MA in International Politics Foreign Policy, Public Diplomacy and the Media
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MA in International Politics Foreign policy, public diplomacy and the media: The case of South Africa, with specific reference to the denial of visas to the Dalai Lama SC van der Westhuizen Student number: 3598-482-1 1 Acknowledgements I would like to express my deepest appreciation to all those who supported me in completing this study. Firstly, I want to thank my study supervisor, Prof. Jo-Ansie van Wyk. Thank you for your continuous support during this process. Without your guidance and persistent help this study would not have been concluded. Thank you to Ms Louise van Niekerk, who did the editing. I appreciate your strong attention to detail. I am obliged to my employer, the Government Communication and Information System (GCIS), for the financial support provided to this endeavour through their bursary scheme. I also appreciate the accommodating consideration of my supervisor at the office, Ms Nkele Sebasa, throughout the course of this study. I am especially indebted to my family and friends, mostly to my husband, Ernie van der Westhuizen. Thank you for your unconditional love, support and understanding right through my studies. I urge my younger family members to get this done at a much earlier stage in life! None of this would ever be possible without the grace of God. 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS List of abbreviations and acronyms 10 List of tables 13 List of figures 14 Chapter One: Introduction 15 1. Introduction 15 2. Literature review 20 3. Importance of research and research question 25 4. Theoretical and analytical framework 28 5. Conceptual clarification 34 6. Methodology 40 7. Contribution of study 45 8. Scope and limitations of study 46 9. Structure of study 48 10. Conclusion 49 Chapter Two: A conceptual analysis of diplomacy and public diplomacy as instruments of foreign policy 50 1. Introduction 50 2. Defining diplomacy 51 3. Purpose of diplomacy 51 4. Diplomacy in democracies 52 5. Types of diplomacy 55 6. Practice of diplomacy 57 7. Public diplomacy as a type of diplomacy 60 7.1.Elements of public diplomacy 63 7.2. Public diplomacy and power 64 7.3. Public diplomacy and propaganda 65 7.3.1. Definition of propaganda 66 7.3.2. Forms of propaganda 68 7.3.3. Difference between public diplomacy and propaganda 69 7.4. Practice of public diplomacy 71 8. Visa diplomacy as a particular type of public diplomacy 73 3 9. Conclusion 74 Chapter Three: The South African media landscape 75 1. Introduction 75 2. Interests, norms and identity as part of the media 77 2.1. Interests 77 2.2. Norms 78 2.3. Identity 81 3. The South African public, private and independent media landscape 82 3.1. Print media 82 3.1.1. Avusa Limited 82 3.1.2. CTP Property Limited 83 3.1.3. Independent News & Media 83 3.1.4. Nasionale Pers 83 3.2. News agencies 88 3.3. Broadcasting 89 3.3.1. Radio 89 3.3.2. Television 90 3.4. Internet 91 3.5. Telecommunications 91 4. Conclusion 92 Chapter Four: Legislative and regulatory environment of the media in South Africa 94 1. Introduction 94 2. South African media legislation 95 2.1. The Constitution 95 2.2. The Broadcasting Act 95 2.3. The Electronic Communications Act 96 2.4. The Independent Communications Authority Act 96 3. Proposed legislation affecting government relations with the media 96 3.1. Protection of Information Bill 96 3.1.1. Media and public reaction to proposed media legislation 99 3.2. Protection of State Information Bill 103 4 3.2.1. Media and public reaction 103 3.3. Media Appeals Tribunal 109 3.3.1. Reaction 109 4. Institutional framework 114 4.1. Government Communication and Information System 114 4.2. International Marketing Council 115 4.3. Department of Foreign Affairs/Department of International Relations and 116 Cooperation relations with the media 5. Regulatory framework 117 5.1. Statutory bodies 118 5.1.1. Media Development and Diversity Agency 118 5.1.2. Independent Communications Authority of South Africa 118 5.2. Self-regulatory bodies in the media 119 5.2.1. The Press Council, Press Ombudsman and Appeal Panel 119 5.2.2. Broadcasting Complaints Commission of South Africa 119 5.3. International standards 120 5.4. Independent media organisations/structures 120 5.4.1. South African National Editors’ Forum 120 5.4.2. Print and Digital Media South Africa 121 5.4.3. National Association of Broadcasters 121 5.4.4. Freedom of Expression Institute 122 5.5. Organisations representing community media 122 6. Conclusion 123 Chapter Five: South Africa’s post-apartheid foreign policy 125 1. Introduction 125 2. South Africa’s post-apartheid foreign policy principles 126 3. Elements of South Africa’s foreign policy 127 4. South Africa’s foreign policy priorities 128 5. South Africa’s foreign policy actors 129 5.1. The Presidency 129 5.2. Department of International Relations and Cooperation 131 5.3. Department of Trade and Industry 133 5 5.4. Department of Defence 134 5.5. Parliament 135 5.6. Civil society 135 6. Pillars of South Africa’s post-apartheid foreign policy 136 6.1. Consolidation of the African agenda 137 6.2. South-South cooperation 139 6.3. North-South dialogue 143 6.4. Transformation of global institutions 145 7. South Africa’s diplomatic institutions and practice 147 8. South Africa’s public diplomacy: institutions and practice 152 8.1. Public diplomacy institutions 152 8.2. Public diplomacy activities 153 8.3. Nation branding 157 8.3.1. Place branding 158 8.3.2. International Marketing Council 160 8.4. Democracy and public diplomacy 160 8.5. Examples of South African public diplomacy 164 9. Identity, interests and norms underlying South Africa’s foreign policy and 164 public diplomacy 9.1. Identity 165 9.2. National interest 168 9.3. Values 172 10. Conclusion 176 Chapter Six: The refusal of a visa to the Dalai Lama in 2009 178 1. Introduction 178 2. Previous visits to South Africa by the Dalai Lama and their significance 178 3. The 2009 invitation to the Dalai Lama 182 3.1. Invitation and purpose of the visit 183 3.2. The decision to refuse a visa 184 4. Media coverage of explanations of and responses to the South African 186 Government’s 2009 refusal of a visa to the Dalai Lama 4.1. South African Government sources on the matter 187 4.2. Statements by conference organisers 192 6 4.3. Dissent in government ranks 193 4.4. Criticism from the ranks of the Constitutional Court 196 4.5. Chinese Government statements 198 4.6. Statements by members of civil society 198 4.7. Statements by Tibetans and aligned organisations 199 4.8. Statements by political parties 201 4.8.1. Democratic Alliance 201 4.8.2. African National Congress 202 4.8.3. South African Communist Party 203 4.8.4. Congress of the People 203 4.8.5. Independent Democrats 204 5. Media reaction 204 6. Reaction of analysts and other commentators 208 7. Inkatha Freedom Party court challenge of the decision 210 8. Continued coverage after the issue disappeared from the headlines 212 8.1. Inauguration list 212 8.2. Buddha Day 213 8.3. Zuma administration 213 9. Conclusion 215 Chapter Seven: Not granting a visa to the Dalai Lama in 2011 218 1. Introduction 218 2. The 2011 invitation to the Dalai Lama 218 3. Media coverage of government’s indecision in granting a visa to the Dalai 219 Lama 3.1. South African Government sources 219 3.2. Statements by organisers of planned visit 220 3.3. Statements by members of civil society 221 3.4. Statements by Tibetans and aligned organisations 222 3.5. Statements by political parties 223 4. Media reaction 223 5. Reaction of analysts and other commentators 227 6. Inkatha Freedom Party court challenge of the handling of the application 228 7 7. Continued coverage after the issue disappeared from the headlines 232 7.1. Taylor Nelson Sofres Survey 232 7.2. Peace Award to Dalai Lama in India 233 8. Conclusion 233 Chapter Eight: Conclusion and recommendations 236 1. Introduction 236 2. Research question, analytical framework and theoretical approach of study 246 3. Findings of research 237 3.1. Human rights and South African foreign policy 238 3.2. National interest versus pressure from China 240 3.3. How government adapted its professed stance on granting a visa to the 242 Dalai Lama over time 3.4. Secrecy and foreign policy decision-making 243 3.5. Diplomacy and public diplomacy as instruments of foreign policy 244 3.6. Link between foreign policy, diplomacy and public diplomacy 246 3.7. How the South African media frame foreign policy and how the 247 government reacts to this actuality 3.8. Civil society, foreign policy and diplomacy 250 3.9. South Africa’s relations with China 251 3.10. The position of the Dalai Lama 254 3.11. Lessons learned from 2009 to 2011 255 4. Contribution of study 257 5. Recommendations for future research 259 6. Conclusion 259 Bibliography 264 8 ABSTRACT This study illustrates the link between foreign policy, public diplomacy and the media, with reference to the South African Government’s refusal in 2009 and 2011 to issue visas to the Dalai Lama. The research question is: How do the South African media frame foreign policy and how do administrators react to this actuality? As there seems to be a void in South African international political communications, this is where this study purports to contribute.