the the of providing reporting, andquick accurate include journalisticWeaver, roles to area. According in experts in journalisticdefinition line of other several the professionalismgoes of that with 60 public normstoward service. orientation and level professional autonomy,of defined factors of the journalistic professionalism. Other dimensions the are andeducation training only many notdefining In comparison classicaloccupations, to are important here as well, such as Journalistic Professionalism Weaver, 1998 in Laura Ruusunoksa, “Public Journalism and Professional Culture. Local, Regional and National and Regional Local, Culture. Professional and Journalism “Public Ruusunoksa, inLaura 1998 Weaver, Laura Ruusunoksa, “Public Journalism and Professional Culture. Local, Regional and National Public Spheres as Spheres Public National and Regional Local, Culture. Professional and Journalism “Public Ruusunoksa, Laura Miklos Sukosd, “Media democratization, hegemony and social movements: views from East/Central Europe and Europe East/Central from views movements: social and hegemony democratization, “Media Sukosd, Miklos Laura Ruusunoksa, “Public Journalism and Professional Culture”: 12-13. Daniel C. Hallin and Paolo Mancini, Daniel C. Hallin and Paolo Mancini, 62 Therefore, I believe any change in the role of journalists as a government’s as journalists of role the in change any believe I Therefore, market Javnost: thePublic and Comparing Media Systems Comparing Media Systems administration Javnost: the Public , Slovenia,, 2006: 4. 30 and the and , 36-38. , 27-28. , Slovenia, 2006: 2. 64 position of the public ofthe position Also as Miklos Sukosd writes “the writes Sukosd Miklos Alsoas ” 63 . Not only . 61 Their 65 CEU eTD Collection Reform: Democratizing the Media,Democratizing the State 67 Democratizing the State 66 workwiththe media of andtolerance viewpoints but also the elaboration of the code of ethics as well as seminars that could instruct politicians on by Rozumilowiczare also includejournalists, notonly for outlined andBeata schemes training unions were established after the revolutions. Other examples that could be done in that direction networking and journalists,training for willidentify and whether new journalistic councils and environment the perceive journalists themselves I will also borrow the second possibilitiesthe for investigative thorough journalism and growth of professional standards. aspect from the on-going debate and see whether and how Kyrgyzstan, the main focus will be on the ‘ Thus, in order to compare journalistic professionalism in the post-revolutionary Georgia and brought. have revolutions the autonomy journalistic of level in the changes what at look to is important it criteria of this And aspart mediatrends. of post-revolutionary the political or other actors with narrow interests and away from from independence” andaway interests with narrow actors other or political from mediasee “forcesupport to maycontinue to asweakeconomies journalists’ dependence the to significantly contribute however may Kyrgyzstan and Georgia both in conditions Financial independencerevolutionsmore from arethat expectations would sideof bringthe the authorities. minimum a At run. short the in it for changes any brought revolutions not or whether and above Beata Rozumilowicz, “Democratic Change: a Theoretical Perspective”, in Monroe Price and others, and Price Monroe in Perspective”, Theoretical a Change: “Democratic Rozumilowicz, Beata Monroe E. Price, Beata Rozumilowicz, and Stefaan G. Vernulst, . I also think it is useful to see what was done in those countries to facilitate the (Routledge, London and New York, 2002), 19. changes in their changes professional norms and working autonomy 31 67 (Routledge,London andNew York, 2002), 17. . ’ of journalists from all the forces identified forces the all from journalists ’ of Media Reform: Democratizing theMedia, 66 thus also limiting also thus Media CEU eTD Collection 69 68 regime” of previous the overthrow revolutionary “occur through that transitions’ ‘ruptured calls she of what period mark the often media forsectors” all framework of alegislative establishment (such as statutes on legislation various media of enactment “the writes access Rozumilowicz Beata As taken place. has to information, defamation, ownership, content and so on) and the is systems The last by Hallin and Mancini, and as I believe, the most important criteria for comparing media Role of the State very first aspect of analysis when we look at the changes in the post-revolutionary media. in look at changes we post-revolutionary aspect of when the analysis the very first major the be the should media legislation think that I rule. authoritarian old of collapse the since changes illustrate and commitment democratic their about lot a say would legislation media liberal more introduce to werewilling new governments not whether or fact andthe transitions’ freedom is legal establishof adequate structure imperative guarantees media in the to effective order and media of performance democratic securing for basis fundamental is the legislation Media Media legislation andits implementation media. service state of control government 2) and implementation; their and legislation media the especially init thisresearch.Iwould inmore therefore split look and into:in 1)changes detail criteria separate be astwo should Ithink viewed they interconnected, aspects areclosely both legal aspects. as well as media of ownership state ways of other and broadcasting Beata Rozumilowicz, “Democratic Change: a Theoretical Perspective”: 14. Perspective”: Theoretical a Change: “Democratic Rozumilowicz, Beata Daniel C. Hallin and Paolo Mancini, 70 69 . BothKyrgyzstan undergoing and Georgia arenow of process ‘ruptured the . Legislation reform is expected to be the first one to come after the change of regime the roleofstate Comparing Media Systems . In these criteria they suggest to look at public the suggestto they state these criteria . In 32 , 40-41. 68 Even though Even CEU eTD Collection 74 SEENPM, Ljubljana, Slovenia, 2004), 10. 73 72 Sector Reform Edenand Cole 71 70 hasbeen there letter of lawthe countries, the and therehasbeenreality” former socialist in other as “inGeorgia, observes Kokashvili asMarina sametime, the At answer the also we media owns who of question question the answering “by note Petkovic Brankica and Hrvatin of who holds the As Sandra in a country. occurred power of reins othertransition any or after revolutionary the at of power” Government control of state service media is also one of the most important dimensions to look service control of state mediaGovernment these laws (courts, culture of censorship etc) is imperative as well. administers that structure Institutional hinder process. that the factors there whether laws and criteria it is alsoimportant to look what was done towards the actual implementation of the new media: 1) media legislation and its implementation, 2) state control of media; 3) journalistic 3) media; of control state 2) implementation, its and legislation media 1) media: post-revolutionary in the changes the of identification and analysis the for importance utmost be of to I consider that three criteria identified thefollowing I Media Systems”, “Comparing by work Hallin andMancini on latest the on with the focus Based literature reviewed the on plurality of ownership orwhether itis rather concentrated in the hands of few is a there whether see Wealso shall pressure. of type other any exercise authorities whether the maintainswhether broadcasting andnew government and of ownership mainoutlets, stations Brankica Petkovic, Brankica Petkovic, Brankica 19. Perspective”: Theoretical a Change: “Democratic Rozumilowicz, Beata Marina Kokashvili, “The Role of 19. Media in Georgia’sPerspective”: TransitionTheoretical a Change: to “Democratic Democracy”. Rozumilowicz, Chapter Beata 10 inPhilipp H. Fluri . Vienna and Geneva, July 2005: 1 , From, Revolution to Reform: Georgia’s Struggle with Democratic Institution Building and Security Media OwnershipMedia and its Impacton MediaIndependence and Pluralism OwnershipMedia and its Impacton MediaIndependence and Pluralism 33 73 . Withinat criteria welook shall this 72 71 . Therefore, within. Therefore, this 74 , 10. Institute, (Peace . CEU eTD Collection 1 Table 3:Mainproblems related tothe democratization of the media institutions media” the of performance of democratic the indicators identifyingone may derive and measurable dimensions keyfactors, comparative define these Eurasia”, second draft presented at the SSRC workshop in Warsaw, 14 April 2007: 5-10. 2007: April 14 Warsaw, in workshop SSRC the at presented draft second Eurasia”, 77 Eurasia”, second draft presented at the SSRC workshop in Warsaw. 14 April 2007: 5. 76 the in media comparing for framework countries after revolutionsof the based on his findings. elaboration the for background a as and area this in interest my of 75 East/Central Europe and Eurasia”,second draft presented at the SSRC workshop Warsaw.in April 14,2007: 5-10. Source: Adopted from Miklos Sukosd, “Media democratization, Internet hegemony socialand movements: views from 12 Commercialization control of media 11 Media 10 ownership 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 assuch institutions media the of democratization related to the main factors applied for the analysis of media trends in the post-communist countries. are in classified this work factors detailed and developed The Eurasia’. East/Central Europe from Views Movements: Social and Hegemony ‘Justice, of issues tothe devoted workshop in atthe comparingmedia thebyMikloswas post-revolutionary context Sukosd presented more One recentwork on inwhich we buildupon identifyingcan maincriteriathe for the should be added. more criteria several analysis more complete a for Ibelieve However, culture/professionalism. Miklos Sukosd, “Media democratization, hegemony and social movements: views from East/Central Europe and Europe East/Central from views movements: social and hegemony democratization, “Media Sukosd, Miklos and Europe East/Central from views movements: social and hegemony democratization, “Media Sukosd, Miklos Iwould liketo acknowledge thisthat work by SukosdPr. served as a main initial stimulus forfurther development Censorship by killing: violencejournalists against Journalism cultures Nationalist hegemony media minority ethnic and minorities by media to Access and implementation its information of Freedom regulation media structures Independent implementation their and laws Media control Government service media of state/public Structural censorship: limitations on human rights 34 76 . Sukosd in presented twelve . Sukosd work this 75 As Sukosd writes “by As writes Sukosd 77 : CEU eTD Collection power” of instrument fundamental a and commodity valuable “increasingly becamean societies democracies outperform established ones” kindly forwarded to me by Miklos Sukosd on11 May 2007. 78 media democratization. in tendencies post-revolutionary if byjournalists tofully the we are understand information togovernment-held of access the in examine area the changes the is important to it Therefore, its democratization. to impediments andjournalists notonly undemocraticreflect tendenciesinsidebutalso acountry serious present media for representatives by its accessset authorities barriers to and information of Manipulation society". of open an to requestand receiveinformation on workingsthe of is one their governmentof hallmarks the As James Goldstone from the Open Society Justice Initiative rightly stated "the ability of citizens isimportant thenew government’s willingness to provide accessinformation to on timely basis. is butwhat withalso legislation, connected isclosely criteria information of Accessibility Access toInformation andcontrol. information of‘censorship’ as themeans access of authoritarian ousted the thatusedintimidationregimes journalists andof barriers towardsthe to itchanged incomparison and how leadership takes tendenciesnew the the that demonstrate effectively can aspects these section, preceding in the identified factors three the to addition information;journalists;media. 3)scope of independentthe access to 2) violenceagainstIn 1) more aspects: three research my comparative for Iwill apply I haveencountered that literature sufficiently in not by and are Out of elaborated criteria identified that Sukosd other twelve the Open Society Justice Initiative, press release/e-mail on “New study on access to information finds young finds information to access on “New study on release/e-mail press Initiative, Justice Society Open 79 and access to it may significantly influence the process of democratization. process influencethe itmay significantly and to access 78 Bozoki and other authors Bozoki rightly authors information say and other inthecontemporary that 35 CEU eTD Collection 80 Democracy in Europe: trends, analyses and reforms 79 actors” non-state or state bypowerful victimization from protected investigative reporters, Transit” theyask:“are journalists,especially in “Nations In ofvictimization. journalists aretargets not atwhetheror aredirected of questions addressand Inmost factor. measurewatchdogs this anumber (FH)reports of Freedom the House media and organizations international how at look to is useful it criteria, this Regarding only in the mediaand freedom but democratization its also in humaninthe right general. not place taking tendencies the on report can we pressure, of type such of nature and frequency change the by looking over atthe Therefore, countries. in non-democratic the media employees and journalists silence applied andthreaten to forms often cruel of journalists arethe pressure of harassment property, outlets life andmedia theiron attacks journalists, Violence against Violence against Journalists with new authorities. life communication and professional I am to examinecountries this will be one of the main questions to be includedwhat intomy survey. Under this criteria in both journalists changesinterviewing while importantly Most publications. Internet and articles after the via tothis related issueavailable secondary the sources beevaluatedbasedon This criteria will revolution journalists experience in their everyday nongovernmental actors for their legitimate journalistic activities, and if such occur, are are they if and such occur, activities, journalistic forlegitimate their actors nongovernmental they imprisoned,journalistsask “are threatened,killed arrested, beaten, or by or government “Nations in Transit 2006”, Transit in “Nations Trechsel, H. Alexander and Schmitter, C. by Philippe coordinated others, and Bozoki Andras Freedom House : 14. (Council of Europe Publishing, Belgium, 2004), 108-109. 36 80 ? inAnd “Freedom in theWorld Survey” The Future of CEU eTD Collection www.freedomhouse.org 81 of in change situation the the brought us ascompletepossiblethat picture of ruling elitethe show can that and revolutions the after run short in the importance utmost the of be to consider thatI sixfactors Ihave elaborated and experts scholars media andother Rozumilowicz Price, Based onthevarious existing developed criteria Hallin intheworksof Sukosd, andMancini, of the country. new leadership the media with controlling elites and cultural new between economic connection is the what and revolution, the after decreased or increased newspapers and stations private towards pressure and of control the whether discuss Iwill criteria this Under criteria. this within criticismtowards media expressed though pressure on plays also arole indefining changes tolerance governments’ thenew of The level time. over differences substantial the illustrate journalistsindependence of government control media)of state is very also important in identifyingterms of freedom and on criteria the with connected is italso closely media (though of independence as Such criteria Scope of Independent Media main mission is to trace violations against journalists all over the world. fairly andinvestigated and prosecuted expeditiously?” information issue information on by this can isbe found the resources against journalists, onhuman limitations rights inrevolution with years comparison it: after three and will in the findingdescribe years place to two-three prior situation took that criteriaquestions inmyfifth for assessing “Freedom of the World Survey”, Freedom House, Methodology, 2006 Edition, accessed at on 29 November 2006: 13. 2006: November 29 on 82 . The fact whether and to what extent independent media exists can media exists independent what extent to and whether fact . The 37 section. Another main source where reliable where source main Another section. 81 . I will therefore, build on these Reporters without Borders violence , whose , CEU eTD Collection 2002), 27-46. and others, Media: Southern Europe and Latin America in Comparative Perspective”, compare media compare and in Perspective”, Comparative Latin America Europe Southern Media: the and Clientelism “Political article in their Papathanassopoulos, Stylianos and Hallin C. Daniel journalists” of professionalization and decentralization, autonomization, media, the of “demonopolization place take must processes following the system themedia of evolution for the that states Jakubowics 83 82 media. of technologization and internationalization in commercialization, factors China: Jackliberalization Qiu,analyzingunder authoritarianism, Linchuan following atthe media look and Chan Man Joseph example, For mentioned. be should that system media within changes and media performance of on evaluation discourse in current the works of number other There area Violence against journalists, limitations 6. on human rights Accessibility of information, including freedom of information regulation 5. and Journalistic culture and 4. professionalism Scope of the independent media 3. State Control of 2. Media Media legislation and its implementation 1. Table forcomparing media 4: Theoretical framework post-revolutionary essential elements. its are and media freedom of concept the reflect issues These mediademocratization. areaof the Joseph Man Chan, and Jack LinchuanQiu, Kate Coyer, e-mail notes on 16 April 2007. its implementation Media Reform: Democratizing the Media,Democratizing the State 84 . China: Media Liberalization under Authoritarianism 38 (Routledge, London and New York, , in Monroe Price 83 Karol CEU eTD Collection RWB in their surveys, emphasize the important aspects of their methodology atmethodology aspects oftheirimportantpointout andRWB in surveys, the emphasize their byFH targeted and the mainaspects describe briefly section I shall freedom speech. In this of and media including liberties civil in violations monitoring of area inthe well-known most the 88 87 Perspective”. Comparative in America 86 #7 for the class 85 Democratizing the Media,Democratizing the State 84 FreedomHouse 2.2. International organizations and media watchdogs approaches and scores time.over government the of change revolutionary identified above in linethat Ihave of media with andanumber them those forgo across systems, compare changes the concrete casesThus of thethese analysis works of thealso media give democratization autonomous profession. us a good exampleafter public broadcasting andbroadcast regulation, and development limited journalismthe of as an of of thepoliticization media, owned privately of possibleinstrumentalization reporting, advocacy of tradition a circulation, newspaper criteria of level low as: such characteristics common share countries European to look at clientilism. political of whenconcept we development, the authors aim to examine the similarities of both regions by using inpolitical thesimilarities and share connection historical have regions theoretical both Since countries). America (three and Europe(4countries regions: Latin studies) case systems Southern intwo Website of the Reporters Without Borders: Without Reporters the of Website House: Freedom the of Website Daniel C. Hallin, Stylianos Papathanassopoulos. “Political Clientelism and the Media: Southern Europe and Latin In more detail I have discussed this work by Daniel C. Hallin, Stylianos Papathanassopoulos in my PositionPaper Karol Jakubowics, “Media in Transition: The Case of Poland”, in Monroe Price and others, Global Media, Power andResistance 87 and Reporters WithoutBorders 86 www.freedomhouse.org 85 They claim that mass media in Latin American and South and American Latin in media mass that claim They http://www.rsf.org/rubrique.php3?id_rubrique=280 (Routledge, London and New York, 2002), 203. . 39 88 are two non-for-profit organizations that are that organizations non-for-profit aretwo Media Reform: CEU eTD Collection Freedom House 89 independence. media for as of situation the thedeterioration reflects in score the The increase one). previous of not the year (but particular inmedia of exactly that situation the year represent under each scores the indexes, other with be consistent to and confusion avoid to in order overtime, scores thesituation year2004intheFHtables the of reflects of mediafor putunderyear independence examplein yearpreceding it, thescore the 2005fact citizens” private for access andpress, Internet harassmentjournalist, of editorial independence, emergencethe of a financiallyviable private includinglibel laws, of “thecurrent state press freedom, extent, differentthough to the addresses, The section on as by the “Freedom of the Press” publication. well as Kyrgyzstan and Georgia on report in Transit” “Nations the of section Media Independent provided bythe mostly overtime atdata look my In I will and“Freedom Press”. research the of “Nations in infound atCrossroads”, “Countries “Freedom include: World Transit”, Survey”, the Freedom House’s regular annual publications where the assessment and analysis of media can be Freedom House publications analysis. chapter next in I apply the that scores their tabulating and inreflecting I havemade that adjustment certain “Nations in Transit 2006. Democratization from Central Europe to Eurasia”, edited by Jeannette Goehring, by Jeannette edited Eurasia”, to Europe Central from Democratization 2006. inTransit “Nations , Budapest, 2006: 10. Independent Media of ‘Nations Freedom of the in House’s publication Transit’ 40 89 . The score under the certain year evaluates certain underthe . Thescore . However, in my analysis and tables of the CEU eTD Collection www.freedomhouse.org 95 political environment, andeconomic political for themedia.environment, environment 94 Research Onyshkiv in their presentation “Data Aggregation and Measuring Democracy”the on 93 92 91 Freedom House 90 associations; law implementation, plurality view violence points, of journalists, against freedom and form to questionsthe focus onthechecklist around issues: following ownership,legal the andaspects FH methodology as such about raised criticism of points many the of one perhaps is components the between connection of them has a number of countries, theirmethodology theirthroughout publications isnot consistent and each different While theFreedom House publications offer acomprehensive of review in situation the a set of the questions infree flow of news and information” the checklist. the which eachcountry permits to Free’ based on“the degree (NF) ‘Not and Free’ ‘Partly (PF), This lackassigned ascore ranging from 0 (best) to 100(worst). The countries are classified as‘Free’ (F), of internal logical operate” country in in each which media the environment’ of provide entire ‘enabling the seeks “apicture to whichThe “Freedom Press” isannuallythe of report, World issued on the day, PressFreedom laws,funding, and assessment of violence againstjournalists tend to be emphasized. some of the questions thought publications are closely correlated, while others differ across two across differ others while correlated, areclosely publications thought questions some of the “Freedom of the World Survey”, Freedom House, Methodology, 2006 Edition, accessed at “Nations in Transit 2006”, Transit in “Nations Yuriy and Matyasi by Jozsef offered were methodology House ofFreedom criticism of detailed points other The xix. independence”: media of survey global a 2006: Press of the “Freedom xxi. independence”: media of survey global a 2006: Press of the “Freedom “Freedom of the Press 2006: a globalsurvey of media independence”,edited by Karin Deutsch Karlekar, class, January 2007. 94 , New York, 2006: xxi. in “Freedom inthe Survey”suchissues World the and ascensorship, prohibitions 90 . Thethreemain measured categories are that hereinclude legal environment, on 29 November 2006: 13. 2006: November 29 on Freedom House 93 . While in the section of independent media in the “Nations in Transit” 92 . : 14. 41 91 In this survey countries are Comparative Political 95 As we see, CEU eTD Collection 2005 –in 167 countries of world.the journalists. against include2006 atfinding 50questionsdifferent directed ways out of intimidation pressure and year the for Index composing for RWB by used questionnaire The globe. the around countries in years freedom theof four measures state press the last by RWBduringcompiled the the journalistsagainst and protect to journalists andmedia employees. The annual World Press Index The main mission of the Borders Without Reporters years. anumberof inside acountry over http://www.rsf.org/article.php3?id_article=19390 99 it still remains onecriticism about FH methodology ofand some concerns over the occasional inaccuracythe of their data, most useful sources of tracing the complicating the process of interpreting the changes in scores over time. over in scores changes the interpreting of process the complicating in (especially 1990 stricter FH’s become for with criteria scores time the warns that 98 97 University of Notre Dame, March 1997. 96 by highlighted Larry “Is inhis Diamond Wavepaper the Third over?”. of Democratization Another point of concern when working with FH data objectives. different and scores over a number of onthemediabe publications reflections due to though freedom; could which their somewhat years was RWB, Questionnaire for Compiling World Press Index, accessed at Name of this organization in French:13. 7and assessment”: empirical An over? ofdemocratization wave third the “Is Diamond, Larry Larry Diamond, “Is the third wave of democratizationover? Anempirical assessment”, working paper #236, 99 Inyear freedom 2006RWB press in analyzed conditions 168 countries, Reporters Without Borders Reporters 98 survey Reporters SansFrontiers Reporters , 7April 2007. 42 (RWB) organization is to monitoris organization violations to (RWB) overall democratic development 97 Despite the existing the Despite th ) thus 96 He CEU eTD Collection 101 100 comparative research. of current the final results the supports overtime evaluation their toseewhether inorder last thirdchapter part of the the in presented be will RWB FHand both by Georgia and Kyrgyzstan in revolutions the after and trends. The tables reflecting in experts’ tohaveopinions order maximally media analysis of objective post-revolutionary the changes in the scores and andmedia journalists’ local mythe with of research and results the compare contrast also media freedom developments I examination, and basedresearch before onamore detailed sources secondary of use anumber other I analysis current the In conclusions. inour on rely would we that source only be the not should mediaby watchdogs the dataprovided the freedom However, by country. when media assessing In the analysis presented in the third chapter in.stepped I will use some of newleadership abusesthe mediaafter in rights human and place areaof the taking tendencies the FH as the well uncover to help also can asa revolution) after and RWB(before overtime Index Press dataWorld only Comparing between 2005andSeptemberSeptember events of 2006. on results the their based are andscores ratings the for theyear2006, For example and starts ends with September. andvice-versa. year remains if same, itsthe year score even to from bechanged can a country of Arank in a country. freedom of press state overall the reflect for thisrespect freedom” and respect ensure madeto in efforts the by state and the eachcountry, enjoy organizations RWB the According degreeof freedom to the journalists this andnews index“reflects website, Reporters without Borders, accessed at accessed Borders, without Reporters at accessed Borders, without Reporters 100 . Each of the fifty questions is assigned a rank and a score that in sum http://www.rsf.org/rubrique.php3?id_rubrique=639 http://www.rsf.org/rubrique.php3?id_rubrique=639 43 101 The calculation of year the Thecalculation of , 9May 2007 , 9May 2007 CEU eTD Collection 102 practices” democratic andof stabilization hinder development or the promote processes reform these how and reform represent that conditions the of assessment reasonable a indeveloping assists it“a framework comparative put al Pricecorrectly As et Monroe Violence against journalists, limitations 6. on human rights Accessibility of information, including freedom of information regulation 5. and Journalistic culture and 4. professionalism Scope of the independent media 3. State Control of 2. Media Media legislation and its implementation 1. Table forcomparing media 4: Theoretical framework post-revolutionary systems: media post-revolutionary other to extended be also could that and Kyrgyzstan media and inthe casesof Georgia revolutionary post comparing for and realistic applicable most The brought. useful, see the revolutions Ifind actually followingcriteria to what ‘color’ that should allow us to assess revolutionarychecklist of questions used bytwointernational media Iidentified watchdogs six main criteria outcomes in the area of media democratizationcountries and changes inboth which and contrast we compare to andaccording main criteria elaborated overtime was isto media freedom. second chapter Themain the beof thatof ingoal could expected orderchanges where areas the of One period. post-revolutionary the to during country the in changes trace main Recent ‘color’ revolutionstendencies. present anew challenge on how to assess their outcome and main Framework Theoretical Based on2.3. Outline of the methodology for the current research the existing literature and Monroe Price and others, and Price Monroe its implementation Media Reform: Democratizing theMedia,Democratizing theState 44 , 1. 102 . Different . CEU eTD Collection of post-revolutionary media in Georgia and Kyrgyzstan. Especially there is a lack is a of there Especially Kyrgyzstan. and in media Georgia of post-revolutionary As Ihaveis doneinthe nosingle arguedinthe introduction,there research comprehensive area selection. objects interviews’ of the justification here, a andwill andsurveys present applied anumber sources acknowledge unpublished of itsanalysis verification. for and explainwhich obtainingwere used and approached Iwill also present for the information empirical base of the a as haveserved sources what present I shall that makes a body hold. Reliable and objective empirical data is what brings life it.to In this part is mainisthe it framework baseof research; designed a skeleton each The theoretical thoroughly Sources for the empirical dataandanalysis Kyrgyzstan. and Georgia in both media of area in the changes revolutionary evaluateinmeasure to it. thepost- in to inthethirdchapter, Iwill order these criteria order use need we information of kind what and implies use I will that whateachcriteria elaborated have main criteria for comparing media systems in post-revolutionary the incountries the shortrun,I how wecan measure it. This was one of of subgoals the this Along chapter. with defining the them. Itis also atask of any comparatives clearlyto define what each criteria actually means and time (before and after a revolution) we can talk about the main tendencies taking place in both of inside them ina secondover eachof it those andparticular country country with and comparing network amongestablishing journalistic journalistic councils promote to level standards, of professionalism and them. to priority give may one another legislation, media liberal new However,implementing at aim may country one while example For reform. media of aspects by different implement to thrive may looking countries at a broader set of issues taking a place in a 45 CEU eTD Collection media watchdogs and organizations international by other of rely number publications a on I also In this research (such as OSCE, International thesis. of this purpose the for Crisis Group, FH use as well library still as toFH’s on unpublisheddraftKyrgyzstan Georgia 2007reports and IREX, etc). historicalIn data for this research, and for heraddition kind permission accessto their internal sources in the and information in collecting help her for Goehring Jeannette to publication in Transit’ ‘Nations the FH’s of the Editor the to grateful especially am I research. in this conducting their support In Iwouldexpress muchvery part, likethis deepgratitude also totheFreedom to for staff House mediain revolutions. the aretakingareaof place exactly the after see what changes muchpublications. Therefore, deeper and researchshallbe systematized done ifwesetagoal to their of limits size smaller the within are surveys specific such that and objective main their authors (which undoubtedly isincredibly high), butrather to the fact that this might not be put as FH the of due toany lack of expertise isnot though which systematically, media democratization of areas multiple in all changes trace to allow not do they in general, situation the of overview very While useful descriptive provide a they country.do increased inaparticular decreased or providenot mediaenough sufficient that detailswhy on they either independence consider though giving good overview of in situation the country the on annualthe basis,in some cases do reports, Freedom House’s However, sources. and regard in reliable this mostout standing are the (RWB)Borders Without (FH) andReporters Freedom House in chapter, this earlier mentioned far.have so AsI assessmentconducted is andthorough nocomprehensive aspects, butthere separate with only deal Kyrgyzstan.Existing publications to related systematized information 46 CEU eTD Collection the objects of interviews. In the case of Kyrgyzstan four interviewees and in the case of and inthe caseof intervieweesGeorgia four Kyrgyzstan case of ofinterviews. Inthe objects the studies. Reliability, trustworthiness, and local expertise were the three main criteria for selecting interviews per country in was observed tohaveorder information equal of amount for both case fifteenAll interviews fortogether each 7-8 conducted, balancedwere The country. number of revolutions. few the years media state after of forsituation the current tothem according main reasons are the and what face, they are thenew challenges what revolution, the after overall The questions also focused on how journalists perceive the changes in their work and media individual criteria. for of each evaluation necessary information uncover detailed the to in order and trends. The questionsduring the interviews followed the established framework theoretical Kyrgyzstan, for additional information and their vision on the post-revolutionary media situation approached journalists and media workingexperts, in fieldthe ofmedia inboth Georgia and verify sometimes low a their reliability,havenumber I conducted ofin-depth interviews. Most importantly,in tomake order upfor thelack of sources moston the recentchanges and to compared with and reports the statements by internationalthe and surveys.organizations other local news werealso aswell studiedarticles, both publications, reports and international as and Alarge of it Service number of internet byRFERL-Georgian Director). waskindly provided on April examplearecent2007 program analysis (for sourcesfor were this also reviewed subjects as programs related 2002.Radioprior onthe Kyrgyzstan in situation media on survey internal their me with sharing for in Bishkek director “Internews-Kyrgyzstan” the to For example, Iamvery grateful by local the actors. conducted published sources, in the process of this research I got familiar with internal assessments 47 Financing MediainCaucasus , a full copy 103 I have I CEU eTD Collection 103 contradictory case verify In very specific it one based sources. such casesItriedother on to In contradictory. was information when cases some were there process, interview the During implementations. law media the to related issues the on or professionalism journalistic in promoting programs information recent on the confirm and gather to in order in were approached region the located interviewingreflection inmedia on addition experts questionsasked.Finally,the journalists,to professional maximum Icanthereforeobligations; attest the on andprofessional openness interviewed honorhad tomeetI an into know andbefore my person get previous due to journalists local the of majority The research. current the to expertise local valuable brought influenced their everyday work and view on the democratic developments in the media; and changes moreallowed deeply recent how to It obtained. inobserve was countries directly these e-mails; thismore due detailed information to work of journalistsand prospective who those In this,local journalistsinbasedaddition to interviewed wereTbilisi viaphone and Bishkek or and communication. interviews recorded face, tape faceto for allowed has it as wasan advantage (Budapest) research current the of place the to close relatively and in place one located are department Georgian and Kyrgyz both that fact The professionalism. and knowledge their into trust as well as forces asRFERL broadcaster as served maximum from a guarantor theirof independency local the such for work they that fact The country. their on events covering RFERL for working currently (RFERL) based in Prague. All of these journalists are originally from Georgia Kyrgyzstanand two –were the journalists and national services directors of the Please, see Appendix 1 forthe list of interviewees and Appendix 2 for the list of questions forthe interviews. 48 Radio ForEurope/ RadioLiberty CEU eTD Collection chapters of of this thesis. chapters intothe third fourth and applied integrated and interviews arelargely the resultsRussian. The of in themwereconducted all of tape-recorded; were interviews of the all Ninety percent data. the of misrepresentation torisk not in order in analysis used the factwas not the other, the over side one of correctness the verify to possible not was it when and interviews two during encountered 49 CEU eTD Collection the revolutions and will examine what the new governments’ stance towards media freedom is, media freedom towards stance new governments’ the examine what will and revolutions the after place taking changes the tracing on focus will I Then revolutions. the to prior Kyrgyzstan and Georgia in situation media the of overview brief a give all of first will I chapter this In in andmediaGeorgia Kyrgyzstan. both media freedom and development for havebrought exactly revolutions andwhat revolutions media theirrespective after area of Bakiev. In this chapter my aim is to trace and systematize what changes these counties saw in the beenmadefarmistakes so ruleKurmanbek during thecurrent of and Mikheil Saakashvili aswell theprogress as about has andalotdevelopments, been written latest following the been has tension and interest great with community International less. – some while successful some reforms, new introducing and promises new making legacies, regimes’ old the overcome to trying power the over taken have countries both in governments New Kyrgyzstan. in revolution years sincethe in two and Georgia therevolution havepassedsince half Three yearsand future for them and their families. better and countries their for reforms and prospects better bring will changes that hoped and believed people countries both In streets. the on out went deceit’ and manipulation of ‘politics currentthe rejecting and andpoverty, governmental practices bythecorrupt people exhausted Rose Revolution inCentral Eurasia revolutions haveyears seen andhalf two The lastthree Kyrgyzstan and in Georgia media post-revolutionary inthe tendencies ofthe Analysis 3: Chapter in Georgia andMarch 2005 Tulip Revolution 50 in Kyrgyzstan. In both countries both In in Kyrgyzstan. 104 : November 2003 CEU eTD Collection 108 107 Building and Security SectorReform”, Vienna and Geneva, July 2005: 14-15. 106 Sector Reform Edenand Cole Afghanistan. and 105 Uzbekistan) Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, (Kazakhstan, countries Asian 104 rubble”. from the andre-emerged then disintegrated funded– also state controlled, Party Communist the structure, political Soviet old Georgia’s of was thecase of the “censorship1991 Constitution isimpermissible”. be under government control. Atleast according to the law it was free and according to article 24 Since thefall Sovietmediathe of in Regime in1991, hadnolongerGeorgia been to considered 3.1.1. MediainGeorgia prior 2003 November 3.1. Analysis of theGeorgian Media using the six criteria elaborated in the previous chapter. Kyrgyzstan and Georgia both in media of area in the changes post-revolutionary the of direction getting Finally, or isand the Iwill worse. compare currentsituation improving the whether as importantly, they were given the possibility to carry out journalistic investigations”. writeinnewspapers, freely to on TV,wereable Just radiothe they andsaywhatand on wanted. Georgia’s journalists, broadcasting most butfor the part continued “some state Kokashvili writes inAs Marina “fourth country. power” the a getting-strength viewed as was and in thesociety propaganda’. of overt ‘outlet held inits hands thebiggest part of media,the especially ittelevision, butwas notanymore the before. State itnever offreedom had seen that newithad the opportunity but republics) received Marina Kokashvili, “The Role of Media in Georgia’s Transition to Democracy”: 2. Democracy”: to Transition Georgia’s in Media of Role “The Kokashvili, Marina Philipp H. Fluri and Eden Cole, “From Revolution to Reform”: 15. Philipp H. Fluri and Eden Cole, “From Revolution to Reform: Georgia’s Struggle with Democratic Institution Marina Kokashvili, “The Role of Media in Georgia’s Transition to Democracy”, chapter 10 in Philipp H. Fluri Central Eurasia consists of three republics of CaucasusSouth (Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia), five Central 106 Media wasfacingmany new problemsincluding financing (as were all post-Soviet , Vienna and Geneva, July 2005: 1. , From, Revolution to Reform: Georgia’s Struggle with Democratic Institution Building and Security 107 Infact,during Shevardnadze years media was gaining influence 51 105 Philipp Fluri and Eden Cole write, “as media structure – uniform, – 108 CEU eTD Collection opposition, during Shevardnadze, had ample opportunities express to their via opinion media. society hascivil developedpreviousthat the over years. revolution and subsequent removal of the old authorities can be a sign of the power of media and Prague, tape recording, translation from Russian, Prague. Russian, from translation recording, tape Prague, 112 111 110 109 pluralism. media increasing and companies newspapers, and TVand radio ofindependent legislation, dominance characterized byliberal Despitemedia, theseproblems, by endof the Shevardnadze’s rulethe inyear2003,was uncommon. not was also Media corruption financial groupings. and political certain umbrella the of undeveloped financial atthat time. Strong leadmany problems channels and publications under marketwas advertisement scarceandthe income for media of were quite above, sources sometimes aggressivecriticism 2003elections. especiallyprior tothe Also,as Ihave mentioned yellowAnother problem press. morewas the repressive journalists’ responses towards demandthe of readers and thus supply journalists focusingof on sensations in and politics wasdecreasinganalysis with in The quality publications andpersonal of theiropinion reporting. between distinguish unable to often journalists low, with quite was newly emerged republic MarinaAccording media, Kokashvili’s study to on journalisticGeorgian professionalism in the aswell. problems there weredefinitely of 1991-2003) period the sametimethe At (during OkropirRukhadze, Broadcaster of Georgian the Service in RFERL, interview by 27Aprilauthor, 2007, RFERL, Philipp H. Fluri and Eden Cole, “From Revolution9. Democracy”: to to Reform”: Transition 15. Georgia’s in Media of Role “The Kokashvili, Marina Marina Kokashvili, “The Role of Media in Georgia’s Transition to Democracy”: 3, 7 and 8. 109 110 52 Some authors argue that in fact, the peaceful in the fact, arguethat Someauthors 111 Okropir Rukhadze confirms that 112 CEU eTD Collection elections, and often disappear after the end polling”. the after of the disappear andoften elections, the before materialize media outlets in that hasGeorgia been observed It elections. to the “theseKokashvili points stations prior out ostensibly were toshape publicdiscourse created the Abdzianidze, editor of the “Liberty the newspaperGeorgia” said “Investigations ofjournalists Zaza As manipulation. external of hands inthe tool mere a been without objectively power. At the same time The and media to prior inhasperiod the shown during Revolution Rose Georgia that holds real many people lost their trust in media and obvious. its ability to reportelections” events political militancy of Georgia’s television channels was clearly obvious on the eve of the broadcasters were created by werecreated financial groups: broadcasters participant” a “partisan of rather but impartial observer an of not role the serving politicized highly became media the that was criticism main the However, criminallaw”. from civil to cases moved defamation for libel,penalties and“thewhich legalcategory of introduced, ‘insult’ was also effectively more andbeforeintroduced amendedtheCriminal strictCode Parliaments 2003elections 116 115 114 113 media freedom. restrict the to measures applylegislative to tried government the journalists and on attacks more were There media. the towards hostile more becoming inhadAs November tothe be thegovernment been prior could elections expected, 2003 Marina Kokashvili, “The Role of Media in Georgia’s Transition to Democracy”: 9 and 10. 9 and Democracy”: to Transition Georgia’s in Media of Role “The Kokashvili, Marina 10. Democracy”: to Transition Georgia’s in Media of Role “The Kokashvili, Marina 4. Democracy”: to Transition Georgia’s in Media of Role “The Kokashvili, Marina 10. Democracy”: to Transition Georgia’s in Media of Role “The Kokashvili, Marina 118 . Thus during thepolitical the elections, of connections mediaGeorgian became 53 TV Imedi 114 , TV Mze 117 According to her “an increasing 115 , and , . During 2003, three new . During2003, three TV 202 113 . 116 Few months AsMarina CEU eTD Collection 121 120 Democracy” by Marina Kokashvili: 12. 119 118 117 overall, in situation media the is be gettingperceived to worse despite Saakashvili’s promise to legislation.Nonetheless, in areaof the especially improvement certain media, wecan trace goingof thatinGeorgia.voiced havebeen smoothly Lots disappointed recently. Regarding the success story” praise it as a“democratic quickwas rather to West The Rose Revolution in Georgia was looked at with great enthusiasm and hope at home, and the3.1.2. Developments andtrends inGeorgian mediaafter the RoseRevolution chapter. developments inmedia main willbe were. during this time nextpartof focusof the This the the major the what and media Georgian for brought government new if any, changes, democratic win media was backitsto credibility journalism”. commercial non- the in destroyed situation Georgia Theeconomic wilderness. inthe avoice resemble the Rose Revolution” Rose the hopes that Georgia would open a road for agreater press after the journalists played a key role in had “the newsmedia writes Kokashvili time. Marina at that and ofhopes were full enthusiasm media. Many mass of Georgian stage anew development started hastherefore The Revolution itsin own voice. tobeable maintain independence to order economic the Revolution) wasgoing that trust and revolutionary struggle and the down after to events, towards Marina Kokashvili, “The Role of Media in Georgia’s Transition to Democracy”: 12. Democracy”: to Transition Georgia’s in Media of Role “The Kokashvili, Marina 11. Democracy”: to Transition Georgia’s in Media of Role “The Kokashvili, Marina to Transition Georgia’s in Media of Role “The in quoted Georgia” “Liberty ofthe editor the Abdzianidze, Zaza 11. Democracy”: to Transition Georgia’s in Media of Role “The Kokashvili, Marina Marina Kokashvili, “The Role of Media in Georgia’s Transition to Democracy”: 10. v 121 . Now, more than three years after November 2003, we cansee what November 2003, after years than more . Now, three 119 Thus after the revolution, one of the major challenges for Georgian 120 (at least to the level that it had before the Rose 54 122 . However, noteverything is CEU eTD Collection paradoxical itis, the paradoxical after how matter no in media, situation the to “inregard confirms Service RFERL Georgia 127 on10 May 2007. 126 125 124 December2006. 123 Enterprise, Private 122 answer. from clear the restrained one deteriorated, steadily has revolution the after media of area the in situation the that stated them of Five interviewed. were experts media and journalists Georgian six thesis, present the for research the of As part eroded” has steadily freedom sincebutthis then possible, Revolution thatmadetheRose factor defendmedia the in freedom As Georgia. Areshidze writes “anindependentIrakly press was one countries of in194 2005out free’ labeled as‘partly as 118, placesGeorgia Press” “Freedom the of regime’. authoritarian ‘semiconsolidated to regime’ years after themoving revolution, the countries labelingfrom ‘transitional or hybridgovernment during first the ofmedia declined this independence the regarding rating,According to situation than in 2003: 4.25. score - showeven worse the revolutionafter yearsand 2005–right 2004 inin previous year: 4.00 2003 and2002 compared to3.75in 2001 and3.50inyear 2000.The rating mediareceivedworse than Georgian Revolution tothe Prior wasdeclining. independence media elections (2003) yearof tothe closer factthat the rating reflect House The Freedom Please, see the list of interviewees in the Appendix 1. Press”, ofthe “Freedom 13. independence”: media of survey global a 2006: Press of the “Freedom “Nations in Transit 2006: 18 268.and Irakly Areshidze, “Bush and Georgia’s Faded ‘Rose’”,9 May 2005, accessed at Lost?”, Opportunity An RoseRevolution: the After “Georgia Khechinashvili, Devi 123 125 . in comparison to 2004 when Georgia was still slightly better – on the 116 31 October 2005: 1. 2005: October 31 Freedom House Rose Revolution , accessed at , accessed the situation became worse. Despite the fact that the factthat Despite the becameworse. situation the 55 http://www.freedomhouse.org/uploads/Chart31File145.pdf 124 Another report by the Freedom by House, Freedom report the Another 127 As David Kakabadze, Director of Kakabadze, Director AsDavid www.csmonitor.com Center for International th on 4 place 126 . CEU eTD Collection April 2007, translationfrom Russian, Budapest. 130 Prague. Russian, from translation recording, tape Prague, 129 Prague. Russian, from translation recording, tape Prague, 128 in Georgia.” revolution the sharp degradation of the climate in the media and it has started already in the first days right after we can the more, Even talk now about improved. mediahavenot in situation Georgian the the after revolution the that state fact the to have “unfortunately, I interview during the itexpressed Imedi Sakevarishvili independent Revaz of TV channel, the commentator based economic Shevardnadze.” of rule the during than more complicated became now in Georgia colleagues-journalists our for situation the event, positive a was opinion, my in itself, revolution revolutions” News Agency in“one Tbilisi, more the Westgot mistaken time with their expectations of such defamation cases from civil to criminal law. Also during Shevardnadze’s rule, the Law on on Law State the rule, criminalduring Shevardnadze’s Also law. from to civil defamation cases penalties for libel.At the same time, legal the of category ‘insult’ was added as well,moving the more severe in factpresented that Criminal Code tothe amendments introduced Parliament the 2003, June in revolution, the before months several above, mentioned have I as example, For revolution. the since media Georgian in the trends positive the among are revolution priorinintroduced The the that legislation provisions removedstrict to several changes Media Legislation andits Implementation there. trace can we tendencies andwhat revolution the media after of in area the place aretaking changes exactly definewhat to independently criteria Margarita Antidze, Senior Correspondent of Reuters News Agency in Tbilisi, interview by author via skype, 11 Revaz Sakevarishvili, Economic Commentatorof David Kakabadze, Director of the Georgian Service RFERL, interview by author, 26 April 2007, RFERL, 130 . In the next pages of this chapter I will look at each of the previously defined 129 According to Maka Antidze, senior correspondent of Reuters the of senior correspondent Maka Antidze, According to Imedi 56 TV, interview viaphone,by 28April2007,author 128 As Tbilisi- As CEU eTD Collection the State Department 134 135 133 www.freedomhouse.org 132 131 However, as the Freedom House reports, regarding the legislation, there are still concerns related legislation”. existing the over improvements asmarked been “have new regarded the reforms (IADJ), Journalists of Georgian Association Independent tothe According stations. broadcasting This law deals with transformation the state televisionof the into and radio publicthe The new journalists using to tape hidden microphones. also guaranteed rightthe to protect confidentiality the their Thelawof sources. enables also is secret, journalist, notthe heldresponsible. state revealing the person the only law, new the In secrets. state disclosing for responsibility criminal legal of relieved also wrongdoing” free editorial political speech and independence,expose debate, andfreedom to official to right the formalized region, inthe laws progressive of most asone the law “widely praised onGeorgia” Report the new in inCrossroads According “Countries the comeeffect to info2005. Expression inmediaAfter revolution, the June2004,anew law- also journalists for disseminating them. Secrets allowed to held responsible not only public officials who disclosed the state secrets, but Country Reports on HumanRights Practices, released by the Marina Kokashvili, “The Role of Media in Georgia’s Transition to Democracy”: 4. Democracy”: to Transition Georgia’s in Media of Role “The Kokashvili, Marina 2006”, Transit in “Nations Sanja Tatic,“Countries at the Crossroads 2006”, Country Report –Georgia, 4. Democracy”: to Transition Georgia’s in Media of Role “The Kokashvili, Marina Law Law on Broadcasting wasapproved by Parliamentthe moreproviding for media freedom. Thelaw had 132 . Libel was taken off the criminal code according tothis law, and journalists were , 8 March 2006, accessed at on 12 December2006: 3-4. Freedom House wasissuedin Decemberintoin 2004and effect put early 2005. : 260. 131 http://georgia.usembassy.gov 134 57 Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor of Law Freedom ofSpeechand Law on on 30 November 2006. November 30 on Freedom House 133 Now journalists are , accessed at , accessed 135 CEU eTD Collection government pressure, andgovernmentit should that be self-financing”. vulnerable to broadcaster new the render fundingautomatically state would of receipt the that is one of several protested by by opposition isthe several protested oneof law the of provision “That revenues. tax the from funds receives law new the of provisions the to according channel, television firststate from the transformed broadcaster newpublic the writes, journalist asRFERL example, For laws as well. new the of criticism other There wassome serious concerns” about freedom of expression according to the Georgian Ombudsman. http://www.rferl.org/reports/mm/2005/01/1-030105.asp 137 fundamentally from changed, a predominantly news entertainmentto programs” months. for four by over and stopped its station taken Iberia were also was broadcasting police the facilities of the Omega, the against wasstarted inspection General tax-evasion the Prosecutor the of lotof WhenKokashvili writes bytheorder As Iberiaa with attention. drew Marina case this andnewspaper, agency. anews epokha" Iveria thatowned the TVcompany, "Akhali group business caseof the Omega examples function, theinterruption ofthemedia lengthyinvestigations ledsuch when to as with 136 andmediasearches. property for arrests absenceof regulations to the party party Georgiain after the Rose Revolution(Nations in Transit, 2006: 265). work of the Parliament”the on (draft influence Nations significant any inhave Transit, “donot 2007: fractions these 7) and as UNMof 235) (out (Unitedseats 35 National ithas Movement)Parliament Georgian in is single dominant 140 139 138 Liz Fuller, “Some Georgian Journalists still feel less equal than others”, 3 January 2005, accessed at accessed 2005, 3 January others”, than equal less feel still Journalists Georgian “Some Fuller, Liz “Nations in Transit 2006”, Transit in “Nations New Rights-Industrialists (orNew Rightists) is 13. an opposition Democracy”: to block. Transition TogetherGeorgia’s in with Media of Role “The two otheropposition Kokashvili, Marina fractions 13. Democracy”: to Transition Georgia’s in Media of Role “The Kokashvili, Marina 138 After the station was finally able to resume its broadcasting, “its format had been had “its format broadcasting, its resume to able finally was station After the Freedom House 137 : 269. on 1January 2007. New Rightists 58 141 140 parliamentfaction, which argued 136 There were already Therewere 139 , what “rose CEU eTD Collection 144 journalistsobtain beobligedto before permission live would official broadcastsanditwould andjournalists”code language,legally binding useof on This draftproposed “in its original form would have made ethical standards,including a dress by Liberty Commission Institute. National andCommunications the was Georgian the proposed In 2006 therewasalso avery situation controversial broadcasting thelawregarding thatdraft journalists,the problem the of taking everythinginto one’s ownhands” ignoring of problem the media, with relationship the of problem is the this nature; non-legislative bare now him“the problems to According changes. nospecial were there thelegislation as for that states Revaz Sakevarishvili example, leadership. For new by andrevised the corrected now times of Shevardnadze but then saw certain setbacks prior to the revolutions some of which were in in of mainly be could factthat wasalready because legislation progressive the the Georgia in the legislation changes see not do journalists many is that issue Another as fairly. laws the the implement to able are actual changes that could independence from political pressure count for a substantial positive change. This 143 142 141 reality” law andtherehasbeen of letter the KokashviliMarina “in in former Georgia,writes as other socialist countries, hasbeenthe there as addition, In media. Georgian the of freedom guarantee to in order are necessary that changes yearlast November ofShevardnadze elections. to furtherprior There 2003 for isstill room during the negative whichwereintroduced those amendments merely corrected with libel) the Even though new legislation brought some positive improvements, some of them (as in the case Sakevarishvili, interview by viaauthor phone, 28 April 2007,Prague. “Nations in Transit 2006”, Transit in “Nations 1. Democracy”: to Transition Georgia’s in Media of Role “The Kokashvili, Marina others”. than equal less feel still Journalists Georgian “Some Fuller, Liz Freedom House 143 : 260. and this makes many people doubtwhether thecourts 59 142 . The Georgian judiciary is still lacking still is judiciary Georgian . The 145 . According to this draft TV 144 . CEU eTD Collection for the purpose of this thesis by Editor Jeannette Goehring, Jeannette by Editor thesis ofthis purpose the for 149 148 147 146 2007 145 influence thein them 2003electionsto by financial prior order established to groups ( stations new both however, broadcasters; independent more now in. mention stepped medialeadership are there sincetheGeorgian new that reports Some in the betraced can changes positive other any hardly legislation, in the changes a few for Except with codex? The codemust beacceptedby mediathe itself”. common have in the Parliament does What Parliament. in the code an ethical accept absurd to is “since it thatthis Heconfirms tendencies. was thereasonwhyopposition was protesting an accepting code Georgian ethics thatthe Service inwould says of negative Parliament the show also in restrictsources. their ability using anonymous (channel numberinto one) Georgian followedPublic in Broadcaster summer 2005.Anine- TVandRadio Corporation State the of transformation ineffectinto 2005,the early 2004 andput in Georgia” According Freedom draftthe reportfor to 2007“almostHouse state supportedmediano remain State Media revolution. the media after control of inGeorgia state in any the changes were there whether examine will part of chapter the Next reforms. of post-revolutionary bethe aspart considered cannot “Nations in Transit 2007”, on Georgia5. (draft, Democracy”: to unpublished Transition Georgia’s in at the Media of Role “The moment of Kokashvili, Marina thesis submission). Kindly provided Kakabadze, interview by 26 author, April 2007, Prague. on accessed 2007”, Press of the “Freedom Georgia, on report 2007”, Press of the “Freedom 149 by the end of by After new the endof the 2006. www.freedomhouse.org Freedom House 60 Freedom House Law Law on Broadcasting , accessed on , accessed on May 7, 2007 146 147 David Kakabadze from from DavidKakabadze RFERL, , 7May Budapest.2007, www.freedomhouse.org Imedi-TV wasissuedin December and 148 Mze and thus and on 7 May ) were CEU eTD Collection According to DavidAccording to Kakabadze“the most popular channel Rustavi-2, whichduring such as of the independent TVstation Rustavi-2, the role of which in the revolution was massive. oppositethe move– more government of the strictcontrol of opposition previously channels by back balanced is one Public the into TV State the of transformation the of fact positive The occasions several on targeted regime were previous the supporting perceived as journalists individual revolution journalists who could still be loyal to eliminate from this area those to beitmay asan Ontheotherhand attempt viewed broadcaster. the old regime. And since, as Liz Fullerhaving anaim bring fresh newjournaliststo with ideas for work reports,and approaches to the after the The it ismay On becondition commission onehand, asput bythe arguable. interpreted the by newstation”. for employmentthe ineligible be“should declared radio underShevardnadze the process of transformation that those journalists who used to work for state television and 152 mail,12 April 2007, translation into Russian, Budapest. 151 150 memberboard of by appointed governors Parliamentitthe supervisesnow. transformation. The transformation. the of process the during issues reported controversial number of a There werealso The overall rating of the channel and its popularity are still relatively low. party. pro-presidential of consists which of majority Parliament, the by controlled is TV Public channel the head from as close appointed circlethe is andsincethebudgetof a Saakashvili’s this Abassov writes, it is still possible to claim that a new leadership of Georgia keeps control over Liz Fuller, “Some Georgian Journalists still feel less equal than others”. than equal less feel still Journalists Georgian “Some Fuller, Liz Shain Abassov, Deputy Chief of party of “Nations in Transit 2007” on Georgia (draft, unpublished at the moment of thesis submission). 153 , the second option remains the most likely explanation. New Rightists opposed the decision of the interim commission monitoring commission interim the of decision the opposed IREX-USAID 61 project in Baku, interview by author via phone and e- 151 150 However, as Shain 152 CEU eTD Collection 156 155 154 153 associated with strongly opposition party The Imedi channel has now taken rolethe ofRustavi-2. is It owned by famousthe tycoon leadership anumberof inRustavi-2 journalists resigned September. general director of the channelgovernment. by the governmental TVisbelongStereo believed closely to businessthe to connectedto current the groups ally, and as a result of thisaddition,in newholding the created that nowincludesNovember 2006 Rustavi-2,First Mze,and change in the Freedom changes House, its managementof reflect changes the within the government. In The ownership of Rustavi-2years. was also changedrevolution.” twice before the it peoplesupported those whom faithful to stayedbut observer critical objective and since the stay did not It government. the of mouthpiece the became revolution the revolution after government, of the wasavivid opponent view and of very points from critical and broadcasted Shevardnadze according to voices heard, they are heard from from Imedi” they are heard heard, voices Patarkatsishvili.KakabadzeAs we if says point “still David critical that shall areany there interpretations of interpretations of situations financial rangingfrom internal the of problems to these companies Since the revolution two channels, Iberia and Channel-9, were closed, but there are different “Nations in Transit 2007” on Georgia (draft, unpublished at the moment of thesis submission). Abassov, interview by author via phone and e-mail, 12 April 2007, Budapest. Kakabadze, interview by 26 author, April 2007, Prague. others”. than equal less feel still Journalists Georgian “Some Fuller, Liz 155 154 156 This has also resulted in the drop This has of alsoresulted inthedrop channel’sthis lasttwo the popularity during Rustavi-2 strike staff on inwent August 2006protesting replacement of the the 158 . New Rightists 62 , and a friend of Berezovsky, Badri 157 CEU eTD Collection 162 161 160 159 158 157 Journalists also warn about authorities’ attempts to take control over the editorial policies in the government). critical the of talkshows political the of cancellations several hereare example problems is government’spressureonthejournalists,the and editors media owners(anotorious current the media,among of state control government to the related above issues raised the Rose Revolution and since newgovernmentthe leadershipthe took in country.the In addition to face -threeyearssincethe now to mediacontinues Georgian problems manythat other There are Scope of Independent Media others). Mze andanumberof stationsmoreindependent (suchasRustavi-2, popular increasedover control the pressure and formal reform of the State Channel (which was still of the low popularity in the country), itmuch forgo the to waswilling leadership new post-revolutionary whilethe this criteria, In regardto interest groups who more or less connected with, and loyal the new government” situation when most of the electronic media belongs to those commercial structures or the a we received endthe “at TV channel Imedi from the commentator economic the to According cases”. inall these pressure werealleged of down “hidden andchannels wereshut government theirwith disagreement possible government. the had huge losses because of the tax evasion charges. evasion tax of the because losses hadhuge Channel 9 was the owner’s decision, while Iveria was closed after its parent company Omega Sakevarishvili, interview by viaauthor phone, 28 April 2007,Prague. “Nations in Transit 2006”, Transit in “Nations “Nations in Transit 2006”, Transit in “Nations Antidze, interview by viaauthor skype, 11April 2007, Budapest. Kakabadze, interview by 26 author, April 2007, Prague. on accessed 2007”, Press of the “Freedom Freedom House Freedom House www.freedomhouse.org : 270. : 270. 63 159 160 As Freedom House reports, the closure of Alsoin 2005Kutaisi localand Kartli, TV on 7 May 2007. 162 . 161 CEU eTD Collection television. opinion showedthatpull populationthe in Georgia receives 87%of via information the 169 168 167 166 165 2004, accessed at 164 163 formation. government of Saakashvili,not posses they any do substantial influence onpublic opinion the towards remained critical that some newspapers are there fact that the anddespite is small In regardto press,it printed the limited in has anincreasingly Georgia. influence Thecirculation win” to force this particular wanted just it but revolution, so-called the before values the of name the on performing not was sincethe2003RoseRevolution” independence in media overall tothe leading media,decrease of the andintolerant critical particularly “remains Georgianewgovernment for the states report of Press2007’ As ‘Freedom the also largely ontheirdepend relationships government.with the televisionprivate as stations (such independent “mediaindependentits lost function” leadership new of With in arrival the media. hadtrust population andthe government asOkropirmediafact, criticize constructively Rukhadze says, hadmuch to opportunity wider In freedom. maximum possible was there that agree andmanyseen journalists as a not threat, Washington, DC, 31 October2005, accessed at Kakabadze, interview by 26 author, April 2007, Prague. Kakabadze, interview by 26 author, April 2007, Prague. Rukhadze, interview by 27 author, April 2007, Prague. Rukhadze, interview by 27 author, April 2007, Prague. on accessed 2007”, Press the of “Freedom Jaba Devdariani, “Georgia’s Rose Revolution Grapples with Dilemma: Do Ends Justify Means”, 26 October by published Further”, Even Declines Georgia in of Media “Freedom Anjaparidze, Zaal 169 168 The new government has also been criticized for cutting the tax privileges (VAT) According to the information provided by David Kakabadze, a recent public arecent byDavidKakabadze, information the provided According to www.eurasianet.org 167 . , under Georgian Headlines on 21 December2006. Mze 166 www.freedomhouse.org ) www.jamestown.org 163 . One of the disappointments is that in fact “this media “this in fact is that disappointments the of One . as well as of news media coverage newsmedia asof as well 64 165 . During the time of Shevardnadze, media time was the . During Shevardnadze, of on 7 May 2007 Jamestown Foundation 164 . Media owners . Media , CEU eTD Collection April 2007, translationfrom Russian, Budapest. covering a protest meeting covering aprotest of in ethnic Azerbaijanis the Georgia. while attacked were channels Azerbaijani two from journalists TV is when examples the of journalists. One abused local capital, the authorities when were cases,predominantly outside protests as well as confiscation of their cameras and equipment by the local police. In 2006, there watchdogs registeredjournalists rights Tbilisi physical reporting of on 2005 abuses July the ( local of daily Tsitsikashvili, Saba investigative journalist such asafterbeaten, without Borders even RoseRevolution. the continued journalists after andviolence against Attacks Violence against Journalists media is much worse than it was before or during the revolution. And this is very worrisome” inGeorgian factsituation is today “the the that revolution before the all expectation despite the indevelopment Georgia expressingbitter disappointment. As Revaz Sakevarishvili concluded, inthedebates. participate opinion or their express to asked when channels TV and outlets oppositional the boycotting government’s 172 171 170 freedom” tothis ways the “oneis hasnoted thingnewspapers inGeorgia, anotheris togive quite freedom, and open to all capital. the outside especially for the newspapers thus making them even more expensive and less accessible for the population The People’snewspaper Michael Vagnanski, Rukhadze, interview by 27 author, April 2007, Prague. Kakabadze, interview by 26 author, April 2007, Prague. are calling for the thorough investigation of several journalists attacked and journalists investigation several for thorough attacked the of arecalling EFE and ) and Gela Mtiulishvili, editor of the weekly 171 Vremya Novostei . The criticism . Theinterviews criticism alsoexpressedthe towards was during 170 Okropirwhile talking Rukhadze, high about the the prices of 172 Many look very very Manylook trends of media pessimistic aboutthe the CorrespondentGeorgia, in interview by skype, viaauthor 11 65 174 Imedi . Also the human the Also . Saxalxo Gazeti Saxalxo Reporters 173 . CEU eTD Collection 178 2007 http://www.caucaz.com/home_eng/depeches.php?idp=1160&PHPSESSID=0e4b29b8255e5c6bef9f7dfafd45274c 175 174 173 recently” insuch have frequent very become factthat the is with regions events Georgian “concerned from informationagencies". getpublic unable governmental the to besides, journalists the areoften human areviolated, journalists, rights threatening andinsulting Georgian Regional MediaThere was localalso an on attack journalistsin Sighnaghi inJunedistrict 2006.Following it, Association issued a statement saying that "the local authorities are 177 176 22 May 2007 remained journalists unchanged. towards and attacks harassment regard tothe in in Georgia situation Revaz Sakevarishvili, the According to adecline. or of Shevardnadze, Local journalists also continue reportto either no change in this area in comparison with the time theRoseRevolution. after journalists’ becamesystematic activities hindering before and after the revolution. Given the lack of available statistical data on this, I have to rely to have this, on I data statistical available lack of the Given revolution. the after before and violencecompared of and cases attacks of number be should the indicators the of one time, over journalistsincreaseandWhen decreaseinviolent attacks either pressuretowards or we measure journalists” of behavior of ways and example the on is reflected fear of syndrome “the states he As censorship. before with journalists beingmore afraid of havingpracticeattacks, thus to more often self- it than was is worse in area this situation the Vagnanski Michael correspondent to according Sakevarishvili, interview by viaauthor phone, 28 April 2007,Prague. at accessed 2006, June 17 journalists”, local on by assault concerned are Associations Media Regional “Georgian “Nations in Transit 2007” on Georgia (draft, unpublished at the moment of thesis submission). Sakevarishvili, interview by viaauthor phone, 28 April 2007,Prague. “Republican Party Complains about MediaCensorship”, 20 April 2007, accessed at journalists”. onlocal by assault concerned are Associations Media Regional “Georgian 176 . And Tina according to Head of Khidasheli, Republican violenceParty, and 179 . 66 175 Reportedly the Association www.media.ge 177 178 on 24 May However, on CEU eTD Collection www.georgiatoday.ge 181 in andprogress line Thisgoes activities. by with thatanumber statement the Freedom House of beto seen in most journalists of and Georgia are interviewed the their about quiteskeptical yet are media organizations newly established aswell other as of work of Council’s this results Corso on23 February 2006. Accessed at 180 179 journalists, raise their level professional and independence promote media. of Open Society Georgia Foundation (OSGF) and its main goal is to create a network of Georgian improve theexistingsituation MediaCouncil the was established in 2005. Itis by supported the understand journalists of A lot skills. professional their increase cannot they independent, more become not they do are journalists) (Georgian they independence…If not of lack the is professionalism for one workingnumber for reporting.the Media analystfor the OSCEmission to Georgia, Zurab Khrikadze, arguespublic, that “enemy investigative of lack basically is there and weak still are standards professional Journalists’ but for the (mediaJournalistic Culture andProfessionalism outlets) owners.” indetail followingthe section. in negative turn, repercussions towardsjournalistic autonomy which will be discussed inmore has, revolution, the after situation unstable overall the with combined continue pressure of forms such fact that the However, revolution. the preceding period the with in comparison area in that journalistsagainst is continue, conclusion the is there that novisible obviously changes positive violence and periodic attacks and facts that injournalists the Georgia of mentionedthe positions secondary on the as sources well onlocal onthis issue. above-journalists’ the opinions as Given Elene Doborjginidze, “Freedom of Speech Threatened in Georgia”, 29 July 2005. Accessed at Accessed 2005. July 29 Georgia”, in Threatened of Speech “Freedom Doborjginidze, Elene Zurab Khrikadze quoted at “Pressure to Report:Georgian MediaStruggles foran Independent Voice” by Molly Vagnanski, interview by viaauthor skype, 11April 2007, Budapest. on19 December2006. www.eurasianet.org 67 , under, GeorgianHeadlines on 21December2006. 181 However, the However, 180 To CEU eTD Collection 184 on 183 182 and keep toattract resources economic posses sufficient not media does financial origin; degradation of professional the standards inGeorgia. First of all is there a problem the of identified themainissues contributing current to the During interview the Revaz Sakevarishvili go into yellow the press. young to growing University prefer the people tendency that with he Tbilisi noticed regret State has notimproved since the andrevolution; that whileteaching journalistic atthe faculty of the professionalism the journalistic issues for some technical except that states Vagnanski Michael regarding journalistic professionalism. example,For Novostei-Tbilisi Vremya Correspondent of process The interviewed the during notice journalists the tendencies negative thesis research problem. low Freedom accordingHouse, to crisis". isin serious issues, public-political covers which journalism, Serious direction. inentertainment only developing it's and regard in that stagnating is practically Media changes. radical areundergoing institutions that"in all heGeorgia newspaper states post-Revolution media's role” decreased significantly situation political “new Ramishvili, Levan in Georgia, Institute Liberty of the representative the to According community issuesaround of journalistic freedom or professional standards” mediathe associationsin exist but “none Georgia, of them became enough strong uniteto media “The New Authorities have Weakened Media: Interview with Levan Ramishvili”. Levan with Interview Media: Weakened have NewAuthorities “The “The New Authorities have Weakened Media: Interview with Levan Ramishvili”, 16 September 2005, accessed 2005, September 16 Ramishvili”, Levan with Interview Media: Weakened have NewAuthorities “The “Nations in Transit 2007” on Georgia (draft, unpublished at the moment of thesis submission). www.media.ge 185 on12 May 2007 186 professional standards 68 183 . In his interview to "Akhali Taoba" "Akhali to interview his In . within media remain to be a 182 . 184 Also CEU eTD Collection 188 187 186 185 issues. certain on comments the receive to or facts the verify and confirm information, the obtain to order in officials public to access get to barriers and difficulties existing the on report available. information make to unwilling or slow very still are authorities new The Access toInformation worse. to reversed only has situation the years, recent these within expected been have could tendencies journalistic to inregard tendencies negative anumberof canobserve Revolution we the Rose since Overall, culture practice ofby themselves. journalists self-censorship the in Georgia. frequent tothe leads This also government. stancewith new the stay into good their effort In inmediadiversity media Georgian continue owners outlets, pressureonjournalists in putting the areais a still eventhough there latest Press publication’ ‘Freedom of the the Accordingcriticism. to of journalisticJournalists autonomy autonomy,journalism. simplyactive left or joined new the centers or government, press the either to – now areas other to moved have schools good from were who and where revolution, the during and the before less influential or more were that journalists those is that issue second years. The three positivelastpractice during are reportedly pressure,who two- more the self-censorship to often towards journalists and editors of vulnerability in higher results basis financial Weak professionals. “Freedom of the Press 2007”, accessed on accessed 2007”, Press of the “Freedom Sakevarishvili, interview by viaauthor phone, 28 April 2007,Prague. Vagnanski, interview by viaauthor skype, 11April 2007, Budapest. “Nations in Transit 2007” on Georgia (draft, unpublished at the moment of thesis submission). is more restricted now with the President becoming less towards becoming President the now with tolerant is more restricted www.freedomhouse.org 69 188 on 7 May 2007 189 Journalists 187 Some CEU eTD Collection Rusatavi-2 over the opposition-leaning Imedi. theopposition-leaning Rusatavi-2 over channel pro-governmental the prefer Affairs Internal of Ministry and Defense of Ministry 194 193 192 191 190 189 Revolution. Rose the years preceding inthe with comparison setback’ a‘slight Georgia experiences in freedom media the legislation, in the changes positive some despite isthat, conclusion overall Based on the detailed analysis of the changes in the media system according to same. the six relatively remained situation that the stated criteria, the and two structures, held governmental by information inthe accessing increasing difficulties press-conferences. and to invitations and non-grata was Minister of was Defence all Okruashvili denied interviews declared persona expertand RFERL correspondentin KobaGeorgia, having Liklikadze,after criticized the from General Officeof andProcurator. the the Affairs Internal of Ministry Defense, of Ministry the from information obtain to hard especially is nowitthat report Georgian Service RFERL of the andcorrespondents broadcasters The well it inobtaining playrole a substantial contacts personal information hide journalists in to of workonly and complainthat press-centers order the “Nations in Transit 2007” on Georgia (draft, unpublished at the moment of thesis submission). Kakabadze, interview by 26 author, April 2007, Prague. OkropirRukhadze, David Kakabadze, interview by author, April 2007, Prague. Rukhadze, interview by 27 author, April 2007, Prague. Vagnanski, interview by viaauthor skype, 11April 2007, Budapest. “Freedom of Pressthe 2006: a globalsurvey of media independence”:109. 191 . 193 In choosing the channel to cover their events, the 70 194 192 Out of six interviewedjournalists four noted An example was a recent case when awar case when wasarecent An example 190 ; preferential treatment is an issue as issue is an treatment ; preferential CEU eTD Collection 197 196 195 mediaindependent wereallowed maneuver” to FH’s confirmsreport “Akaev gradually reduced theboundaries in which opposition andgroups 2007 As latest the respectively. andis5.75 6.00 receives Kyrgyzstan and country thescore the Andin 2003and2004–itthe reflects continuation harassmentin ofmedia sharpthe of freedom demonstrationsin given thesouthernAksy by score the region, Freedom House 6.00. declined to mediaindependenceto worse. In gotmarked2002, theyear also bytheviolentsuppression of allowed“clamp Akaev to down on his opponents domestic still further”. Akaev’s position on international the Albion his haveraised arena and writes profile. this moved Kyrgyzstan, influenced11, 2001,whenboth were airbases USA and President to Russian Albion,change. afterAccording September Adam began2001 situation developments the to to theseyears. throughout score 5.00 the at andfixed stable Kyrgyzstan wasrelatively mediain rating the independent the during of 1996-2000, House, theFreedom According to changed. sharply has however, situation, the as “an referred toyearsAsia.With from independence, inCentral of Democracy” Island passing market reforms” and hisopenness to parties and freemedia, progressive“the democratic, most as applauded itsindependence,was yearsfirst Kyrgyzstan During of the country in3.2.1. MediainKyrgyzstan 2005 prior March Central Asia3.2. Analysis of theKyrgyz Media thanks to Akaev’s comparative tolerance of opposition accessed at: accessed Adam Smith Albion, “Countries at the Crossroads 2006”: 1. “Nations in Transit 2006”, Adam Smith Albion, “Countries at the Crossroads 2006”. Country Report – Kyrgyzstan. Freedom www.freedomhouse.org Freedom House on 19 December2006: page 1. : 329. 198 71 . 195 . In 1990s, Kyrgyzstan was often was Kyrgyzstan 1990s, In . 197 The situation related Thesituation House 196 Starting , CEU eTD Collection secrets. There are a number of other laws that serve as a barrier for journalistic investigations and investigations journalistic anumberlaws forserve asabarrier Thereare of that other secrets. of disclosure state journalists tothe related of criminal punishment tothe necessary, wasrelated whole post-Soviet territory” whole post-Soviet most“wasLawconsidered be of spherein progressive in onMassMedia the to one the this 1992 The place. on was media of area the in legislation progressive rather that parliamentarians Internews-Kyrgyzstan the to laws, according media the of shortcoming certain despite legislation, of In terms loyal financing organizations authorities. to the struggle financial with leading difficulties totheirfrom dependence from authoritiesthe or continued to broadcasters revolution the private years to in prior the 1990s, late Like inthe 202 Institute for the Media, Brussels, May 1997), 134. 201 199 Managing Director of the Director Managing provided for purposethe of this thesis by Jeannetteeditor Goehring, 198 house printing state-owned when There wereanumbercases of formedia). electronic allocation frequencies of non-transparent governmental mass media and monopoly enjoying over strategic media sources (printing house, As the “Internews-Kyrgyzstan” internal report for 2002 confirms, the state was controlling 200 mail. to Elmira Saryeva, Managing Director of the independent newspapers (for example: newspapers (for independent Media Report, May 2001-2002, prepared by the Yasha Lange, Yasha Media Report, May 2001-2002, prepared by the “Nations in Transit 2007” on Kyrgyzstan (draft, unpublished at the moment of thesis submission), kindly Media Report, May 2001-2002, prepared by the fines. inspections,court cases,tax and for slander, punishments Kyrgyz Republic:criminal in the media activity over of pressure methods various authorities use the media. State of accents coverage through evident becomes which country, the of outlets media strong isshares of of control mediaexisting donethrough An indirectpurchase way to 200 Media inCIS.study A of thepolitical, legislative and socio-economic framework Internews Kyrgyzstan report there was a consensus among journalists, experts and experts journalists, among consensus a was there report 202 . Among the points in the legislation where the change was Internews Kyrgyzstan in Bishkek forsending this report to me via e-mail. Moya Stolitca Internews-Kyrgyzstan Internews-Kyrgyzstan (translation from Russian) Internews-Kyrgyzstan 201 72 , in Bishkek for sending this report to me via e- via me to report this sending for Bishkek in Agym Freedom House : . I am grateful to Elmira Saryeva, , 6. Zholtiken 199 , 7May 2007, Budapest. Uchkun , Techenie andothers refused to print (The European (The . I am grateful ). CEU eTD Collection believe, the scale of its influence cannot be compared with the one in Georgia. Media in Georgia Media in Georgia. one the with be compared cannot influence its of scale the believe, information thatmay have brought more demonstrators on the streets of Bishkek. However, I shouldnot underestimate itsinfluence mediahadits role; spread theeventsandhelped to on majorWhether we mediaplayedisthe areally duringcourse, the role revolution Of arguable. eliminate “any state “any eliminate couldpractice thatstate curbfreedom expression” of newAmong reforms. the otherplaned reforms, new the leadership confirmed theneed to President of Georgia,made andpromises, many for people this broughtbigchange hopesfor doesn’t differ muchfrom incumbents.the leadership new of the another worldview the and to generation from one power of a transfer itwas not after though, 2005.Unlike Georgia elections post inJuly the the presidenttaking over as uprising inMarch,known in a popularLike flawed in led inFebruary election Kyrgyzstan parliamentary Georgia, 2005 to 3.2.2. Developments andtrends in Kyrgyz Media after Tulip Revolution and increasingly ruleauthoritarian ofAkaev. wouldbe with changed leadership new the of country the under Bakiev the replacing old, corrupt that be those among would hoped, media, asmanyjournalists to related Kyrgyz legislation the on 31 December 2006. December 31 on 205 Commission of Security and Cooperation in Europe 204 203 for criminal slander punishment canlead years uptothree imprisonment. of 127 Article the to according example, For officials. state the by manipulated been still are that “Kyrgyzstan: Revolution Revisited”. Accessed at Accessed Revisited”. Revolution “Kyrgyzstan: the for prepared testimony Consequences”, and Causes Revolution: “Kyrgyzstan’s Olcott, Brill Martha Media Report, May 2001-2002, prepared by the Tulip Revolution 204 Internews-Kyrgyzstan , 7April 2005: 5. However, the new President of Kyrgyzstan, like the like Kyrgyzstan, of President new the However, http://www.eurasianet.org/kyrgyzstan/mystory/person1.html 73 that brought a change in power with a new : 6-9. 205 . 203 These issues of issues These CEU eTD Collection 210 Magistration and TelevisionBroadcasting 209 208 consistency I will keep the abbreviation KTR in this thesis. case the abbreviation of the Kyrgyz name is used, in the second – of its English translation), but forthe purpose207 of 206 events revolutionary in the part active an taking was round of elections. On February 24 RPO RMTR haditson Freedom 22 February electricity House cut before fivejust second the days 2005 Prior tothe March Revolution onlyindependentthe printing in house Kyrgyzstan run by the media from sources. foreign from than rather local media the documentaries KTR channel TV state-owned Revolution, of day the On different. wasquite In lot. Kyrgyzstan thesituation a this to contributed revolution the Georgia to prior positive changes for the media themedia for democratization. changes positive bring would government new the that anticipation with waiting were many revolution, the Ukrainian and Georgian ones, and given the complicated situation in the area of media prior to population. the evenamong bigger irritation ledto protests mass the during andchannels outlets state the governmental theirpropaganda and hidemispresentation to nature and attempts of true in events waves. medium on Liberty (Azattyk) Radiothe AkiPress News, 24.02.2005. Sent by e-mail to author by Narynbek Idinov, May 2007, Budapest. Translationfrom Russian of the abbreviation RPO RMTR: Republican Industrial Corporation on Radio “Freedom of Pressthe 2006: a globalsurvey of media independence”:148. 15. page thesis, of this 1 KTRChapter is see the Kyrgyz State revolution TV and Georgian Radio Company.during It wasof media recently role the on renamed into MTRK information ormore NTRK For (in the first 211 Despite the messier character of the Kyrgyz revolution in comparison with in comparison revolution Kyrgyz of the messier character the Despite 208 andwhat learned manycitizens about washappeningon mainsquarefirst the 74 209 cut the translation of the Kyrgyz Reduction of 210 Some experts say that in particular say that experts Some 206 , and the independence of media in media of independence the and , 207 was showing nature showing was CEU eTD Collection revolutionvia e-mail on6 January 2007. the after media Kyrgyz in changes the regarding information additional as well as comments these me sending 214 2006. 213 212 recording, translationfrom Russian, Prague. 211 the the reforms inpromised begin”2005 would actually According ‘Nations tothe in Transit“the2007’ report biggest question in 2006 was whatpointat Media Legislation andits Implementation frequency. obtain years to for two struggling were 30 companies more that since stations, radio promise was toprovide transparent distribution of frequencythe waves among and television media. Thefirst to main related madethree elections inJuly promises tothe prior Kyrgyzstan Media-Representation and from a number of media outlets. The goal of the campaign is to of Institute from “VoiceFreedom”, the came of initiative for The Libel”waslaunched. Media of Responsibility “Decriminalizing called campaign National a new stronger, became journalists implemented. As Saida Yusuphanova writes,yet duenot was to thethis factHowever, thatlibel. methodsdecriminalizing to of pressurerelated was Bakiev on of Kyrgyz promise second The inKyrgyzstan. mass media become apartof the will channels opposition Azattyk of Koshmuratov Rustam mass media outlets. topotential TV frequencies I am grateful to Tyntchtykbek Tchoroev Director of Radio Azattyk (RFE/RL Kyrgyz Service) in Prague for Prague in Service) Kyrgyz (RFE/RL Azattyk of Radio Director Tchoroev Tyntchtykbek to grateful Iam at accessed interview, Sarieva, Elvira “Nations in Transit 2007” on Kyrgyzstan (draft, unpublished at the moment of thesis submission): 2. Narynbek Idinov, Editor, Broadcaster of RFERL, interview by author, 25 April 2007, RFERL, Prague, tape Internews-Kyrgyzstan that such a delay is due to the new leadership’s concern that the new TV and Radio newTVand the that concern leadership’s new the isdueto such a delay that 213 This hasyet not been solved and governmentis delaying issues of giving radio and writes, Kurmanbek Bakiev, at that time the acting President of http://www.eurasianet.org/kyrgyzstan/voices/index.html 75 212 . As Elvira Sarieva, managing director of managing director . AsElvira Sarieva, 214 Radio Almaz , 30November told Radio CEU eTD Collection be the prior one. However, since there would still be no other possibilities to finance itpopulation except as to such extent, that after the revolution its reform was the step that was considered its trust of pro-governmental the lost the KTRdueto propaganda As Narynbekreports, Idinov to forces. commercial and by political pressure from andlargely journalists demandthe supported forKTR the independence transformation and its 216 publicbe channel, willnot dependentupon which changesthe leadership”. the of 2006). As one Kyrgyz journalist putit “if we want tobuild real democratic state, we have to have 2005–December (March by research covered this in media period the to inKyrgyzstan related The possible transformation of KTR (Kyrgyz State TV and Radio Company) was the majorissue State Media and werenoany there in direction inpositive toliberalizing medialegislation regard country.the Kyrgyzstan 215 promises” some only steps, practical no are there “then Revolution the since a system about talk we when that Sarieva Elvira with I agree Media”. “State Overall, section in next the aspect this discuss By achievedbroadcaster. December 2006thisInmorepublic servicewasnot details Iwill either. The by Bakiev promise the third KTR concerned of into transfer governmentchannel the the libel. achieve exclusion from Criminalthe Code of Kyrgyzstan articlesthe punishing journalists for Interview with Elvira Sarieva can be accessed on be accessed can Sarieva Elvira with Interview Saida Yusuphanova,“Press about Us: Kyrgyz Campaign to Protect Journalists” (in Russian), 215 , 24 November 2006. Accessed at 216 . None of . None rightof after goalsthese set revolution the by was achieved 2006, December www.vof.kg http://www.eurasianet.org/kyrgyzstan/voices/index.html 76 on 1January 2006. Voice of Freedom – 217 Civil society CEU eTD Collection accessed on accessed President with an explanation that “the country could notafford the cost” 219 218 217 independent outlets and companies were also getting the new owners” many hands,while media inits the major concentrate again started to government the intoKTR ‘so that they couldbe freed from the dependence from the local administrations’. Thus inIdinov, April 20 2006it that“local was announced be TV and Radiowill included companies country.following TheNarynbekAccording suchatendency aswell. situation confirms to whole the covers channel TV this as hands its of out control let to unwillingness leadership new the illustrates onKTR example transformation the broadcasters, and radio TV the Regarding andby third one civil the society. members one by thirdone by established appointed of third President, the with Parliament, the would whichtheObservation reform,beTV andRadioCommittee to Broadcaster according from huge on 8 June pressure finallypublic, Parliament 2006Kyrgyz issued lawontheState the However, the authorities kept postponing their decision regardingKTR transformation. Under by himself.rather than appointed by Parliament President the the Observation Committee; according thisand to head reform the of be KTRwould transformed the budget,from lead state the reform the would primarily to creationthe Independentthe of Public Kyrgyzstan, the offered explanation referred to the necessity to make this frequency available for available frequency this make to necessity the to referred explanation offered the Kyrgyzstan, In May telestation)2006, NTS’s in(independent interrupted transmission was several of region Idinov, interview by 25 author, April 2007, Prague. Idinov, interview by 25 author, April 2007, Prague. Jyldyz Myslimova, “KTR must become a public broadcaster” ( www.monitoring.kg on 7January 2007. 219 However, in September law 2006this wasrejected by the 77 translated from Russian 218 221 . 220 ). This news item was . CEU eTD Collection donations, therefore the process stopped. was process the donations, therefore find forinvestors hard suchnewspapers, andthey survive to not without thestate would be journalists,it very local since the for could local newspapers causedshock financingthe of government. the of outlet only become the remained under either the central or local authorities' control and no democratic transformation democratic no and control authorities' local or central the either under remained By KTR endof the implemented. 2006, December reform was not State owned newspapers still Kyrgyzstan, themajority them of being public though independent.not Slovo Kyrgyzstana political dependence. Bakiev even signed a decree about the transformation of and financial the from outlets freeseveral pro-governmental to madeattempt acertain leadership new example, For media. the inside processes in the reflected also are now facing is Kyrgyzstan media independenceand plurality inownershipof the country. Hugefinancial thatproblems The new government’s stance on media is notschemes. the only issue leadingPiramida’s andKOORT’s Public Educational(Kyrgyz Radioand TVchannel) ownership to the restrictions of the 225 224 223 May 2007 222 221 220 controlled by government.the isin it reality broadcaster, be apublic channel.to claimed though TV, thenewstate E1 E1 TV, “Freedom of Pressthe 2007”, report onKyrgyzstan. Idinov, interview by 25 author, April 2007, Prague. Idinov, interview by 25 author, April 2007, Prague. “Freedom of the Press 2007”, report on Kyrgyzstan, Freedom House, accessed Idinov, at interview by 25 author, April 2007, Prague. “Nations in Transit 2007”,Kyrgyzstan (draft, unpublished at the moment of thesis submission): 13. on the corporate method of management. The management. of method corporate the on 222 There are also complex discussions taking place around 223 However, as Narynbek Idinov states, termination of 78 224 Overall, there are about 40-50 outlets in 40-50 outlets areabout there Overall, Erkin Too www.freedomhouse.org 225 was supposed wassupposed to Kyrgyz Tuusu Kyrgyz on 7 and CEU eTD Collection whole country basically splitting into the Southern and Northern provinces. Northern and Southern the into splitting basically country whole started takinginstability inside reflecting the growing place government as asinsidethe well the officials. government new became they opponents, promises and plans of Bakiev fromPresident and hissurrounding after, governmentthe formerly oppositional formerly newspapers (suchas oppositional independent and administration, its and state the of achievements the emphasize to continued 227 226 targeted” werebeing media, independentbut thatsome weresuspicions outlets there on crackdown with the statement that “by the endagree I of 2006,therefore it rule, was stillgovernment’s new toothe early of half and to year say one whether than more there slightly had only saw been a Kyrgyzstan Revolution, Rose the yearspassed since haveGeorgia wherethree to In comparison Scope of Independent Media society. civil has taken placein that area despite the promises of the new leaders and pressure from the side of revolution. Pro-governmental media (such as media andindependent state-owned March wereworkingsamesidethe on the after 2005 right when inKyrgyzstan place wastaking situation interesting in an situation Georgia, the Similar to media.independent the andtowards theirnewgovernment initial of steps attitude and the the period trace “Nations in Transit 2007”,Kyrgyzstan (draft, unpublished at the moment of thesis submission): 13. “Nations in Transit 2007”,Kyrgyzstan (draft, unpublished at the moment of thesis submission): 3. 226 . Even littlethough time haspassed Tulip since wecan Revolution, still analyze this MSN 79 Slovo Kyrgyzstana , or 227 However, later sharpertendencies the However, ResPublica ), continued present), to the , and , Vecernyi Bishkek Vecernyi ) CEU eTD Collection 228 printingat the press”. outages or suddenpower award penalties), to courts the lawsuits (manipulating defamation inspections, tax motivated saw “politically rule also media. Akaev’s of country’s the major sections controlled andrelatives members family Akaev’s noted. be anumberstill should years changes last of inAkaev positive of with but comparison the be not improvements, will Akaev, of years early there last of mediawith the independence the regarding situation the compare we If Kyrgyzstan. in Revolution the since improvements some also are there remaining, problems significant still are there though and unfulfilled, left still are is mixed made quite most of he and promises the record Bakiev’s President Despite thefactthat media. access to has by still opposition the irritated criticism, is Bakiev the Though increasingly Service) and BBC KyrgyzFM,Service) and freely Service areworking UKW andBBC on airingtheir programs Asian country where international radio stations such Central as only Radiothe is AzattykKyrgyzstan (RFE/RLexample, KyrgyzFor freedom. press of in terms advanced more relatively remains it, of course, Asian Central countries isother with compared Kyrgyzstan When journalists orbreak into the buildings and crash everything, and nobody knows who does it”. up in putof critical either masks the “andnowsome beat order game, to newspapersout people in off lights switching or charges’ ‘taxes using were authorities before observes Djumataeva AsVenera form now. adifferent it takes rather decrease not did pressure that observe journalists follow pressurethe whichhim to puton he duetoHowever, therules cametothis power. it be mayis besituation to better; though considered Bakiev mainly position due to and unstable Adam Smith Albion, “Countries at the Crossroads 2006”: 3. 80 228 In this respect, the 229 CEU eTD Collection also when a group of men broken into the building of the station beaten up. declaring themselves to be the causing the station lose makingUSD200,000 of itandout of its go air. employees of Two were by wasvandalized attackers the center Piramida’s endAtthe September, of well. continued as journalists towards threats and Attacks country. in the crimes motivated politically of levels high forced self-censorship, attacks andvandalism of the oldestindependent TVstation Piramida, and 2006,Throughout the following problems were hamperingmedia in development Kyrgyzstan: Violence toward journalists side of independent media and the signs of the new forms of pressure could be observed. to less criticismas Bakievthe increasingly the year2006wasbecoming the from tolerant during yearsHowever,his of (2002-2005). scope of rule the liberationbe shouldsuch overestimated not last the during did Akaev as harassment and control of measures strict such exercise to able not is Bakiev since improvements slight some are there independence media the to in regard Overall, 2007 231 revolutionvia e-mail on6 January 2007. the after media Kyrgyz in changes the regarding information additional as well as comments these me sending 230 Prague. Russian, from translation recording, tape Prague, 229 Azattyk Plus TV shows were launched only Tulip the after revolution ( and Medium waves. Radio Azattyk also has two weekly TV shows aired by KTR (MTRK). The “Bishkek Protests Target Obstacles to Press Freedom”, 11 October 2006. Accessed at Accessed 2006. October 11 Freedom”, Press to Obstacles Target Protests “Bishkek for Prague in Service) Kyrgyz (RFE/RL Azattyk of Radio Director Tchoroev, Tyntchtykbek to grateful Iam Venera Djumataeva, Broadcaster of the Kyrgyz Service in RFERL, interview by author, 25 April 2007, RFERL, 231 TVshow for youth – in January 2006). As ‘Nations in Transit 2007’ report states another states report As notablePiramida was casewith inTransit ‘Nations 2007’ 81 230 Inconvenient Questions www.rferl.org - in May 2005; onJanuary 7 CEU eTD Collection now. it is worse getting that illustrate research) current the of the outof aperiod time scope though 2006 in tothe yearscomparison ofAkaev; however latest eventsthe of April 2007 (whichis Overall the situation in this area was the same during the period of March 2005 – December 2007. 236 235 RFERL studio,26 April 2007, tape recording, translationfrom Russian,Prague. 234 233 232 websites ( day” same home the ashewas returning Bektenov was attacked Turat reporter Piramida 7. TV November demonstrationBishkek, inassailants capital, whilecoveringa pro-government on the demonstrations“journalists by newsagency wereattacked unidentified with 24.kg the the attacks. tothese areconnected officials state that suspicions some are there that Akaev, and years of the decrease in he with numberdidnot their behind that comparison notes them; whowas evidence is andjournalistsbut continued attacks there writes, against violence no As Tynchtbek Tchoroev editor and director of Piramida, Elena Cherniyavskaya, was receiving threatening phone calls. the and off, switched also was electricity station’s the times, of A number management. new journalists’ lives. journalists’ the on attacks of examples the of a number out bringing direction negative the in even Reported Without Borders quoted at draft report for the “Nations in Transit 2007”, Kyrgyzstan: 14. Kyrgyzstan: “Kyrgyz2007”, Independent Media ReportTransit troubles”. in 8 November 2006. Accessed “Nations at the for report draft at quoted Borders Without Reported Kubat Otorbaev, Director of 2007. April Azattyk 11 (Liberty) correspondence, Mediae-mail InstituteRFERL, of the Service Kyrgyz inof the Kyrgyzstan, Director interview Tchoroev, Tynchtbek by author via phone in “Nations in Transit 2007” on Georgia (draft, unpublished at the moment of thesis submission). 235 . In November 2006 there were also series of hacker attacks on independent media 233 AKIpress Kubat Otorbaev, a journalist working in Kyrgyzstan, states that the situation changed situation the that states Kyrgyzstan, in working journalist a Otorbaev, Kubat 234 , 24.kg According to Reporters Without Borders duringReporters WithoutAccording November the to , tazar.kg ) during the opposition demonstrations. opposition the during ) 82 www.rferl.org 236 on 2 January 2007 232 CEU eTD Collection professional – no” – professional more more and yes, interesting more-to write “mediastarted after therevolution that read. wellwrite enough be and simplylose public,consumers to trustand interest thus afraid” to abroad. haveprofessional journalists for country the wereappointed theof leftposts Ambassadors or reporting,investigative no now, andbalance no is there confirmed theDjumataeva As Venera level. writingprofessional of journalists atthe is and not conducted mean it all objective more does writing However, criticism and rather resembles the quarrels in a bazaar. Most of the tape tape recording, translationfrom Russian,Prague. 240 239 238 237 it” about as he they mistake write makes “and now the relationship to the presidentis different, they do not consider him eternal. As soon powerofAkaevhope, the foreverwritemanyseen lasting against him,was as were afraid andto no there was before its, revolution the puts Idinov AsNarynbek freedom’. itcalled ‘surface a being broughtsome ousted feelingofliberation, freedom and self-confidence, though some According to interviewedthe journalists thefact of itselfrevolution and old of the government revolution journalists thelevel autonomy increasedwhile down. the of went of professionalism the after immediately that shown have half and year last the during in Kyrgyzstan tendencies The Journalistic Culture andProfessionalism Cholpon Nogoibaeva,Program Directorof Soros Foundation-Kyrgyzstan, interview by 28Aprilauthor, 2007, Chinairbekova. Djumataeva, or interview by 25Aprilauthor, 2007, Prague. Mambetaliev Sadykova, Prizhivoit, as ofKyrgyzstan journalist best Such Idinov, interview by 25 author, April 2007, Prague. 239 238 This was also confirmed by Cholpon Nogoibaeva from the Soros This NogoibaevaFoundation also confirmedfrom byCholpon whostates was Soros the She says that “the point is that there are no professional journalists now who could who now journalists professional no are there is that point “the that says She 240 . 237 . 83 CEU eTD Collection 242 241 of introduction the says, Foundation-Kyrgyzstan in Soros projects media with dealing Director Information However,Access Nogoibaeva, to Program asCholpon Novemberof 14,2006. The new law adopted by the Parliament during the period after the revolution was the Law on the Access toInformation an period. unstable dropped substantially possiblyincreasingthus insidetension the country during this already quite newfragility leadership.professional position have the of currentthe standards of However, the to due increased slightly has perception) of level the on (rather journalists of autonomy the side, one From culture. journalistic in the improvements bring not did revolution The country. insidethe conflict the escalate can factitthat potentially is a very that She said worrisome that tendency newvery negative this says about VeneraDjumataeva Northerners. the by held was power all that fact the about South in the discontent growing the and society, the in split the mirrors also it Kulov; leader) opposition now (and Prime-Minister former Northerner current showsPresident contradictions notonly Bakiev between a South-supported andthe media in the battle The country. whole of the division South versus North ever, than sharper current, the reflects now media in division isthat Kyrgyzstan in tendency noteworthy Another Djumataeva, interview by 25Aprilauthor, 2007, Prague. Djumataeva, interview by 25Aprilauthor, 2007, Prague. reflecting such a war between them. a warbetween such reflecting werealready newspapers the Bakiev, with relationship in their behavior of frames them, there isKulov, pro-opposition, arejournalists there from North working.the Andifsuch we read a war. EvenIn from all pro-Bakiev’s newspapers arejournalists there working, South the in and pro- when Kulov was Prime-Minister and there were some 242 Increasingly low professional standards could even contribute to this. contribute even could standards low professional Increasingly 241 84 CEU eTD Collection 243 by democratization endof the 2006. medialittle whohas towards journalists that conclude I wouldchanged agreewith those standards) should not be ignored as well. Taking all this multifaceted aspects into consideration, current position. Anumbernegative of tendencies(such in a as drop normsprofessional and fragility basicallydueto the of liberation autonomy) Bakiev’s as afeelingincreased and of (such Akaev’s with in comparison brought rule Bakiev’s that improvements minor are there side other the On today. problems complex of number a facing is media Kyrgyz overall and criticism On one side anew is leadership reluctant tokeepits promises,it is increasingly sensitive towards any visible changein to accessofinformation.regard the askedfive this question, confirmed lasttwo years thatthe after the revolution havebrought not same in challenges information obtaining duringas the ruleofAkaev. Outof six journalists the facing continue law. Journalists of this implementation the to barriers still are there as such, step apositive as serves introduction law the of fact the that say can we though even Therefore, action,intocome andasshesays issue. her,to approach analysis the the According thislaw to after reviewwasdone had and officials’ bureaucrats’ lawthe bring and this didnot and inregardtoattitude state change any Nogoibaeva,interview by 28Aprilauthor, 2007, Prague. rule does notexist.rule does do nothave a to giveright you this information”.Althoughin reality such a forbidding inspections,tax they say: “you know, until itwill be published in quarterly the we report, say They they that notdo have such information, sendyou structures. state toother Forexample, information. this you give to not reasons different find they –then information What is interesting is that, in principle, no body forbids but if you need to get any 243 85 CEU eTD Collection Overall trends Overall media independent of the Scope journalists Violence against Information to Access culture/professionalism Journalistic State Control of Media implementation Media laws and their Criteria/Country Table 5:Summary of the findings based on the conducted research negative trends. Table number 5 summarizes the results of the findings. Georgia, overall within 2003and 2006we November December can observe anumber of substantial between March2006.In and within December democratic tendencies period the 2005 revolutionary anduprising change subsequent of inKyrgyzstan leadership the lead notdid toany the liberalization wecanconcludeand that development, of complex areasinmedia aspects the often multiple, consideration the into criteriaand took followed sixelaborated the that research) According this findings thesis to both on research (based original andsources secondary surveys. mediawatchdogs international the findingby based andtables andscores on complete the comparative above the described support results the summarizing and data the presenting by Kyrgyzstan of and Georgia both in media in thesituation research post-revolutionary in the tendencies main the on conclude will I chapter the of part this In analysis Kyrgyzstan conducted 3.3. Conclusionin onthe Post-revolutionary Media Changes in Georgia and the preceding part of the chapter. I will also no positivechange improvements slight change positive no change positive no setback slight change positive no change positive no Kyrgyzstan 86 slightsetback vivid setback change positive no setback slight setback slight change positive no improvements slight Georgia CEU eTD Collection the scope of independent media have no substantial influence on the overall picture given that given picture overall the on influence substantial no have media independent of scope the in improvements minor Kyrgyzstan, In criteria. other five to according trends negative even or improvements in Georgian legislation are absolutely counterbalanced by either lack of changes in run.Certain least media short at the tendenciestowards democratization brought revolutions ‘color’ for Kyrgyzstan recent Georgianot for neither isthat overall conclusion the However, could imagine hardly it could have been more free” itmediajournalists“in put regardto there wassuch we Shevardnadze,a freedom that during media higher wasdefinitely inKyrgyzstan. wasenjoying than Asoneof interviewedthe inmedia legislation butalso wasmore progressive, Georgia level the Georgian independence of only in moreKyrgyzstanmuch liberal all Not along six maincriteria. was revolution that than difference in their initial condition in the area of media. The situation in Georgian media prior to by the be could explained partially the countries inbetween of changes variation the The setback. saw minor improvements as for the asfor improvements minor saw Kyrgyzstan And while deteriorated. slightly inGeorgia while unchanged, remain Kyrgyzstan the to in respect that though note, to interesting is It been introduced. nothing have inchanged Kyrgyzstan inwhile Georgia a number of new more liberallaws have towards journalists 244 professionalism Both Georgia and Kyrgyzstan after the revolutions saw the decline of the Rukhadze, interview by 27 author, April 2007, Prague. . In both countries, the situation with the remained unchanged. almost Regarding the in reforms media independence media 87 244 . access toinformation , Georgia had to face a more vivid state control of media and journalistic culture and media legislation , the situation in situation , the violence , CEU eTD Collection below reflects these scores. these reflects below 6 Table Revolution. Rose the before situation the with comparison in score worse substantially a has it still but revolution, the after years two first the with in comparison improvements observed the during first twoyears after revolution, the lastyear the (2006)shows slight ofcanbe score the decreaseof andworsening the sharp rating the respectively. In Georgia Kyrgyzstan dropped – from Kyrgyzstan dropped–from 111 Borders According the to andmedia watchdogs. international by organizations the inThe results onmedia of this line research go scores conducted surveys and the freedom with level)macro be can assigned comparedwith scores the media by international watchdogs. direction in each of the twopost-revolutionary states. The overall conclusion (as we call it on the overall tendencies (after summing up the results of all six criteria) take either negative or positive the measured whether Ialso countries. inboth media democratization for essential main criteria identifiedthe trace was specific according changes to chapter to this One of maingoals the of deteriorated. has situation the journalistic culture of criteria last the to according that and main changes, no are there criteria other four the to according ’ World Press Freedom Index, after the revolution both the score and overall rating of rating overall and score the both revolution the after Index, Freedom Press World ’ th place in2005to123 88 rd in 34.00 2006, andfrom 32.00 score to Reporters Without CEU eTD Collection (outof 168 countries) (outof 168 countries) (outof 167 countries) (out of 166 countries) Jeannette Goehring. Jeannette Source: Adopted from: “Nations in Transit 2006. Democratizationfrom Central Europe to Eurasia” 2005 2004 2003 2002 2001 2000 1999 1998 1997 1996 Year/country Table ofGeorgia 7:Rating andKyrgyzstan ontheIndependenceof Media and results illustrated the inboth in tendencies countries comparative perspective. and a substantial degradation of in mediafreedom the comparison with years 2000-2001.Table 7 before -4.25ininyears revolution2004and2005,whileit the (score 2003and2002), was 4.00 two-three last the with in comparison tendencies negative shows score the Revolution, Rose yearsand therevolution,after right firstthe 2005). In two duringGeorgia, after 2004and stayed thesame inKyrgyzstan withinfirstyear the Tulip the after Revolution before both (5.75 independence survey, media the levelof the in “Nations Transit” House’s Freedom According to http://www.rsf.org/rubrique.php3?id_rubrique=639 Source: Adopted from:Reporters without Borders, World Press Freedom Index.Accessed on Table 6:RatingofGeorgia and Kyrgyzstan intheWorld Press Freedom Index Year/country 2006 2005 2004 2003 5.75 5.75 6.00 6.00 5.75 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 Kyrgyzstan Freedom House (9 month after arevolution) 123 (34.00) 111 (32.00) 107 (35.25) score) 104 place (32.00 . Budapest,. 2006 Kyrgyzstan , 9 May 2007 89 4.25 4.25 4.00 4.00 3.75 3.50 3.75 3.75 4.25 4.50 Georgia 89 (21.00) 99 (25.17) 94 (27.50) 73 place (17.33score) (2 years after a revolution) after years (2 Georgia . Edited by CEU eTD Collection 245 inperiod of democraticmedia years). changes a short anticipated time within areaof (1,5-3 the much in the result not did Georgia and Kyrgyzstan in government the of change subsequent conclusion the of detailedthe in analysis revolutionary the chapter: this conducted and uprising supportBorders Without and House Reporters by andscores Overall, findings the Freedom the on Accessed House. Freedom independence”. ofmedia survey aglobal 2006: Press of the “Freedom from: Adopted Source: 2006 2005 2004 2003 2002 2001 2000 1999 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993 information” news and flow of free the permits which each country “the degreeto in table 8, the byreflected Freedom House, conducted the also survey ‘Freedom Press’ the the of According to Year/country score thePress of Table 8:Freedom yearslast Shevardnadze. the in of with revolution comparison the after Saakashvili duringleadership of new the this score of weseethedeterioration Georgia rule.of In Bakiev’s yearswith last the Akaev, then however of againdropped during 2006marking thesecond year “Freedom of the Press 2006: a global survey of media independence”: xix. independence”: media of survey global a 2006: Press of the “Freedom http://www.freedomhouse.org/uploads/fop/historical/DDSCEEFSU.xls 245 in Kyrgyzstan ninemonths inKyrgyzstan revolution the after increasedinright comparison 67 (NF) 64 (NF) 71 (NF) 71 (NF) 71 (NF) 68 (NF) 61 (NF) 61 (NF) 64 (NF) 64 (NF) 61 (NF) 60 (PF) 52 (PF) 49 (PF) Kyrgyzstan 90 57 (PF) 57 (PF) 56 (PF) 54 (PF) 54 (PF) 53 (PF) 53 (PF) 47 (PF) 57 (PF) 56 (PF) 55 (PF) 68 (NF) 70 (NF) 73 (NF) Georgia on 9May 2007 CEU eTD Collection focus of the next fourth chapter of the thesis. the of chapter fourth next the of focus main be the should This republics. in both media post-revolutionary of area in the tendencies the nextprogress, step wouldbe look for to the factorspossible explanatory of such negative inlead any revolutions that countries didnot conclusion both changes to and democratic the to arrived Having dynamics. their and changes post-revolutionary the of commonality identify to the countries,rather but two the inbetween situation static specifically the due tothisdifference Mymainof compare inthe‘pointdeparture’. wasnot to goal though on morethe advanced level of development freedom and inKyrgyzstan than theafter revolution stays still media Georgian inKyrgyzstan, lack changes of given and in Georgia setback certain differed, with media moreGeorgian liberal been accordingall to criteria. Thus,even provided countries both in revolution the before freedom media of level above, discussed have I As Kyrgyzstan). in than inGeorgia more (though investigation under in both countries tendencies negative of worrisome number the a trace wecan Rather 91 CEU eTD Collection this thesis. this this bylooking chapter back trajectory atthe both revolutionsof in analyzed chapter of first the in I shall consider that questions be in will run? the among also These short the democratization handonmedia keep arestrictive heritage andpath-dependency can extentprevious regime it rather a ‘change of faces’? Can we talk about elite continuation in both countries? To what the revolution in Georgia lead to the regime change and alteration of the political Did by culture, inKyrgyzstan Bakiev? power arrival to from messy the values democratic the move to or was a steady really expected we have which canlargely Could differ. suchhopesarejustifiable to extent the but expectations, and hopes new brings one, a revolutionary including change, Every are. countries in post-revolutionary developments media such for reasons main is also essential to be it Therefore, worsen. able to maycontinue situation the fears that are there Rather, and expectations. to understand why the situationmany hopes years) despite therevolutions preceding media comparison to democratization (in is in the evolving improvements substantial any brought not have countries thisin both revolutions the now way, and whatuntil isthat concern themy main However, rule. Akaev’s of years authoritarian most and last the deteriorating. In Kyrgyzstan, even after the revolution, it still stays on the same level as during largely in freedom media a with aretaking that numberGeorgia place trends negative of revolutionary has demonstrated media inthepreviousThe postchapter the of presented analysis Media Revolutionary Post- of the State Current the for Explanations 4: Chapter 92 CEU eTD Collection 248 247 # 237, University of Notre Dame, March 1997: 7. 246 challenges innew insecure and democracies” characteristic of number a confronts consolidation “democratic that claims Diamond Larry independence” media to seek can“force problems financial and situation an example, economic unstable For andKyrgyzstan. support Georgia both in situation the influencing be also can factors these of number a of fromA combination political or other society andinfluence. international actors with civil conflicts, ethnic frameworks, institutional state, of the strength of regime, the performance narrow interests as political andfinancialstability, factors performance economic democratic consolidation, andAsianEast at helooks countries andsuch other forfacilitating obstructing possible, eitheror away from in the area of mediain democratization. areaof the civil itself.society All of couldthose beamong influencing factors the the dynamicsof changes within stances divided and control), state thus (and handouts state on reliance continued thus and lacksuch aslack absence of ofmoney,advertising market, sponsors organization, poor private here, interconnected definitely A are of number things areconcerned. media the where especially tendencies, these against fight robust more a up put not did society civil why factor: influential recent developments. The question on the strength of civilcooperation in the waronterrorism amongbe considered can possible influencing other factors society may alsothe for be consideredin exchange freedoms media and right as human of an violation the at eyes their close to states Monroe Price and others, and Price Monroe Larry Diamond, “Is the Third Wave of Democratization Over? ImperativeThe of Consolidation”: 7-23. paper working ofConsolidation”, Imperative The Over? of Democratization Wave Third the “Is Diamond, Larry 248 . The low level of international pressure, or rather the willingness of Western of willingness the rather or pressure, international of level low The . Media Reform: Democratizing theMedia,Democratizing theState 247 246 93 . On the example of cases of Latin American, (2002), 7. CEU eTD Collection influencing democratization, and media developmentin particular, such as social of in“thedemocracy”. fate makea elites difference and political Linz, and Seymond Martin claim that values, preferences and goals of the leaders of the country 251 authors. by the conducted literature transition development Comparing Experiences with Democracy transitions. democratic the to leading elements main the among are settlement” elite and factionalism regime leadership, “political outthat points consolidation and democratic on transition The literature 4.1. Elites Continuity and lack of regime change both countries. behind reasons current decline ofmedia inand freedom deconsolidation democratic this area in or Western observers from sideof population the expectations process, based revolutionary on specifying whether, the were on placeby conclude then shall I media. on hold and stricter governments’ realistic.the for reason explanatory I will also suggest beapossible could tension escalation of regimes andapost-revolutionary fragility of current the what could be the likely Experiences with Democracy 250 249 Tilly). Charles model’; (‘contention conflicts advocated by Brinton, Marx, tension(‘tension the model’ release in of revolutionary may either arelease situation result Johnson) or in the escalation theuprisingsin after both countries. the theorists on a According study the of to revolutions, andescalated that continuation changes the exactly on focused be should though, chapter, in this attention Our of the tension and Larry Diamond, Juan J. Linz, and Seymond Martin Lipset, This is stated Larryin Diamond, Juan J.Linz, andSeymond Martin Lipset In-class discussions and lecture notes, ‘Revolutionand the State’ class by Pr.Bozoki, 5 March 2007 250 Accordingstudies to in conducted developing countries,Larry Diamond, Juan J. (USA: second edition 1995), 19. (USA: second edition, 1995), 53, based on theextensive ofresearch the 249 94 I shall therefore examine whether the possible Politics in Developing Countries: Comparing Politics in Developing Countries: 251 There can be There factors can many CEU eTD Collection collection2006/13: 51-52. 254 collection2006/13: 3. 253 2002), 255-268. others, 252 circumstances differ from the ‘overthrown elites’” argues that the new elite David “Changing inhiswho Georgia Post-Soviet the RoseRevolution”, Tsitsishvili, and Elites: work came to power after theGeorgia Rose Revolution does not substantially assuch. correct were West) the of that (rather expectations own extent our what to the goals, ambitions and style of rule of the new leaders differ from that of the previousextent ones,what and to and elites political the of a change brought revolutions the extent what to see all specifically at the changes (or lack of those) in the post-revolutionary media we ought to first of whenwelook insuggest that system detail, media effecting I aspects examining allpossible Saakashvili himself was seen as the leader of the new generation, young Western-educated, new and generation, himself leaderof the as seen was the Saakashvili one ofthis thesis, inchapter and, described Ihave leading the in positions as government the to leaders appointed young pro-Western of anumber were in there In fact, Georgia caseof the ones.” networks.establishing Inmany new actions of newclannish ways elites ustheold remind extent consistsRose Revolution, westill face numerous problems new with governing elites, whichin a big of thepolicy priorities do notold bring any vivid changes. He eliteclaims that “as for the development after the members as well, rising of authoritarian regime again and David Tsitsishvili, “Changing Elites: Post-Soviet Georgia and the Rose Revolution”. CEU Master Thesis David Tsitsishvili, “Changing Elites: Post-Soviet Georgia and the Rose Revolution”. CEU Master Thesis and Price see Monroe independence, and development media upon circumstances ofsocial influence Onthe Media Reform: Democratizing the Media, Democratizing the State 254 252 , technological development, economic progress and others. However instead of instead However andothers. progress economic development, , technological 253 . Hesuggestsitfactor explainingcan be that the the why 95 (Routledge,London andNew York, CEU eTD Collection 258 257 collection2006/13: 51-52. 256 255 by Presidentthe wouldeven not any start meaningful initiative. approval special without and there dominate loyalists pro-government predecessor”, its that timid more was even new Parliament “in many the ways that Wheatley writes of power. main source the still remained president the government, in the shifts these Wheatley, despite According to that the style and action of the new elites with time repeat that of the old ones. is about be right also might Tsitsishvili David What regions. inthe especially low, relatively still However, they are still very youngappointees positionsheld andhadnotwere in administration” top Shevardnadze’s few and the professionalRose Revolution”. level He suggestsof those that “at the surroundingtop level of personnel the policy of newthe President in detail in “Georgiastate hisbook from National Awakening to administration them the described mostis Wheatley of Jonathan oftenthe newdevelopment. democratic country’s the for hopes high bringing necessary for the country reforms. They are very unwilling to accept any criticism, being any accept criticism, to very unwilling They country are for the reforms. necessary often their promoting in the means illiberal harsher toward lean largely they and regions inthe especially nomenclature, old the of members the by surrounded mostly are they few, very still are people Western-oriented young these because largely in Georgia elite continuity about wecan still talk government, main in positions the the newa numbertook people of factthat the liberal introduce measures bymeans methods of and illiberal autocratic discourse” himself. IfullySaakashvili Nonetheless, Wheatleyagree with “attempted to Saakashvili that including state democratic modern a build to mission a with government the entering people new Jonathan Wheatley, Jonathan Wheatley, Jonathan David Tsitsishvili, “Changing Elites: Post-Soviet Georgia and the Rose Revolution”. CEU Master ThesisWheatley, Jonathan Georgia fromNational Awakening toRose Revolution Georgia fromNational Awakening toRose Revolution Georgia fromNational Awakening toRose Revolution 96 257 , 208. , 208. , 200. In the case of Georgia, we see 256 258 . Despite 255 . CEU eTD Collection 261 260 259 country. the for way right only the is do they all that sure completely Georgia elite’s values and style of valuesandstylebehavior Georgia of elite’s in much changed have not could leaders new the of some of education foreign to exposure short emigrants were comingback home bringinginnew ideas him, Accordingand knowledge. to generation and values could be observed in aftermaththe of 1989 VelvetRevolution many when changeof and Slovakia in Republic saysthe Czech caseof He that the Europe. Eastern changeintheCentral lookingelite and difference inthe post-revolutionary suggests atthe The interviewed journalist Georgian currently for RFERLworking in Prague, Okropir Rukhadze, media. increasingly high, offering one of the possible explanations on their tougher control of mass temptation inclinationand putto stronger hold on media and neutralize criticism may be political environment, high pressure andpost-revolutionary puton expectations them, their complicated inherited in implement promised reforms the haveto newleadersGeorgia the of report: latest political The developmentsthis: confirm Freedom the power. 2007 accordingHouse to “Nations in Transit 2007”, Georgia (draft, unpublished at the moment of thesis submission): 1. Rukhadze, interview by 27 author, April 2007, Prague. Rukhadze, interview by 27 author, April 2007, Prague. court court system led tolower trust in its political independence. reform the measures to in energetic practice, lessbecome competitive have elections but been largely electoral fraud has overcome towards trend the expense Parliament, of institutions: February strengthened2004 Constitutional amendments presidency at the comparable No in area success hadbeen the achieved of advancing democratic 260 97 and the new President assumes even bigger assumes newPresident andthe 261 259 Given the limited time limited the Given CEU eTD Collection system, state officials facingnew challenges forced apply were to oldthe measures. ICG reportonpost–revolutionary isKyrgyzstan says, having thatafter with worked existingthe has disappeared. revolution euphoria of the all power initial the to of officials withold return andthat the lacked newfaces government 264 263 262 signal past” a breakwith the unable to “aformerthat member elite of Soviet-era the and Akaev loyalist an until 2002, Bakievwas even anew andhardly generation represent anynewheld such. values Radnitzas Scott confirms rule, March 2005 till 2006.UnlikeDecember inGeorgia, post-revolutionary the leaders not did alternative plan for the country’s development. This was also obvious during the two years of his able offer an butwere not to manipulation, and elections hisgrasp of power tightening They were also the former supporters of Akaev from his close circle, who in factlater confronted unexpectedly forincluding everyone, themselves, Akaev from was ousted by power a crowd. revolution was their purpose, obviously anynew lacked for vision country the when the change regarding changes less in even brought the Revolution People’s or Tulip elite so-called the Kyrgyzstan, In or regime type. The Kyrgyzstan members of opposition, who could hardly competition. claimpolitical a faces noserious Movement) National party UNM (United dominant single the is that aspect democracy.become consolidated to a possibility for Georgia’s barrier substantial The fact that executive branch continues to prevail over all other state agencies creates a 265 “Kyrgyzstan: After the Revolution”. the After “Kyrgyzstan: Scott Radnitz, “What Really Happened in Kyrgyzstan?”: 140. “Nations in Transit 2007”, Georgia (draft, unpublished at the moment of thesis submission): 2. “Kyrgyzstan: After the Revolution”. ICG ICG : 12. : 10. 263 . International Crises Group also confirms that the that confirms also Group Crises International . 264 One of the problems of the government, as the 98 262 265 Another And it And CEU eTD Collection 269 268 267 Central Europe Eleanor Townsley, 266 riskingviolence, acivil leadingfeared, havewar. to andassome demonstrators more of severe have clashes it away, provoked make could their step to take to seats any new the authorities” potentially,seriousto opposition because doing soand callingfor new the would elections “even more threaten turmoil and, Parliament, the dissolve to not chosen has Bakiev reports, (ICG) Group Crises International March 2005. seats after keep their to allowed and were there remained revolution for the main asa served trigger election controversial deputies whose the Parliament, the As for branch” executive the to powers lost the of some restored that amendments package of a through pushed inparliament deputies pro-Bakiev Decemberweek of 2006, “in last‘Nations 2007’ report the However,accordinginTransit to of power president. the the a constitution sign overnight forced inreducing 2006 the largesthimto demonstration Bishkek problems. Hewas conductalsopromised unwillingto constitutionalin reform, but November During the first year and half of his presidency, in run. may short the be applicable argument especially Bakiev correction” “trajectory before time take also might was unable to manage the country’s 270 charges pending against them, who benefit from pendingagainstthem,charges from whobenefitimmunity serve” while they criminal with many elites, local of members and businessmen mostly “comprises Parliament “Kyrgyzstan: After the Revolution”, the After “Kyrgyzstan: “Nations in Transit 2007”,Kyrgyzstan (draft, unpublished at the moment of thesis submission): 2. “Nations in Transit 2007”,Kyrgyzstan (draft, unpublished at the moment of thesis submission): 2. and Szelenyi, Ivan Eyal, Gil in introduced are correction’ ‘trajectory and adjustment’ of‘trajectory terms The Scott Radnitz, “What Really Happened in Kyrgyzstan?”: 140. (Verso: London, New York, 1998), 39. Making Capitalism without Capitalists.Class Formation and Elite Struggles in Post-Communist ICG : 10. 99 266 among new actors can take place, thus the 269 . According to Radnitz,Kyrgyz. According to 267 . 270 . If Bakiev were 268 As CEU eTD Collection dynamics of the revolution in Georgia was allowing to expect positive changes. Expecting much Expecting changes. positive expect to allowing was Georgia in revolution the of dynamics whole the is that reason second The connections. and education Western his with country, from expected a young andcharismatic his Saakashvili vision with of new direction the of the Kyrgyzstan for two other main reasons as well. First of all,much more couldbe and was mediathat freedom isdecline inGeorgia disappointing than more currenttrendsin the maintain I,however, Kyrgyzstan. freedom in than media visible hasseenmoredecline Georgia tendencies. autocratic centralizing, a representative ofnew generation liberal ideas,with is genuinely inhis disappointing from Bakiev --an old communist-Akaev erapolitician, butSaakashvili, whowasstill viewed as in invested democratic hopes them” discussion why of Bakiev and especially Saakashvili have seemingly betrayed many the of it becomesideas a so of -- trust themarketplace media, andnot and information control need to grasping president's --the power of executive instincts the of authoritarian continued the function a are media of liberalization the concerning disappointments “the Albion to According 272 him. with correspondence oure-mail via (CELA), Academy Leadership Eurasia on Central Asian politics, Director of Critical Areas Research for World Monitors, Inc., and Director of 271 the Central westerners lasthoped” to liberal media,nor do-gooder asthe wasgoing neither democracy, that concluded change thus --and to amenable less much whichwere Kyrgyz politics areas of in hoped spring 2005.AsAdam Albion “awrites deeperobservermay have seen darker deeper, presidency acting inamuch more authoritarian (and illiberal) waythan anyone mighthave with the different, looking was already the yearlater, picture one media freedom. However, the in changes positive were there revolution, the after months first very the during Kyrgyzstan, In Ideas expressed by Adam Albionvia our e-mail correspondence. I am grateful forthis and other ideas and insights offered by my colleague Adam Albion, one of the best experts 272 . I agree that we should not have been expecting much expecting been have not should we that agree I . 100 271 . CEU eTD Collection path open for a transition on the type influenceboth “theLinz and regime hasadeterminative previous argued that Stepan country and on the tasks instability that need to be addressed4.2. Fragility of the current post-revolutionaryin governments and domestic order to reach media. mass countries’ the on grip firmer increasingly an is holding government new why reasons other consider shall We improving. not minimum is at it Kyrgyzstan Georgia is regarding media democratization “severely curtailed” in situation the why reason the explain alone cannot culture political and rule of style old the following leaders are new the factthe that Nonetheless, extent). different to (though countries As it was argued above, flew from the country weto Moscow, was not, unfortunately, especially realistic.can observe a continuation of elites and regime type in both 275 274 273 popular uprisings March the during country the for vision new a with leader real lacked Kyrgyzstan chapter, first transfer of limited, namely,apower” decidedlymore was something by all had,appearances, What country the even change. or a regime order) whole sociopolitical of a overthrow or transformation the (meaning have revolution not atrue did “Kyrgyzstan writes Radnitz AsScott been not haveoverestimated. should changes serious for the and possibility the has happened inKyrgyzstan washardly ina revolution meaning, its true theexpectations thus from from Bakiev, or messyevents ofMarch2005,thoughlegitimatethe wasWhat quite naïve. Jonathan Wheatley, Jonathan Please, see chapter 1, page 17-20 of this thesis. Scott Radnitz, “What Really Happened in Kyrgyzstan?”: 133. 274 Georgia fromNational Awakening toRose Revolution , and expecting much from those who took over the top posts after Akaev 101 , 207. 275 after the revolution and in 273 . Ashave I arguedin the CEU eTD Collection it is also absolutely true forthe situation in Kyrgyzstan. 277 Democratizing the State 276 consolidation” democratic censorship and not to cover censorship andnot certainissuesto as well. connection with the authorities can also put pressure on journalists and lead them practiceto self- political decisions of Fear newgovernment. the of such criminal andstructures their of dependency sidefrom the bosses criminal of the and influencebusiness magnates attempting to subsequent their and country the of criminalization the by provoked instability of sense media’s tougher control of mass media during such a period from the on only the sidenot of the result may state, but also tendencies Such on Kyrgyzstan). in (especially rates criminal increasing post-revolutionary situation, escalating domestic conflicts and regional cleavages, and drastically and inflexibleinstitutions” state ineffective “immature, have inherited andGeorgia, Kyrgyzstan countries, both New leadersof might also point out at some other difficulties that a country’s leadership is facing at the moment. freedoms runmight in point short the out the tendencies deconsolidation’;‘democratic of it deal media haveinstability revolutionary with. Decline of anddomestictensions they that to of past revolutionary on situationthe events, problemsand theyhave inherited, and on post- the and camefearcan alsodepend onawaythenewleaders on possible of topower their repetition it that inadd here transition”. Iwould upon highly a country previousthe regime of dependent media forfree alsobe of establishment “the tasksandpathsthat the could and independent open This is written on Georgia in Jonathan Wheatley, Jonathan in Georgia on written is This Linz and Stepan 1996, summarized in Monroe Price and others, and Price Monroe in summarized 1996, Stepan and Linz (Routledge, London and New York, 2002), 3. 276 . According to several authors, it is therefore possible to assume, 277 but they also have had to face the instability of immediate of the faceinstability had to the have but they also Georgia from National Awakening to Rose Revolution 102 Media Reform: Democratizing the Media, the Democratizing Reform: Media : 208, but CEU eTD Collection bring Adjara under the central Adjaracontrol bring underthe central including the fightagainst corruption and police transformation.managed Healso tosuccessfully After he topower,Saakashvili hadcome implemented anumber of reforms,progressive high, isevensharper. very areespecially expectations the where countries revolutionary 278 keep in nationnecessity the to the united. as well as security priorities in current steps the of such justification forlooking the information, of spread the over maintain control media andattempt to measure towards aharsher might take new by the multiplied security external instability domestic country’s leadership and the threats, economic development. of bringingGeorgia, newsecurity for Georgiathreats and presenting challengesits for the blockade imposingled Russia economic an to when conflict seenby this of already 2006 end the unleashingcould conflict involve adangerous that Russia” easily largely “insistence and theunsuccessful his breakaway reintegrating on risked regions toget Saakashvili’sstruggle South unrecognized back outbeOssetia governments. turned to by controlled arestill of which territories Ossetia, Abkhazia issues South and the of European Union of rulers” legitimacy and prestige effectively and efficientlysatisfy resources, regulate behavior sufficient extract hence,to to and, to “increasingly difficult the expectations may “The of write, finditAs theof book governments the Democracy in Future authors Europe” of their citizens – and this causes a decline in the 280 279 Democracy in Europe: trends, analyses and reforms Andras Bozoki and others, coordinated by Philippe C. Schmitter, and Alexander H. Trechsel, H. Alexander and Schmitter, C. by Philippe coordinated others, and Bozoki Andras “Nations in Transit 2007”, Georgia (draft, unpublished at the moment of thesis submission): 1. Wheatley, Jonathan 280 . However, he had to face increasing domestic and international tension over tension international and domestic faceincreasing hehad to . However, Georgia fromNational Awakening toRose Revolution 282 In the light of high expectations from the side of population, 278 . Fear of such decline of their prestige for the leaders of post- 279 and set the goal for the country to join NATO and the (Council of Europe Publishing, Belgium, 2004), 18. 2004), Belgium, Publishing, of Europe (Council 103 , 208. 281 . Such a tendency was atendency . Such The Future of CEU eTD Collection 284 283 282 281 state. of the weakness to the out pointing and country the inside instability growing the to contributing are they side another From one side they newrequests. of on was Bishkek with streets the toreappear gone arecouple Akaev of after days urging Bakiev to sincefrom basically never new power it 2005,and stopped March a took groups of protestors implement some Akaev ousted of demonstrations listsignificantly. this post-revolutionary that The tensions addto the promised reforms,politics country,in to and growing tied security problems neighboring states” butthe throughout order fromimposing in difficulty change, for potential little with economy stagnant The post-revolutionary governmenthas inherited a number of serious problems such as “a of reforms. implementation possible) potentially (still start to and situation political normalize to government of in and butcan keep harshmeasures hinderanyprospects attempts new the also themselves divide between of Northern country mayand not Southern parts only the new leadersprompt to werekilled with deputiesin groups allegedly (three criminal sharpening connected Bishkek), growing inside tension country,the rising numbersof murdersthe of Members Parliaments of political instability, numbersactions” andrising with assassinations of unruly crowd Kyrgyzstan’s worsened have to mostly term, short in the least at appear, events March the polity, intoRadnitz the spirit ofbreathinginstead “sadly, writes anewandmore democratic As Scott Kyrgyzstan “hyperdemocracy”, a result of localism, loyalty to particular leaders, and a weak central state, a weakcentral and leaders, particular loyalty to localism, of a result “hyperdemocracy”, “Nations in Transit 2007”,Kyrgyzstan (draft, unpublished at the moment of thesis submission): 3. Scott Radnitz, “What Really Happened in Kyrgyzstan?”: 133. “Nations in Transit 2007”, Georgia (draft, unpublished at the moment of thesis submission): 1. Wheatley, Jonathan Georgia fromNational Awakening toRose Revolution 286 I agree with Scott Radnitz who says that “this new phase of 104 , 209. 284 . The internal The . 283 . Such 285 CEU eTD Collection 289 andprotests, regional substantiallycleavagesBakiev’s contribute andhis to government media freedom plays substantial role in Georgia. The continuationmore for allow of internal to incentives tension, non-stopleadership new the of lack the and criticism towards intolerance same Akaev situation induring (as Kyrgyzstan inrule) media. theareaof Saakashvili’s growing the almost of continuation for and Georgia in tendencies negative current the for explanation 288 287 286 285 media.independent achievingconsiderbarriers vulnerable ‘politically be governments’ thegoal to oneof the of who G.Verhulst and Stefaan Rozumilowicz, Beata E.Price, Monroe with I absolutely agree democracy”. greater of direction the for in sustainable change prospects andweakenedthe Kyrgyzstan of has threatenedthe stability state, with all its ills, did not collapse” not did ills, its all with state, media. As ICG reports “at times it appeared the most pressing need was simply ensureto that the mass independent restrict to attempts recent government’s a justify) never (though explain may tensions local and regional of escalation the to contributing journalists, of some among media (such as transformation of State Channel KTR). Current unprofessionalism and corruption rates of serious crimes) may prompt Bakiev to resist planned reforms directed at liberalization increasing discontent, public growing country, oblasts of andNorth between South cleavages of (such internal the revolution neighboring asintensifyingthreats after and security Uzbekistan) external in conflicts (palpable theFerganareligious valley, stemming groups extremist from the Monroe Price and others, and Price Monroe “Kyrgyzstan: After the Revolution”, Scott Radnitz, “What Really Happened in Kyrgyzstan?”: 139. “Nations in Transit 2007”,Kyrgyzstan (draft, unpublished at the moment of thesis submission): 3. Scott Radnitz, “What Really Happened in Kyrgyzstan?”: 139. 289 I believe that vulnerability of the acting governments offer a possible Media Reform: Democratizing theMedia,Democratizing theState ICG : 12. 287 288 This new source instability,of Thisnewsource existing with combined . 105 (2002), 7. CEU eTD Collection revolutionary media situation in both countries varied substantially with Kyrgyz media being media Kyrgyz with substantially varied countries both in situation media revolutionary It shouldbe noted thethat initial so-calledsituation, the in of ‘point departure’ pre- regard tothe of thesis. three the in chapter the and trends situation media post-revolutionary the of analysis subsequent for the used were These criteria information; journalistic5) culture and professionalism; and 6) violencejournalists. against media; control government state media;of of independent 3) scope of 4) accessibility inelaborated two andincluded: chapter legislationlaws; andimplementation 1)media of the 2) were criteria Such therevolutions. term after short mediaduring the in the areaof place took that changes specific the trace criteria wecan these By at looking elaborated. were criteria major six changes, of direction the estimate and such a research conduct be ableto to In order media for changesin hoped areaof democratization. the Revolution in Georgia and Tulip Revolution in Kyrgyzstan have brought anticipated and much specifically,More countries. both in media of area the in changes and situation post-revolutionary the of the mainfilling partially first to insystematic presentedthe contribute thesis gap,this existing the analysis objective to In order inpolitical discourse. current the largely understudied are in andKyrgyzstan Georgia of the thesisThe dynamics and outcome of such important contemporarywas events as recent ‘color’ revolution to conductConclusion an analysis on whether in media independence Kyrgyzstan. Rosevulnerability; this inisin reflected thelackof turn andprogress restrictive measurestowards 106 CEU eTD Collection processes processes and thusinfluencing democraticinside development media aswell.Among them are democratization promoting are either or obstructing that of reasons canbeanumber there the negativetendencies. appearance of the whatexplanatory factorsofpositivechanges andfor the and lack couldbethepossible for The next main question of this thesis was trends. negative in legislation, wecanobserve predominantly areaof the improvements some In Georgia, December2006despite December 2006. November2003and overall within leaddidany not to substantial tendencies withindemocratic between March the period 2005 and conclude thatthe revolutionary and uprising subsequent change of leadershipthe in Kyrgyzstan wecan and development, in medialiberalization of areas the aspects complex often multiple, consideration the into criteria took and followed elaborated six the that original research) wellas as sources secondary findings on the (based research presentthesis the According to countries. inboth media democratization any towards to thesixsigns trace wecan criteria reforms, changes.improvements, discussed Throughout or I the thirdin chapter, whether respect any brought expected in andKyrgyzstan revolution Georgia ‘color’ they respective were, the 290 free’. as‘not Kyrgyzstan and free’ ‘partially as wasclassified Georgia Freedom House to According Shevardnadze. and Akaev of times the during even in Georgia that than free less much “Freedom of the Press 2006: a global survey of media independence”: 13. independence”: media of survey global a 2006: Press of the “Freedom 290 The goal of the thesis was seeto whether, given the initial situationsin both countries as According to the literature on democratic consolidation, why thesituationremains or unfoldstheway itdoes, 107 CEU eTD Collection 292 (secondedition, 1995), 19-56. J. Linz, and Seymond Martin Lipset in 291 that continuation of elites may help us understand lack of changes especially in the short run, but believe I Kyrgyzstan). of case in the visible more (much extent a different to though countries, explanation forcurrent the argued trends. argument the that hold I tends for to both true at eliteI havelooked the as apossible lack change continuity argument of and regime the expectingbackinglittlechanges. realistic to positive serious gave inKyrgyzstan power factto who came andthe power cameto newleaders The waythe As ICG write: collapse’. process ‘the uprising resembled state of happened assuch.Whathas rather though inKyrgyzstan of mass by wholeprocess and the leaderMikheil Saakashvili promisingthe Western-oriented of presence werebackedbythe media. in hope, brings suchhopes a Georgia Any area of change respective revolutions could possibly astronggive for the ground realistic expectations in the all,have discussed I whetherwhat hashappenedinKyrgyzstan and Georgia during the Firstof been ousted. seen their rulers thathavejust authoritarian countries in post-revolutionary thesis I have given a priority see to whatsuch lead could possibly to in trends media specifically I absolutely agree with the importance of thesefactors. However, in lastthe fourth chapter of the others and reforms, economic influence, international society, civil of strength institutions, political “Kyrgyzstan: After the Revolution”, Juan Diamond, by Larry development’ democratic for factors obstructing and ‘facilitating among listed are These 291 government officials, trying torestore some order in a dangerously unstable situation. and formerthe country, their placeby activists of wastaken opposition collection a confused left they When people. ten than less of consisted regime Akaev the end, the At . All of them can form the direction that media develops in a given country. Politics in Developing Countries: Comparing Experiences with Democracy ICG : 9. : 108 292 CEU eTD Collection revolutionary in revolutionary uprisings Eurasia. Central the of impact the on studies further for invitation an and step initial an as serve will thesis my that hope also I study. present the of continuation a possible be could countries two between in media revolutionary and post- of pre comparison more detailed a However, revolutions. the after media inboth countries in areaof the aretaking place exactly changes see what between countries regions in other of world. the The goal of thesisthis wasfocusedindeed --to for in comparing butalsorevolutionary media situation uprising, areaof the and over time after the changes for only not tracing be applied which could framework, atheoretical elaborated also have I studies media and communications in the literature existing the on based addition, face.In countries media inboth that tendencies for thecurrent factors explanatory possible Rose the Revolution in Georgia and in Revolution Tulip Kyrgyzstan. Ihave presented also media after of in area the place taking changes major the evaluated interviews, Ihave conducted the as during sources obtained as thevaluableinformation well collection secondary of Thus, this analyzedupon thesis both andreflected questionsat thebeginning. set wide the Using media democratization. for repercussions negative have that those among be may situation security shaken and tensions revolutionary post of asescalation factors such that I haveargued Therefore, democratization. media of area in the changes negative the of explanation the for insufficient is itself argument the 109 CEU eTD Collection Abassov, Shain, Deputy Chief of party of Bransten, Jeremy. “Kyrgyzstan: Was ‘Revolution’ a Worthy Successor to Rose and Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor of the State Department. “Country Albion, AdamSmith. atthe Crossroads “Countries 2006”. Diamond, Larry. “Is the third wave of democratization over? An empirical Devdariani, Jaba. “Georgia’s Rose Revolution Grapples with Dilemma: Do Ends Molly.Corso, “Pressure Georgian toReport: Media Struggles for an Independent Bozoki, Andras and others. Coordinated by Philippe C. Schmitter, and Alexander H. “Bishkek Protests Target Obstacles to Press Freedom”, 11 October 2006. Accessed at Antidze, Senior Margarita, Correspondent of Reuters NewsAgency in Tbilisi, Even of “Freedom Zaal. Anjaparidze, Media in Further”. Declines Georgia Albion, Adam Smith, Director of Critical Areas Research for World Monitors, Inc., and Europe Publishing.Europe Belgium, 2004. viaauthor phoneand e-mail, 12April from 2007. Translation Russian. Budapest. http://www.rferl.org/featuresarticle/2005/04/ce2bcfdb-6ed6-4f2c-b63e- Orange?”,accessed at 8April 2005, http://georgia.usembassy.gov Reports on Human Rights Practices”. 8 March 2006. Accessed at 19 December 2006. Georgian Georgian Headlines 21 December 2006. on Justify 26October2004.AccessedMeans”, at Headlines on21December 2006. Voice”.23 February 2006. Accessed at b66dde862248.html Trechsel. www.rferl.org Budapest. Georgia. Interview by author via Skype, 11 April 2007. Translation from Russian, Jamestown Foundation November 2006. correspondence, E-mail Academy (CELA). Leadership Eurasia Central of the Director Kyrgyzstan The Future of DemocracyThe Future ofin Europe: trends,analyses andreforms . Freedom House on 7 Januaryon 2007 on on 1 April 2007. , Washington, DC., Washington, 31October 2005, . Accessed at: Accessed . on on 30 November 2006. Bibliography IREX-USAID 110 www.eurasianet.org www.freedomhouse.org www.eurasianet.org projectin Baku. Interview by Country Report – , under Georgian www.jamestown.org , under on . Council of CEU eTD Collection Freedom House. “Freedom of the World Survey”. Methodology, 2006 edition. Fox, Elizabeth. Fluri, Philipp H. and Cole, Eden. “From Revolution to Reform: Georgia’s Struggle Gunther, Richard, and Mughan, Anthony. Grgic, Borut. “Revolution, Kyrgyz Style”. Goldstone, Jack A. “Why We Could (and Should) Have Foreseen the Revolutions of Doborjginidze, Elene. “Freedom Speech of Threatenedin 29July Georgia”, 2005. by Interview in Service Kyrgyz of RFERL. the Broadcaster Venera, Djumataeva, “Georgian Regional Media Associations are concerned by assault on local by on assault areconcerned Associations Media Regional “Georgian Eyal, Gil, Szelenyi, Ivan, and Townsley, Eleanor. Freedom House. “Freedom of the Press 2007”, report on Georgia. Accessed on from Central Democratization ed.“Nations in 2006. Transit Jeannette, Goehring, Diamond, Larry, Linz, Juan J. and Lipset, Seymond Martin. Freedom House. “Freedom of the Press”. Accessed at Bristol. London, 1988. Accessed at Accessed and Geneva,July 2005. with Democratic Institution Building and Security Sector Reform”. 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Budapest, , 29November 2006. 111 Making Capitalism without Capitalists. Class . USA: second edition, 1995. Politics in Developing on on 10 May 2007. , Fall 2005. . Verso: London, New Debating . CEU eTD Collection Kokashvili, Marina. “The Role of Media in Georgia’s Transition to Democracy”. Khechinashvili,“Georgia Devi. After RoseRevolution:the An Opportunity Lost?” Kimmel S., Michael. S., Kimmel Keddie, Nikki R. “Response to Goldstone”, in Nikkie R. Keddie (ed.): Karlekar, Karin Deutsch. “Freedom of the Press 2006: a Global Survey of Media Kakabadze, David. Director of the Georgian Service RFERL. Interview by author, 26 International Crisis Group, “Kyrgyzstan: After the Revolution”, Asia Report #97, 4 “Independent Kyrgyz TVStation vandalized”. 28September 2006.Accessed at Idinov, Broadcaster Narynbek,Editor, of RFERL. Interview by 25Aprilauthor. 2007. Hallin, Daniel C., and Papathanassopoulos, Stylianos. “Political Clientelism and the Hallin, Daniel C., and Mancini, Paolo. Fuller, Liz. “Some Georgian Journalists still feel less equal than others”, 3 January Fuller, Liz. “Profile: Roza Otunbaeva”, 25 March 2005, accessed on Freedom House. “Nations in Transit 2007”, on Georgia and Kyrgyzstan (drafts, Geneva, July 2005. Struggle with Democratic Institution Building and Security Sector Reform. Vienna and Chapter 10. In Philipp H.Fluri and Eden Cole, From Revolution to Reform: Georgia’s Center InternationalPrivate Enterprise,for 2007. 9 March 2007. www.freedomhouse.org Revolutions Independence”. April 2007. RFERL,Prague. Tape recording, from translation Russian. Prague. May 2005. on 2 January 2007. Tape Prague. from Russian. Prague. RFERL, recording, translation Perspective”. in andAmerica Latin Europe Comparative Southern Media: Media andPolitics Accessed2005. at thesis Goehring.by ed. Jeannette 7May 2007, Budapest. unpublished atthemoment of thesis Kindly forsubmission). thepurpose provided of this . New York: NYU Press, 1995. Revolution aSociological Interpretation Freedom House http://www.rferl.org/reports/mm/2005/01/1-030105.asp . Cambridge University Press: 2005. on 7 May on 2007 Comparing MediaSystems: ThreeModelsof . New York, 2006. . NewYork, 112 31October 2005. . Polity . Polity Press: 1990. www.rferl.org Debating www.rferl.org , 1January on CEU eTD Collection Muslimova, Jyldyz. “KTR must become a public broadcaster” ( McCargo, Duncan. McCargo, Price, Monroe E.; Rozumilowicz, Beata and Verhulst, Stefaan G. D. Jeremy Popkin, Petkovic, Brankica. Petkovic, Peuch, Jean-Christophe. “ Kyrgyzstan: Eyewitness to the Revolution”, 25 March Otorbaev, Kubat, Director of Azattyk (Liberty) Media Institute in Kyrgyzstan. Open Society Justice Initiative, press release/e-mail.“New study on access to Olcott, Martha Brill.“Lessons of the Tulip Revolution”. Nogoibaeva,Cholpon, Soros Program Director, Foundation-Kyrgyzstan. Interview by May Media Report, Preparedfor internal use2001-2002. by Lange, Yasha. MediaAccessed troubles”. 8November at “Kyrgyz Report 2006. Independent at Accessed Revisited”. Revolution “Kyrgyzstan: at Kyrgyzstan Report sent via e-mail by Elmira Saryeva, Managing Director of the Democratizing theMedia,Democratizing theState Press of Kentucky, 1995. Pluralism 9b1b-1d3cb9105b73.html accessed at 2005, translation from Russian. Prague. Interview by viaauthor phone inRFERL Prague.studio, 26April recording,2007. Tape May Sukosd),11 2007. finds younginformation by outperform established democracies ones” (forwarded Miklos www.carnegieendowment.org Testimony Commissionbefore on Security and Cooperation in 7 AprilEurope. 2005. 28 author. April recording,2007. Tape from translation Russian. Prague. Framework. 2 January 2007. http://www.eurasianet.org/kyrgyzstan/mystory/person1.html on 31 December 2006 www.monitoring.kg Media in CIS. A study ofthe political, legislativeand socio-economic . Peace Institute. SEENPM. Ljubljana, Slovenia, 2004. in Bishkek. Translation from Russian. November 2006. Media and Revolution: Comparative Perspectives Media andPoliticsinPacific Asia Media Ownership anditsImpact onMedia Independence and The European The European forInstitute theMedia. Brussels: May 1997. http://www.rferl.org/featuresarticle/2005/03/00ccc086-6a7d-48f1- on on 7 January 2007. on on 1 April 2007. , accessed on 12December 2006. 113 . London, 2003. Carnegie Endowment. . Routledge, 2003. Internews-Kyrgyzstan in Russian Media Reform: . University ). Accessed Internews www.rferl.org . . on CEU eTD Collection Tchoroev, Tyntchtykbek, Director of Radio Azattyk, RFERL Kyrgyz Service. Tatic, 2006”, Sanja.“Countries attheCrossroads Country – Georgia.Report Miklos. Sukosd, “Mediademocratization,and social views hegemony movements: Skocpol, Theda. Sewell, William H. “Ideologies and Social Revolutions: Reflections on the French at Accessed Interview. Elvira. Sarieva, beKyrgyzstan’s Will Leader Bakiev Opposition “Kyrgyzstan: Gulnoza. Saidazimova, Rukhadze, Okropir, Broadcaster of Georgianthe Service in InterviewRFERL. by Laura.Ruusunoksa, “Public Journalism and Professional Culture. Local, Regional and Selbin, Eric.“Revolution and the Real World: Bringing Agency Back In” in John of Commentator Economic Revaz, Sakevarishvili, “Republican Party Complains aboutMedia Censorship”. 20April 2007. Accessed at without Borders. Reporters “What Scott. Radnitz, Really inKyrgyzstan?” Happened Prague. viaauthor phone.28AprilTape 2007, Prague. recording, from translation Russian. http://www.rsf.org/rubrique.php3?id_rubrique=639 House Warsaw,14 April 2007. from East/Central Europe and Eurasia”. Presented at the SSRC workshop, Russia, andChina Cambridge 1994. University Press, Case” inT.Skocpol ed. http://www.eurasianet.org/kyrgyzstan/voices/index.html President?”,Next 24March2005,accessedat author, 27 April 2007. RFERL, Prague. Tape recording, translation from Russian. Prague. Slovenia, 2006. 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Freedom's Grim inTurn the Vagnanski, Michael, Tsitsishvili, David. “Changing Elites: Post-Soviet Georgia and the Rose Revolution”. “The New Authorities have Weakened Media: Interview with Levan Ramishvili”, 16 Charles. Tilly, Russian), by viaauthor Skype.11 April from2007. Translation Russian, Budapest. Russian. Prague. Interview by 28Aprilauthor. 2007, RFERL, Tape recording, Prague. from translation Delayed Transition intheFormer Soviet Union December 2006. http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=72&release=432 Union”. Soviet Former on 1 January 2006. ThesisCEU Master 2006/13 Accessedon September 2005. From MobilizationtoRevolution Voice of FreedomVoice of –Kyrgyzstan Georgia from National GeorgiaAwakening from to RoseRevolution: EFE and Vremya Novostei www.media.ge 115 Correspondent in Georgia. Interview in Georgia. Correspondent . Addison-Wesley, 1978. , 24November 2006.Accessed at on on 12 May 2007. . Burlington, USA,2005. Accessed on 25 www.vof.kg CEU eTD Collection Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan Institute Representatives Media Shamaral Maychiev Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan Internews-Kyrgyzstan Managing Director Elvira Sarieva Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan Soros Foundation Director Programs Cholpon Nogoibaeva Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan Institute Media (Liberty) Azzatyk journalist and Director, Kubat Otorbaev RFERL, Prague Kyrgyz Service Broadcaster, Asankojoeva Ainura RFERL, Prague Kyrgyz Service Broadcaster, Venera Djumataeva RFERL, Prague Service Kyrgyz Broadcaster Editor, Narynbek Idinov RFERL, Prague Kyrgyz Service Director, Tynchtykbek Tchoroev Kyrgyzstan APPENDIX A:Listofinterviewees Tbilisi, Georgia Tbilisi, Vremya Novostei EFE Michail Vignansky journalist,Former "24 Hours" newspaper edition of Former Editor-in-chief of the Georgian SerebryakovaMadina Georgia Tbilisi, Reuters News Agency Senior Correspondent Margarita Antidze Armenia and Azerbaijan. Baku, Azerbaijan. Journalist on Georgia, "Working toHelp Azerbaijani Media", IREX-USAID Deputy chief party of Shahin Abassov Georgia Tbilisi, Imedi Economic Commentator Revaz Sakevarishvili RFERL, Prague Georgian Service Broadcaster Okropir Rukhadze RFERL, Prague GeorgianDirector, Service David Kakabadze Georgia 116 Correspondent TV Cosmopolitan project Correspondent magazine. CEU eTD Collection APPENDIX B:Listof main questionsfor journalists 8) 7) 6) 5) 4) 3) 2) 1) happening in the media area in major doyoumedia area seethe in where happening differences? Georgia, the If you could compare the post-revolutionary insituation country our with iswhat worse or you think itmight improve? do youWhatsituation Are think signsthere? arethecurrenttrends is there that getting lackdiscussed or of such changes)? What do you think can explain the current state of media (the particular changes we Do journalists exercise their profession freely or are they subject to intervention? in followingyou changes areas? the seeany Do visible positive/negative Did these changes meetyour expectations after the revolution and of a new government? media? of area in the changes expecting been you Have changes? major any expecting youDo thinkwas happening basedonwhatin 2005wecouldFebruary-March havebeen positive? or negative trends overall the Are changes? the see you do aspects exactly in which so, If In your have opinion brought any revolution inchanges in thearea media Kyrgyzstan? of x x x x x x Scope mediaindependentScope of press freedom) Violence againstjournalists, limitations on human rights (freedom of speech, information of Accessibility journalist) among corruption ethics/norms, Journalisticenvironment, culture/professionalismworking (autonomy, laws the of Government control of state media implementation and reform legislation Media 117