Unclean Or Unhealthful? an Adventist Perspective

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SPECTRUM is a journal established to encourage SPECTRUM is published quarterly by the Association of Seventh-day Adventist participation in the discussion of Adventist Forums . Direct editorial correspondence to contemporary issues from a Christian viewpoint; to look SPECTRUM, Box 431, College Place, WA 99324. In mat without prejudice at all sides of a subje~t, to evaluate the ters of styleand documentation, SPECTRQM follows The merits ofdiverse views, and to foster Christian intellectual MLA Style Sheet (rev., 1970). Manuscripts should be type and cultural growth. Although effort is made to ensure written, double spaced. Submit the original arid two copies, accurate scholarship and discriminating judgment, the along vvitha self-addressed, stamped envelope. Due to limi statements of fact are the responsibility of contriblltcrs, and tations of space, responses from readers maybe shortened the views individual authors express ate' not necess;lrily before publication...... ' those of the editorial staff as a: whole ora.s individuals. In order to receive SPECTRUM, send a membership fee The Associati~n of AdventistForumsis a nonsubsidized, ($12 per volume, except $14in Canada and in other foreign nonprofit organization for which gifts are deductible in the countries) to Association of Adventist Forums, Box 4330, report ofincome forputposes of taxation. The publishing of. Takoma Park, Maryland 20012. Single copies may be pur SPECTRUM depends on subscriptions; gifts fromindi chased fot $3.50. Send correspondence concerning address viduals and the voluntary efforts of the contrIbutors and the changes to the same address, enclosing address labels. Pay staff. . by.check.tnadeout to the }\.ssociation of Adventist Forums. © 1981. All rights reserved. LithoU.SA· eP30123 In This Issue Volume Eleven, Number Three, Published February 1981

SPECIAL SECTION: FOOD Are Vegetarians Intellectually Honest? Reo M. Christenson 2 A Radical Case for Vegetarianism Barry Casey 7 Unclean or Unhealthful? An Adventist Perspective John Brunt 17 A Tour of V egetarian Cookbooks Judy Rittenhouse 24 Adventist Food Industries: Recent Developments Harrison W.John 28 ARTICLES Ellen White, the Waldenses, and Historical Interpretation Donald Casebolt 37 Must the Crisis Continue? 44 Why the Review Voted to Leave Washington Richard C. Osborn 53 RESPONSES FROM READERS 60 B. E. Seton, R. H. Brown, L. T. Geraty, R. H. Brown P. U. Maynard-Reid, H. N. Sheffield, E. Anderson

About This Issue e are pleased to pub commitment to publish short reports on im W lish an in-depth re portant recent developments in the church. port on Adventist food industries, an aspect One report describes events since the Glacier of the denomination's institutional life that View meeting, the subject of our last issue. has been somehow overlooked. Although These events have serious consequences for the author of the report indicates that he church unity and thus should be brought to wishes he had been able to gather even more the attention of all Adventists. Another re information, he and the editors wish to ac port analyzes the recent decision of the Re knowledge the cooperation of key officers of view and Herald Publishing Association to the General Conference. Their assistance has move its operations from Takoma Park. made it possible to publish the fullest analysis It has been brought to our attention that in yet to appear in print of a dimension of the its last issue, SPECTRUM misplaced the last Adventist community that is rapidly expand two paragraphs of the Consensus Statement. ing into the general society. The report is We incorrectly printed these two paragraphs accompanied by three articles and a review of at the end of the Ten-Point Critique. The vegetarian cookbooks to round out our spe error is worth noting since not only SPEC cial section on food. Two articles take oppos TRUM readers may have been mislead. ing views of one aspect of the Adventist life Whereas Ministry accurately reproduced the style - vegetarianism. The third studies the two statements as adopted at Glacier View, New Testament to understand its treatment The Adventist Review misplaced the last two of the distinction between clean and unclean paragraphs of the Consensus Statement. We foods, an important doctrine of the church relied on the church's general paper without that is quite unique in the Christian tradition. noticing the error. This issue continues SPECTRUM's The Editors Food

Are Vegetarians Intellectually Honest?

by Reo M. Christenson

egetarianism is one liefs. It is rather remarkable, considering the V of the cherished be weight often attached to it, that this belief liefs of the Seventh-day Adventist Church. does not have the support of a single, clear Because it is a unique one, not shared by any cut, admonitory verse in either the Old Tes other Protestant church (known to me), it is tament or the New. Of equal importance to given a great deal of prominence by many this inquiry, the church's treatment of the Adventists - and by their church journals. biblical and scientific evidence pertaining to And since a nationwide interest in veg the eating of meat often demonstrates a dis etarianism has developed within recent turbing disregard for the basic requirements years, considerable pride is taken in the of intellectual integrity. church's pioneering role in advocating the The effort to find indirect (there being no merits of a vegetarian way oflife. For many, direct) biblical support for vegetarianism strict adherence to it is one of the best indica largely focuses upon the following: God's tions that one is a truly loyal church member original diet for man was vegetarian; no meat and is conscientiously preparing for Christ's was consumed in the garden of Eden. The return. Nonadherence is viewed by some as children of Israel were rebuked for lusting a sure sign of spiritual laxity , of a stubborn after flesh when wandering in the wilderness; refusal to respect and obey the light which when the quail" ... was yet between their has been given the church on this matter. teeth, ere it was chewed, the wrath of the Vegetarian meals are de rigeur at official Lord was kindled against the people" (Num. gatherings. 11:33). Daniel and his companions ate a veg As it happens, however, vegetarianism is etarian diet in preference to the king's ap perhaps the least biblical of all Adventist be- pointed fare, and "at the end often days their countenances appeared fairer and fatter in flesh" than the countenances ofthose who ate Reo Christenson is a professor of political science at Miami University, Oxford, Ohio. He is the author of the king's meat (Dan. 1:15) .John the Baptist, a popular political science textbook. whose mission to call upon the Israelites to Volume 11, Number 3 3

prepare for their coming Messiah is seen as desired "pulse to eat and water to drink." foreshadowing our mission today, subsisted They were given their preferred diet, and the on locusts and wild honey. Paul counseled, results were gratifying (Dan. 1:15). But why, some have said, against eating meat by warn in fact, were they vegetarians during this ing us not to "eat meat with the blood there period? We can only speculate, of course, but of"; since meat cannot be fully drained of its notice that the Babylonians made no distinc blood before it is consumed, this was basic tion between the clean and the unclean meats. ally a vegetarian counsel. N or were their butchery practices consonant with Mosaic law. This may well have ac Ow conclusive is this counted for the young Hebrews' desire to H biblical evidence? confine themselves to a vegetarian diet. In And how selective is it, taking the Bible as a any case, however, it does not appear that whole? Since death was not a part of the Daniel was a vegetarian as a matter of settled divine scheme of things, it is reasonable to practice. In Daniel 10:3, Daniel says of a assume that vegetarianism was indeed the period when he was in mourning, "I ate no dietary practice in Eden. In order to eat meat, pleasant bread, neither came flesh nor wine in animals, birds or fish must die, and death was my mouth, neither did I anoint myself at all, to appear only as a punishment for sin. till three whole weeks were fulfilled." The Whether vegetarianism was best for man's most reasonable interpretation of this pas health or simply a necessary concomitant of sage is that Daniel did anoint himself and did a world in which death was absent, is not eat flesh after the three weeks had elaspsed. If clear from this situation. On the other hand, you say, "I will eat no dessert for three once sin had appeared, clean meats were weeks," the natural assumption is that you eaten with God's specific approval. In fact, will resume eating it after the three weeks some of the food consumed by the Levites, have ended. who were God's ministers to His people, John the Baptist, while preaching in the consisted of the flesh sacrificed for man's wilderness, ate a vegetarian diet. But is the sins. If the Lord believed a vegetarian diet vegetarian diet ofJohn more significant than promoted man's spiritual welfare, it is curi the nonvegetarian diet of Jesus? Is the ser...; ous that His spiritual leaders were expected vant's example greater than that of his Mas to subsist so largely on flesh. And the Israel ter? Jesus not only failed to endorse veg ites, as keepers of flocks and herds, were etarianism but repeatedly sanctioned the eat always flesh eaters, as numerous Old Testa ing of flesh - by parable, by action, by mira ment references attest. cles and by example. In the parable of the How much significance should be attached prodigal son, the father celebrated the return to the fact that the children ofIsrael improp of his wayward child by killing the fatted erly "lusted" after flesh, and that the Lord calf. This does not directly endorse the eating punished them for that lust? If we read the of flesh, but since Jesus could construct His various passages associated with this event, parables as He wished, His inclusion of meat we learn that the Israelites also lusted after eating as part of the festivities celebrating the cucumbers, melons and onions (Num. 11 :5). return of the prodigal from a life of sin is not Logic would dictate that if it were sinful to without some probative value. Moreover, lust after flesh, it was equally sinful to lust when Jesus said, Ifhis son "ask a fish, will he after these. It is quite clear, however, that the give him a serpent?" He is clearly comparing Israelites' offense was their dissatisfaction something desirable with something unde with what the Lord had given them - man sirable. na. Theirs was a complaining and fretful We are all aware that one ofJesus' greatest spirit, one of ingratitude despite the perfect miracles involved the multiplication of fish diet given them by the Lord. And that spirit when the 5,000 were fed. Had He wished to constituted their sin. suggest that a vegetarian diet was preferable, Rather than "defile" themselves with the He could have multiplied the loaves alone king's meat or wine, Daniel and his friends and made the point dramatically. But He 4 Spectrum didn't. After His resurrection, He helped warning that "in the latter times some shall Peter and some other disciples conduct an depart from the faith ... commanding to especially successful fishing expedition ["cast abstain from meats, which God hath created the net on the right side of the ship and ye to be received with thanksgiving" (1 Tim. shall find" (John 21 :6)]. And though He was 4:3). How many of us would feel uncomfort preparing to ascend to His Father, He ate able in an Adventist religious gathering, even flesh when the fishing party came to land. quoting this verse, if vegetarianism were being discussed? esus had numerous There is other biblical evidence to consider. Jopportunities to rec Exodus 16:12 reads, "At even ye shall eat ommend vegetarianism, but He declined to flesh and in the morning ye shall be filled do so. Every aspect ofHis life which bore any with bread; and ye shall know that I am the relation to diet gave support to flesh eating Lord your God." Deuteronomy 12:15 de rather than to vegetarianism. It is passing clares, "Notwithstanding thou mayest kill strange that so many Adventists glide silently and eat flesh in all thy gates . . . according to past the example of the Sinless One, whose the blessing of the Lord thy God which he life is the perfect pattern for us to follow, and hath given thee ...." Both of these verses proceed to advocate vegetarianism as the seem to associate meat-eating with God's religious ideal. One can almost sense their blessings and bounties. unspoken disappointment withJesus' exam Not only did Moses expressly permit the ple - if only He had been a vegetarian! If eating of clean meats, but also the three mes vegetarianism is the preferred diet, the one sengers of the Lord sent to assure Abraham which best promotes our spiritual welfare and Sarah that she would bear a son in her and which most closely approximates God's old age, consumed a "calf tender and good" will for us, wouldn'tJesus have set just a little (Gen. 18:7). Presumably these were angels in better example for us if He had been a vegeta human disguise. We do not expect angels, rian? Was He truly perfect except for this one sent by the Lord, to conduct themselves in a inexplicable shortcoming? The implication manner displeasing to Him. But even more of many Adventists is precisely this - al compelling, when God commanded the ra though, of course, they would never ac vens to feed Elijah "by the brook Cherith," knowledge it. He could have ordered them to bring Elijah Paul admonished the converted Jews to any food that he wished. But selecting from abstain from "meats offered to idols and among the vast variety of edible substances from blood and from things strangled." Is upon the earth, God chose to have the ravens this a veiled endorsement of vegetarianism? bring Elijah "bread and flesh in the morning Quite clearly not. While releasing these con and bread and flesh in the evening" (1 Kings verts from a multitude of Mosaic restric 17:18). And this, remember, took place tions, he reminds them that the Mosaic re shortly before Elijah was "taken up by a quirement remains in effect concerning the whirlwind into heaven" (2 Kings 2:11). That eating of blood and of flesh which was not is, he ate flesh, supplied by God, while pre bled properly. And he wants to give no sym paring for translation. Suppose the Lord had bolic sanction to idol worship by eating meat given Elijah a diet of fruit, grain and nuts; is sacrificed to idols. If eating meat is forbidden there any doubt that vegetarians would jubil because the blood is never totally drained antly cite that fact as clear evidence of God's from the flesh, the Israelites violated God's preferred diet? Why, then, is this verse so commands even when they ate meat studiously ignored when vegetarianism is Kosher-style. But Paul was clearly trying to discussed? discard unnecessary Mosaic requirements for In sum, if it is reasonable to assume that Christians rather than make them more vegetarianism was the preferred diet for un stringent. fallen man, it is equally reasonable - all evi While dealing with Paul, incidentally, dence considered - to assume that a diet vegetarians do not commonly quote his which includes meat was God's preferred Volume 11, Number 3 5

diet for fallen man and for those as victorious stock and poultry diseases are minimized by as Elijah and Jesus as well. today's carefully prepared animal diet and by There is, it seems, a total absence of credi modern veterinary science. In previous ble biblical support for vegetarianism. But periods, moreover, meat prepared for should we practice it because meat has be human consumption was not refrigerated, a come more diseased in our time and hence is practice which inevitably produced spoilage less suitable for human consumption? This is and contamination. It was also normally ex possible, since there is no scientific basis for posed to flies, dust and miscellaneous contam comparing the quality of meat today with inants which can now be largely avoided. that of centuries past. But even here, the And while no informed person believes fed evidence as a whole does not support vegeta eral or state meat inspection practices are rian claims. fully adequate, they are surely superior to the True, additives and plant accidents have total lack ofinspection which once prevailed. occasionally caused worrisome meat con tamination.'" Pollution of rivers, lakes and t is not being urged oceans has sometimes caused concern about I that the church aban the safety of eating sea foods. But there is also don its belief that meat may someday become apprehension about the consumption of so diseased or contaminated that its use fruits and vegetables because of the large should be discontinued. That day could come. But there is almost no cogent evidence that that day is upon us. While some non "Jesus had numerous opportuni Adventist writers do recommend a veg ties to recommend vegetarianism, etarian diet, their evidence is almost entirely assertive and speculative rather than scientifi but He declined to do so . .Every cally grounded. aspect of His life which bore any But isn't modern science vindicating veg relation to diet gave support to etarianism, now that we know about choles terol and its relation to the consumption of fl esh eatIng· ...." animal fat? The answer is "no." What mod ern science has done is cast doubt on the advisability of eating fatty meat. But it has amounts of poisonous sprays which are not demonstrated the undesirability of eating applied in our day. Moreover, aflatoxin - moderate amounts oflean meat, poultry and the product of a mold which grows in stored fish. Probably 99 percent of the nation's nu peanuts and grain - is one of the most lethal tritionists recommend these forms of flesh as carcinogens known to man. William Tucker healthful additions to the diet. has observed that "stomach cancer is rife in Since God has specifically approved the underdeveloped countries in Asia and Afri eating of clean meat, we should not rule out ca" (200 times as high as in the U.S.) because, the possibility that He knew what He was it is believed, of the presence of this substance doing. Let's look at some recent evidence. in the popular diet. 1 Tucker notes that "the Consumer Reports, a highly authoritative highest quantity of aflatoxin ever fo.ufo1\d in journal, has noted that vitamin B12 is seldom the u.s. by the Food and Drug AdmInI$tra found in plant foods. 3 "A problem may arise tion was in a jar of 'natural' peanut butter."2 among people who eat little or no animal If meat can be dangerous to the health urtder protein," the editors continue, "particularly certain circumstances, so can grain arid if their diet is high in cereal grains." They peanut butter. note.that wheat contains phytates, which can . As for the safety of meat products, It IS make zinc "unavailable for absorption by the important to note that tuberculosis, once body."4 They further note that" ... the body rampant among cattle, has largely been elim absorbs only about five percent of the iron in inated in the U. S. So have Bang's disease and vegetable sources, compared to about 15 per hoof-and-mouth disease. Many other live- cent from meats and fish .... If you eat little 6 Spectrum meat, poultry and fish, you may already be hat is most perturb- iron deficient or at least headed that way. If W ing about the attitude you're a strict vegetarian ... your iron con of most Adventist vegetarians is the quite sumption may be insufficient for your flagrant selectivity with which they marshall needs."5 The evidence quite clearly indicates evidence to support their views. A few bibli that a strict vegetarian diet is a rather hazard- cal verses are cited, given a highly question ous one. able interpretation, and all the other biblical The best the vegetarians can do is cite evi verses on the subject are blandly ignored. A dence that they can have an adequate diet few contemporary writers on health are without meat if they eat eggs and drink milk. cited, whereas recognized authorities who But that is feeble support for vegetarianism, disagree are disregarded. Is this consistent since it is equally possible to have an adequate with intellectual integrity? If vegetarian diet without peanut butter, for example, or Christians display less intellectual honesty vegeburgers, and macaroni and cheese. and fairness in dealing with the Scriptures It is sometimes argued that meat eating and with scientific evidence th~n do non should be discouraged because it involves a vegetarians, one wonders if vegetarianism is cruel and bloody business - that of butch indeed promoting their spiritual develop ery. Distaste for this practice is experienced ment. by many people of humane tastes. But that In general, the church believes that we meat eating requires slaughter is hardly a new should study all the biblical verses which per discovery; Abraham, Moses, Elijah, Jesus tain to a given subject before arriving at doc and God the Father were doubtless aware of trinal conclusions. Why should this not apply what was involved in the preliminaries to to meat-eating? Adventist doctors typically serving a steak or a fillet. Yet they approved do not draw medical conclusions without of meat consumption. Were they studying all the relevant medical evidence. thoughtlessly or somewhat callously sanc Why should meat-eating be treated differ tioning a practice which finer sensibilities in ently, insofar as scientific evidence is in our day reject? volved? Finally, is meat eating, whether meat is One should have no quarrel with those diseased or not, somehow inimical to who say, "The evidence does not yet sup spiritual development? Do the Christian vir port the belief that eating lean meat, poultry tues flourish more readily when one confines and fish is injurious to health, but I have faith his or her diet to a vegetarian or a lac that that day will yet come." But we have a to-vegetarian diet? If eating flesh really is a right to be distressed when people cite scien hindrance to spiritual health and growth, tific and Scriptural evidence with misleading God would surely, somewhere in the 1,000 selectivity, to buttress a treasured view. Intel pages of Scripture, have warned us against its lectual honesty is a virtue that is not inappro consumption. Would God have given Elijah priate for Christians to manifest. a food that was detrimental to his spiritual Mrs. E. G. White once wrote that "Before welfare? Could Jesus be properly regarded as accepting any doctrine or precept, we should perfect, if His example encouraged His fol demand a plain 'Thus saith the Lord' in its lowers to consume a diet that militated support."6 How much emphasis, then, against the highest spiritual achievements? should the church devote to a belief which True, God may make progressive revelations not only lacks biblical foundations but con of His will for man, but not in conflict with His fronts an impressive array of contrary bibli prior revelations: additional light, yes; con cal evidence? As a people of the Word, this is tradictory light, no. a question that should be squarely faced. NOTES AND REFERENCES' 1. William Tucker, "Of Mites and Men," Harpers, 4. Ibid., p. 23. Aug. 1978, p. 56. 5. "Do Women Need Iron Supplements?" Con 2. Ibid. 3. "Nutrition As Therapy," Consumer Reports, Jan. sumer Reports, Sept. 1978, p. 504. 1980, p. 24. 6. The Great Controversy, p. 595. A Radical Case for Vegetarianism

by Barry Casey

t has long been a that we have been practicing vegetarians for I commonplace in most of our lives. Adventism that one was a vegetarian because However, dietary and religious convic the Bible seemed to recommend it and be tions are not the only reasons for being a cause the "health message" demanded it. vegetarian. In fact, there is a good case to.be Adventists, perhaps uncomfortably, found made that the rights of animals and the In themselves trying to explain Deuteronomic equities between the affluent nations and the health laws along with their particular slant Third Wodd are more powerful arguments on health reform to a secular and uncom in favor of vegetarianism for a secular society prehending public. Indeed, until a few years than are religious convictions. Accor~ingly, ago, vegetarianism was probably considered this essay will deal first with some of the by most people as an eccentricity confined to ethical issues involved in animal rights and a few religious fanatics, nature freaks, and suffering, and second, with economic and anemic-looking health nuts. political factors involved in the production Much of the social ignorance about veg and consumption of meat. I will argue, etarianism has vanished in the last decade in furthermore, that on the basis of the argu the shadow of the phenomenal rise of par ments outlined in this essay, meat-eating in ticipatory sports, a mass market for dietary our affluent society is immoral. and health publications, and the growing The question of the rights of animals is awareness of ecological concerns. It is no longer as difficult as it used to be to order a intimately tied to the question of the nature of animals. Further, the question arises vegetarian meal in many restaurants. It is whether the rights of animals, if they indeed almost chic to be a vegetarian in the circles in have any, imply obligations or duties on the which it is obligatory to jog ten miles a day, part of humans toward animals. Tradi wear designer sweatpants, and drink Perrier tionally, the answers to these questions have water. Society has finally seen the light. This taken the form of further questions which means that all of us who were raised vegeta seek to establish what capacities are required rians, and were slightly embarrassed about it, before it can be said that an animal has rights can now" come out of the closet" and admit and that others have duties toward it, and again, to determine which animals have those capacities. Barry Casey is completing his graduate work in systematic theology at the Claremont Graduate Three capacities have been considered es School. sential before a creature, human or nonhu- 8 Spectrum man, can be said to have rights. One is senti tient, their inability to reason means that they ence - the capacity for both pleasure and have no rights. Human beings, therefore, pain; another is rationality - the capacity to have no duty - no direct duty, that is - to reason; and still another is autonomy - the treat animals kindly. Aquinas did allow, capacity to make free choices based on the however, that human beings have an indirect action of the will. duty to abstain from cruelty to animals, since Philosophy has regarded these capacities in such cruelty, he believed, would lead to varying degrees of importance, usually with cruelty against humans. ill consequences for relations between ani Aquinas' influence has been long-lasting mals and humans. The first philosophical and widespread. As recently as the middle of interest in the question arises in Aristotle, the nineteenth century, Pope Pius IX forbade writing in the fourth century B.C., who the establishment of a Society for the Preven stated that the lower animals have much in tion of Cruelty to Animals in Rome on the common with humans, including the capac grounds that such an action would imply ity to gain nourishment, to reproduce, to be humans had duties toward animals. 2 aware of the world through their senses, and Two objections can immediately be made to feel, remember, imagine, and desire. Ac to Aquinas' theory. First, one can agree with cording to Aristotle, humans alone possess him that humans have duties to creatures the capacity to reason, rationality thus being with reason, but object by saying that there is the differentiating characteristic between evidence that some higher animals have rea humans and animals. son and thus rights; therefore, we have cer tain duties toward them. Another objection, homas Aquinas' a more important one, is made by such phi T Aristotelian rationale losophers as Plutarch, Jeremy Bentham, and concerning the nature and rights of animals Albert Schweitzer, and claims that the im was built on the premise that rationality is the portant question is not "What beings are ra characteristic which makes beings more or tional?" but rather "What beings have senti less perfect. The more perfect a being is, the ence?" In this view, humans have a direct duty more power and right it has to use those and obligation to animals not to cause them creatures or things below it for its own ends unnecessary pain. This approach has a great and purposes. Thus, animals use plants; hu deal to offer, as we shall see later. mans may use plants and animals; angels may Aquinas' objection to the rights of animals use plants, animals, and humans; and God, were based primarily on animals' lack of ra because he is "Pure Intellect," may use every tionality; Descartes, the seventeenth-century thing and everybody. Animals, in effect, French philosopher, claimed that animals were excluded from this system of morals had neither rationality nor sentience nor au because they lacked rationality and attacked tonomy, thereby denying all of the qualities human beings for reasons other than justice, which Aristotle proposed concerning the na "the consideration of which belongs to rea ture of animals. In fact, Descartes held that son alone."! Thus, humans may kill and eat animals were mere automata, machines hav animals for food as their God-given right. ing no souls or minds, not conscious of any But what about the question of animal suffer thing. Thus the squealing of a pig cut with a ing and cruelty to animals? knife was a merely mechanistic response, Aquinas had no room in his moral scheme probably the screech of a "spring" set in mo for wrongs against animals because, he be tion by the slice of the knife. lieved, animals simply have no natural and There is a direct line from Descartes to the special rights of their own (natural rights first experiments of seventeenth and being those intrinsic to their kind and special eighteenth-century vi visectionis ts, who rights being those which are conferred upon nailed dogs up alive on boards by their paws them by someone else). For Aquinas, rights and slit them open so that the movement of presuppose the capacity to reason. So even the circulatory system could be studied. Des though animals are (as Aquinas believes) sen- cartes' assertions allowed the scientists to Volume 11, Number 3 9

rationalize that the animal's cries were not Taking the suffering of animals seriously expressive of real pain but were merely means regarding animals as having interests mechanistic responses. and rights of their own. It means debunking According to the eighteenth-century the deeply-ingrained Kantian attitude that German philosopher Immanuel Kant, hu claims animals merely for the use and ends of mans have no duties toward animals because human beings. It means recognizing that animals are not conscious moral agents and animals suffer as people suffer, that the tortur do not have the capacity to act out of free ing and killing of animals is as indefensible as will. He believed animals are merely means our torturing and massacring of each other. to an end and the end is humanity itself. Like Aquinas, Kant believed that cruelty to ani y thesis is that rights mals was not good for human nature since it M make a claim upon could lead to cruelty toward humans, but others and presuppose obligations and duties there is no necessity to be kind to animals. toward those who possess them. Philosopher This attitude has been described by philoso Joel Fein berg has defined a right as "a claim to pher Peter Singer as "speciesism," a term something and against someone, the recogni which we find especially applicable to the tion of which is called for by legal (or other type of attitude toward animals which most institutional) rules, or in the case of moral of us carry. Singer compares the speciesist to rights, by the principles of an enlightened the racist and says, "Similarly the speciesist conscience."7 If we apply this definition to allows the interests of his own species to the case of animal rights, we meet three 0 b jections immediately. First, as Aquinas and Kant have claimed, rights are only attributable to beings who "Taking the suffering of animals have the intellectual capacity to reason and seriously means regarding animals make moral choices. Since animals do not reason, they cannot have rights. Our answer as having interests and rights of to this is that the last word on animal reason their own. . . . It means ing capacity is not yet in. Who knows what recognizing that animals suffer as we may discover concerning the levels of people suffer. . .. " animal consciousness and reasoning capac ity? If we truly have not reached the end of our knowledge about animal nature, it does not seem reasonable to deprive animals of override the greater interests of other their rights on the basis that they do not have species. " 3 the same capacity as humans. From my perspective, the definitive an A second objection to our viewpoint is that swer to Kant came in 1780 from Jeremy animals do not know that they have claims or Bentham, who, in his Introduction to the Prin rights, so they cannot make claims to or ciples ofMorals and Legislation, said of animals: against others on their own. But here, by "The question is not, can they reason? nor can analogy, we must remember the cases of in they talk? but can they suffer?"4 Picking up on fants and the insane or handicapped who Bentham's utilitarian principles, Singer have representatives to speak for them in writes: "If a being suffers, there can be no court and uphold their rights. Against the moral justification for refusing to take that objection that animals cannot choose to be suffering into consideration."5 This draws represented may be put the example of the line sharply between the position of . people who are defended in court by a state Aquinas and Kant on the one hand, and appointed attorney, in spite of their possible Bentham and Singer on the other. "This is reluctance to be represented by that particu why," concludes Singer, "the limit of senti lar person. ence ... is the only defensible boundary of A final objection is that animals do not concern for the interests of others."6 have interests, a point we have discussed pre- 10 Spectrum viously. "Possession of interests," com the least pain possible applies, and that re ments Feinberg, "by no means automatically search should be done on animals only when confers any particular right or even any right the results of such research directly and vi at all upon a being. What it does is show that tally affect the survival and well-being of the being in question is the kind of being to humans. whom moral or legal rights can be ascribed Although cruelty to animals is wrong, without conceptual absurdity." While the there may be instances where causing pain to interests of animals may be small compared animals is justified, just as it may be right in to those of humans , they are sufficiently ob some cases to inflict pain on humans. vious to make talk of interests and rights Nevertheless, as James Rachels says, "there meaningful. Animals certainly sense pain and must be a good reason for causing the suffer pleasure, and seem also to have purposes, ing, and if the suffering is great, thejustifying desires, and a certain conative sense about reason must be correspondingly power them. ful."12 Rachels goes on to cite an example of I believe, then, that animals have inter the needless and terrible suffering of civet ests and therefore have rights also. Those cats who are kept in the darkness of heated rights presuppose that humans have obliga sheds until they die. As a result of tortuous tions to honor animals and that we have direct heat as high as 11 QOF ., a musk is produced on duties to the animals themselves. A final quo the genitals which is then scraped off and tation from Feinberg expresses this succintly: used in perfume. Many people would regard "We ought to treat animals humanely but also we should do so for the animal's own sake, that such treatment is something we owe to animals as their due J something that can be "Meat production is a billion claimed for them, something the withholding of which would be an injustice and a dollar business, and the helpless wrong . ..."9 animals are treated as While I would agree to the main body of food-producing machines rather Feinberg's argument, I would go farther than living beings." and say that as created beings made by the purpose of God, animals have an intrinsic right to life. Such a position is a reinterpreta tion of Augustine's affirmation that created things and beings have intrinsic value by vir the giving up of perfume, as a way of protest tue of their createdness at the hand of the ing this suffering, to be a cheap price to pay, Creator .10 It is also expressed by H. Richard but the same argument can be used with even Niebuhr's echo of that sentiment in the stronger force in the case of animals raised for phrase, "Whatever is, is good."ll This lays meat production. We turn now to more di upon humans, as stewards of the earth, the rect arguments against meat-eating, based on responsibility to safeguard and protect the the methods and practices of"intensive farm freedom from interference of wild animals, ing," the result of which is the extreme suf to treat domesticated animals with kindness fering of literally millions of animals each and prevent unnecessary suffering, and fi year. nally, when it is necessary to kill, that it be The associations most people have about done as painlessly as possible. It also means the meat in their local supermarkets rarely that killing of animals for food should be involve images of actual animals: If people done only when absolutely necessary for the stop to think of the process at all, they are survival of humans . This rules out killing for likely to have some vague notions of a brief sport and for the mere gratification of human moment of pain to the animals at the end of a palates. The question of using animals in re reasonably happy life. On the contrary, the search cannot be given serious attention in slaughterhouse is often a welcome release this essay except to say that the general rule of from an awful life for most animals raised for Volume 11, Number 3 11 meat. Meat production is a billion-dollar busi urine for the iron, although under normal ness, and the helpless animals are treated as circumstances they find this repugnant. They food-producing machines rather than living are allowed virtually no movement, for exer beings. cise burns up the calories needed for the ex pensive dinner cuts and builds muscles which here are three factors are tough and stringy. T in intensive farming The poultry industry is another prime which inevitably cause animals a great deal of example of the Kantian principle drawn out suffering: methods of rearing, methods of to the extreme. Chickens are raised for two transportation, and methods ofslaughtering. purposes: to lay eggs and to become table While the last two are certainly areas that are chickens, or "broilers" as they are usually chronically at fault, the methods of rearing called. The essential step in this process is for as practiced in this country are the most criti chicken farmers to get the birds out of the cal, because they involve the prolongation of farmyard and indoors where they can be suffering for virtually all the animal's life. crowded by the thousands into windowless The process of turning animals into meat is sheds. Usually, the chick broilers are raised governed first and foremost by the profit in cages stacked in tiers and fed and watered margin. Today's large farms are basically fac automatically from hoppers suspended from tories, where the greatest number of animals the ceiling. As the chickens grow they are that can possibly be accommodated are crowded, eight to ten at a time, into cages housed and fed at the lowest cost to the smaller than a newspaper page. 13 The stress farmer. In practical terms, this means that the of extreme crowding and the lack of exercise care and treatment of individual animals is and natural activities lead to outbreaks of nil, the cost of production and competition fighting which often result in the stronger inevitably making possible only the most birds killing and eating their weaker mates. cursory attention. Feather-pecking and cannibalism are re For example, calves raised for veal are kept garded as "vices" by the poultry farmers, in pens too small for them to turn around in or although such behavior is inevitable under even lie down comfortably - often they the circumstances. Even though the farmer spend their short lives with their legs bent may personally regret the hardship and suf double under them. Since the aim of veal fering caused his chickens by the crowding, production is to raise the heaviest calves in there is little he can do to relieve the situation, the shortest amount of time, and to keep the unless he is willing to forego his profit mar meat as pale as possible, the animals are over gin. In the poultry industry, eliminating fed and underexercised. This is accomplished overcrowding usually means eliminating the by a process which would otherwise be called profit; so in order to keep the birds from unhealthful, but under the circumstances pecking each other to death, the farmer often works wonders at putting on weight. In utilizes very dim lighting. A more drastic, order to get the calves to eat as much as and almost universally used measure, is possible, they are deprived of all water, their called "debeaking," which "involves insert only source of liquid being the rich milk re ing the chick's head in a guillotine-like device placer which they are fed daily. Since the which cuts off part of its beak. Alternatively, barns are kept fairly warm, the thirsty calves the operation may be done with a hot drink much more than they would if allowed knife."14 Although some poultry farmers water; this overeating causes them to sweat, claim the operation is painless, a British gov losing moisture that they must replace by ernmental committee formed to examine as drinking again. pects of intensive farming found that, in fact, Because their liquid diet is high in protein the process cuts through a layer of extremely and deficient in essential minerals, calves sensitive tissue, causing severe pain. 15 will, in their desperation, gnaw the wood of The life of a laying hen is hardly easier than their stalls to get roughage and, if allowed to that of a broiler. Layers are debeaked, forced turn around, will attempt to lick their own to lay eggs on the slanted floor of wire cages 12 Spectrum crowded with up to four or five other hens, Certainly, we must attempt to influence and live out their lives in semidarkness until our political representatives to work for their egg productivity is over. The wire legislation that will more closely regulate the cages, although extremely uncomfortable, practices of intensive farming so as to reduce have an economic justification, it is claimed: the suffering in whatever ways possible. Not the excrement drops through and piles up on surprisingly, the agribusiness lobby is one of the floor where it can be cleaned in one opera the most powerful in the country, represent tion. Unfortunately, a chicken's feet are not ing millions of dollars spent yearly on in adapted to crouching on wire and, con fluencing politicians. Further, the links be sequently, many farmers report chickens ac tween agribusiness and the U. S. Department tually becoming anchored to the floor of the of Agriculture are longstanding, powerful, cage as their toenails catch on the wire and and cordial. Two fairly recent examples: eventually grow around it.I6 Furthermore, Clifford Hardin, secretary of agriculture in the chickens often suffer from the constant the Nixon administration, resigned in 1970 chafing of the wires against their bodies, and to become a top executive of Ralston Purina, bloody, raw patches of skin, especially near one of the nation's largest agribusiness cor their rumps, are not uncommon. porations; his successor, Earl Butz, resigned a position with Ralston to take over the sec retariat. I8 While efforts in this area may not be immediately effective, they are still part of "Vegetarianism represents some a larger pattern of protest that can eventually make a difference. thing direct, effective, and Another indirect but substantial action is immediate that we can do to to raise our children as vegetarians, and to contribute. . . to the relief of the teach them to respect and protect the rights of animals. Further, supporting organizations suffering of animals. " dedicated to protecting wildlife and the envi ronment, such as Greenpeace and Friends of Animals, Inc., can have international ramifi cations, as recent world legislation against These are examples drawn from research whaling practices and quotas has shown. conducted on several giant poultry farms The question might be raised that, if means across the country.17 Together with exam could be worked out so animals could be ples considered before, they suggest that reared, transported, and slaughtered even the most modern and advanced humanely, what would be wrong with eat methods of intensive farming have raised ing meat? The answer is, first, that even if profits at the expense of causing millions of such methods could be developed, they animals to suffer. The huge American appe would raise the cost of meat production so tite for meat demands large-scale intensive high that only the very rich could afford farming methods, which, it seems, virtually meat. Intensive farming is successful because guarantee that millions of animals will lead of the factory methods used in raising the lives of boredom and unnatural conditions at animals. Humane methods are simply not best, prolonged and intense suffering and profitable, no matter how just they may be fear at the worst. for the animals involved. Second, no matter how humane the pro cedures for raising and slaughtering animals iven the evidence, we for meat, it is highly unlikely that one could Gare faced with what eat animals and continue to regard them as William James called a "forced option" - we ends in themselves. If animals are being cannot not decide. What can and must we do raised for the sole purpose of delighting our if we are convinced of the suffering of ani palates, it is hard to see how we could come mals raised for meat? to regard them as anything but creatures for Volume 11, Number 3 13 our use alone. Oliver Goldsmith, the But in addition to refraining from eating eighteenth-century humanitarian essayist, meat, we must also vocally protest the in characterised such people by writing: "They fringement of the rights of animals. While pity, and they eat the objects of their compas boycotting meat may be the most effective sion."19 By eating animals, we help to rein measure in the long run, persuasion and pro force the speciesism against animals that has test are important as well. In a sense we must existed for millenia. The basic issue, after all, be ready "to give an answer" to everyone is that because animals have sentience and can who asks the reason for our protest! suffer, and have varying degrees of con It is here that we must face our speciesism. sciousness, they are entitled to the right to life It is here that we must attest to our sincerity as much as humans. The exact extent of the about our concern for the rights of animals rights of animals is an open question, even and our desire to reverse the trend of the among ardent conservationists, yet few centuries against them. As long as we are would argue that animals, at least, have the meat-eaters, we are condoning and directly intrinsic right to life. "Compassionate .supporting the speciesism which has been meat-eating," where meat-eating is not abso directed at animals for millenia, and we are lutely necessary for the survival of humans , is perpetuating the unjust economic structures a contradiction in terms. which make cruelty to animals necessary and Finally, the question itself is only of commonplace. Vegetarianism represents theoretical interest because the actual situa something direct, effective, and immediate tion and choice we face is buying the meat of that we can do to contribute, in however animals which have been treated inhumanely. small a way, to the relief of the suffering of If one is convicted about the part meat animals. eating plays in the abolition of animal rights, by far the most effective action is to become, nother factor which or remain, a vegetarian. Vegetarianism is a A is of considerable form of boycott and an explicit protest significance in the issue of vegetarianism is against the cruelty of intensive farming the cost-efficiency of meat production versus methods. For most vegetarians, the boycott grain and plant production. Coupled with is a permanent one, since they rarely eat meat this is the inequity of food production and once they have made the initial choice to distribution between the affluent nations, become or remain vegetarian. Although the particularly the United States, and Third number of omnivores certainly exceeds the World countries. When one considers how number of vegetarians , still the thousands of tightly interrelated and dependent upon one vegetarians are not adding to the demand for another the nations of the world are today, it meat. As health research goes on and as does not stretch the imagination to see how people become aware of the cruelties in what a farmer in Texas feeds his beef cattle volved in the raising of animals for meat, the directly affects the life expectancy of a baby number of vegetarians will most likely in in India. crease. From the standpoint alone of concern In the last three decades, the productivity for the rights of animals, we can be grateful of American farmland has increased by 50 for everyone who abstains from eating meat. percent; in effect, the United States has had its The farmers who practice intensive farming own "green revolution."20 In that time, com methods do so because it is profitable and yields have leaped to three times per acre the because there is a tremendous demand for yields of the later forties and early fifties. meat by American consumers. Intensive With this abundance of food, it would seem farming methods will continue to be used as that America could both feed its people and long as they are profitable, and farmers will export a tremendous amount of food to hun continue to have the political resources to gry nations. Not so. With the increased pro fight reforming legislation because they will ductivity, the economic gap between the use the argument that they are only provid North Atlantic nations (Canada, the United ing the public what it wants. States, Western Europe) and the Third 14 Spectrum

World countries continues to expand at an ciency oflivestock as protein converters is by alarming rate. Because the poorer nations comparison with plants. An acre of cereals could not afford the grain and soy supplies produces five times more protein than an acre they needed, the American farmer had the used for meat production; legumes produce unique problem of producing too much ten times more; and leafy vegetables approx food. The solution was to cut back produc imately 15 times more.27 Granting that an tion by holding back the amount ofland used acre devoted to plant production is more effi for crops. The American government paid cient than one used for meat production, one farmers $3.6 billion in 1972 to hold back one might well question where the tremendous acre for every four and a half acres har harvests in this country are going. vested. 21 Still, the crops reached record As a result of the over-production. of pro highs. An interesting and startling develop tein crops (corn, barley, oats, soybeans, and ment in this worldwide economic gap comes wheat), a tight world market, and the in to light when we begin to examine the rela creasing demand for meat, the feedlot opera tionship of meat production to grain and tion came into being to help relieve, in part, plant production. the pressure created on the world market by Among the meat-producing animals (cat too much U.S. grain. tle, pigs, turkeys, and chickens), cattle are by If a calf grazes on land that produces only far the least efficient in the protein yield ratio grass, or on land that is not arable, then the of grain to meat. Frances Moore Lappe re ports that "today an average steer is able to reduce 16 pounds of grain and soy to one "An acre of cereals produces five pound of meat on our plates. The other 15 times more protein than an acre pounds? It becomes inaccessible to use, for it used for meat production; legumes is either used by the animal to produce en ergy or to make some part of its own body produce 10 times more; and leafy that we do not eat (like hair), or it is lost vegetables approximately 15 entirely in manure."22 It takes approximately times more." 21 pounds of protein fed to a calf to produce one pound of animal protein for humans to use.23 Lappe notes that the discrepancy in ratio figures is the object of a fierce battle protein derived from that calf is a net gain to today between the experts of the interest humans, since it required no loss of proteins groups involved. The discussion turns on the to produce it. But ifthat calfis crowded into a difference in gained weight that a protein diet feedlot with thousands of other cattle, then it puts on a calf and its actual body weight. must be fed. And what we feed it is grain that Needless to say, the figures which grain could otherwise be used as protein for manufacturers arrive at are considerably humans. lower than studies by government agencies! It takes a ton of grain and approximately Nevertheless, an average ratio of 16:1 (16 300-400 pounds of high-protein feed to fatten pounds of grain protein to everyone pound a feedlot calf for slaughter. While in the 1940s of animal protein) is a fairly accurate working only one-third of all beef cattle were grain figure. 24 Lappe's characterization of the steer fed, by the early 1970s fully three-quarters of as "a protein factory in reverse" is well de all marketed cattle were grain-fed. The effec served.25 tiveness of American livestock operations in Livestock other than steers are consid reducing the "surplus" protein crops has erably more efficient: hogs consume six worked so well that "by 1973, American times the protein they give back, turkeys, livestock consumed the protein equivalent of four, and chickens, three. Milk production is six times the recommended protein allowance even more efficient, as it takes less than one of our human population."28 This means pound of grain to produce a pint of milk.26 that we feed about 90 percent of our corn, Still another way to understand the ineffi- barley, and oat crops to cattle. Volume 11, Number 3 15

ombining the two affluent countries ofWestern Europe contribute C factors of the enor to the crisis in world hunger. According to the mous plant crops consumed by animals and United Nations, the rich, developed nations the inefficiency of animals in converting of the world imported, from 1955 to 1973, plant protein into animal protein, we arrive approximately twice as much food in dollars at some appalling statistics. Lappe calculates from the poor, developing nations as they that of the 140 million tons of grain and soy exported in return. 34 The irony in the fed to livestock in 1971, only 20 million tons import-export balance is that the United returned as meat. The rest, close to 118 mil States, one ofthe richest nations in the world, lions tons of grain and soy, was inaccessible actually received, in 1972, $1.5 billion more for human consumption. This is enough to worth of food from developing nations than provide every human being with one cup of it exported to them. "It is not simply that grain per day for a year. 29 When one consid North Americans consume five times as ers that the United States produces three much grain as do most Asians," comments quarters of the world's soybeans and feeds 95 -theologian Ronald Sider. "It is not simply percent of its yearly crop to animals, it be that each day we eat twice as much protein as comes clear that the world cannot afford the our bodies need. It is not simply that we expensive tastes of Americans.3o devour so many unnecessary calories that Ironically, while feeding precious grain and more than 80 million of us are overweight. soy proteins to cattle to fatten them up, we We can do all these foolish, unjust things in actually waste up to 20 percent of the car part because each year the poor world ex casses of slaughtered cattle by trimming away ports vast quantities of food to North excess fat. Instead of the high-quality protein America!"35 feed going to make up animal protein, the One would assume that with the quantity actual emphasis in meat production is on the of beef production in the United States, we marbled fat, a USDA quality grading based would be in a position to export beef. That on the proportion of fat present. "The result the United States is the world's largest impor of this feeding for fat is incredible waste: ter of beef comes as no surprise when one much of it is simply trimmed away and dis considers that from 1950 to 1973 the average carded. . . . In 1973, some 2.5 billion pounds American's annual consumption of beef and of excess fat were trimmed from beef car poultry shot up from 60 pounds to about 250 casses at the retaillevel."31 The United Nations pounds.36 Our imported beef comes not only reports that livestock in affluent countries from Australia and New Zealand but from actually eat as much grain protein infeed as many Latin American countries as well; in people in the poor countries eat directly as fact, "America imports half as much Mexi food. 32 can beef as all Mexicans have left for them What difference would it make to the selves. "37 This raises another moral and polit world hunger problem if Americans were to ical issue; that is, by importing beef from reduce the amount of grain fed to cattle and Latin American countries, we not only de cut back on their meat consumption? Ac prive them of a present major source of their cording to Lester Brown of the Overseas diet, but we encourage and support unjust Development Council, "if Americans were power structures within those countries. In to reduce their meat consumption by only Latin American countries such as Honduras ten percent for one year, it would free at least and Mexico, the cattle are owned by a tiny 12 million tons of grain for human consump minority of wealthy families who control a tion - or enough to feed 60 million people." majority of the arable land and reap the prof Furthermore, "ifAmericans were to stop eat its. Honduras, for example, exports approx ing grain-fed beef altogether, the grain thus imately 34.8 million pounds of beef a year to released would be enough to feed all the 600 the United States, but virtually all the profits million people in India and Bangladesh."33 go to an elite making up 0.3 percent of the Waste of grain and overconsumption are total population, who own 27.4 percent of not the only factors United States and the the cultivable land.38 16 Spectrum

It would be simplistic to assume that by need meat in their diet to survive and lead merely cutting back or stopping our meat healthy lives. Therefore, it seems to me that eating, we could make it easier for the poor of what the suffering animals go through to the developing nations to survive. There are gratify an acquired human taste far out complex social, political, and economic fac weighs the necessity for meat eating. Thus, tors involved which make easy solutions im I believe that it is ethically wrong, and possible. But by becoming aware of the im indeed immoral, for the citizens of affluent portance that the role of meat production countries where food is abundant to insist on and consumption plays in the world market, meat eating. we can understand, at least in part, the seri Third, I have argued that the increasing ousness of the problems before us. demand for meat, particularly beef, and the "green revolution" in crop production have wish to draw the is tended to create a situation in which more I sues as clearly as pos grain is being used to fatten cattle than is sible in conclusion. First, because I believe consumed directly by humans - especially that animals have an intrinsic right to life and humans in the famine areas of the Third thus the right not to be exploited as a means World countries. In addition, the wasteful to human ends, I have argued that it is inefficiency of converting grain and plant ethically wrong, in fact immoral, to per protein to animal protein not only contrib petuate the centuries of speciesism against utes to spiraling costs and the greed of an animals by eating meat produced by the in overconsuming society, but directly affects tensive farming methods. Since virtually all the lives of the millions of malnourished and meat available through commercial chain starving poor in the Third World. In short, the supermarkets and other outlets is mass pro world is reaching the point where it can no duced by the intensive farming method, it longer afford the affluent countries' consum follows that eating meat is contributing di ing many more times their share of the rectly to the suffering of animals. world's resources and goods. I believe that Second, I have argued that the killing of this, too, is immoral, and that a vegetarian diet animals for the mere tastes of the human is a first step toward alleviating world hunger palate is unjustified when so much food of and undermining support for oppressive other kinds is available. -In an affluent coun economic and political structures, both in the try such as the United States, few people affluent countries and in the Third World.

NOTES AND REFERENCES 1. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica II, II, 5. Regan and Singer, Animal Rights, p. 154. Q159, art. 2. Quoted in Peter Singer, Animal Libera 6. Ibid. tion (New York: Avon Books, 1975), p. 202. Singer is 7. Joe Feinberg, "Can Animals Have Rights?" in an authority in the field of animal rights; Animal Liber Animal Rights, p. 190. ation provides a much more detailed and fuller exposi 8. Joe Feinberg, "Human Duties and Animal tion of the examples used in this essay. I am indebted Rights," in On the Fifth Day: Animal Rights and Human to Singer for raising my consciousness about animal Ethics, ed. Richard Knowles Morris and Michael W. rights - and for much of the factual material relating Fox (Washington, D.C.: Acropolis Books, 1978), p. to the intensive farming method and animal use. 55. 2. Ibid., p. 203. 9. Feinberg, Animal Rights, p. 196. 3. Peter Singer, "All Animals Are Equal," in Ani 10. Saint Augustine, The City of God, trans. Mar mal Rights and Human Obligations, ed. Tom Regan and cus Dods, The Modern Library (New York: Random Peter Singer (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: House, 1950), p. 366. Prentice-Hall, 1976), p. 154. Animal Rights is a collec 11. H. Richard Niebuhr, Radical Monotheism and tion of essays examining several questions concerning Western Culture (New York: Harper Torchbooks ed., the rights of animals, as well as selections from the 1970), p. 37. history of philosophy on the nature and rights of 12. James Rachels, "Vegetarianism and 'The Other animals. Weight Problem,''' in World Hunger and Moral Obliga 4. Singer relies on Bentham's utilitarian principles tions, ed. William Aiken and Hugh La Follette (En throughout Animal Liberation, building his argument glewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1970), p. for the equality of animals on Bentham's principle, 187. "Each to count for one and none for more than one," 13. Ibid., p. 189. and repeating the quoted question concerning senti 14. Singer, Animal Liberation, p.99. ence on p. 211. 15. Report of the Technical Committee to Enquire into the Volume 11, Number 3 17

Welfare of Animals Kept Under Intensive Livestock Husban 26. Ibid., p. 10. dry Systems, Command Paper 2836. Quoted in Singer, 27. Ibid. Animal Liberation, p. 99. 28. Ibid., p. 13. 16. Ibid., p. 106. 29. Ibid., pp. 13, 14. 17. Ibid., p. 92f. 30. Singer, Animal Liberation, p. 174. 18. Ibid., p. 166. 31. Lappe,Diet, p.17. 19. Oliver Goldsmith, Collected Works. Quoted in 32. Ronald J. Sider, Rich Christians in an Age of Singer, Animal Liberation, p. 163. Hunger (Downers Grove, Illinois: Inter-Varsity Press, 20. Frances Moore Lappe, Diet For a Small Planet, 1977), p. 44. new rev. ed. (New York: Ballantine Books, 1971, 33. Singer, Animal Liberation, p. 171. p.7. 34. Sider, Rich Christians,p. 153. 21. Ibid., p. 9. 35. Ibid., pp. 157, 158. 22. Ibid. 36. Lappe, Diet, p. 40. 23. Singer, Animal Liberation, p. 170.· 37. Sider, Rich Christians, p. 159. 24. Lappe, Diet, p. 382. 38. Ibid., p. 160. 25. Ibid., p. 7.

Unclean or Unhealthful? An Adventist Perspective

by John Brunt

Unclean or Unhealthful? An Adventist Perspective

by John Brunt

any Seventh-day Levitical rules concerning what is clean and M Adventists typically unclean are accepted, other parts are rejected emphasize two distinct ways one may err or ignored, and there is no valid basis for this with regard to diet. On the one hand, to eat selective acceptance. For example, while meat, excessive sugar, or a generally unbal most Adventists would have no difficulty anced diet is seen as a violation of health agreeing with the teaching of Leviticus 11:20 principles. On the other hand, to eat pork, that insects which crawl should not be eaten, shellfish, or other foods specified as "un few would heed the teaching of Leviticus clean" in Leviticus 11 is seen as a violation of 11 :24-25 and wash all their clothes and con God's law and is "sinful" in a way that mere sider themselves unclean until evening be-. lack of regard for health is not. This paper cause they touched the carcass of such an calls such a qualitative distinction into insect; yet both teachings are part of the same question. body of instruction. Nor do we consider new There are two major problems with the mothers unclean and exclude them from the way many Adventists use Leviticus 11 with sanctuary for forty days after the birth of a respect to clean and unclean foods. First, Ad male and eighty days after the birth of a ventists are inconsistent. While parts of female (Lev. 12:1-5), yet this, too, is part of the same body of instruction. Second, in their use of Leviticus 11, many John Brunt holds his doctorate in New Testament studies from Emory University. He teaches theology Adventists are not biblical, for the New Tes at Walla Wana College and is the author ofDecisions. tament explicitly abolishes distinctions be- 18 Spectrum tween clean and unclean. This second aspect said, "What comes out of a man is what of the problem is the major concern of the defiles a man. For from within, out of the present paper. We will examine the New heart of man, come evil thoughts, fornica Testament teaching, look at certain historical tion, theft, murder, adultery, coveting, observations that help to explain the New wickedness, deceit, licentiousness, envy, Testament position, and study the signifi slander, pride, foolishness. All these evil cance of these findings for an Adventist pre things come from within, and they defile a sentation of diet and health. man" (Mark 7:14-23).1 On another occasion, the Pharisees express here are several pas unhappiness with Jesus Himself over His T sages in the New failure to wash in the proper manner. Again, Testament which speak of the distinction be Jesus stresses that true spirituality is an inner tween clean and unclean - passages that Ad concern, not a matter of outward ritual: ventists too often ignore. While he was speaking, a Pharisee asked Mark 7 records a controversy between him to dine with him; so he went in and sat Jesus and the Pharisees. While the specific at the table. The Pharisee was astonished to see that he did not first wash before dinner. And the Lord said to him, "Now you "The relationship of diet to health Pharisees cleanse the outside of the cup and of the dish, but inside you are full of extor was simply not an issue in first tion and wickedness . You fools! Did not century Judaism or Christianity. he who made the outside make the inside In Judaism, rules regarding clean also? But give for alms those things which and unclean were understood are within; and behold, everything is clean for you (Luke 11:37-41). in terms of ritual purity ...." Notice here that Jesus Himself declares ev erything clean. Paul also emphasizes the cleanness of all issue is the ritual washing of hands before things. In Romans 14:1 - 15:13, he addresses meals (the Pharisees are upset because Jesus' a situation in the Roman community where disciples do not wash their hands in the believers are divided over dietary practice. proper manner), it is clear that Mark under The "weak" eat only vegetables, whereas the stands Jesus' answer to the Pharisees in a "strong" believe they may eat anything. Paul broader way. Jesus teaches that one is not does not try to bring about unity of practice, defiled by what goes into the mouth; rather, but rather tries to bring about a unity of defilement is an inner matter. Mark adds his fellowship that transcends the difference in own parenthesis to show how far-reaching specific practice. He affirms the freedom of he considers Jesus' advice to be: both weak and strong to act according to And he called the people to him again, their convictions. For the strong, regarding and said to them, "Hear me, all of you , and all foods as clean is right, but for those who understand: there is nothing outside a man do believe in distinctions between clean and which by going into him can defile him; unclean, going ahead and eating in violation but the things which come out of a man are of their convictions is wrong. Thus Paul can what defile him." And when he had en say: tered the house, and left the people, his I know and am persuaded in the Lord disciples asked him about the parable. And Jesus that nothing is unclean in itself; but it he said to them, "Then are you also with is unclean for anyone who thinks it un out understanding? Do you not see that clean. (Rom. 14:14). whatever goes into a man from the outside In addition, even though Paul identifies cannot defile him, since it enters, not his with the strong (Rom. 15:1), he also hopes heart but his stomach, and so passes on? that they will be so free that they will be able (Thus he declared all foods clean.). And he to adjust their practices (even where legiti- Volume 11, Number 3 19 mate) for the sake of the weak and unity with cient to show that the New Testament them. Thus he says: explicitly rejects the distinction between Do not, for the sake of food, destroy the clean and unclean foods. Before moving, work of God. Everything is indeed clean, however, to what significance this has for the but it is wrong for anyone to make others Adventist prohibition of unclean meats, we fall by what he eats; it is right not to eat must illuminate the cultural context of the meat or drink wine or do anything that New Testament teaching. makes your brother stumble (Rom. 14:20-21) . While it is impossible to identify the weak irst, it should be and to discover the origin of, or reasons for, Fnoted that in the first their vegetarianism, it is clear that Paul, century, no one considered Jewish food laws within the context of a debate over food, to have anything to do with health, nor is teaches that all things are clean. health an issue in any of the New Testament Adventist expositors have often sought to passages surveyed above.2 The relationship explain these statements in Mark 7 and Ro of diet to health was simply not an issue in mans 14 by em phasizing that in neither case is first-century Judaism or Christianity. In the specific topic under discussion Jewish Judaism, rules regarding clean and unclean food laws as such. It is not Leviticus 11 that is were understood in terms of ritual purity under discussion, they have said. Rather, the which directly affected one's relationship to issue in Mark 7 is eating with unwashed God. God was not to be offended by that hands, whereas the issue in Romans 14 is which was unclean; thus, one who was un some kind of vegetarianism. According to clean was excluded from the temple. It made this interpretation, the New Testament al no difference whether the impurity resulted lows the distinction between clean and un from eating forbidden foods, giving birth to clean foods in Leviticus 11 to remain binding. a child, menstruating, touching a corpse, or While it is true that Jewish food laws are failing to wash in the prescribed manner. not the primary topic of discussion in either While some of these rules concerning clean of these cases, it is also apparent that in both and unclean were originally intended to set cases the focus of the statements regarding forth conditions for worship in the temple, clean and unclean is much broader than the by the first century, groups such as the specific contexts in which they occur. Mark's Pharisees probably attempted to be in a per comment transcends the question of un petual state of ritual purity, especially at washed hands and declares that all foods are mealtimes .3 clean (Mark 7:19). It is hard to imagine that There were, of course, Jews who tried to first-century Gentile Christians would have explain these rules on a rationalistic basis. taken that to mean all foods except those They wanted to show that the rules were not declared unclean in Leviticus 11. Likewise, arbitrary, but had a specific purpose. For in Paul declares the cleanness ofall things, and in stance, Philo, the first-century Alexandrian no way implies that certain foods are to be Jewish philosopher who attempted to wed excepted from this declaration. Readers in Judaism with Hellenistic philosophy, ex Rome could hardly be expected to conclude plains Jewish food laws in the following other than that all distinctions between clean manner: and unclean were now abolished. Thus, even All the animals ofland, sea or air whose though both Mark and Paul raise the same flesh is the finest and fattest, thus titillating issue of the cleanness of all foods within the and exciting the malignant foe pleasure, he context of more specific discussions, the (God) sternly forbade them to eat, know broad, general nature of their conclusions ing that they set a trap for the most slavish cannot be ignored. of the senses, the taste, and produce glut There are also other passages that could be tony, and evil very dangerous both to soul included here, such as Titus 1:15 and Colos and body. For gluttony begets indigestion sians 2:8-23, but the passages above are suffi- which is the source origin of all distempers 20 Spectrum

and infirmities. Now among the different perversions by associating with worthless kinds of land animals there is none whose persons, he has hedged us about on all sides flesh is so delicious as the pig's, as all who with prescribed purifications in matters of eat it agree, and among the aquatic animals food and drink and touch and hearing and the same may be said of such species as are sight.7 scaleless.4 Thus the Jews refrain from eating unclean According to Philo, God prohibited pork food to remind them that they are not to eat and shellfish because they tasted the best of all with unclean people. foods, and God wanted to curb pleasure and This Jewish reluctance to eat with other desire in His people. Philo shows a concern nations is noted by Gentile authors, although for health,S but he nowhere intimates that it is always difficult to know where truth pork itself is unhealthful. Rather, gluttony is stops and exaggeration begins in such prop unhealthy, and pork tastes so good that it aganda. Diodorus, writing in the first cen- leads to gluttony. In this respect, Philo is not alone; no extant Jewish writing from this period directly connects Jewish food laws "While the New Testament rejects and health. 6 Jesus and Paul must be understood within the distinction between clean and the context of the issues of their time. The unclean, it is not speaking to the issue Jesus addresses is not health but a ritualistic understanding of the nature of reli issue of health. It is rather gion, according to which food, corpses, un addressing . . . problems of washed hands, etc., cause spiritual defile ritualism and exclusivism ... " ment. Jesus and Paul are not saying that all food is healthful, but that all food is clean - i.e., it is not able to bring ritual defilement which cuts one offfrom the presence of God. tury B.C., says that the Jews "made their It is also important to recognize that hatred of mankind into a tradition, and on this Philo's rationalization for Jewish food laws account had introduced utterly outlandish was by no means the most common one. laws: not to break bread with any other race, Most Jews of the New Testament period nor to show them any good will at all."8 who sought a rationalistic explanation for This connection in Jewish thought be their food laws saw these laws in allegorical tween unclean food and unclean people helps terms (without denying their literal validity) to explain the symbolism in Peter's vision and connected them with the issue of fellow and subsequent encounter with Cornelius re ship with Gentiles. What and with whom one corded in Acts 10 and 11. As Acts 10:28 ate were integrally related. God restricted clearly shows, the point of that narrative is what one ate to symbolize the kind of people not food but people. The bottom line is that with whom one should not eat. For example, all people are to be considered "clean" and one Hellenistic Jewish work from Egypt worthy of the gospel. But while we might teaches the following: wonder why unclean animals would be used When therefore our lawgiver, equipped in this vision that teaches the cleanness of all by God for insight into all things, had sur people, to the first-century Jew the connec veyed each particular, he fenced us about tion would have been obvious. The unclean with impregnable palisades and with walls ness of pigs was understood as God's way of of iron, to the end that we should mingle in teaching Israel about the uncleanness of Gen no way with any of the other nations, re tiles, and thus a vision about eating unclean maining pure in body and in spirit, emanci foods would naturally have to do with un pated from vain opinions, revering the one clean people. and mighty God above the whole of crea When we realize that one of the most cru tion .... And therefore, so that we should cial and hard-fought issues in the early be polluted by none nor be infected with church was the inclusion of Gentiles in salva- Volume 11, Number 3 21 tion (and the related issue of table-fellowship inconsistencies. First, we have been unwill between Jewish Christians and Gentile ing to acknowledge Ellen White's contribu Christians), it is easy to see how Jewish food tion to our health practice and have main laws as they were generally understood in first tained instead that every facet of our practice century Judaism could only be inimical to the is biblical, not only in principle, but in spe gospel that Paul taught. This is probably cific detail. Second, we have wanted to have another reason for Paul's emphasis that all specific biblical proof-texts to support each foods are clean. In order to break down the point of practice, whereas in reality it is not imposing barriers that separated Jew and always so simple a matter that one can point Gentile, the entire distinction between clean to a specific proof-text for support of every 'and unclean, which was so basic to Jewish belief and practice. Sometimes, in order to thought, had to go. For this distinction, with support a belief or practice which is valid its volumes of rules, could only contribute to biblically, one must carry out a more com a ritualistic understanding of the nature of plex theological task by showing the implica religion and to an exclusivism that separated .tions of underlying principles in Scripture. the pious from both things and people that But the penchant for proof-texting often were considered unclean. mitigates against this theological task.9 It is Thus, while the New Testament rejects precisely this theological task that is needed if the distinction between clean and unclean, it Adventists are to give a consistent presenta is not speaking to the issue of health. It is tion of dietary practice and health reform. rather addressing problems that were live What then are we to do in light of the issues in the first century, problems of difficulties which our traditional use of ritualism and exclusivism, both of which had Leviticus 11 presents? Three specific sugges to be overcome if the true meaning of the tions follow. gospel was to be grasped. As long as the First, we should accept without embar traditional Jewish distinctions between clean rassment the teaching of the New Testament and unclean were preserved, the overcoming that nothing is unclean, recognizing that the of these problems was virtually impossible, issue of health was not a factor in the New for the clean-unclean distinction was under Testament discussions. The issues that con stood in a ritualistic way, and the belief that cern us today must not be read back into the certain people were unclean was part and New Testament, and the New Testament parcel of that distinction. must not be made to address questions with which it was not concerned. The time was n light of the New not yet right for God to reveal the principles I Testament teaching, of health reform to His people in the first should Adventists use Leviticus 11 to support century; instead, other issues such as the the prohibition of pork and other foods listed internal nature of true spirituality and the there as "unclean"? Should a qualitative dis unity ofJew and Gentile in Christ first had to tinction be made between eating such foods be settled, and, as we have seen, the clean and other unhealthful dietary practices? unclean distinction, as commonly under The answer should be "no" to both of stood in the first century, confused both these questions. The use often made of these issues. Leviticus 11 can only be successful when two That the time was not yet right for a pre important factors are ignored: 1) the context sentation of health reform in the first century of the passage - i.e., the rest of the instruc should hardly surprise Adventists, for even tions concerning clean and unclean presented in 1858 Ellen White could say that the time in the same place - and 2) the rejection of the for this truth had not yet come. She writes to clean-unclean distinction in the New Testa one who is advocating the prohibition of ment. swine's flesh in the diet of Adventists and There are two major (and closely related) says: reasons, however, why we have often con I saw that your views concerning tinued this line of interpretation in spite of its swine's flesh would prove no injury if you 22 Spectrum

have them to yourselves; but in your ome will be disap judgment and opinion you have made this Spointed that no one question a test, and your actions have proof-text will support our understanding of plainly shown your faith in this matter. If health reform. However, in the long run, God requires His people to abstain from performing the theological task will yield re swine's flesh, He will convict them on the sults that are much more biblical. The result matter. He is just as willing to show His of such work should be greater rather than less honest children their duty, as to show their responsibility with regard to health reform, duty to individuals upon whom He has not for the emphasis will be on the responsibility laid the burden of His work. Ifit is the duty to do always that which is most healthful, not of the church to abstain from swine's flesh, merely on avoiding certain foods. God will discover it to more than two or three. He will teach His church their duty. God is leading out a people, not a few "For the Christian, all things separate individuals here and there, one are clean; true spirituality believing this thing, another that. Angels .of God are doing the work committed to is a matter of the heart, their trust. The third angel is leading out not of ritualistic externals." and purifying a people, and they should move with him unitedly. Some run ahead of the angels that are leading this people; Thus, the need is not for a change in our but they have to retrace every step, and practice (the bottom line is not that ham meekly follow no faster than the angels sandwiches should take their place on Adven lead. I saw that the angels of God would tist tables, nor that the church should abolish lead His people no faster than they could its prohibition of pork), but for a clearer receive and act upon the important truths grounding of our concern for health in scrip that are communicated to them. 10 tural principles, not in dubious proof-texts. Second, the difficulties connected with our Third, the difficulties attending the tradi use of Leviticus 11 suggest that we must do tional view underscore our need to recognize our theological homework and firmly estab our indebtedness to Ellen White and her health lish the importance of health reform on the reform vision of 1863, and to admit that she is biblical teaching of the wholeness of man and the vehicle through whom God has given light the value of physical life. This will give the about the unhealthfulness of pork and other whole matter of health reform a much firmer foods which God prohibited to Israel. What biblical foundation than could ever be pro Ellen White affirms is that in these particular laws vided by proof-texting from Leviticus 11. It God's original purpose was health, that these is not within the scope of this paper to carry foods are especially unhealthful, and thus that out this theological and interpretive task, but they should not be eaten. l1 Therefore, our re the paper is a plea for such work. It could jection of these meats for food does not come make use of Paul's anti-Gnostic teachings directly from Leviticus 11 (or else we would be about the importance of the body, the doc bound by all the other laws concerning clean trines of the resurrection, creation, the non and unclean, and this the New Testa immortality of the soul, and others. ment explicitly rejects), but from Leviticus 11 The New Testament rejection of distinc as viewed and interpreted through the light tions between clean and unclean would not in which Ellen White received from God.12 any way speak against this emphasis, for It also follows from Ellen White's discus since health is not an issue in these passages, sions of swine's flesh that the purpose of the they in no way affirm that all foods are prohibition for us today is health and health healthful (one who drinks arsenic still dies), only. Pork is forbidden only because it is un but only that all foods are clean within the healthful. Thus there is not a qualitative distinc context of the ritualistic understanding of tion between eating pork and eating other un clean-unclean at that time. healthful foods. Violation of health reform is Volume 11, Number 3 23 not one kind of sin, and violation of God's ral element and when it feeds upon every direct command in Leviticus 11 quite another. detestable thing. 13 Rather, the difference is quantitative; pork is Seventh-day Adventists believe that physi simply more unhealthful. Thus Ellen White cal existence is a gift of God, and therefore that says: care for the body is an important concern. The The tissues of swine swarm with para scriptural emphasis on the wholeness of sites. Of swine God said, "It is unclean unto human beings mandates health reform. They you: ye shall not eat of their flesh, nor touch also believe (in accordance both with light their dead carcass." Deuteronomy 14:8. The given to Ellen White and with scientific evi command was given because swine's flesh is dence) that pork is especially unhealthful. It unfit for food. Swine are scavengers, and ought to be for these reasons that Adventists this is the only use they were intended to refrain from eating pork, not because the laws serve. Never, under any circumstances, was concerning clean and unclean in Leviticus are their flesh to be eaten by human beings. It is still binding upon Christians. For the Chris impossible for the flesh of any living crea tian, all things are clean; true spirituality is a ture to be wholesome when filth is its natu- matter of the heart, not of ritualistic externals.

NOTES AND REFERENCES 1. All scriptural quotations are taken from the Re body, pleasant and 'eagerly craved,' as Homer has said, vised Standard Version (New York: Thomas Nelson and - that is agreeable." Sons, 1946, 1952). 7. Moses Hadas, ed., Aristeas to Philocrates (New 2. The question of the extent to which Jewish York: Harper and Brothers, 1951), #169, p. 165. dietary restrictions were originally understood as relat 8. Diodorus,BibliothecaHistorica, 34:1:1-5, quoted in ing to health is a matter that falls outside the scope of this Menahem Stern, Greek and Latin Authors on Jews and investigation. Judaism, vol. 1 Oerusalem: The Israel Academy of Sci 3. See Jacob Neusner, From Politics to Piety: The ences and Humanities, 1976), p. 182. Emergence of Pharisaic Judaism (Englewood Cliffs, New 9. I recently saw an extreme example of this ten Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1973) passim, especially pp. 80, 90. dency to demand a proof-text for each point, rather than 4. Philo, "The Special Laws," 4:100, in Philo, vol. 8, basing practice on a more principled biblical-theological trans. F. H. Colson, Loeb Classics (Cambridge: Harvard foundation. An evangelist was speaking on the need to University Press, 1939), p. 69. give up cigarettes. He used the following proof-text to 5. It is interesting that while Philo never directly make his point: connects health and food laws, he does give health as a "Beware lest there be among you a man or woman or reason for circumcision. See Ibid., 1:4ff, ill Philo, vol. 7, family or tribe, whose heart turns away from the Lord trans. F. H. Colson, Loeb Classics (Cambridge: Harvard our God to go and serve the gods of those nations; lest University Press, 1937), pp. 103-105. there be among you a root bearing poisonous and bitter 6. Some writers outside Judaism and Christianity fruit" (Deut. 29:18). emphasized health and related it directly to dietary con He theorized that the root bearing poisonous fruit cerns. For ins tance, Plutarch, the firs t-century (which, according to its context, is obviously a figurative Hellenistic philosopher, wrote an essay titled reference) was tobacco, and that in this passage God was "Advice About Keeping Well." (In Moralia, vol. 2, forbidding the use of tobacco by the Israelites! trans. Frank Cole Babbitt, Loeb Classics [New York: G. 10. Testimoniesfor the Church, vol. 1, pp. 206-207. P. Putnam's Sons, 1928], pp. 216-293.) Here he advises 11. The Ministry of Healing, pp. 311-17; and Counsels that light foods such as vegetables, birds, and fishes that on Diet and Foods, pp. 292-93. do not have much fat are to be preferred over meat and 12. This recognition of our indebtedness to Ellen cheese. While Prodicus had said that fire is the best of the White is not a violation of the principle ofsola scriptura or sauces, Plutarch counters: " ... but one might more an example of a doctrine based on Ellen White rather truly speak of health as being the most divine and agree than the Bible, for the basic principle of the importance able sauce. For boiled, baked, or fried foods afford no of the body and thus of health is scriptural. But Ellen proper pleasure or even gratification to those who are White does give quite specific information about the suffering from disease, debauch, or nausea, while a clean application of that principle, i.e., that certain foods are and unspoiled appetite makes everything, to a sound particularly unhealthful and should be avoided. 13. The Ministry of Healing, pp. 313-14. A Tour of Vegetarian Cookbooks

by Judy Rittenhouse

((We eat meat when we eat out, but we never Day, produced by the Lorna Linda Women's c.ook it at home" (oft-stated Adventist credo). Auxiliary. The Small Planet series includes the titles, eing a vegetarian is Recipesfor a. Small Planet (by Ellen Bachman B like being a socialist Ewald, 1975) and Menus for a Small Planet - after you declare yourself, you must indi (now out of print). These books have cate a subspecies: Fabian or Trotskyite, popularized the concept of protein com vegan or fruitarian. Among vegetarians, plementarity, by which essential amino acids what counts as being vegetarian will vary missing in some protein ingredients are depending on the subspecies. (Not everyone supplied by amino acids in other ingredients would say with us that hot-fudge sundaes, within the same dish. Thereby the protein for instance, are vegetarian.) So it is well to pieces fit together. A familiar result is the say at the start that in this short overview of legume and grain (beans and rice) diet which vegetarian recipes, the recipes will include has characterized cooking in poorer nations dairy products. A further limitation comes for centuries. about because most people who become veg With third-world precedents for the pro etarians need a dish to fill the hole left in the tein scheme, Small Planet recipes often have a middle of the meal after flesh foods have been foreign flavor, but they have essentially been renounced - the entree cavity. Therefore, Americanized. They tend to be substantial our overview will concentrate on entrees, foods, both due to their components and be which will fill the protein gap. cause protein is filling. Theflavor combina A survey of our friends' kitchens reveals tions in the recipes are sometimes surprising that three vegetarian recipe books appear to (pineapple juice in the cheese-garbonzo loaf), be the most popular. They are considered the often subtle, and usually widely appealing. best and used the most because the propor Dietfora Small Planet, by F. M. Lappe, is a tion of delicious food that can be made from survey of the world's crises in food and popu these books is indeed wonderfully high. lation. It offers the hope of a vegetarian alter They are the Dietfor a Small Planet books, the native made possible by protein complemen Vegetarian Epicure I and II, and An Apple a tarity. The recipes in the three books overlap so that one kitchen doesn't require all three. They are from Ballantine Books. The Vegetarian Epicure, volumes I and II, by Judy Rittenhouse is the former manager ofa vegeta rian restaurant in Washington, D.C. She lives in Al Anna Thomas, is so widely popular that lentown, Pennsylvania. it must be included. Both volumes con- Volume 11, Number 3 25

I tain recipes of subtlety and sophistication. better nutrition criteria for recipe selection. Many epicures enjoy these books for their Nutritional analysis will be supplied for each foreign, especially Indian, flavor. The cold dish. It will be interesting to see if the dishes Russian pie in volume I also springs to mind. created from volume II will taste as good as Volume I appeared in 1972, the first widely those in volume I, which used much richer circulated vegetarian cookbook to convince ingredients. It will also be encouraging if, in skeptical meateaters that "no meat" doesn't the intervening 13 years, the Loma Linda mean "no good." Both volumes will be solv women have started using one another's first ing wedding gift dilemmas for years to names instead of calling each other Mrs. Wil come. (Volume I is from Vintage Books; bur Whoever. volume II, Knopf, 1978.) According to our informal survey, An small, little-known Apple a Day is the most popular cookbook A volume that is rich in written by Adventists. Traditional, dinner good taste is the International Vegetarian after-church Adventist cooking is charac -Cookbook by Sonia Richmond (Arco, 1965). terized by meat analogs, of course, as well as The recipes call for interesting combinations unexpected combinations such as peanut but of ingredients, with heavy emphasis on ter with Chow Mein noodles and mayon cheeses. The memory of Richmond's Balkan naise ice cream. Somehow the truest Advent spaghetti, in fact, has so crazed vegetarians ist food combines the heft ofJewish cooking cycling in England that they have cooked the with the American flavoring of a Baptist pot sauce on a gas ring and mixed it with the luck. Sometimes the exotic touch of a former pasta in their hotel sink. This illustrates the missionary seasons vegeburger into ground simplified preparations in this book. The ex lamb. This combination of influences creates position is also simple, in spite of what one such good cooking that the most indifferent might expect upon reading the author's dedi backslider might reconsider. cation to her yoga students. Since their names are attached, the women That dedication might have presaged a of the Loma Linda Auxiliary must have common new-consciousness tendency to parted with their best recipes when they wax either spiritual or trendy about meatless created An Apple a Day. The book's sales food. The worst, most audacious example of testify to the high percentage of excellent this tendency that we have seen is The Peter recipes in the volume. With no advertising Max New Age Organic Vegetarian Cookbook. beyond word-of-mouth and the Auxiliary's This book urges the cook to "stir a little bit of own newsletter, An Apple a Day has sold yourself' into the soups. It is riddled with 105,000 copies through its twelve printings inspirational quotes from Kahlil Gibran and since 1967. Mailed by volunteers to Adven others and has the nerve to print a recipe for tist Book Centers, the book has returned berries and cream under the title of" Merry profits averaging $14,000 a year for the Aux Woods." As this book is out of print, we iliary's missions projects. It is refreshing to mention it only to warn readers against hear of a grass-roots effort so wonderfully new-consciousness opportunists. However, successful. the best measure of a cookbook is the way its But that is by the way. Rely on An Apple a recipes taste, not what it does for your kar Day for many great recipes. Not everyone, ma. When vegetarian cookbooks fail the of course; but the croissant recipe is excellent, cook, it is usually because they call for too and the French hot chocolate is the best we've few ingredients and settle for bland, unin ever tried. teresting dishes. One suspects that the au An Apple a Day does not make a big point of thors or editors of such books don't really avoiding processed foods, high-fats and expect vegetarian food to taste good anyway, sugars. Since many Americans are more con so they settle for dishes that are wholesome scious of these factors in their diets than they but insipid. were in 1967, the Auxiliary now con An unfortunate example of such a book is templates An Apple a Day, volume II, with the New York Times Natural Foods Cookbook 26 Spectrum by Jean Hewitt (NYT Quadrangle, 1971). In American cooking. Therefore, a book like spite of emphasizing raw sugar and sea salt, Recipes from the Regional Cooks of Mexico by its recipes frequently misfire or fizzle in taste Diana Kennedy (Harper & Row, 1978) is a and texture. One dish after another needs good source for new vegetarian dishes. This punching up. It's too bad that a renowned particular book emphasizes authenticity of food editor like Ms. Hewitt doesn't eat at a ingredients and technique, detailing refine fellowship potluck and discover what verve ments from one region to another. It is best vegetarian food can possess. used if you have access to Mexican food and We have cited four superior vegetarian spices such as cactus paddles and squash blos cookbooks, but great vegetarian dishes turn soms. In any case, it has valuable instruction up in books with recipes for both meat and about vegetable stocks, an essential usually no-meat foods. Almost any cookbook is overlooked even in vegetarian cookbooks. likely to yield a vegetarian idea or two. One One book which is also helpful with of the best ways to glean good meatless foods stocks, however, is familiar oldJoy of Cook ing by Irma S. Rombauer and Marion Rom bauer Becker (Bobbs-Merrill, 1931-1975). "The best way to discover This unsurpassed cookbook is nearly exhaus good vegetarian recipes is tive on every food topic. It has a huge meat and seafood section, but the luncheon and to ask a good cook for a brunch recipes are rich with egg and cheese favorite. Inquire in the dishes, including a peerless rarebit. The book kitchen at a potluck." provides recipes and preparation instructions for almost every fruit and vegetable. Many Adventist cooks ignore this great secular standard, but it's worth its price, even with from them is to study the rather complete all its instruction on boning a chicken. And collection of cookbooks found in most public its understated, winsome prose makes enjoy libraries. able reading while one waits for the pressure Such books as Classic Italian Cooking and cooker to come to a hiss. More Classic Italian Cooking by Marcella Hazan (Knopf, 1978) are good sources for lthough no particular meatless dishes. Unfortunately, like many A thanks is due to the "serious" cookbooks, these annotate most of Adventist health message, vegetarian diet is the recipes with tales of the author's experi now receiving some acclaim in chic circles. ence or descriptions of how much the reader This may be partly due to the nouvelle is going to love the next dish. cuisine wave, characterized as delicious-yet Among the nonvegetarian cookbooks light, which emerged from Paris several that have really good meatless dishes are Julia years ago, or it may be the natural result of Child's several books. We served the cream rising health consciousness among more of mushroom soup from Mastering the Art of affluent, better-educated Americans. What French Cooking at a vegetarian restaurant, ever the reason, the trendier magazines now substituting McKay's chicken flavoring for turn their practised gastronomical talents to genuine chicken stock (and adding salt in the meatless entrees, without ever mentioning process). That soup is a rhapsody! Julia Child vegetarian food. Vogue magazine - hardly is an evangelist of omelet technique, ever quoted for its homemaking hints - often useful to the vegetarian, although she's not prints most interesting vegetarian recipes, one to simplify preparation. The continental including this one from the recent past: mix emphasis of much of her work provides a together fresh, steamed green beans, cooked vegetarian with recipes for souffles, aspics, ziti, lots of grated parmesan, sweet butter, and vegetable dishes. chopped parsley and green onions and some Almost any foreign cuisine, save perhaps salt. It's absolutely wonderful with fresh to British, is richer in meatless food than matoes and buttered carrots on the side. Be- Volume 11, Number 3 27 hind its painted eyelids, Vogue has wonderful necessary to produce tofu at home, this secrets for the vegetarian cook who is tired of paperback tells how to grill, deep-fry, and Tuno. stuff tofu, as well as recommending prepara Gourmet magazine, that bastion of food tions for eating it raw or making derivatives. as-god, is also a fine source for meatless It is a comprehensive book with stretches of dishes. It doesn't stress vegetarian food, but in exposition - all about how it's cooked in every issue there is something new and Japan - between the recipes. Other books intriguing to a person who doesn't eat meat. on this food have lavished enthusiasm on Those dishes, often of foreign influence, are what I considered to be insipid-tasting dishes tucked in with the flesh dishes. Four or five that have no resemblance to the bean curd seasons ago the traditional Thanksgiving fix (tofu) in black bean sauce served in ing included an apple/currant/shallot turkey American-Chinese restaurants. dressing that is very savory and piquant. Finally, the best way to discover good Finally, tofu. A number of tofu (or soy vegetarian recipes is to ask a good cook for a cheese) cookbooks have appeared recently, favorite. Inquire in the kitchen at a potluck. recommending this "natural" processed Tell your mother to have her friends send food to the industrialized west. One of them recipes instead of pillowcases for your wed shows some promise: The Book of Tofu: Food ding. Or find the best cook in your congrega for Mankind by William Shurtleff and Akiko tion and offer to do his or her ironing in Aoyagi (Ballantine Books, 1979). In addi exchange for recipes. tion to describing the apparatus and method Adventist Food Industries: Recent Developments

by Harrison W. John

ver since Ellen G. over 92 percent. During the 1975-79 period, E White's health re $20.5 million was donated by the various form message o£1863, Seventh-day Advent food companies to the evangelistic program ists have had a "theology" of nutrition ad of the church. It is estimated that Sanitarium vocating the use of such natural foods as Health Food Company of Australia itself fruits, nuts, vegetables, grains and cereals. contributed about $10.5 million (Australian Ironically, while the health principles of the dollars) toward this program. church have remained essentially the same Yet if one asked the average American over the last 117 years, Adventists have Seventh-day Adventist about the church's gradually accepted the use of certain highly health food industry, one would probably processed foods such as vegetable proteins not learn much more than the fact that Lorna and ready-to-eat breakfast cereals. Today, the Linda produces a wide variety of "vegetarian church, through its food factories in 25 coun meats" or that Australia has a booming tries around the world, invests millions of health food business. There are probably few dollars to manufacture and market various institutions of the church about which so health-food products. little is known, yet which involve so large a A few statistics will place the church's financial investment. international food manufacturing and mar keting program in perspective. According to One reason, perhaps, is the difficulty of the most recent figures available, total food obtaining detailed financial statistics from sales by these Adventist manufacturing and World Foods Service, the church's "moth marketing companies around the world balled" consulting agency in Washington, amounted to $188 million in 1979. This is an D.C., which once coordinated the activities increase of more than 95 percent over 1974 of the ever-expanding food industries net sales of$96 million. In 1970, total food sales work around the world. Eric Howse, former of$51 million were reported. Comparing the director of World Foods, though cooperative last two quinquennium periods, 1970-74 and and genial in providing information, could 1975-79, sales were $357 million and $686 not supply SPECTRUM with meaningful million respectively, an increase of slightly financial statistics, other than some total sales figures, about the various industries. The Harrison W. John, a graduate of Spicer Memorial church's published financial summary, com College in India, holds graduate degrees in English piled every five years for a General Confer and journalism from the University of Maryland and Pennsylvania State University. He is a professional ence session, does not list food industries as a editor for a major corporation in Rockville, Md. separate category; rather, the food industries Volume 11, Number 3 29

are lumped under a category called "Indus a ready-to-eat breakfast cereal called "Weet tries," which includes "Foods, etc." This Bix," which is number one in total sales for a method oflisting the financial figures makes single breakfast cereal brand in Australia. it extremely difficult to extricate meaningful Kellogg's Corn Flakes is number two, data about the food industries from the though in total sales of all breakfast cereal church's official statistical records. Neither brands sold, Kellogg maintains the number could General Conference treasury officials one position because of its wider variety of supply any financial information, though products. Yet, Sanitarium Foods is number former treasurer Kenneth Emmerson did two in total breakfast cereal sales. In New give SPECTRUM permission to obtain fi Zealand, however, Sanitarium Foods is the nancial summaries from the General Confer front-runner in total breakfast cereal sales, ence Office of Archives and Statistics. How having bought out its main rival, Nabisco. ever, even there, the kind of detail that The Australians run such a smooth opera SPECTRUM sought was not available. tion that church leaders, recognizing their In fact, there was a gaping hole in the fi .superb managerial and marketing expertise, nancial records. For example, no financial have invited them to help struggling Advent information is available on the brightest star ist food companies in other parts of the of the Adventist health food industry - the world, including Britain and the United Sanitarium Health Food Company of Aus States. tralia. * And therein lies an irony. There is little doubt that Australia has an impressively n October 1979, the successful health food operation, but the ex I Northern Europe tent of that success is known by only a few West Africa Division and the British Union people within the church. Information reluc requested Sanitarium Health Foods of Aus tantly revealed by World Foods Service tralia to take over the management of the shows, for example, that in 1978 the ailing Granose Foods facility in England, Sanitarium Health Food Company had a net which has been a consistent moneyloser. gain of$6 million (Australian), and as ofJuly Figures for 1975-1978 show that Granose 1979, total sales for the 1975-1979 quinquen Foods had a net operating loss totaling over nium were $400 million (Australian). $406,000 for the four-year period. As a re Sanitarium Foods' most popular product is sult, the total net worth of the company de creased from $331,902 in 1975 to $113,515 in *When asked why the Australians were not filing the 1978. The real situation of the company, yearly financial summary (Form FN-49) required of all other food factories, the director of archives and however, was far more pathetic, since the statistics, Don Yost, said: "We are receiving all the company had received an appropriation (pre financial data we are authorized to receive." Rudolph sumably from the British Union) of about Reinhard, a retired assistant treasurer of the General Conference, told SPECTRUM that the reason the $95,000 in 1977. Without that appropriation, Australians do not file a financial summary is that the total net worth of the company in 1978 Australian law and subsequent company policy per would have been a mere $19,000. mits Sanitarium Health Foods to refrain from filing a While more recent figures are not avail public statement as a means of protecting confidential information from competitors. An official in the eco able, published reports show that perhaps the nomics section of the Australian Embassy in Washing Australians are already making an impact as a ton, D.C., told SPECTRUM that, although some result of the changeover. Manager Keith Adair companies are not legally obliged to file public reports if the industry they serve is small, or if public disclosure of Granose reported in a recent issue of the would harm the industry, he was surprised that the Adventist Review that the company had a 20 breakfast-cereal industry in Australia would fall in percent increase in sales during 1979 for a that category. Willis J. Hackett, former General Con ference vice president and adviser to World Foods total of $2.9 million. No further financial Service, says that Sanitarium Health Foods provides a details were provided, so the real picture is status report to the Australasian Division, and that the left to speculation. Nevertheless, according Division should be the contact point for information. to Adair, the company employs 55 regular SPECTRUM made several unsuccessful attempts to contact Frank Craig, president of Sanitarium Health workers, 48 part-time workers, and 12 stu Foods. dents. It manufactures 28 food products, the 30 Spectrum major one being a breakfast cereal called church members. He noted that the Austral "Sunny Bisk." It also manufactures various ians will conduct a "serious investigation" brands of meat analogs or vegetable proteins. into the feasibility of promoting Lorna Lin With the innovative Australians at the da's breakfast cereal product in a market helm, the company hopes to gain an entree which is "very tough" to crack. into the large British grocery chains, which Whereas Wood spoke diplomatically even are very competitive and selective. While the though he was leaving his job as president of Australians have proved themselves "down the company - obviously as a result of the under," church officials will be monitoring merger - Eric Howse, former director of with interest their attempts to financially Wodd Foods Service, described the situation straighten out Granose Foods and Loma more forthrightly. The changeover was basic Linda. ally a "rescue effort" to make LLF a more A prill, 1980, was a momentous date in the significant and viable operation, he said. history of the Seventh-day Adventist Loma Linda lacked the marketing expertise health-food industry in America. On that to penetrate the large national supermarket date, without much fanfare and hardly a rip chains; it did not have enough new capital to ple of reaction, the management and control expand the business; and furthermore, LLF ofLoma Linda Foods was quietly transferred management was not prepared to risk new to the Sanitarium Health Food Company of capital in a business that was not financially Australia. Although many North American secure. church members probably gave this devel Howse's assessment seems to be borne out opment little thought, it can be seen as a symbolic reminder of a kind of mild paralysis that had affected one of North America's "The Australians run such a proudest institutions. smooth operation that church Even church administrators, who natu rally prefer to present denominational leaders . .. have invited thetn to shortcomings in the best possible light, have help struggling Adventist food hinted at some problems that plagued Loma companies in other parts of Linda Foods (LLF). Willis J. Hackett, LLF board chairman (now retired), in reporting the world . ..." the merger via the Adventist Review in Febru ary 1980, noted that Lorna Linda Foods had "more than doubled" its annual sales over the when one looks at audited financial reports of last three years. Yet, he added, expansion the company obtained from the General funds, operating capital, and equipment Conference Archives. Although detailed funds needed for continued growth were not sales breakdowns were not available, the rec available. The Australians, with their man ord shows that over a four-year period from agerial, marketing, and research expertise, 1975 to 1978, the company's total net worth will help to enlarge and advance Loma Linda had decreased by over $300,000 - from Foods, he said. $457,937 in 1975 to $128, 958 in 1978. While L. Delmer Wood, former president of earned operating income (not including ap Loma Linda Foods, agrees, saying that the propriations) during the four-year period merger will give financial strength to the rose from $8.9 million in 1975 to $11.7 mil company in a way the church in North lion in 1978, the company had net operating America could not do. In a telephone inter losses of over $1.3 million - $637,000 in view, Wood said that since the Australians 1975, $366,000 in 1976, and $390,000 in 1978; generate much of their capital from the "gen in 1977, a gain of $84,000 was reported. tiles," or non-Adventist sources, the church In addition to this erratic and less-than would feel more comfortable in utilizing acceptable financial situation, the company these funds rather than tapping the till of was unable to penetrate significantly the hard-earned offering income provided by highly competitive arena of the large super- Volume 11, Number 3 31 market chains, even though, according to General Conference. But the most plausible figures provided by World Foods Service explanation seems to be that Howse's re (WFS), 80 percent of Lorna Linda's 15 vari placement would have had to come from the eties of vegetable proteins, three soymilk Australian company because it seems to be products, five gravy, and four cereal prod the only present source of knowledgeable, ucts are marketed through brokers, while capable administrators in the health food only 20 percent of the products are marketed field. Since Sanitarium Foods' extension into through denominational outlets. This is in Britain and the United States has siphoned sharp contrast to the Australian strategy, off some ofits top administrators, it cannot at which allows for 99.5 percent of all products this time spare further talent for a Washing manufactured by Sanitarium Foods in its 18 ton desk job. factories to be marketed through wholesal For now, the functions of World Foods ers, and only one-half percent to be marketed Service will be carried on by the Australians through denominational outlets. on an assignment basis, and coordination will be provided through the office of the he Australian com president of the General Conference. The T pany has become a plan is to reinstitute World Foods Service at a model for the Adventist health food indus later time after the situation at Granose and try. From a very small beginning in 1897 Lorna Linda stabilizes and the Australians can when 20 cases of various health foods were return those institutions to local control. imported from Battle Creek, Michigan, and At both Lorna Linda Foods and Granose, sold to denominational workers, the com the Australians are expected to put a strong pany has grown into a network of 18 fac emphasis on the sale of breakfast cereals. tories and 73 retail shops with a work force of Lorna Linda's emphasis up to now has been over 1,400 regular employees and 100 stu on the production of vegetable proteins, an dents. The retail stores have served over 41 area in which the Australians themselves million customers during the last five years. have not made much progress in terms of The company has captured about 20 percent penetrating the non-Adventist market. Since of the total corn flakes market in Australia, both Australia and the United States are sells its products aggressively in New Zea heavy meat-producing countries, the sale of land, has spread its boundaries to New vegetable proteins has not been very popular. Guinea, England, and the United States, and Ready-to-eat breakfast cereals, however, has so impressed General Conference offi are well accepted in both countries. United cials that the function ofWorld Foods Service States per capita consumption of wheat as an entity has, at least for the present, been breakfast cereals is 2.9 pounds a year, accord transferred from international headquarters ing to the latest department of agriculture in Washington, D.C., to Sanitarium Health statistics; in addition, the 1978 retail value of Foods. ready-to-eat cereal shipments in the United At the Dallas General Conference session, States was $2.4 billion, as reported in a mar no replacement was provided for Eric ket analysis provided to SPECTRUM by Howse, who has retired. The rationale, as Merrill Lynch, Pierce, Fenner and Smith, explained by Willis J. Hackett, is that rather which sees a possibility of a long-term than trying to concentrate much of the coor growth rate of about 3 percent or more in this dinating functions of the food industry net market. The Merrill Lynch report shows that work in the hands of one man in Washing the Kellogg Company of Battle Creek leads ton, it would be more effective to have the in American sales of breakfast cereals with 42 Australians, with their extensive technical percent of the total market, followed by and marketing know-how, provide, on a de General Mills at 20 percent, General Foods at mand basis, any necessary consultation. 15 percent and Quaker Oats at about 9 per Another explanation given is that this may cent. The remaining 14 percent of the break have been part of an overall effort to cut fast cereal market is shared by such food down the administrative bureaucracy of the giants as Ralston-Purina and Nabisco. It is 32 Spectrum probably this segment of the market that the incentive, he added. Unless a product has Australians will have to penetrate before mass appeal, with the prospect of subsequent they can make a dent in the breakfast cereal higher volume and lower prices, it is not market in the United States. financially feasible for a company to invest What effect the Australian preoccupation heavily in it. with breakfast cereals will have on the vege This view seems to be substantially backed table protein business remains to be seen. by the experience of Miles Laboratories, Loma Linda already has established some which bought out Worthington Foods of credibility with its vegetable protein prod Ohio (well-known to Adventists) in 1970 ucts and seems to be well-positioned for ex and launched a $7.5 million television adver pansion in this market if a demand for such tising campaign in 1974 to test-market, products arises in the country. Yet food under the Morningstar Farms label, its analysts are skeptical about any immediate or Breakfast Links, Breakfast Patties, and short-term prospects for growth in the use of Breakfast Slices - substitutes for sausage vegetable protein and meat analogs by the and ham. The Wall StreetJournal documented Miles' "soybean saga" in an October 25, 1977 article. About 10 million American HFood analysts are skeptical about families tried the Morningstar Farms break any immediate or short-term fast line in the first 18 months after its intro prospects for growth in the use of duction in 1974, but sales after that failed to measure up to expectations. By 1977, the vegetable protein and meat Journal reported that Miles had chalked up analogs by the general population." pretax losses of $33 million on its meat sub stitute products. One food analyst has re marked: "Changing consumer eating habits is general population. A food scientist with the difficult to do in the U. S." Another added: Food Protein Council, a trade association of "Miles is probably 25 years ahead of its several food companies producing textured time." vegetable proteins (the raw product from But Loma Linda can wait. It has a steady which meat analogs are made), told SPEC built-in clientele, which it continues to serve TR UM that a number of food giants such as admirably. When, and if, the time comes for General Mills, General Foods, Pillsbury, this market to expand, Loma Linda should be Nabisco, and Procter and Gamble utilize tex ready. tured vegetable proteins in various food products. Yet they are chiefly used as "meat he United States ex extenders," i.e., as supplements to other T perience with soy meat products, a procedure which received protein foods has served as an example to the blessing of the department of agriculture Adventist industries in other countries. For in 1971. The same scientist told SPEC instance, in 1969, both Argentina's Granix TR UM that his company, a large manufac and Brazil's Superbom wanted to plunge into turer of textured vegetable proteins, had an the vegetable protein market, says Eric opportunity to pmchase General Mills' vege Howse. However, he was able to dissuade table protein business about five years ago them from doing so. The companies were in but did not do so because even though com a weak financial position, yet they had excel pany executives felt the product was good, lent products like breakfast cereals and fruit they "could not see a market in the product juices which were gaining favorable con for the next 10 to 15 years." The American sumer acceptability. From his past experi public does not seem to be ready for this kind ence with the textured vegetable protein of product at the present time, he said, unless market, Howse knew that such protein it is for health or religious reasons. Further products need to be heavily promoted before more, the meat analogs are not substantially they can be reasonably successful. His advice cheaper than meat so as to provide a price to the Argentinians and the Brazilians was Volume 11, Number 3 33

first to develop their existing business and million bottles of grape juice, two million then tackle the more tricky vegetable protein bottles of tomato juice, and two million bot market. tles of pineapple juice. The high-quality About three years ago, Howse says, they juices are served throughout the country, on were ready. The demand for vegetable pro the airlines and in hotel chains, Howse re tein products in the area served by the four ported. companies under the umbrella (South But the most unusual feature of the Brazil American) Division Health Food Company Food Factory outreach is its chain of three has grown so rapidly that the factories restaurants - two in Sao Paulo and one in (chiefly in Brazil and Argentina) are cur Belo Horizonte. By the end of 1980, three rently producing at the rate of 700 tons a more restaurants are expected to open, year, according to Howse. The demand is Howse reported. Although financial figures caused in part by government-proclaimed were not available, church officials note that "meatless days" instituted in Brazil and the restaurants are doing well. One of the Sao Argentina so that those countries can export Paulo restaurants serves more than 1,000 per more meat, he explained. sons a day, and includes a full-time chaplain Of the four companies that form part of on its staff, who generally maintains good Division Health Food Company, those in public relations with the clientele, and invites Brazil and Argentina seem to be doing rather them, when appropriate, to attend cooking well. The Granix factory in Buenos Aires, classes, or Five-Day Plans to Stop Smoking, Argentina, produces such items as breakfast and even conducts Bible studies, which have cereals, bread, vegetable proteins and a resulted in several baptisms. high-quality multicereal, high-fiber cracker The two other companies which form part for which there is "a tremendous demand," of the Division Health Food network - according to Howse. After visiting the fac Superbom (Chile) and Fruitgran (Uruguay) tory earlier this year, Alf Lohne, a general - show a mixed picture. For example, the - vice president of the General Conference, re Chile plant (major products: dehydrated fruit ported that in order to meet the demand for and canned vegetables) reported a 1978 in its various products, Granix keeps its 300 come of only $11 ,323, yet had a total net workers busy 24 hours a day in three shifts. worth of $260 ,344 at the end of the year. The He further reported that 40 percent of the Uruguay plant, on the other hand (main company's net gain is passed directly into the products: tomato juice and puree), showed a church budget with "considerable sums" considerably higher 1978 income than the going to finance evangelism. Expansion Chile plant - $235,187 - but it ended the plans call for an increase in production by 500 year with a total net worth deficit of$26 ,544. percent, he added. According to the most recent figures available, Granix showed an he newest organiza impressive rise in earned operating income tion in the western from $1.2 million in 1976 to $6.7 million in hemisphere is the TInter-American Division 1978, with a total net worth increase of over Food Company, Coral Gables, Florida. Es $2.4 million in 1978, up from $315,330 in tablished in 1977, this umbrella agency now 1976 to $2,807,441 in 1978.* coordinates the functions of four already The Brazil Factory (Alimenticios Super operational food factories: Alimentos COL bom) also seems to be doing an impressive PAC, Sonora, Mexico (1969); Industries business. The 1978 operating income was a COVAC S.A., Alajuela, Costa Rica (1967); little over $7 million, as compared to $4.3 million in 1975, $5.6 million in 1976, and *Recent reports suggest that the Argentinian food processor, Alimentos Granix, has had a remarkably $6.8 million in 1977. The total net worth of successful 1980. Compared to net profits in 1979 of the company had risen from $1.8 million in $1,055,000, during the first nine months of1980 prof 1975 to over $3 million in 1978. The factory its reached $1 ,452,000. This figure, furthermore, does not include the food company's contributions of produces excellent juices, according to Eric $871,000 to the Austral Union and the South Ameri Howse, with yearly sales exceeding three can Division. 34 Spectrum

Productos Icolpan, Medellin, Colombia sion program was the introduction of a (1972); and Westico Foods, Ltd., Mande soymilk product via the Mexican food fac ville, Jamaica (1970). At presstime, the General tory, according to Howse. He explained that Conference Office of Archives and Statistics packaging of products is always a problem did not have any details on these companies, where refrigeration facilities are poor. Ad although the 1978 financial summary for the ventist food technologists developed a soy umbrella company (Inter-American) showed milk product packaged in liquid form in an that it had received an appropriation of inexpensive plastic bag. But the problem of $86,200, presumably from the Inter spoilage and of short shelf life remained. American Division. Further testing and experimenting, which It is in these relatively young factories of took researchers as far away as Germany, the Inter-American Division Food Com- resulted in a highly protein-efficient pow dered soymilk product that could be stored in a cardboard carton and had a shelf life of six "Adventist health food months. The manufacturing breakthrough administrators face a rather had come. Now it was time to expand the market. In May-June of 1979, the Adventist delicate situation in trying Health Education unit in Cairo, Egypt, to maintain the proper began the production of powdered soymilk, balance between profits and utilizing locally-grown soybeans. No statis tics about sales of the product were available, religious goals." though Howse reported that the milk seems to be gaining favorable acceptance with the local community since Egypt faces a regular pany, however, that experiments have been shortage of fresh milk, and the prospects of conducted with wider implications for other importing milk do not seem good. In fact, he areas of the world, especially the less said, efforts are underway to produce a simi developed countries. For example, one prob lar product in Colombia and a number of lem that Adventists have faced in less devel other developing countries. oped countries is in the production of vege Another product that Adventist food re table protein products within the financial searchers are investigating is a specially reach of the local population. Realizing this, formulated "textured soy cutlet," which can church administrators voted at the 1976 An be used quite effectively, Howse explained, nual Council to adopt what was called the with the kinds of native foods used in many "World Foods Service Expansion Program." developing countries. The cutlet is proving Under this program, a fund was to be estab to be very compatible in such food items as lished "to finance a worldwide program of Ghananian soups and East Indian curries, expansion to countries where serious nutri Howse said. tional problems exist." According to Eric Howse, this program enabled Adventist hile the developing health food engineers to develop low-cost W countries continue to machinery employing simple technology for challenge the Adventist church's health food the production of textured vegetable pro industry to provide nutritious, inexpensive teins. Where previously the smallest unit for foods, the more industrialized nations of the manufacture of such proteins cost about Europe also provide a market for the sale of $25,000, Adventist technicians were able to the church's health-food products. For bring the cost down to $15,000, putting the example, the Germany company DE machinery within reach of less wealthy na V A U-GE had the highest earned operating tions. One of these units was erected for the income ($12.2 million) of all Adventist com Jamaica plant; others are to be introduced panies (outside Australia) for 1978. Other elsewhere. high European income earners during 1978 Another development under the expan- were Nutana (Denmark), $7.6 million; Volume 11, Number 3 35

Granose Foods Ltd. (United Kingdom), $1.8 $382,293 in 1975 to $1.2 million in 1978. million; PHAG (Switzerland), $1.3 million; During the four years under review, 1975- Esdakost (Sweden), $1.2 million; and Pur 78, the only negative report came in 1978, Aliment (France), $1.1 million. However, when the company showed an operating loss three of these companies - Granose, PHAG, of $5,903. Yet gains were reported in previ and N utana - also showed operating losses ous years as follows: 1977 ($324,000); 1976 during the same year. Granose lost about ($412,366); and 1975 ($14,075). With an es $295,000; PHAG, $196,500; and Nutana, tablishment date of1897, Nutana shares with $5,903. Of these three companies, PHAG the Sanitarium Health Food Company of showed a total 1978 net worth deficit of Australia the honor of being among the old $39,985. There were only two other Advent est Adventist health food industries. The ist companies which showed similar net company employs over 100 people and mar worth deficits in 1978 - Fruitgran kets more than 400 products through more (Uruguay), $26,544; and National True than 2,000 stores all over Denmark. The Foods Ltd. of South Africa, $7,435. main products are vegetable proteins, as well Altogether, there are nine European food as a high-quality margarine. In addition, the facilities, according to information obtained company imports Loma Linda's soymilk, from the General Conference archives. Of which it packages under its own brand. the nine, DE-VAU-GE of Germany, While a vegetarian restaurant in Copenhagen Granose of England, and Nutana of Den reports a marginal business, according to mark manufacture some of their own prod Eric Howse, it does provide contact with ucts. The other six are only marketing or people, he said. ganizations, i.e., they do not manufacture products. The marketing organizations are his article has treated Esdakost (Sweden); Dagens Kost (Norway); T Adventist health Finn-N utana (Finland); Pur-Aliment food institutions in a somewhat non (France); the Austraian Food Company, traditional way by probing into facts in fi (Austria) and PHAG (Switzerland). Some of nancial areas that church officials sometimes these marketing organizations are small - feel uncomfortable about revealing. After all, Finn-N utana has only one employee offically the church is a religious institution, they say, listed on its staff; Pur-Aliment has 12; and our institutions should not be judged PHAG, 15. However, these companies pro solely by secular financial standards. Ellen vide a marketing outlet for the European White has provided sufficient counsel in sup manufacturing companies. For example, port of this view, cautioning the church PHAG of Switzerland and Pur-Aliment of about handling its food industries as a purely France are distributing the DE-VAU-GE commercial enterprise. A few statements products under their own labels. Esdakost of outline her views:* Sweden, Dagens Kost of Norway, and ... We are not to bend our energies to the Finn-Nutana of Finland provide a convenient establishment of food stores and food fac outlet for Nutana, the Danish production tories merely to supply people with tem and marketing facility. This cooperative poral food and make money. . . (p. 69). agreement seems to payoff for the manufac In the food business there is a snare for all turing facilities. Nutana, the Danish com who engage in it without realizing their pany, for instance, reports a relatively sub danger. ... No overburdening commer stantial business with a ten-fold increase in cialism is to be brought into it . . . (p. 70). sales over the past six years, and 1979 sales of over $10 million, according to a March 1980 . . . Better results will be seen if we devote report in the Adventist Review. Audited fi our energies largely to the work of educat nancial statements show a rise in earned ing the people how to prepare simple, operating income from $1.6 million in 1975 *All quotes are from The Health Food Ministry (A to $7.6 million in 1978; total net worth of the compilation prepared by the Ellen G. White Publica company also showed a healthy gain from tions, Washington, D.C., 1970). 36 Spectrum

healthful foods in their own homes, in and too expensive. The problem about even stead of spending our entire time in the bringing up this issue is that the church has manufacture and sale of foods which in slowly drifted into such a heavy involvement volve a large investment of means ... in this area that even to discuss it may be (p. 86). anathema. To sidestep the vegetable protein In view of such statements, Adventist issue, though, would be dishonest. Perhaps health food administrators face a rather deli health food administrators ought to explain cate situation in trying to maintain the proper to the membership the church's deep in balance between profits and religious goals. volvement in the production of these foods Obviously, the industries cannot operate and how this development can be har with perpetual deficits. Nor can they be gov monized with the counsel of Ellen White, erned like the traditional corporation where who stressed the importance of the use of the "bottom line" is the all-important con "simple, inexpensive, wholesome foods." sideration. Another area of concern is the human con~ Although Adventist health food com tact and evangelical outreach that our indus panies are not large by industry standards, tries are expected to provide through the they do involve substantial outlay of capital development of a restaurant ministry. The and human resources. One thing that seems church is doing this effectively in some areas clear in light of this is that the health food of the world, particularly Australia and companies should be more open to the South America, but this aspect needs to be scrutiny of those who have a stake in these expanded more vigorously in other parts of institutions - the constituency of the the world. church. Presently, the managerial and finan The most drastic need, however, is the cial accountability of these institutions is left production of appropriate food products for in the hands of a select group of individuals use in developing countries. A start was and committees. The few public financial re made by the World Foods Service Expansion ports of these institutions are virtually mean Fund, and that work must continue. The ingless, and the seeming paranoias about re division leadership of the world fields in leasing financial information unnecessary. these developing countries must be con In addition to financial accountability, vinced about the need for a viable food pro another concern, voiced by numerous gram; they must see the priority for this out church members (denominational workers reach. Perhaps, as a result of growing indig as well as laypeople) in discussions with this enous leadership in these divisions, we may writer, has to do with the church's emphasis see some changes. on developing vegetable protein products. The Adventist health food program has The concern focuses on these points: that had, in sum, an interesting pattern of growth meat substitutes are highly-processed, and development, but it seems that the perhaps unnecessarily laden with salt, greatest challenge to the church in this area perhaps too protein-efficient for our needs, may still lie ahead of us. Ellen White, the Waldenses, and Historical Interpretation

by Donald Casebolt

rior to Don Mc consequence." He further states that "we P Adams' study of the may be sure that whatever she [Mrs. White] relationship between The Great Controversy drew into her writings from the various his and Mrs. White's use of Protestant histo torians was substantially correct." rians, the generally accepted Seventh-day It is true that the problems which Adventist view on this topic was that Mrs. McAdams pointed out were mainly con White borrowed from historians only what cerned with the proper sequence of events, had been independently corroborated by her their actual location and the correct identity visions. I This view has now been partially of the persons involved in them. However, modified by the White Estate. In a paper McAdams' main purpose was to document entitled "Toward a Factual Concept ofInspi the close literary dependence of Mrs. White ration II," released in 1978, Arthur White on Protestant historians, and only inciden allows for a greater dependence on Protestant tally to point out some of the historical inac historians by pointing out that Mrs. White curacies that her literary methods involved. never claimed that her visions were the "sole Thus, it is the central purpose of this paper to source for all the details of history she pre explore the nature and extent of some of the sents" and by admitting that "some of the inaccuracies to see if they are merely "appar details of historical events apparently were ent inconsistencies in matters of little conse not revealed to her." However, while in quence." It will show that, in fa~t, c.lear-cut, principle admitting that Mrs. White incorpo gross historical errors do eXIst III Ellen rated some inaccuracies from other histo White's borrowings from historians. rians , White would limit them to "a few apparent inconsistencies in matters of little One of the problems which McAdams might have discussed but did not involves the characterization of the Albigenses in The Great Controversy. Paraphrasing from Wylie, Mrs. White credits them, along, with the Don Casebolt, a graduate of Andrews Un~vers~ty, lives in Roseburg, Oregon. He re.sear~hed thIS ,artIcle Waldenses, with preserving the "true faith ... while a graduate student at the Umverslty ofChIcago , from century to century" until the coming of 38 Spectrum

Huss. 2 Again, in her discussion of the French is hardly a minor misunderstanding of the Revolution, she pairs the Waldenses and the facts. Albigenses as a group: Century after century the blood of the he inaccuracies to be saints had been shed. While the Waldenses T discussed here come laid down their lives upon the Piedmont mainly from the chapter entitled "The Wal "for the word of God" and for the tes denses" in The Great Controversy, which is timony ofJesus Christ, "similar witness to substantially identical to the same chapter the truth had been borne by their breth found in the fourth volume of The Spirit of ren" the Albigenses of France.3 Prophecy. An exhaustive comparison of this But in actuality, the Waldenses were oppo chapter with its original sources shows that nents of the Albigenses,4 because the AI they are a consistent paraphrase of two histo bigenses' teachings were based on a dualism rians: J. N. Andrews, History of the ,Sabbath which sharply differentiated between an evil and James A . Wylie, History of Protestantism. 6 material world and the pure world of the Along with some other Protestant histo spirit. This basic tenet led them to reject or rians of his time, Wylie attributed to the reinterpret any part of the Bible which did Waldenses a great antiquity, even extending not fit into this scheme. to apostolic times. The erroneous attribution Thus, the creation of a material world as of ancient origin was based mainly upon an presented in the Old Testament they held to early dating given to certain Waldensian be the work of an evil Demiurge whom they manuscripts as well as on the alleged purity even characterized as the devil on some occa of their doctrines. However, it is now recog sions. In harmony with this view, they also nized by Protestant and Catholic historians rejected all those parts of the Old Testament alike that the Waldensian antiquity is merely which present this being as an avenging,jeal ous God whom they compared unfavorably to the New Testament God oflove.Jesus was "It is the central purpose of this not viewed as the Son of God nor as a real paper to explore the nature and man, but rather as a celestial messenger who had come to give man the essential knowl extent of some of the edge necessary to enable him to eventually inaccuracies . ... It will show that escape his body and the physical world. They clear-cut gross historical errors do also taught that Christ's sufferings on the cross were fictitious, because they could not exist in Ellen White's borrowings conceive of a good spirit's being connected from historians. " with, and suffering with, an intrinsically evil fleshly body. This belief, of course, also meant a rejection of Christ's bodily resurrec legendary, and that they did begin with Peter tion and incarnation. In addition, they con Waldo (ca. 1170), a fact which Wylie specif demned the sexual act in marriage because it ically denies. Even the Waldenses themselves risked the result of imprisoning more souls now recognize this fact. One of their pastors within carnal flesh. Similarly, they re has written on the alleged early manuscripts pudiated the eating of meat, since this might and has dated them to a period following arouse sexual passions, and also because they Waldo.7 Mrs. White, of course, did not argue believed in the transmigration of souls. Fi the details of dating these manuscripts. nally, also to avoid contact with the material However, her statement in the Spirit of world, they rejected baptism by water, for Prophecy that "behind the lofty bulwarks of which they substituted a baptism of light.5 the mountains. ; . the Waldenses found a Thus, to state that a group which denied hiding-place .... Here for a thousand years practically all the most essential doctrines of they maintained their ancient faith. . ." is Christianity was responsible for preserving clearly dependent upon Wylie. the "true faith" down through the centuries Related to the issue of their antiquity is the Volume 11, Number 3 39 matter of their doctrinal purity, Mrs. White's away from their original purity o~ doc~rine. view being that the Waldenses, in contrast to This explanation, however, as IS eVIdent contemporary Cath~licisim, ~e~resented. the from an examination of Waldo's "Confes continuation of primitive Chnstian doctnne. sion " is not viable. And the continued Wal Recent research has. uncovered manuscripts densian emphasis on salvation by works is in the Madrid National Library, including quite obvious in a question which they put to Peter Waldo's "Confession of Belief," which the reformers in 1532: 10 demonstrate that originally the Waldensian If we recognize that Christ is our sole movement was not a schismatic sect, but justification, and that we are saved only rather a religious fraternity which stood through His name and not by our own the Catholic Church. Waldo, a rich within works, how are we to read so many pas layman who experienced a dramatic conver sages of the Scripture which rate works .so° sion, wished to be permitted to preach, a highly? The souls of the simple may easIly right reserved to properly trained and cer be deceived thereby. Is it not written: "By tified clergy. Early sources disagree as to thy words thou shalt be justified and by whether Waldo had an audience with the thy words thou shalt be condemned?" .Do Pope, or whether he was examined in Lyon we not read: "Not everyone that cneth by a cardinal appointed by the Pope. In any unto me: Lord, Lord, shall enter into the case about 1179/1180, Waldo signed a kingdom of heaven, but he that doeth the of Belief' in order to prove his "Co~fession will of my Father, which is in Heaven?" orthodoxy and thereby gain permission to And elsewhere: "Ye shall possess the preach. As Antoine Dondaine has shown, the kingdom for ye have given me to drink?" basic form of the "Confession" derives from And again: "As water extinguishes the a letter of Pope Leo IX to the Bishop of fire, thus do alms extinguish sin?" The Antioch in 1053, and its redaction may even alms and prayers of Cornelius seem to go back to the fifth or early sixth centu~y. 8 have had the effect of bringing about the The "Confession" contains several doctnnes appearance of the angel, a~d thus .he may that one might find surprising after having have been justified. We mIght thmk also read Wylie's and White's descriptions of the that the publican who went up to the ten: Waldenses: pIe went away justified through hIS 1) There is but one Church; catholic, holy, prayers. IfJesus loved John partic.ularly, is apostolic and without spot (im it not because the latter loved hIm more outside of which there is no maculatam) than the other disciples? We read that Mary hope of salvation. Magdalene experienced a better reception 2) The baptism of infants is e~ficac~ous, if than Simon because she loved more. We they should die before havmg smned. should conclude from this that works 3) Alms, masses and other good works are count for something. Moreover, do we able to benefit the dead. 9 not read that on more than one occasion Though conflicts soon arose between God revoked his chastisements upon see Waldo's followers and the Catholic Church ing that the sinners repented? Is it not writ which led them away from some of the ten that we shall be judged according to church's dogmas - the efficacy of good our works? And lastly it seems that there works for the dead, for example - these will be a difference, in paradise, between were secondary developments. And, even at the just. We pray thee to enlighten us, the end of their existence as a separate body especially on this point. when they joined the Swiss Reformers in 1532, the Waldenses continued to believe in Thus it is clear from Waldo's "Confession" salvation by works. The Protestant writers and f;om the records of1532 that during their recognize that they then did not hol~ a 350-year existence, the Waldenses ~id not strong doctrine of righteous~ess by f~lth merit the glowing words of Mrs. WhIte that alone, but attempt to explain thIs by assertmg they "saw the plan of salvation clearly re that long persecution caused them to fall vealed." 11 40 Spectrum

or is there any evi Bohemian Brethren, points out that, very N dence that the Wal early in their history, the Brethren were denses kept the Sabbath; rather, the contrary called Picards or Waldenses by their enemies is true. This fact again can be documented by either out of hate or ignorance, and that the the records of1532, by another question they members of the group constantly combatted asked of the reformers: 12 "Is it allowable on this tendency. 14 In this light, it is interesting Sundays to occupy oneself with manual to note that the title of the work referred to labour? Are there feast-days which we are by The Great Controversy appendix is "Sum bound to observe?" Given the nature of early mary of the Impious and Pharisaical Religion Waldensian beliefs and this evidence 300 of the Pi cards ." But more significantly, The years later, it seems clear that the Waldenses Great Controversy neglects to mention that did not keep the Sabbath, particularly when the document, immediately prior to the there is clear evidence that they kept Sunday statement that "some [of the Picards] indeed during this period. For example, a Walden- celebrate the Sabbath with the Jews (Nonnulli vero cum Judaeis sabbatum celebrant)," states that in place of celebrating certain "It is clear that Mrs. White saints' days, some observe "only the Lord's day." Since the statement regarding the Sab mistakenly identified certain bath is surrounded by other slanderous ac groups as Sabbathkeepers when cusations, and given the long-standing anti they were not, just as she mistook Semitic atmosphere in Europe, it is doubtful whether much reliance can be placed on it. the Albigenses for preservers ofthe However, even if the statement did refer to 'true faith.' " Waldenses and was accurate, which is doubt ful, it would not indicate that Mrs. White was correct when she stated that the Wal sian ecclesiastical calendar dating to before denses kept the Sabbath. The clear import the end of the fifteenth century, and probably and intent of Mrs. White's statement are that earlier, divides the year into four sections of throughout a very long period there were 13 Sundays each. And another work exposit Waldenses who kept the Sabbath in the Pied ing the Ten Commandments, which may mont mountain area! And it is in this heartland date even earlier, states: ' 'Those who wish to of Waldensianism that we have evidence of keep and observe the Sabbath of the Chris Sunda ykeeping. tians, that is to sanctify Sunday [Ie dimanche], have need of taking care of regard to four he source for Mrs. things.' "13 T White's erroneous The appendix to The Great Controversy al idea that the Waldenses kept the Sabbath is J . leges the existence .of a reference to the Wal N. Andrews' History ofthe Sabbath. Andrews denses' keeping Sabbath as did the Jews in believed that they kept the Sabbath and Moravia "in the middle of the fifteenth cen quoted secondary sources at great length in tury." In a church history syllabus comment support. Mrs. White paraphrased quite ing on this same source, Mervyn Maxwell closely the introductory part of his chapter says that the document is "apparently as old on the Waldenses, and it is clear that he is the as A.D. 1500." According to these state source for her conception of them as Sab ments, then, the document dates 300 years bathkeepers, since Wylie is here silent. An after the Waldensian movement began and drews is also the source for Mrs. White's just slightly prior to the Reformation. Fur belief that Columba, a British Christian who thermore, upon examination, this document died in A.D. 597, was a Sabbathkeeper, and actually refers to a group known as the that through his influence this practice spread

Bohemian Brethren or Unitas Fratrum J which throughout England and beyond. Here de arose out of the Hussite movement. Joseph pendence is perfectly clear, for her statement Theodore Miiller, in his classic history of the is a direct paraphrase of Andrews, leaving Volume 11, Number 3 41

out only Andrews' qualification that he had kept by all Christians" (emphasis added). only "strong incidental evidence" to support That this was not the case has now virtually his contention. been conceded by C. M. Maxwell in a recent The "incidental evidence" upon which Ministry magazine article. Justin Martyr, for Andrews based his conclusion comes from a example, is cited as one who willingly "gave story told regarding Columba's prophecy of his life for Christ's sake and was beheaded by the time of his death. The primary source, Roman authorities." Yet,Justin Martyr lived evidently unread by Andrews, is Adomnan's circa A.D. 150 and kept Sunday. Maxwell Life of Columba, a saint's life, written about a even states that "as a whole, the second- and century after Columba's death, and replete third-century Christians whose writings with fantastical tales testifying to the saint's have come down to us provided Christ prowess. 15 Because of the significance of the centered reasons for preferring the first day citation, it will be given in full as Andrews of the week to the seventh."17 Thus, we find used it: that from her comments on the first cen "This day," he said to his servant, "in .turies, through the British Christianity of the the sacred volume is called the Sabbath, sixth century, down to the Waldenses of the that is rest; and will indeed be a Sabbath to twelfth through sixteenth centuries, Mrs. me, for it is to me the last day of this White has consistently mistaken the historic toilsome life, the day on which I am to rest ity of Sabbathkeeping groups. This does not (sabbatizo), after all my labors and trou prove that Sabbath is the incorrect day for bles, for on this coming sacred night of the worship, nor even that there were not small Lord (Dominica nocte) at the midnight scattered groups somewhere that kept Sab hour, I shall, as the Scriptures speak, go the bath. Historically, however, we know of no way of my fathers." such groups, and it is clear that Mrs. White Even should one accept this century-later mistakenly identified certain groups as Sab source, filled as it is with legendary material, bathkeepers when they were not, just as she as accurately reflecting Columba's words, it mistook the Albigenses for preservers of the appears fairly clear that even this isolated ac "true faith." count is speaking of "sabbatizing" in a figurative sense, i.e., the rest from earthly hese and other errors labors that his approaching death is bringing T in The Great Con about. Moreover, the phrase the "venerated troversy must lead one to question the tradi Lord's night" (venerabili dominica nocte) re tional Adventist position concerning Mrs. veals a reverence for Sunday, and the entire White's use of the historians. According to context of the book makes his veneration of W. W. White, the Holy Spirit directed Mrs. the first day of the week even clearer. In it are White to "the most helpful books and to the at least four references to the mass's being most helpful passages contained in those celebrated on the Lord's Day.16 In fact, the books." This statement suggests that last such reference is contained in the same through such a selection process any signifi story about Columba's approaching death cant errors in historical fact would have been only four paragraphs before the citation used eliminated. However, it has just been dem by Andrews. Here it mentions "the rites of onstrated that such was not the case. Fur the Mass ... being celebrated on a Lord's day thermore, the long-standing assertion by according to the custom (ex more)." Mrs. White and the White Estate that what The next inaccuracy that will be dealt with ever material may have been borrowed was here falls outside of the chapter on the W al drawn from "conscientious historians" denses. However, because it fits into a broad suggests that the historians Mrs. White used pattern showing how Mrs. White described were more careful or honest in dealing with the history of the Sabbath, it is vital that this their material than was the average historian. passage be discussed. In the third chapter of Here the obvious inference is that any mate The Great Controversy, Mrs. White states: "In rial which Mrs. White borrowed from them the first centuries the true Sabbath had been must be more reliable than would otherwise 42 Spectrum

be the case. Naturally, any measurement of of her writings, Mrs. White has paraphrased the conscientiousness of a particular historian historians for pages and chapters at a time and is a somewhat subjective judgment. included many inaccuracies which have be Nevertheless, there is evidence that Leger come, thereby, "facts" to many Adventists. and Perrin, important sources for the histo Thus, two basic principles may be enun rians on whom Ellen White depended, dis ciated: 1) In the historical portions of her torted evidence from the Waldenses' own writings Mrs. White exhibits a strong liter documents regarding their beliefs concern ary indebtedness to various Adventist and ing transubstantiation, confession to a priest Protestant historians. 2) Her own accuracy in and the seven Catholic sacraments, when describing events is in direct proportion to these documents indicated that the Wal the degree of accuracy achieved by her denses were not very different from the sources. Whatever type of discrepancy ap Catholics in some of their beliefs. 18 Also il pears in her sources-whether minor ques lustrative of how poor historical research has tions of date and place, or more fundamental affected both Wylie and White is Samuel inaccuracies concerning the overall signifi Maitland's indication in the early nineteenth cance of a religious movement and its fun century of how one source on the Waldenses damental beliefs -also appears in her writ was twisted to prove that the Waldenses ings.Where her sources have distorted originated in antiquity.19 Nor can it be said historical reality in presenting Reformation that more accurate histories of the Waldenses precursors, their conclusions are generally did not exist to which the Holy Sprirt might accepted without correction or comment. have directed Mrs. White's attention. Mait Indeed, in the process of condensing their land's book was published in 1832-well be descriptions, Mrs. White has, on occasion, fore Mrs. White wrote on the Waldenses. eliminated their more tentative and careful Thus, while her mind may have been di presentation of conflicting or inconclusive rected to the "most helpful books," these evidence. It is, therefore, imperative that a different methodological approach be taken when evaluating the informational value of Mrs. "Mrs. White has paraphrased White's writings on history or other areas historians for pages and where a literary dependency can be demon chapters at a time and included strated. Previously, official church bodies many inaccuracies which have attempted to build models ofhow inspi ration has functioned (and, therefore, also of have become, thereby, 'facts' ho~ one ought to utilize the results of inspi to manyAdventists." ration) almost solely by compiling" all of Mrs . White's and W. C. White's statements relat ing to revelation, and then interpreting them anecdotically in accordance with certain pre books were not the most accurate ones. Fi suppositions about how inspiration must nally, the analysis of yet another chapter of have functioned. The conclusions of such The Great Controversy which again proves to studies have almost inevitably been identical be almost a total paraphrase of other histo with these preconceptions. In the future, it is rians raises the question of how to interpret clear that investigators must first acquaint W. C. White's statement that Mrs. White's themselves with the data which a literary and borrowing was not done "in a wholesale contextual analysis can provide before at way." Her use of such books as William tempting an interpretation of these state Hanna's Life ofChrist for outlining and detail ments. This procedure will keep Adventist ing her own Desire of Ages also brings this scholars from misconstruing actual historical question to the fore. Certainly, however one documentation in attempting to reinterpret wishes to use the word "wholesale," it can no various events on the basis of what they longer be denied that in the historical sections thought was the more correct Great Con- Volume 11, Number 3 43 troversy information when that information discovered bit of information piecemeal into originated not from Mrs. White but only a theoretical framework which has proven from her sources. Finally, a recognition of inadequate. For the few examples presented these principles and an adoption of this in these pages are not the only ones of their methodology, long since applied to biblical kind, and the the church will, undoubtedly, studies, would save the church the embar have similar cases brought to its attention in rassment of having to assimilate each newly the future.

NOTES AND REFERENCES 1. Arthur White asserted that Mrs. White corrobo qf the Waldenses (London: James Toovey, 1870). rated with "indisputable historical evidence that 14. For example, in 1535 the following heading ap which had been revealed to her." A. White, "Ellen G. peared in the preface of one of the Brethren's Confes White as an Historian," p. 7. sions of Faith: "Preface ofthe Elders of the Brethren of 2. Ellen G. White, The Great Controversy (Mountain Christ's Law, whose enemies out of hate in order to View: Pacific Press Publishing Assn., 1911), p. 97. abuse call Picards, and whom many out of ignorance 3. Ibid.} p. 271. .call Waldenses." According to Joseph Theodor M ul 4. For an excellent and well-documented history of ler, the first time we find the appellation "Picards" in the Waldenses until 1218, see Kurt-Victor Selge, Die the mouth of their enemies is in 1461. Geschichte der Ersten Waldenser (Berlin: Walter De Gruyter & Co., Bohmischen Bruder} 2 vols. (Herrnhut: Verlag der Mis 1967), vol. 1. Volume 2 contains an excellent bibliog sionsbuchhandlung, 1922-31),1:34,109-112. Much of raphy as well as the Liber Antiheresis} which includes the confusion between the Bohemian Brethren and the anti-Albigensian material. the Waldenses/Picards has an early origin. Evidently, 5. George Schmitz-Valckenberg, Grundlehren Flacius Illyricus tried to equate the two, but Alexander katharischer Sekten des 13.Jahrhunderts (Munchen: Ver Patschovsky has shown by applying text-critical lag Ferdinand Schoningh, 1971), pp. 1-338. See also methods to recently discovered manuscripts, that Jacques Madaule, The Albigensian Crusade} trans. Bar Waldensian manuscripts which Flacius believed to bara Wall (London: Burns & Oates, 1967), pp. 32-38. have originated from Bohemia actually came from 6. Andrews, History oj the Sabbath} 2nd ed. (Battle France. See Die Anjange einer Standigen Inquisition in Creek: SDA Publishing Assoc., 1873), pp. 398-403, Bohmen) (New York: Walter De Gruyter, 1975), p. 4; 427,430; Wylie, History oj Protestantism} 3 vols. (Lon and Edmund de Schweinitz, The History oj the Unitas don: Cassell, Peter & Dalpin, 1874-77), 1,23-32 and II, Fratrum (Bethlehem, Pa.: Moravian Publication Of- 431,435. fice, 1885), p. 17. . 7. Emilo Comba, History oj the Waldenses oj Italy} 15. See Adomnan's Life oj Columba} ed. and trans. trans. Teofilo E. Comba (London: Truslove & Shir Alan A. and Marjorie o. Anderson (London: Thomas ley, 1889), pp. 231-233. See note 826 in particular. Nelson, 1961). 8. Antoine Dondaine, "Aux origines du Valdeism: 16. Ibid.} pp. 293, 305, 501 and 519. See also p. 489 for Une profession de foi de Valdes," Archivum Fratrum a celebration of a mass which may imply that ordinary Praedictorum} 16 (1946), 202-203. work was usually not done on Sunday. 9. Ibid.} pp. 194-201. 17. C. Mervyn Maxwell, "Sabbath and Sunday Ob 10. Comba, History oJthe Waldenses} p. 295. servance in the Early Church," Ministry} 50 Qanuary 11. White, The Great Controversy} p. 72. 1977), p. 9. 12. Comba, History oj the Waldenses} p. 295. 18. Hilgert, "The Religious Practices," p. 13-21. 13. Earle Hilgert, "The Religious Practices of the 19. Samuel Roffery Maitland, Facts and Documents Il Waldenses and Their Doctrinal Implications to A.D. lustrative ojthe History} Doctrine} and Rites qf the Ancient 1530," an unpublished M.A. Thesis presented to the Albigenses & Waldenses (London: C. J. G and F. SDA Theological Seminary in 1946, pp. 49-50. See Rivington, 1832), pp. 32-36. also Pius Melia, The Origin} Persecutions and Doctrines Must the Crisis Continue?

ritics of the Seventh Walter Rea of Long Beach, California, a con C day Adventist Church troversial figure in his own right before have prematurely heralded a "shaking of Glacier View, was defrocked after the Los Adventism" several times in recent years, Angeles Times reported his research into Ellen while church leaders have glibly denied any G. White's sources under the headline significant tremors. But six months after / "Plagiarism Found in Prophet Books." The Glacier View (an innocent piece of real estate action against Rea bears a relation to other which, like Yalta or Teapot Dome, has be developments in that the nature of Ellen come shorthand for a complicated crisis), a White's authority has become one of the key major schism in the denomination seems issues in the crisis. possible for the first time since the early In a further development, when a group of twentieth century. seminary students began publishing Following the dismissal of Australian Evangelica, ajo.urnal dedicated to promoting theologian Desmond Ford last September, "a gospel revival" in Adventism, the Moun church authorities at several levels have tain View Conference and Oregon Confer moved decisively against "variant views." ence moved to cut off support for two staff Refusing to concede any weaknesses in tradi-' members, and school officials considered ex tional positions, The Adventist Revi~w, The pelling the editors. Ministry and other church publications have Not surprisingly, Ford and his supporters mounted a strong campaign against Ford, have been just as energetic as the editors of insisting that the church's scholars over church publications in promoting the con whelmingly reject his views. Eighteen troverted points. Though Ford himself has pastors (at last count) have been forced from had very little public comment on the their pulpits by one means or another, most sanctuary since Glacier View, his massive of them in the areas where Ford's influence is study has received wide circulation via $15 strongest - California and the Antipodes. xerox copies. Now an employee of a lay The best known of these pastors, 59-year-old sponsored foundation, Ford travels widely, Volume 11, Number 3 45 preaching in public meetings and on a radio SPECTRUM writers have filed reports on program. Ford's supporters are rumored to three aspects of this growing crisis: the firings have helped bring the church crisis to the and resignations of "gospel-oriented" attention of Christianity Today and News pastors; the attack on Walter Rea and his week. Evangelica's eqitors sent out 20,000 work; and the precarious status of the new copies of the first issue, in another attempt to journal Evangelica. reach the hearts and minds of ordinary Adventists. esterday I was an Though both dissidents and traditionalists Yordained minister of found evidence of malicious coordination in the Seventh-day Adventist Church in good the other group's actions, there was, in truth, and regular standing," wrote John Zapara in no conspiracy by either side. The firings, the an open letter to the members of the Wood outside publicity, the independent manifes side (Sacramento) church, January 6, 1981. toes, all made sense as part of an understand "Today I am not." able defensive reaction to the aggression of Zapara told his former parishioners that he somebody else. Ford was not in control of his could no longer accept the Adventist practice numerous admirers, nor could the ministe of giving Ellen G. White doctrinal authority rial casualties be blamed on witch-hunting equal to the Bible and allowing "a hierarchy" fever among administrators. To speak of to supplant "the priesthood of all believers." Ford (or the "evangelicals" or Ford/ He also repudiated traditional Adventist po Brinsmead) versus the General Conference sitions on the investigative judgment and the (or the conservatives) would be to overlook a "remnant." Though he said that he continues complicated spectrum which includes "liber to cherish the Sabbath and many other als" who strongly support freedom of ex Adventist doctrines, he insisted that "Jesus pression and who are both sympathetic with Christ and Him crucified" should be "the and critical of Ford's views; reactionaries topic of every presentation we give." "I who desire even more aggressive leadership; realize the gospel brings with it a sword and and the large tribe of the ignorant, apathetic, not peace," Zapara said, "but woe is me if I and neutral. do not preach the gospel." The dismissal of Zapara was not an iso Still, certain clear patterns are emerging, lated event in the Northern California Con and Glacier View, Ford, Evangelica, Walter ference. Three other pastors have recently Rea, ministerial resignations, and scattered left the ministry for related reasons. Pastors "congregational Adventists" are, like the dry Nordon Winger (Fort Bragg) and Don Kellar bones in the song, connected. In spite of the (Healdsburg) resigned, and Pastor Robert wishes of most of the people involved, the Palmer (Colfax/Meadow Vista) was fired Adventist church appears to be moving to outright. Several other pastors remain under ward division. close scrutiny, and according to some Critics of denominational leadership and sources, as many as 10 more may ultimately traditional beliefs ("reformers" they would lose their credentials. call themselves) entered 1981 with~a growing Northern California's prominence in the corps of professionals available to them, with a pastoral losses is surprising. The conference clear, non-denominational legal organization is led by Elder Philip Follett, a gifted man and significant financial resources, and a who prides himself on his ability to steer a loyalty-inspiring rhetorical system which pragmatic, "reasonable" course between provided their supporters positive commit pro-Ford enthusiasts and blind reactionaries ment and a mission to the wider non-Advent clinging to a verbal inspiration view of Ellen ist public. To some observers, these things White. "It's the most wrenching experience added up to the skeleton of a new church, in my career," he says of the resignations and awaiting only harsher and bolder actions firings. He tells his friends that he is uneasy against Ford and the other "friends of the with the church's handling of the Ford affair, gospel" to spring to life. particularly the disastrous coverage given the 46 Spectrum crisis by the Review and Ministry, but at the established by Adventist physician Zane same time believes that Ford's "solutions" to Kime, has committed itself "to support any genuine doctrinal problems would do away minister defrocked over the gospel," accord with the need for the Adventist church. Fol ing to Kime. Already employing Desmond lett appears to be profoundly concerned Ford and a part-time researcher, Good News about the increasing polarization in his con Unlimited is now willing to take on Zapara ference. None of the departing pastors has and Winger. criticized Follett's patience or fairness. The two men are considering organizing a Sacramento Gospel Fellowship to serve both he most disturbing Adventists and non-Adventists each Sabbath T feature of the events in their area. Kime holds gospel meetings in in the Northern California Conference is the his Sacramento home on a weekly basis for creedal authority Follett and other leaders another group of120. (So far, he is far more have conferred (perhaps unwittingly) on the interested in promoting separate church or 27-point "Statement of Fundamental Beliefs" ganization than his friend Ford is.) voted at the last General Conference. Other "gospel fellowships" are cropping There is "no litmus test" for pastors, accord up in California and throughout the United ing to one conference official, but the fact States. Though these groups pattern them remains that if a pastor comes under fire from selves after New Testament house churches, conservative parishioners, his orthodoxy is the South Bay Gospel Fellowship in San measured by the Dallas statements. Church Diego provides a more immediate model. spokesmen, however, usually insist that John Toews, formerly a pastor in the South though the denomination has "a set of fun eastern California Conference, withdrew 160 damental beliefs," it does not have a creed. church members from the conference (or In effect, both sides in Northern California about 90 percent of the "active" Adventist - Follett and his advisors on one hand, and membership of his own church) to form the the dissident pastors on the other - are bear South Bay Gospel Fellowship and a smaller ing the burdens of the church as a whole. Escondido Christian Fellowship. Issues that remain unsettled (despite the blus "We didn't go out simply because of ter of Adventist Review) are being pushed to Glacier View or Ford," Toews stated, "but conclusions by sensitive, well-intentioned that was definitely a catalyst." Although administrators and earnest, courageous Toews has not abandoned his belief in the pastors - with each group wondering why a Sabbath or the Second Coming, he left crisis must come now, and praying to know Seventh-day Adventism because "its witness their duty. to the gospel has been negative and con According to John Zapara, the conference fused." Moreover, "Ellen White has super personnel committee told him they would ceded Scripture as an authority for Advent judge his case on the basis "of where the ists. " church is now, not where it was 20 years ago The two San Diego area congregations are or where it may be five years in the future." If legally incorporated as the Xaris Gospel Fel the "Statement of Fundamental Beliefs" is lowships ,and Toews reports numerous re used prescriptively (rather than descriptive quests from all over the United States for ly) such subtle distinctions may lose all mean copies of their bylaws, legal advice on incor ing, and the church could turn its back on the porating other gospel fellowships, as well as idea of "progressive revelation." Conference taped and written "gospel" materials. officials insist, on the other hand, that any A sampling of fellowships with anywhere reasonable definition of "Adventist" - even from 20 to 60 members, under the leadership the personal definitions of the pastors in ques of laymen or former Adventist pastors, in tion ~ cannot include a minister who feels cludes congregations in the Newport-Richey called to witness against the "anti-gospel area of Florida; Peoria, Illinois; Colville and doctrines" of Seventh-day Adventism. Seattle, Washington; Aurora, Granby, The Good News Unlimited Foundation, Pagosa Springs and Longmont, Colorado; Volume 11, Number 3 47

Farmington and Albuquerque, New officials four days before he was fired. "This Mexico; and Tucson, Arizona. is a healthy sign," he commented, urging In Madera, California, physician and mutual tolerance. He offered a list of changes former minister Herschel Lamp meets with he believes necessary in contemporary more than 30 people in his home one Sabbath Adventism, including a new emphasis on the afternoon a month. After working for the gospel, recognition of the Bible's supreme church for 25 years, 13 of those as an or authority, and a more democratic form of dained minister, Lamp left Adventism be church organization. Pobke repudiated the cause, as he says, he was "not being informed traditional Adventist view of prophecy, in and not being fed." He has rejected the au forming his employers that Uriah Smith thority of Ellen White because "her unbibli needs to be completely discarded. "I am no cal position on the investigative judgment radical, but see myself standing in the long destroys assurance, and her 'blueprint' for line of the best apostolic and reformation tradition," concluded Pobke, expecting, perhaps that the letter could lead to his dis "Eighteen pastors (at last count) missal. "I am generally in harmony with the have been forced from their church's beliefs, but take exception to any beliefs that are . . . out of harmony with pulpits by one means or another, Scripture and conscience." most of them in the areas where Although the situation in Australia is Ford's influence is strongest. .. " complex - one administrator at Avondale College emphasized that it is simplistic to lay the blame entirely at the feet of conference every aspect of the Adventist lifestyle de leaders - the firing of the three men did stroys individuality, Christian liberty, and provide a strong negative reaction among results in Adventist isolationism." Like other some church members. Conference presi fellowship leaders, Lamp wants "only the dent Gordon A. Lee said in an open letter to gospel at the heart of worship." the entire conference membership that he had received "numerous phone calls" and that n Australia, con some people were "very emotionally upset I troversy over Ford and strongly exercised by the matter." "I can and the doctrine of righteousness by faith has only advise every honest Adventist to get raged for years, with opponents of the back to his Bible and prayerfully ... seek charismatic scholar rallying under the banner direction from the Lord." He added, "We G.R.O.F. (Get Rid Of Ford) and his sup have not been led by 'cunningly devised fa porters countering with the jocular battlecry bles.' " F .1.S .H. (Ford Is Staying Here). Since Lee urged church members "to have con Glacier View, at least seven pastors have lost fidence in those God has appointed as leaders. theirjobs for sympathy with Ford's theolog Should any of these misuse the trust God has ical positions. The largest group of clerical placed in them, He will remove them." casualties was in the Western Australia Con "It is truly a time of shaking for many," ference, where Lorin Jenner, Wayne Pobke, Lee observed. In Australia, in New Zealand, and Heinz Suessenbach were sacked. Con in California, at church headquarters, in ference leadership precipitated the crisis by many places scattered around the world, announcing in November that all ministerial Seventh-day Adventists were echoing the credentials would be issued on the under thought. standing that pastors intended to conduct their ministry in harmony with the 27-point nce upon a time Dallas statement. O Walter Rea was an "I am glad there is so much controversy Ellen White fundamentalist. In the earlier surrounding various cherished church doc years of his ministry, he published three trines," wrote Pobke in a letter to conference compilations of statements by Ellen G. 48 Spectrum

White, entitled Bible Biographies, which were possible way .... You surely have a right to sold and distributed by all denominational be heard, and if you are extended an invita Book and Bible Houses, and employed by tion to address a certain group at Loma Lin nearly all Seventh-day Adventist schools. da, it is your prerogative to make the decision Ironically, this work of compiling quotations as to what you will do about it." from Ellen White's writings gave Rea an un At the same time, White Estate officers usually accurate recall of what she had writ disagreed with Rea's work, insisting, as ten, laying the groundwork for later re Ronald Graybill put it, that his work was search. "misleading and ill conceived." In the sum In 1955, while pastoring in Florida, Rea mer of 1979, Olson asked Rea not to publish became acquainted with Drs. Daniel and anything until the White Estate had checked Lauretta Kress, pioneer Adventist medical his work. Rea declined to keep his work se workers who called his attention to Mrs. cret. In an open meeting, September 15, 1979, White's Sketchesfrom the Life of Paul (1883), a at the Long Beach Seventh-day Adventist book which borrowed large sections of a Church, with Olson present on the platform, contemporary work on Paul. Rea read care Rea presented evidence of Ellen White's fully Francis D. Nichol's apologetic work widespread copying to a packed house. The Ellen G. White and Her Critics, noting his entire program, including Olson's reaction explanation of her literary indebtedness. and audience questions, was taped and thus A few years later, another veteran Advent became available to thousands in North ist worker, Dr. Lillian Magan, introduced America and Europe. Rea to Alfred Edersheim's book, Elisha the Prophet, as a work which Ellen White had s the issues presented used. After studying this and other books by A by Rea began to be Edersheim, he wrote an article for Claremont widely discussed, General Conference presi Dialogue in 1965 entitled "E. G. White and dent Neal Wilson appointed a special com Contemporary Authors," in which he dis mittee to meet with Rea in Glendale on J anu cussed her literary indebtedness, particularly ary 28 and 29, 1980, to evaluate his work. to Edersheim, and suggested several possible This meeting has been reported in detail by attitudes one might take on this. Two years Douglas Hackleman in a previous issue of later he became acquainted with the writings SPECTRUM (Vol. 10, No.4). At the close of of William Hanna and Ellen White's depend that meeting, a number of recommendations ence on them. He followed closely the lively were made by the committee, including the discussion produced by the scholarship of following: "That we recognize Ellen White William S. Peterson, Ronald Numbers, in her writings used various sources more Donald R. McAdams, and others, particu extensively than we had previously be larly as they examined the prophet's sources. lieved." The committee also voted "To ex Correspondence between members of the press our appreciation to Elder Rea for the White Estate and Walter Rea started as early enormous amount of work he has done in his as June 15, 1978, but it was not until early research over the past several years, and also 1979 that Robert Olson, secretary of the for the preparation of the material presented White Estate, met with Rea to discuss the to the committee." question of the relationship of other authors The tapes of this important meeting also to Ellen G. White's Desire of Ages, and the became available soon, and the worldwide possibility of Rea's coming to the White Es discussion of Ellen White's literary debt be tate to present his findings. A few days later, came even more intensified, with increasing Olson wrote to Rea: "I want to reiterate in activity on the part of the representatives of this letter, Walt, what I said personally while the White Estate to minimize the extent and we were together last Sunday. And that is, importance of Walter Rea's findings. the White Estate has no desire whatsoever to The first non-Adventist notice of Rea's re control your activities or your movements or search came on October 23, 1980, when the your public meetings in even the slightest Los Angeles Times published a long article, Volume 11, Number 3 49 starting on the front page, by John Dart, man, the church's offically selected re Times religion writer. In this article Dart searcher into the topic. Dart states that he stated: "Seventh-day Adventists regard Ellen was unable to reach Veltman at Pacific Union G. White as a prophet and messenger of God College and that he then called Walter Rea who left their worldwide church with an again to make an appointment for an inter inspired legacy of 25 million words, includ view, on October 13. In addition to this ing 53 books, when she died in 1915. A big interview with Rea, Dart's article was based reason for her prodigious output is now on SPECTRUM, Ronald Numbers' being discovered by researchers in the de Prophetess of Health, and telephone conversa nomination ... 'She was a plagiarist,' asserts tions with Robert Olson of the White Estate Elder Walter Rea .... The precise extent of and Marilyn Thomsen, communication sec borrowed writing in White's works is prob retary for the Southern California Confer ably incalculable because of paraphrasing, ence of Seventh-day Adventists. He later also Rea said. But in White's book onJesus, The discussed the article with Veltman. Desire of Ages, Rea has found repeated paral . The end of Rea's ministry in the Seventh lels from six different non-Adventist day Adventist Church came late Thursday sources. Rea's findings have startled Advent evening, November 13, 1980, when he was ists who were taught to believe that White's informed by the executive committee of the writings were entirely inspired by God." Southern California Conference that his Dart's article was picked up by the As ministerial credentials had been removed and sociated Press wire service and became the his employment by the Seventh-day Advent ist Church immediately cancelled, though he would receive six months' severance pay. "Dart's article was picked up by According to Harold Calkins, president of the Associated Press wire the Southern California Conference, "The service .... Adventism had executive committee has no objection to Elder Rea's conducting research into how probably never received so much Mrs. White's books were prepared, nor has free coverage in the world the church denied that she used other press before!" sources .... The action was based on the negative influence of EIder Rea's conclusions circulated worldwide." Calkins asserted that core of similar articles in numerous newspa "the fact that Mrs. White creatively used Pro pers in North America, Europe, and Aus testant historians in preparing her works tralia. Adventism had probably never re does not negate her inspiration." ceived so much free coverage in the world press before! Religious periodicals, including ea's firing produced Christianity Today, also reacted. R another Los Angeles Some 'embarrassed Adventists accused Times report, which in turn resulted in a new Walter Rea of approaching the Times for an spate of newspaper reports all over the land. interview and thus initiating the publication After his dismissal, on December 10, Walter of this long article on Ellen White's Rea gave SPECTRUM the following infor plagiarism. Rea firmly denies this, and Dart mation: told SPECTRUM that the interview was not "After the [first] article appeared in the initiated or suggested by Rea. Dart said that Los Angeles Times on October 23, 1980, I he had been a reader of SPECTRUM, was was asked to meet with the Conference acquainted with the work of Ronald N um Committee on November 3, which I did bers, and that someone had called him to for approximately six hours. I also met suggest that Walter Rea had new material with the pastoral staff of the local confer bearing on plagiarism by Ellen White. Dart ence for approximately four hours on then called Rea, who suggested that he call November 9. At both meetings, I was as Pacific Union College theologian Fred Velt- sured that no decisions had been made as to 50 Spectrum

my firing, and the president of the confer ty, the journal was designed to promote what ence stated to me that he was working on a its editors called a "gospel revival" within the compromise. He maintained this posture Seventh-day Adventist Church. to me personally up to Wednesday, In the introduction to the opening issue, November 12, in spite of all the rumors to the editors boldly asserted that Evangelica the contrary we had received that we had was "the most positive and dynamic paper already been fired on a higher church level. published in and about Adventism today" "At both meetings, I assured both and claimed to be speaking to and for groups that I had not initiated the inter "evangelical Adventists," who were iden view and that I had not supplied all the tified as those who give primacy to the New material that was made available in the Testament good news of justification by interview. . . . I further agreed to work faith. with any committee that was formed or Some observers saw the journal as a reac had been formed to study the matter of tion to the events at Glacier View and to the Mrs. White's borrowing. I had already ac way these events, particularly the defrocking cepted the conditions that I was not to of Desmond Ford, were reported in official speak publicly on the subject or to talk to denominational publications. Still others, in anyone in the 'peanut gallery' as Elder cluding officials at Andrews University and Calkins put it. I also agreed not to grant editors of some other denominational publi any more interviews and to direct all re cations, viewed the Evangelica publishers as porters, even of our own school papers, to muckraking troublemakers whose actions the conference office. seemed designed to divide the church and "I agreed not to publish my book on embarrass the university. Mrs. White and her copying as long as I was employed. This last condition upset both committees, inasmuch as they ex pressed their desire that the book never be "The university administrators printed. This was unacceptable to me. At had hoped to keep Andrews in a no time in either meeting was I given any options to accept or reject and no com snug harbor, safe from the stormy promise was ever suggested. It is now evi post-Glacier View seas." dent to both Mrs. Rea and myself that my firing was settled before the two meetings were held." What are Rea's plans and hopes for the Alan Crandall, the soft-spoken editor of future? He is still willing to work and com Evangelica, denies the charges that his journal municate with the leadership of his church, is negative or sensational. An ordained and he believes that a compromise and two Adventist minister and a doctor of theology sided cooperation is not only possible but candidate at Andrews, he acknowleges that also desirable for the welfare of his church. the first issue included a heavy emphasis on Rea is completing his book-manuscript of the Ford firing but maintains that Evangelica some 500 pages on the literary dependence of is not, primarily, a response to Glacier View Ellen White. Freed from his day-to-day but, rather, a presentation of a theological pastoral work, he plans to devote more time emphasis that is lacking in most other de to lecturing. nominational publications. He admits that Glacier View furnished the impetus - be n October of 1980, cause the "joy and expectation" he and many I shortly after the of his fellow seminarians felt when the Col Glacier View meeting, a new journal called orado convocation was called turned into Evangelica appeared on the Adventist scene. subsequent shock and disappointment when Published by a group consisting primarily of they learned that Desmond Ford had been seminary students from Andrews Universi- fired. Volume 11, Number 3 51

He describes a "gloomy atmosphere church. It also became clear for the first time which settled over the Andrews campus" to many present that Evangelica was not sim and he says that out of this gloom came the ply an underground campus newspaper. idea for a new magazine. Crandall and his President Smoot was described by one ob associates solicited articles, sought advice server as "amazed" when he learned that from sympathetic faculty (early in the or 20,000 copies of the first issue had been ganizational process there was a plan to give printed. an editorial post to a faculty member, but this Smoot told SPECTRUM that he suspects plan was discarded), and raised money from Evangelica is primarily operated and funded "around the world." Verdict Publications by off-campus organizations who are using (the Robert Brinsmead organization) offered the student editors to further their own ends. to finance the venture, but this offer was He cited the fact that Verdict had taken a turned down because it was believed that substantial portion of the first press run of such close ties with the controversial Evangelica, sending copies to names on the Brinsmead would jeopardize the support for Verdict mailing list with an accompanying Evangelica among many church members. letter which identified Verdict as being in Within four weeks from the time the initial alliance with the group at Andrews. Crandall plans were laid, the first issue was off the vigorously denies the allegation that press and Evangelica turned out to be most Evangelica is anything but independent, al unwelcome news to the Andrews University though he admits that the Verdict letter con administrators. Highly sensitive to the role tained some unfortunate implications. of the university as a General Conference A second, smaller meeting was held on institution serving the world field, the uni November 18 under the cJirection of Roy versity administrators had hoped to keep Graham, university provost. At this meet Andrews in a snug harbor, safe from the ing, he urged the Evangelica staff to make their stormy post-Glacier View seas. They were magazine a university publication under embarrassed and chagrined to find a maga existing university policies. Such a plan was zine suddenly appearing on campus, edited unacceptable to the editors, and one of them by their own students, which put the univer asked Graham what the other options were. sity in the middle of the church's theological Graham responded by stating that one option and political crisis. was for the students to withdraw from school if they continued publishing, and hen Evangelica first another was for the school to ask them to W appeared, Joseph G. withdraw. When asked if that were a Smoot, president of the university, viewed it "threat," he responded, "No, not at all." as a student publication which had not gone One of the teachers present suggested a through policy channels for such publica fourth option, which was to acknowledge to tions and banned its public distribution on the constituency that Evangelica was not a campus. This action made the paper "forbid seminary publication. The faculty would at den fruit," in the words of one seminary tempt to influence the students involved with professor, and seemed to increase its impact. the journal to adopt a less confrontational There was some talk among administrators style. The meeting adjourned with no deci of expelling the students involved, but a sion, but subsequent publicity caused rela number of teachers encouraged the adminis tions between the administrators and the tration not to act "precipitously," and a Evangelica staff to deteriorate further. meeting was set up for November 3 with the One member of the staff made comments major administrators involved, the to a reporter for radio station WSJN in Ben Evangelica staff, and about two dozen inter ton Harbor, which hinted at the possibility ested faculty and students. that students at Andrews were about to be The administrators seemed surprised at the expelled for publishing a journal. The re depth of the anguish expressed by the stu porter contacted Crandall seeking confirma dents over theological problems within the tion, but Crandall refused to give him further 52 Spectrum information. The reporter eventally got the an example. He maintained that the second information he desired from other sources on issue, with the exception of the two articles the Andrews campus and, combining the by faculty members, was "worse than the Desmond Ford issue with Evangelica, broad first." When asked to describe any positive cast several rather sensational reports regard contributions Evangelica has made, he said he ing an alleged repressive atmosphere at An could think of "no positive contribution at drews. These reports were picked up by UPI all. " and published in the Detroit Free Press and the Despite these negative comments, the uni South Bend Tribune, creating consternation versity administrators seem to be adopting a among the university officials preparing to wait-and-see attitude, one, as Graham put it, launch a 30-million dollar fund-raising cam of "monitoring" the publication and holding paign in the area surrounding the school. The various options open. Evangelica stafflater sent a letter of apology to In any case, the Evangelica editors claim the administration for their part in these they have received 30 to 40 letters a day for events. the past two months, 99 percent of which were favorable. They insist that, come what he second issue of may, they plan to continue publishing. T Evangelica was pub All the issues of the growing crisis in lished in December. For the first time, it Seventh-day Adventism were highlighted in included articles by Andrews faculty. Other a private meeting between General Confer efforts are being made to appeal to a broader ence president Neal Wilson and the faculty of constituency and to be conciliatory in a time the Seventh-day Adventist Theological of confrontation. For exam pIe, at the sugges Seminary (along with selected adminis tion of some sympathetic faculty members, trators and college faculty) on December 17, the staff made several changes in the second 1980. In a session marked by startling can issue for the purpose of lessening tension. dor, the scholars told Wilson that church Among other things, the staff did not include media must change their reporting of the a news article on congregational churches theological issues represented at Glacier within the Adventist church, postponed a View. Professor RobertJohnston specifically review of Brinsmead's Judged by the Gospel questioned the policies ofReview editor Ken and postponed an article by Ford. Crandall neth Wood, and he was seconded by several has indicated that this is the last issue that will others, including President Smoot. Professor be sent to other mailing lists, such as Verdict Fritz Guy pleaded for freedom to reinterpret Publication's list, for example. The third the sanctuary and judgment doctrines for our issue contains articles by Adventist teachers own generation. The point was emphatically from colleges other than Andrews. made that "the scholars" - as a group - did The situation is still tense, and the stu not defend all traditional views. Other dents' status is precarious. In interviews with speakers assured the General Conference SPECTRUM neither Dr. Smoot nor Dr. president of the "pastoral concern" of schol Graham would rule out the possibility that ars and their desire for gradual change rather the university may have to take some kind of than disruption. Professor Elden Chalmers action to protect its interests. Graham called called for a less authoritarian style of church the students "naive" for believing that leadership. Evangelica could be perceived in people's How Wilson took these views remains to minds as independent of Andrews. Smoot be seen. There is no question, however, that labeled Evangelica as a "fringe" publication without a dramatic gesture to break the logic and saw its role, to date, as primarily "divi offactionalism, Seventh-day Adventism will sive." He argued that Evangelica is not living continue skidding toward schism. up to its own objective of presenting the gospel. Instead, he said, the editors are con - Eric Anderson, Jonathan Butler, Mol centrating on issues that divide, and he cited leurus Couperus, Adrian Z ytkoskee the Ellen White articles in the second issue as Why the Review Voted to Leave Washington

by Richard C. Osborn

he General Confer mend to the Review Board that a T ence appears to be a Hagerstown, Maryland, site recommended step closer to moving its headquarters out of by a site location committee be seriously con the nation's capital into the suburbs. Consoli sidered as the new location. According to dation of all three North American Adventist committee estimates, this move will cost ap printing plants into a single, more cost proximately $5 Yz million more over a five efficient operation appears to be dead for the year period than combining all Review oper foreseeable future. These are consequences of ations in the Washington plant. An addi an action taken by the Review and Herald tional $1 million will be needed to purchase Publishing Association Constituency on Oc land. tober 16, 1980. The following tells the story A question of key importance in consti of, and poses questions about, that action. tuency deliberations was how best to effect At their meeting last October, the Review the merger, already decided upon, of the constituency voted overwhelmingly to sell Southern and Review and Herald Publishing its Nashville plant (formerly operated as the Associations. As early as 1977, the General Southern Publishing Association) and move Conference ad hoc committees were study all factory functions from the Washington, ing the possibility of merger in order to save D.C., plant to a site one to one-and-a-half money. At the 1979 Annual Council the hours from Washington. At some time in the North American Division Committee on future, the editorial and marketing offices Administration (NADCA) voted that the will also move to the new site, and the Wash number of publishing houses in North ington, D.C. plant will be sold to pay for America be reduced to two, one on the West expansion and support of the new factory. Coast and one in the East, saying that "it is The constituency also voted to recom- highly desirable to have the plant for the East located in an area other than Washington, D.C., because of the large number of major church institutions and the resultant con Richard Osborn, principal of Takoma Academy, holds his master's degree in history from the Univer gregating of large numbers of Seventh-day sity of Maryland. Adventists in this area." 54 Spectrum

Within a week after the 1979 Autumn he newly merged Council Vote, General Conference leaders T Review Board ap met with the Southern Publishing Associa pointed a 14 member Feasibility Study tion Board and appointed committees to Committee chaired by Lowell Bock, General study an institution which was fighting for Conference vice president, to study all the its life. options. Under the commission of the com On January 8, 1980, the Southern consti mittee, Alan A. Anderson, Jr., a retired fed tuency heard from these committees detailed eral government information systems scien recommendations for saving the publishing tist, and two Review departmental mana house, including the recommendation of a 20 gers, Robert Ellis, Jr., and Russell Wetherell, percent reduction in staff within three prepared a detailed 81-page analysis of the months. The constituency declined to ap options, utilizing modern survey techniques, prove merger with the Review, voting in computer studies of marketing centers, dis stead to request that the General Conference tribution, and membership, and studies of representatives "convey to the General Con modern factory operations. The study also ference Committee the deep conviction of suggested proposals for addressing the this body in regard to maintaining the South broader issue of publishing practices in the ern Publishing Association as an independent church. Only the Review Board members, and self-standing institution." If, despite this however, saw the complete study with the appeal, the General Conference insisted on delegates to the October constituency receiv studying the possibility of a merger, the con ing a brief, nine-page summary. stituency would concur. But in the mean Neal Wilson reported to the October con time, Southern's management should im stituency meeting that the feasibility study mediately implement the economies and committee had analyzed seven possible op other policies recommended to save the in tions. The Review Board recommended the stitution. option calling for a two-stage move out of Washington. In the first stage, all property in Less than two months later, on March 5, a Nashville would be sold. Land would be General Conference subcommittee recom purchased an hour to an hour-and-a-half mended merger of assets, liabilities and man driving time outside Washington, and build agement under the name Review and Herald ings constructed to house all printing opera Publishing Association. Operations would tions. In the second stage, at some un continue at Nashville and Washington until a specified time in the future, the editorial and suitable new location for the merged institu marketing offices would be moved from tions could be found. Within two weeks a their present quarters to the new location. meeting of the Southern constituency was Harold F. Otis, Jr., general manager of the convened in Nashville. Review, with the help of professionally pre After long, passionate debates, the consti pared charts placed across the front of the tuency reversed its January action and agreed church, explained that a number of variables on March 18 to merge. Southern's workers had been studied, including concentration of were not guaranteed that they would not have Adventists living in the states east of the Mis to move to Washington, D.C., and many sissippi, proximity of paper mills, access to a had the impression that there was a commit bulk mailing center, and the wishes of ment to move to a completely new site. The workers in Nashville and Washington. next day the Review constituency meeting in In the subsequent discussion of the motion Washington agreed to the merger. The suc to move the Review, Robert Osborn, assis ceeding day, March 20, the Southern consti tant treasurer of the General Conference in tuency was flown to Washington for a joint charge of investments, spoke first. Acknowl meeting of both constituencies, where the edging that a General Conference treasurer merger was officially approved. It was also did not lightly oppose the General Confer voted to conduct a study into the feasibility ence president in public, he nevertheless felt of operating one plant in a new location. duty-bound, he said, to speak out against the Volume 11, Number 3 55 proposed move for two principal reasons. ly, the Washington site could furnish the in First, the General Conference had loaned creased production. Unlike most commer the Review $5 V2 million at greatly reduced cially viable printers that run their presses on interest rates in recent years for long-term three shifts 20-24 hours a day, the Review capital expenditures, $4.2 million of which operates only one shift a day. What is needed was still outstanding, although being paid off is increased productivity from present regularly. At the time the loans were made, facilities and equipment, not larger grounds. assurances were given that the resultant ex Since the General Conference's President's pansion would enable the Review to function Executive Advisory Committee (PREXAD) for many years. Furthermore, when the voted that it had neither the funds nor the merger occurred, the General Conference interest to purchase the Review's Washing was told that by running an extra shift the ton property, and since, because of its prox- entire workload could be handled in the Washington plant. Second, he reminded delegates that each Adventist institution in the Washington, "If the church were indeed D . C., area is dependent on the others. He committed to producing literature predicted that if the Review moved, a domino effect would first hit the General as inexpensively as possible . .. Conference followed by Home Study Insti logic would dictate that the tute, the Takoma Park Church, and the John constituency vote that the Review Nevins Andrews School. He asserted that if remain in Washington." the Review facilities were turned over to the General Conference, it was questionable whether they could be leased or sold because of special zoning variances allowed by the imity to the General Conference, it could District of Columbia government just for the not be sold, the feasibility study itself, argued Review. The most cost-effective use of Branson and Coy, shows that selling the church funds would be for the Review to Nashville plant and concentrating all print combine into one operation in Washington. ing in Washington is by far the most econom ical option. Over the five years projected by Oy Branson, senior the feasibility study, even allowing for the R research scholar at costs ofimproving the present plant, concen the Kennedy Institute of Ethics in Washing trating printing in Washington would save ton, D.C., and a delegate from the Potomac $5 V2 million more than the two-stage move Conference, presented a paper prepared by out of the city, and some $5 million more him and the other lay delegate from than any other option. If the church were Potomac, Robert Coy, the assistant general indeed committed to producing literature as counsel ofthe Veteran's Administration. The inexpensively as possible, to achieve the paper, which Neal Wilson agreed to distrib widest distribution possible, and if a final bute to the delegates, argued that the proposed decision had to be made at this constituency m~ve to a newly built plant did not best serve meeting, logic would dictate that the con the fundamental mission of Adventist pub stituency vote that the Review remain in lishing - to print and distribute literature at Washington. the lowest possible price to the largest Rather than urging such a vote, however, number of people, particularly non-Advent Branson proposed that the denomination ists. Assuming such a mission, Adventist conduct a thorough study, with a specified publishing should be as cost-effective as pos reporting date, into the possibility - what sible. The feasibility study had. not provided some leaders had suggested at the time of the grounds for thinking the Review sales would 1979 Autumn Council- of maintaining sev grow to the point that dramatic expansion eral editorial and marketing centers, but con was needed. Even if sales increased marked- solidating all three North American printing 56 Spectrum plants into one. The moment for achieving of the District of Columbia to gain zoning true consolidation ofprinting (while preserv and other variances because of community ing editorial diversity) was now, when not opposition to a factory in a residential com only Southern had been merged with the munity. Otis spoke of the Review's need for Review, but reports indicated non-Adventist a new adhesive binding unit; this would take interest in purchasing the Pacific Press. Many away current storage space and necessitate members of the constituency, Branson further building expansion. pointed out, were workers at the Nashville While the dominant trend of the discussion plant who had suffered great trauma from the in the afternoon was in favor of the proposed merger decision, and who were faced now move out of Washington, some speakers ex with expensive moves that would uproot pressed reservations. Robert Coy said that their lives. But the goal their sacrifices were after carefully analyzing the figures in the to achieve - producing less expensive litera feasibility study, it seemed clear to him that ture - would not be realized unless the con the proposed move was not the most cost stituents asked the General Conference to efficient one, and he knew laymen who, while loyal to the church, were becoming increasingly disenchanted with unwise deci sions by the denomination's leadership. Fur "Moving the Review out of thermore, Coy said, as an official in the executive branch of the federal government Washington would drastically he could assure church leaders that moving weaken the church's ability to the Review, and inevitably in its wake, the influence the leadership of the General Conference, out of Washington would dramatically weaken the church's abil the nation." ity to influence the leadership of the nation. From the point of view of influence, two hours outside downtown Washington might as well be the Midwest. devise plans for a thorough consolidation of The president of Potomac Conference, printing plants in North America. Ronald Wisbey, urged a postponement of a After lunch, several speakers took the op vote until a comprehensive study had deter posite view and supported the building of a mined the most cost-effective organization new plant outside Washington. Workers at of Adventist publishing, and the idealloca the Nashville plant stressed that selling tion of a printing press serving the entire houses in Tennessee and purchasing them in country. Wherever that place proved to be, the Washington metropolitan area would he would support the move. During the impose a heavy, virtually insupportable fi months necessary for such a study, Washing nancial burden. Furthermore, as one worker ton was the most economical place for locat said, they did not want to live in an urban ing operations of the Review. environment, but where they and their chil dren could raise gardens. Economically and ithout question, ~he otherwise, homes an hour away from Wash W most persuaSIve ington seemed more reasonable. The presi speech of the day was Neal Wilson's com dent of the Southwestern Union, Ben Leach, prehensive response late in the afternoon to said that a commitment had been made at opponents of a two-stage move. He ac previous constituency meetings that the knowledged that the Review was working Southern Publishing Association would not only one shift, and that in its present location simply disappear in Washington, but be it could increase production by working moved with the Review to a new, third loca large, web presses through three shifts. He tion. General Manager Otis and Glenn also agreed that several denominational pub Beagles, treasurer of the Review, stressed the lishers, using a single printing plant, or even difficulty of working with the government non-Adventist presses, would be the most Volume 11, Number 3 57 cost-effective method of producing Advent He did think that it might be better for the ist literature. General Conference if it were located on one But, many were concerned, he said, that of two properties it already owns in the not having our own press would endanger Maryland suburbs north of Washing the freedom of Adventist publishing. As for ton. Even if the General Conference were to having a single plant, it was his judgment move to one of these locations, it could retain that achieving such a consolidation was sim the important Washington, D.C., mailing ply not feasible, given present attitudes. The address. leadership of the church could not put all its Branson in a final appeal argued that Wil time into an attempt to consolidate all opera son had not refuted any of the facts cited by tions into one plant for North America. those opposed to the two-stage move, and Other projects and policies also demanded had in fact conceded the validity of much of attention. their analysis. He warned that if the consti As for the location of the merged Review, tuency voted for the motion to move, true Wilson said that the existing Nashville and .consolidation of Adventist publishing in Washington plants, while theoretically sur North America would be postponed and rounded with enough land for expansion, Adventist books would remain high-priced were badly located in built-up urban loca and limited in circulation. Before the final tions. The Washington plant, for example, vote, several members of the General Con was bordered by residential streets some ference leadership made strong speeches in times clogged by supply trucks. Neighbors favor of the recommendation made by the became annoyed. While more might be done Review Board. to enhance contact with the community, When the secret ballot was counted and there would likely always be disagreements announced as 305 in favor of the move and and disputes over requests for necessary ad 114 against, spontaneous applause broke out. justments of city regulations. Furthermore, Wilson quickly stopped it. No one had won urban plants were potentially vulnerable to today, he said. It had been a very difficult union pressure and boycotts. The Review decision. Had he been sitting where many would have to move out of Washington others had been, he could well have articu eventually, anyway. Inflation meant that the lated their arguments in favor of a different sooner the move, the better. decision. Wilson recognized that the refusal of the At the October 16 meeting the consti General Conference to buy the Review build tuency also received the report of a site com ing when operations move to a new site, and mittee appointed by the Review Board. The its simultaneous insistence that it not be sold membership of the committee had been kept until the General Conference sold its prop secret to prevent Adventists from buying erty meant that the Review would not be land around the favored site as a real estate realizing any income from the use of the investment. The committee reported on sev property or from its sale unless the General eral sites, the most favorable being in Conference moved. He noted the resulting Hagerstown, Maryland, a medium-sized conjectures, before and during the consti town located 80 miles north from Washing tuency meeting, that the General Conference ton. The delegates concluded their principal must be planning to sell not only the Review business by bypassing the offer of the building, but also the entire complex ofoffice Potomac Conference president to provide buildings it owns along Eastern A venue. He free of charge land two hours driving time said that it might happen, although the lead from Washington next to Shenandoah Valley ership of the church was not spending all its Academy in Virginia. Instead, they voted to waking moments devising ways to ac recommend to the Review Board the complish it. In any case, commitments had Hagerstown site costing an estimated $1 mil been made when the high-rise "North Build lion. ing" was erected that would make sale with In a later interview with SPECTRUM, out community approval extremely difficult. General Manager Otis said that the Review's 58 Spectrum

Nashville property has been sold to a non cently, the East Coast plant could supply Adventist Bible record business and will be paper through its mills. turned over to the purchaser on May 15, Third, the United States is founded on the 1981. By the end of January 1981 all the principle of "competition in the market editors in Nashville will have moved to place." Otis feels the church receives better Washington, followed by a carefully pre service by having two competitive publish pared phasing-out process of plant employ ing houses. ees who will also move to Washington. Sev Fourth, a complete consolidation is politi eral are retiring rather than moving and cally unrealistic and would result in the loss others are taking employment in the Nashville area. A double shift will be run at the Review's Washington plant to handle the extra work load. " 'What effect would such a tnove Otis further said that the Review has op have on Adventists themselves and tions on property in both Frederick and their sense of mission to the great Hagerstown, Maryland. A site engineering metropolises where most company has been hired to make a recom mendation on January 15, with final action Americans live ... ?' " by the Review Board expected in February. An informal vote taken among local Board members after a tour of both sites indicates a of money for the Review because of time strong majority in favor of the Hagerstown taken to study something that probably will property pending further professional not happen. Wilson, who knows the diffi analysis. A spring 1981 ground-breaking is culty of consolidation efforts through such anticipated with plant construction expected experiences as the recent attempt to unify the to take 12 to 15 months. Otis has no projec Southern and Southwestern unions, alluded tion on when the Washington plant will be to this argument in the constituency meet closed or when the editorial offices will be mg. moved to the new. site. 2) Is Takoma Park another Battle Creek? The only argument used for moving the Re hree key questions view out of the Takoma Park area in the 1979 T arise in connection Annual Council action was the "large with the proposed move of the Review. number of major church institutions and the 1) Why is the option of consolidating all pub resultant congregating of large numbers of lishing in the North American Division into one Seventh-day Adventists in this area." What plant with separate editorial boards not being seri light do facts throw on this assertion? Ac ously considered at the present time? In the cording to 1979 figures, the 13,108 members larger, undistributed feasibility study docu in the 35 churches within a 25-mile radius of ment, Alan Anderson, Jr., wrote, "It would Takoma Park (from Columbia, Maryland to be possible for one publishing plant, prop Vienna, Virginia) comprise 0.39 percent of erly equipped and running two or more shifts Adventism's worldwide membership and per day, to most economically provide the 2.2 percent of the North American Division printing needs of the North American Divi membership. The Adventist work force in sion" (p. 77). Otis told SPECTRUM that the entire Washington area amounts to 4.3 this option was rejected for four basic rea percent of the worldwide total. Excluding sons: employees of Washington Adventist Hospi First, the Adventist philosophy promul tal, many of whom do not belong to the gated by Ellen White of avoiding centraliza church, Adventist workers in the Takoma tion. Park area make up 1.2 percent of the Second, paper suppliers divide at the Mis worldwide total. sissippi River, meaning that if a West Coast How do these figures compare to Battle strike of paper mills occurs, as happened re- Creek when Ellen White was concerned Volume 11, Number 3 59 about too many members being in one area? weak Adventist presence that exists in other In 1902, close to 20 percent of the total work major American cities such as Chicago, Bos force of the church worked in Battle Creek. ton, New York City and San Francisco. Not only did many workers reside in Battle The report prepared by Branson and Coy Creek, but 40 percent of the entire church's for the constituency meeting states the issue membership lived in the northern area be well: tween Ohio and Nebraska. The spectacle of Adventist institutions, In actual fact, moreover, when Ellen domino-like, removing themselves from White addressed the centralization issue at sharing the problems faced by the over the 1903 General Conference Session, she whelming majority of Americans who are urged Adventists to "make centers in many city dwellers, would make a statement that places. " Unlike Battle Creek in 1902, would be sadly noted. Finally, what effect Takoma Park today represents one of many would such a move have on Adventists Adventist centers around the world. themselves and their sense of mission to 3) Does moving the Review out of an urban the great metropolises where most Ameri environment, along with a probable General Con- cans live ... ? ference headquarters move, represent a retreat from a commitment to urban ministries? The Wash These thoughts run counter to current ef ington area is an urban community in which forts to implement Ellen White's counsel on Adventists can make a substantial impact on working cities from country outposts, nota the broader non-Adventist community. bly those of Metro Ministries in New York Here the church has four strategically located City under its director, Ted Wilson. Some hospitals, a college, a high school, several persons, however, among them Gottfried elementary schools, one of the courtry's best Oosterwal, professor of mission at Andrews and largest correspondence schools, 35 University, argue that conditions have so churches, a large publishing operation, the changed from when Ellen White wrote as to church's world headquarters, and a powerful necessitate a reassessment of the most effec Adventist radio station. The church's impact tive approach to urban areas. here can be all the more significant because Such questions as these remain, then, and Washington is the nation's capital and the seem no less important after the October 16 residence of many overseas diplomats. Mov vote than they did before. All Seventh-day ing to the Washington suburbs would result Adventists should consider the implications in a less identifiable Adventist presence than and the effects of the proposed move of the is possible with a Takoma Park-based head Review and Herald from its present Wash quarters. It could result in the same kind of ington, D.C., location. Rep:>nses From Readers

Dallas Statement o the Editors: It has change a jot or tittle of the Manual, I had T been suggested that I refrained from including the Statement of add a little further information concerning Fundamental Beliefs in the initial editorial the evolution of the new Statement of Fun suggestions. After the 1975 Session, how damental Beliefs, In the following para ever, the time seemed ripe for attention to the graphs, I accede to that suggestion. For brev Fundamentals. They seemed surrounded ity's sake, I number the successive points. with an aura of untouchability, and the secre 1) In 1965, I wrote from Berne to the Gen tary of the committee seemed to be the only eral Conference administration and ex one convinced of the need for revision. He pressed my conviction that our Statement of therefore produced a complete but cautious Fundamental Beliefs needed revision both revision for presentation to the chairman of from a theological and a literary point of the committee and, at an early date, to a view. The administration's reply revealed subcommittee that was appointed on the that no such need was felt at the GC, so the chairman's initiative. With the initial one-man matter was dropped. revision as its base, that subcommittee spent 2) In 1970, I became an associate secretary many hours producing a revision for presen of the General Conference, and found that tation to the full Church Manual Committee. one of my duties was to serve as secretary of At every step, however, it was dogged by the the Church Manual Committee. It became tradition of untouchability concerning the clear that the Manual needed revision. It had Fundamentals: indeed, there appeared to be grown like Topsy, with additions being an aura of "inspiration" that hamstrung most made in random fashion as individuals and suggestions for refinement and improve groups became aware of deficiences in the ment of each Statement of Belief. This original Statement. The 1967 edition re greatly hampered the work of the commit vealed the patchwork nature of the volume, tee. If that aura could have been laid to rest, and cried out for editorial attention. But, as the way would have been open for a much page 22 recorded: " 'All changes or revisions more effective revision. Under that weighty of policy that are to be made in the Manual handicap the subcommittee revised the orig shall be authorized by a General Conference inal Statement and presented it to the full session.' " -Review and Herald Bulletin, June committee for its reaction. An ad hoc com 14, 1946." This quotation proved to be a mittee was then appointed, early 1978, with roadblock in every effort to revise any part of the specific task of preparing a document the Manual. It took several months of inter that, via the Church Manual Committee, pretative endeavor to convince the commit would prepare a Statement for presentation tee that editorial/literary revisions in the to the 1980 Session. interest of clarity and consistency were not 4) That ad hoc committee was commis covered by the above declaration. When that sioned to work within the framework of light dawned, many pages of editorial emen minimal revisions in deference to the gener dations were accepted and eventually pre ally held idea of the sacrosanct nature of the sented to the 1975 Session of the GC in Vienna. Manual and the sensitivities of the church 3) Because of the official reluctance to membership respecting any change that Volume 11, Number 3 61 might appear to touch the doctrinal beliefs of authoritative revelation with respect to faith the Church. Once again, the brakes were on, and morals._ Before reading the last issue of and revision had to be carried out on a very SPECTRUM, it never occurred to me that limited basis. anyone would propose that every activity of 5) When that further limited revision was God related to the history of man or Planet completed in mid-1979, I ventured to Earth is referenced in the Bible, or propose suggest that it would be wise to submit the that the historical testimony in the Bible is all document to our prQfessional theologians, sufficient. My only intention at Dallas was to on the basis that it would be better to have secure a formal recognition that the Bible their reactions before the document went does contain historical data (e.g., Creation further rather than await their strictures on Week, Fall of Adam, Noachian Flood, the Session floor. There was some hesitation, Exodus of the Hebrews), and that such tes but eventually the suggestion was accepted, timony is trustworthy and authoritative. and the document went to Andrews Univer R. H. Brown sity, with the request that it be studied, that Geoscience Research Institute comments and emendations be referred back to the ad hoc committee. Those terms of ref erence did not register, for the University prepared its own set of fundamentals, which Sanctuary Issue were presented to the 1979 Annual Council o the Editors: I've for eventual presentation to the 1980 Session. T just concluded a prof 6) The University's action accomplished itable Friday evening by reading at one sit what a timorous interpretation of Church ting the special "Sanctuary Issue" of SPEC Manual procedure had failed to effect. TRUM.Kudos to both authors and editors. Hindsight suggests that it would have been What many of us earnestly desire to see in wiser if the Church Manual Committee had denominationally published periodicals - a worked closely with Andrews' theologians balanced presentation of news and views that from an early date - but the traditional reti includes a spectrum of responsible opinion - cence to touch the Manual would probably we have come to rely on in SPECTRUM. have made that a too-revolutionary sugges Once again we were not disappointed. From tion! my point of view as a member of the The above paragraphs are intended to sup Sanctuary Review Committee, I would say plement the very acceptable account given by that Cottrell's account of what happened at Larry Geraty in Volume 11, Number 1. This Glacier View is by far the most authoritative addendum may serve to complete the histor report that has yet appeared in print. Not ical record. only was it accurate and fair, but his analysis Bernard E. Seton of the event and its aftermath was perceptive Etowah, North Carolina and constructive. Ford's article was the only condensation of his own (1,000 page) views o the Editors: It is dif in context that I have read and thus provided T ficult to conceive your readers with a genuine service. Shea's how anyone who heard the discussion in Dal critique contained some important biblical! las on the statement of fundamental beliefs historical insiglJ,ts and suggestions that might could conclude that I advocated considera be otherwise unavailable to readers who felt tion of the Bible as "all-sufficient in matters of they could not take time to read his original history" (Vol. 11, No.1, p. 10). (430 page) manuscript. Guy's presentation at I proposed, and the General Conference Glacier View was the most creative attempt session delegates affirmed, that our State by an Adventist theologian in years to make ment of Fundamental Beliefs include an the sanctuary truth "present truth" for our explicit expression of confidence that the generation and your publication of it is a real Bible is a reliable and authoritative witness to "coup." It is also useful to have the relevant God's acts in human history, as well as an documents and letters under one cover. So 62 Spectrum

thanks again for providing meat in due sea- one at the time the next-named was born. son. It is also widely held that Abraham moved Lawrence T. Geraty into Palestine 430 years before the Exodus. Professor This view is based on priority of the interpre Archaeology and History of Antiquity tation given by an inspired New Testament Andrews University writer. There appears to be a problem in finding the correct interpretation of the in terpretation given by Paul. Many Bible stu dents are aware of the apparent inconsistency On Chronology between Galatians 3:17 andActs 7:6, Exodus o the Editors: The 12:40,41 and Genesis 15:13. These four pas T discussion on chro sages are in perfect harmony ifthe "ratifica nology (Vol. 10, No.3) alludes to the widely tion" spoken of by Paul is understood to be held impression that the fifth and eleventh the final confirmation given to Jacob im chapters of Genesis present a list of firstborn mediately before he relocated in Egypt sons. The second individual in this list, Seth, (Genesis 46:1-7), 215 years after Abraham is easily identified as at least the third male took up residence in Palestine. descendant ofAdam. A hasty review of the changes that have The Seventh-day Adventist Bible Dictionary occurred in human society over the past 215 (p. 997 of the 1960 edition) points out that years will readily point out the value of an Shem was the secondborn of the three sons of additional 215 years in an effort to find a Noah who are mentioned in Genesis 5:32. harmonious interpretation of archaeological With the virility the human race possessed data and the stipulations of Scripture. less than 2,000 years after Creation and when R. H. Brown individual life spans typically approached Berrien Springs, Michigan 1,000 years, it would be most unexpected for a man not to have children until the SOOth o the Editors: Sieg year of his life. Therefore, it is reasonable to T fried H. Horn's "Can presume that the Bible names only the three the Bible Establish the Age of the Earth?" youngest male children in Noah's family, (V 01. 10 No.3) is a valuable contribution on those who accompanied their parents in the the discussion on biblical chronology. Ark. (We might suggest that Shem, Ham and It is a pity, however, that Hom, who rec Japheth were saved as a consequence of ognizes the difficulties of the New Testa identifying with their father in witness to ment's use of the Septuagint, should base the the impending destruction and in construc date of the covenant with Abraham on Paul's tion oftheArk.Also, we might speculate on statement in Galatians. (Incidentally, Paul's the sadness with which Noah and his wife left interest was not chronological). There is their many sons and daughters who refused much archaeological and secular historical to join them in the Ark.) evidence that supports a long chronology for From Genesis 11:32 and 12:4, it is evident the Israelite Egyptian bondage (cf. Gen. that Abram was not the oldest of the three 15:13). This, then, would place Abraham's sons ofTerah named in Genesis 11 :26. Either covenant event somewhere between his Nahor or Haran, most probably Haran, was entry into Canaan in 2095 B.C. when he was 60 years older than Abram. 75 (Gen. 12:4) and the birth of Ishmael in In view of these insights from Scripture, I 2085 B.C. when he was 86 (Gen. 16:16). must conclude that the fifth and eleventh Let me also note briefly that William Shea chapters of Genesis list out of the Adam in an unpublished syllabus has demonstrated N oah-A.braham lineage only the most prom fairly convincingly a March 15, 1450 B.C., inent individuals who maintained integrity date for the Exodus . Using Sothic agete dat to God. There is no way to be certain as to ing technique, new moon dates, as well as what proportion of these individuals were biblical, historical and archaeological data, he firstborn sons. We are only given the age of has been able to correlate the biblical event Volume 11, Number 3 63

with the actual secular occurrence. In this Prophecy and traditional biblical supports case, of course, we take into consideration the for the "message." four-year coregency of Solomon in our The current agitation and increased at evaluation of! Kings 6:1; and thus instead of titudes of questioning are well launched. No counting back from 966 (which date is ques end of controversy is in sight. However tionable even without taking cognizance of heated the discussions concerning our basic the coregency), we count back from 971 and belief become, and regardless of how near arrive at 1450 (on the basis of inclusive reck some may feel we are to a solution, I find oning). myself backing away from what yawns in P. U. Maynard-Reid creasingly as a fearsome black hole. Count West Indies College less billions have been pulled into such an Mandeville, Jamaica abyss of no return by the delicious and siren call of reason. The misuse of intellect felled the "light-bearer" so that at the present time Against Reason the ether is filled with countless individual reasoning personalities who out-thought o the Editors: The God. To me the present course seems far too T varied articles in the pell-mell and hell-bent. The "end" of present commemorative edition of the SPECTRUM historical research and scientific method do a good job of summing up the work and looms as a certainty. purpose of the AAF since its inception. I do not believe that the Gift of Prophecy During these years, I found myself mov or the book of Genesis can stand this expo ing along with what was, with but few ex sure. These two witnesses are being done to ceptions, the steady advance of reason. It is death and will soon lie in our streets. Even impossible to read each issue without sensing pure gold can be vaporized. It is not that the the conviction of most of the writers that present efforts toward truth are careless; on truth will yield to honest and painstaking the' contrary, the ongoing work will become research. Indeed, one is easily borne along more and more precise and irreproachable. this current by the certainty of the con The evidence against the supernatural origin tributors that intellectual might will prove of the Spirit of Prophecy and the accuracy of right and prevail in the end. the book of Genesis will become conclusive. It has been easy to sympathize with the Every intellectual will have enough unassail staff as it tirelessly worked in what was not able proof to make a rational decision. always encouraging circumstances. They Surely, within five years every thoughtful appear to have borne up well under an at Adventist scientist or historian can say with mosphere of continued misunderstanding. certainty, "It can never rain." It is not the However, with the emergence of the work of intention of this letter to list the warning Desmond Ford, Walter Rea, and others, I am from Scripture concerning the pitiful inade overwhelmed with second thoughts. At quacy of human thought, or to show that the first, I attributed this to a normal aversion to thoughts and actions of God are mega light abrupt change. After all, the movement of years apart from man's brief and tumultous the earth beneath one's feet is always dis achievements. However, the work of the quieting. Forum in the past dozen years would seem to Now, however, an attitude among some indicate that there are those who would deny of my colleagues and fellow Adventists is that we are all blind, pitiful and helpless. sounding an alarm that grows louder with In mercy to human nature, the entrance each issue of SPECTRUM. There is among into salvation has been made to appear sim them an unmistakable satisfaction with the ple. All are invited and all may receive eternal exacting investigation of our traditional life. However, the ways and works of God values. There is an increasing tendency for and His creation should warn us that His some to confess that they have harbored simi work of salvation is in most particulars be lar suspicions concerning the Spirit of yond the understanding of His creatures. In- 64 Spectrum

. tellectual achievement by any creature or the about Forum, the AAF newspaper (Vol. 10, most sincere reasoning of any human being No.4). What does he mean by his statement must stand outside the door, head down and "Anderson's background as editor of An shamefaced. drews University's Student Movement ... Your heavy tread upon, or near, sacred brought problems to Lawrence Geraty"? thresholds and hallowed ground frightens The only two specific remarks about Forum me. I wish you weII, brethren, but I take my picture Geraty as restraining unwise jour leave of you to seek with all my resolve, nalism. Is Os born trying to suggest reckless purpose and strength a way of utter surren ness on my part led to an adversary relation der, self-abnegation, childlike humility and ship between Geraty and me? That my back simplicity. I will work, pray, sing and strive ground somehow led to Geraty's unfortu to trust, to believe, and to hate every second nate resignation? of doubt. Should my senses and my mind be Osborn's comments might have been shown absolute proof against some segment more accurate ifhe had taken the time to talk of the Scripture or the Spirit of Prophecy, I to me about the newspaper. Geraty and I will beg God for the strength to disbelieve worked well together and neither of the inci my own eyes and trust the Word. Any other dents described is entirely correct. Osborn course I take will place me in peril of my soul. could have mentioned some of the positive H. N. Sheffield, M.D. contributions of Forum. We were the first Madera, California Adventist publication to cover the Merikay case - and our coverage was successful in stirring up wide interest in the matter. Also, Forum Newspaper Forum published the first independent, behind-the-scenes report of an Annual o the Editors: I am Council meeting. T mystified by Richard Eric Anderson Osborn's hostile and inaccurate remarks Pacific Union College

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