Analyses of Traits and Driving Forces on Urban Land Expansion in a Typical Coal-Resource-Based City in a Loess Area

Environ Earth Sci (2016) 75:1191 DOI 10.1007/s12665-016-5926-5

THEMATIC ISSUE

Analyses of traits and driving forces on urban land expansion in a typical coal-resource-based city in a loess area

1,2 1,2 1,2 1 Yingui Cao • Zhongke Bai • Wei Zhou • Xiaoran Zhang

Received: 28 December 2015 / Accepted: 21 July 2016 / Published online: 18 August 2016 Ó Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2016

Abstract The development of coal-resource-based cities is serve as a reference for resource-based cities regarding cyclical and presents different traits affected by different urban land use and sustainable development. socio-economic driving forces in each stage. In this paper, we study urban land expansion in the Pinglu District in Keywords Resource-based cities Á Urban land expansion Á Shuozhou City, Shanxi Province, China, by interpreting Driving forces Á Urbanization Á Development and transition six-phase remote sensing images to reveal the traits and driving forces of urban land expansion during different stages. Overall, the following results were observed. (1) Introduction Urban land expansion was obvious from 1986 to 2013, with an increase of 992.80 ha, mainly due to the occupa- Urban land expansion is an important aspect of global land tion of cultivated land. Urban land expansion mainly use/cover change (Foley et al. 2005) and profoundly occurred along the periphery of the city, which was 1–2 km impacts regional ecological systems (Grimm et al. 2008). from the urban centre. (2) The influence of the coal In developing countries, the urban land area has grown five industry on urban land expansion can be divided into two times faster than in developed countries (Bhagyanagar stages, the establishment stage of the coal industry system et al. 2012). The urbanization rate was 2.14 % greater in and the development stage of coal industry promotion and China than that of the world average. In addition, urban urbanization. (3) The traits of urban land expansion mat- land expansion has become out of control (Fang 2009; ched economic models and traits. The non-agricultural Gibson et al. 2014). China is currently undergoing an population and industrial electricity consumption can unprecedented urbanization process in which massive reflect how economic development can impact urban land amounts of rural land, especially the cultivated land, have expansion. The periodic traits of urban land expansion and been converted to urban land (Forman 2008; Chen et al. the coal industry life cycle have shown a high degree of 2014; Cao 2015; Huang et al. 2015). consistency. Furthermore, the results of this study could Consequently, the land use structure has been changed (Weber and Puissant 2003; Jiang et al. 2013), the agricultural land use intensity has been decreased (Cao et al. 2010a, b;Jiangetal.2013), and the pressure on This article is part of a Topical Collection in Environmental Earth Sciences on ‘‘Environment and Health in China II’’, guest edited by remaining fertile agricultural soils has been increased Tian-Xiang Yue, Cui Chen, Bing Xu and Olaf Kolditz. (Doygun et al. 2008). Urban land expansion corresponds with administrative hierarchy, and cities with higher & Wei Zhou administrative levels (ranked by central government) [email protected] generally expand more rapidly when controlling for 1 School of Land Science and Technology, China University of other economic and demographic drivers of urban Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China expansion (Li et al. 2015). 2 Key Lab of Land Consolidation, Ministry of Land and Developing monitoring technologies advance revealing Resources of the PRC, Beijing 100035, China the traits and processes of urban land expansion, especially 123 1191 Page 2 of 13 Environ Earth Sci (2016) 75:1191 the GIS and RS technologies (Doygun et al. 2008; Hutyra black triangle of the Loess Plateau at the border of Shaanxi, et al. 2011; Haregeweyn et al. 2012; Yan and Huang 2013). Shanxi, and Inner Mongolia (Fig. 1). The Pinglu District is Studies of the driving mechanisms of urban land expansion a typical coal-resource-based urban district surrounded by have mainly focused on socio-economic driving factors three open-cast coal mines and three underground mines in and used qualitative and quantitative methods (Hu and Lo the Pingshuo mining area, as well as many other local 2007; Shu et al. 2014; Huang et al. 2015). underground mines (Fig. 1). This district is a typical eco- The major driving forces for urban land expansion logically fragile area on the Loess Plateau and includes an include the enhanced economic activity due to the port and original landscape of loess mountain hills with serious soil industrialization (Bhagyanagar et al. 2012), the local eco- erosion, a dry surface, and windy weather during the winter nomic development and population growth (Han 2010), and spring. Currently, more than 40 types of mineral and the increasing value of urban land and budgetary resources have been found, including coal, kaolin, graphite, government revenues, and the decreasing value of agri- and limestone. The socioeconomic information in Pinglu cultural land (Lichtenberg and Ding 2009). Overall, it is District is followed in Table 1. important to formulate different policies to guide reasonable urban land expansion (Shu et al. 2014; Li et al. 2014). Coal-based city is one of the important kinds of resource- Data sources and processing based city, and it is the indispensable energy supply base for economic growth in China. There are 76 coal-based cities Data sources distributing in Shanxi Province, Shaanxi Province Nei- menggu Province, etc. in China (Yu 2014). Most coal-based We used six remote sense images in 1986, 1996, 2000, cities have faced a series of social and economic contra- 2004, 2009, and 2013. The parameters of images including dictions and environmental problems, such as the industry date, sensor, wavelength, and spatial resolution are shown economic benefit going down, unemployment rising, and in Table 2. There are three TM images of Landsat 5, two eco-environment damaging (Rivas et al. 2006;Zhao2006; HRG images of SPOT 5 and one Reference 3D image of Cao et al. 2014). There are lots of land use problems in coal- SPOT 6. The SPOT images are from Shibao Satellite based cities such as extensive land use, unreasonable space Imagery Corporation in Beijing, China. The TM images layout of urban land, abuse of cultivated land, and serious are from US Landsat resource sharing platform. land damage (Du et al. 2009;Franksetal.2010). Consequently, their transition is of concern. Firstly, the Data processing government should make different countermeasures according to the different development directions and tasks in coal- Using geographic maps (scale is 1: 10,000) of the mining based cities, and make different land use policies (Yuan et al. area, we used the ENVI 5.0 Software to rectify the six- 2015). Secondly, urban land structure optimization and phase remote sensing images. During the high-precision intensive urban land use should be persisted, and spatial rectification process, ground control points were selected evolution progress of urban land in different stages should be evenly and quadratic, polynomial, and neighbouring re- analysed (Cao et al. 2010a, b;Yangetal.2015). Thirdly, sampling were used (Zhang et al. 2012; Fan et al. 2012). suitable urban land use and reasonable layout and location Following this process, the rectified data included the UTM should be assessed from the ecological carrying capacity in projection and the WGS-84 ellipsoid. coal-based cities (David et al. 2012;Guetal.2014). Based on the ‘‘Current Land Use Classification’’ (SAC In this study, we considered urban land expansion in the 2007), land use types were classified into cultivated land, Pinglu District of Shuozhou City. We interpreted six-phase woodland, grassland, urban land, rural settlement, and remote sensing images, analysed the changing spatial–tem- transportation land. The texture features of each land use poral traits of urban land during 1986–2013, and revealed type on the images were used to establish the interpretation the driving mechanisms from the economic development of signs (Yu 2014). Next, we used the tool of Neural Network coal. These results can provide a reference for urban land for Classification in ENVI 5.0 Software to supervise and use and sustainable development in resource-based cities. classify the remote sensing images and adopted the stan- dard method employing the overall accuracy and Kappa coefficient to detect the accuracy of the classification Research area (Zheng et al. 2006). The total accuracy and Kappa coefficients of land use classification during each year are fol- The research area is located in the Pinglu District of lowed in Table 3. Next, we sampled thirty points in the Shuozhou City in Shanxi Province, China, near the Ping- research area and compared the land use types between the shuo mining area of the China Coal Group Co. Ltd. in the fields and maps. The accuracy rates reached up to 90 %. 123 Environ Earth Sci (2016) 75:1191 Page 3 of 13 1191

Fig. 1 Location of research area

Furthermore, we revised the land use types of the maps 1986, an increase of 36.77 ha each year, and an annual when they were inconsistent within the ﬁeld. growth rate of 21.41 %. When considering the changes in the urban land area during each stage, the area of urban land obviously increased by 548.55 ha in 1986–2004, Results and analysis representing an increase of nearly 30.47 ha each year and an annual growth rate of 17.74 %. In 2004–2013, the urban Spatial–temporal traits of urban land changes land area slowly increased by 444.25 ha at a rate of nearly 49.36 ha each year and at an annual growth rate of 6.85 %. The area of urban land in the research area was 1164.56 ha The conversion between urban land and other types of in 2013, which was an increase of 992.80 ha relative to land mainly included the conversion of other types of land to 123 1191 Page 4 of 13 Environ Earth Sci (2016) 75:1191

Table 1 Socio-economic information in Pinglu District Town Township Village Total population Urban non-agricultural population

2 11 379 2.07 9 105 1.04 9 105 Urbanization ratio (%) GDP (CNY) The ﬁrst industry The secondary industry The third industry production value (CNY) production value (CNY) production value (CNY) 50.14 2.58 9 1010 4.58 9 108 2.10 9 1010 4.30 9 109 Ratio of the secondary Fixed asset Net income of urban Net income of rural residents per Coal reserve (t) industry production investment (CNY) residents per capita capita (CNY) value (%) (CNY) 81.52 1.51 9 1010 1.85 9 104 0.70 9 104 1.30 9 1010

Table 2 Parameters of remote sensing images in research area Date Sensor Wavelength (lm) Spatial resolution (m)

1986-06-20 TM (Landsat5) B2: 0.52–0.60, B3: 0.63–0.69, B4: 0.76–0.90 30 1996-06-25 2000-05-22 2004-05-16 HRG (SPOT 5) B1: 0.49–0.61, B2: 0.61–0.68, B3: 0.78–0.89 10 2009-06-10 2013-04-03 Reference 3D (SPOT 6) B1: 0.455–0.525, B2: 0.530–0.590 6 B3: 0.625–0.695, B4: 0.760–0.890

Table 3 Overall accuracy and Kappa coefficient for each land use within 1–2 km of the urban centre in all directions. In each map stage, the area of cultivated land converted to urban land Year Overall accuracy (%) Kappa coefficient decreased as the distance from the urban centre increased. Because of the locations of the cultivated land, which are flat 1986 85.57 0.7938 with relatively low altitudes and surround the urban area, it 1996 93.66 0.9125 is easy for these areas to become the main focus of urban 2000 97.16 0.9624 expansion. The conversion of urban land, woodland, grass- 2004 75.72 0.7965 land, and transportation land occurred in the inner urban area 2009 94.99 0.9434 and was considered urban renewal, transformation, or 2013 87.71 0.8589 upgrading. The conversion of woodland to urban land was mainly within 2.5 km of the urban centre. The conversion of grassland to urban land was scattered, and mainly occurred urban land (Table 4). The conversion of cultivated land to near the urban centre. The conversion of urban land to urban land became a main method of urban land expansion. transportation land mainly occurred within the urban core During 1986–2013, the area of cultivated land occupied by area and occurred to improve old urban traffic conditions. urban expansion was 1253.27 ha, with most of the urban Since 2000, the area of urban land converted to transporta- expansion occurring during 1986–1996 and 2009–2013. In tion land gradually increased, especially in the urban centre. addition, the areas of occupied cultivated land were 433.18 The conversion of urban land to woodland and grassland and 329.90 ha in 1986–1996 and 2009–2013, respectively. gradually increased with the expansion of urban land, and a The proportion of grassland, woodland, and transportation significant area of urban land was converted to woodland in land that was converted to urban land was relatively high, 2009–2013. Before 2009, the conversion of transportation and the proportions of urban land that were converted to land to urban land was dominant and mainly occurred grassland, woodland, and transportation land were increas- 0.5–2 km from the urban centre. The conversion of rural ing. The conversion of rural settlements to urban land settlement to urban land mainly occurred around the urban mainly occurred in 1986–1996, 2000–2004, and 2004–2009, land because Pinglu County was transformed into the Pinglu with a cumulative area of 3.92 ha. District and the urbanization level improved. The conversion Perspective from the spatial position of urban land of rural settlement to urban land mainly occurred 1–2 km changes (Fig. 2), the conversion of cultivated land to urban from the urban centre initially and then 4–6 km from the land mainly occurred at the periphery of urban land and urban centre later. 123 Environ Earth Sci (2016) 75:1191 Page 5 of 13 1191

Table 4 Proportions of Types of land use changes 1986–1996 1996–2000 2000–2004 2004–2009 2009–2013 changing area of urban land in research area unit: % Urban land–woodland 0.01 0.20 1.05 0.02 8.22 Urban land–grassland 0.00 8.56 1.47 0.30 0.12 Urban land–transportation land 0.06 1.02 8.99 8.61 11.97 Cultivated land–urban land 86.15 57.60 61.53 72.10 70.23 Woodland–urban land 8.41 4.63 1.96 2.52 1.20 Grassland–urban land 4.02 24.54 17.59 1.80 8.25 Rural residential–urban land 0.24 0.00 0.64 0.31 0.00 Transportation land–urban land 1.10 3.44 6.78 14.34 0.00

Fig. 2 Spatial distribution of urban land changes in research area

Driving forces of urban land changes of the coal industrial system and a development stage of the coal industry promoting urbanization. Development of the coal industry and urban land changes During the ﬁrst stage, the urban land expansion was closely related to the transformation of Pinglu County to The research area is a typical coal-resource-based city, and the Pinglu District in 1988 and the development of the inﬂuences of the coal industry on urban land expansion urbanization. Urban–rural labour and the employment should be divided into two stages: an establishment stage population gathered in the coal mining region while the

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Fig. 3 Population urbanization 50 ratio in research area 40

Population urbanization ratio (%) Year 1996 2000 2004 2009 2013

Fig. 4 GDP per capita in 14 research area 12 RMB) 4 10 8 6 4 2

GDP per capita (10 0 Year 1996 2000 2004 2009 2013

Table 5 Proportion changes in Year Research area Urban in Shanxi Urban in China secondary industry employees and mining industry employees SIE/TUE MIE/TUE SIE/TUE MIE/TUE SIE/TUE MIE/TUE in research area unit: % 1996 54.13 27.52 41.80 4.33 35.10 1.09 2000 53.97 27.78 49.37 15.06 49.05 5.10 2004 48.76 23.97 53.52 19.10 48.76 4.65 2009 44.66 19.47 49.93 19.19 47.33 4.24 2013 44.53 19.34 46.58 17.53 45.76 3.84 The data are from Statistical Yearbook of Shanxi Province, China. Secondary industry includes mining industry, manufacturing industry, electricity industry, gas and water production and supply industry, construction industry. SIE/TUE is the proportion between secondary industry employees and total urban employees. MIE/TUE is the proportion between mining industry employees and total urban employees

coal enterprises gradually expanded their production By comparing secondary industry employees with scales, which gradually formed a coal enterprise grouping mining industry employees during each study stage development structure and a spatial concentration of labour (Table 5), although the proportion of secondary industry (Jing and Zhang 2005). The economic development mode employees accounted for total urban employees showed a of the coal industry enterprises was mainly dispersed and decreasing trend, it was much higher than that observed in extensive (Zhang and Guo 2002), which largely promoted the urban areas in Shanxi and China, before 2000, and urban land expansion due to the development of the coal slightly lower than that observed after 2004. The propor- enterprise and the spatial concentration of labour. In the tion of mining industry employees accounted for total research area, the first stage was 1996–2004, which was urban employees also tended to decrease, which was higher considered the initial establishment stage of the coal than that in the urban areas in Shanxi and China. Although industrial system and the first gathering of coal production, the proportions of these two types of employees relative to processing, and employment. During the first stage, the total urban employees decreased, the numbers of these two population urbanization rate in the research area was types of employees gradually increased. In 1996, 14.86 % in 1996, which increased to 40.98 % in 2004 (an 5.90 9 103 secondary industry employees lived in research increase of nearly 1.78 times) (Fig. 3). The GDP per capita area, which increased to 6.80 9 103 by 2004. In 1996, was 8.60 9 103 Chinese Yuan is short for CNY (CNY) in 3.00 9 103 mining industry employees resided in this area, 1996, which was 82.02 % of that in 2004 (Fig. 4). which increased to 3.50 9 103 by 2004. Simultaneously,

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Table 6 Proportion changes in Year Research area Urban in Shanxi Urban in China tertiary industry employees and the transportation, storage TIE/TUE TSIE/TUE TIE/TUE TSIE/TUE TIE/TUE TSIE/TUE industry employees in research area unit: % 1996 44.04 2.75 31.90 2.52 29.50 1.49 2000 44.44 2.38 41.68 8.38 47.05 7.04 2004 48.76 2.48 45.73 7.45 49.88 6.45 2009 54.20 2.67 49.71 6.59 51.91 5.95 2013 54.38 2.92 53.12 7.06 53.82 5.46 The data are from Statistical Yearbook of Shanxi Province, China. Tertiary industry is service industry which does not produce material products. TIE/TUE is the proportion between tertiary industry employees and total urban employees. TSIE/TUE is the proportion between transportation, storage industry employees and total urban employees tertiary industry employees and transportation and storage which was an increase of nearly 10.96 times (Fig. 4). The industry employees were gathered (Table 6). The propor- level of urbanization was upgraded, and the urban land tion of tertiary industry employees accounted for total demand was accelerated by the impact of traditional coal number of urban employees was higher than that in the economy and transformed economy. urban area of Shanxi and was closer to the proportion in the During 2004–2013, the degree of agglomeration of urban areas in China. The proportion of transportation and secondary industry employees and mining industry storage industry employees relative to total urban employees slightly decreased, while the agglomeration employees was lower than that in the urban areas of Shanxi degree of tertiary industry employees and transportation and China after 1996. In 1996, the number of employees in and storage industry employees increased, which pro- tertiary industry was 4.80 9 103, which increased to moted urban land expansion in the research area. By 5.90 9 103 by 2004. In 1996, the number of transportation comparing tertiary industry employees with transportation and storage industry employees was 0.20 9 103, which and storage industry employees during each stage of the increased to 0.30 9 103 by 2004. With the development of study (Table 6), the proportion of tertiary industry the coal industry and the increasing industrial population, employees accounted for total urban employees showed the population urbanization ratio in the research area sig- an increasing tendency, which was slightly greater than nificantly increased during 1996–2004, increasing from that in the urban areas of Shanxi and China. In 2004, the 14.86 to 40.98 %. Due to urban employee growth, the need number of tertiary industry employees was 5.90 9 103, for urban land for manufacturing and living increased. which increased to 1.49 9 104 by 2013. The proportion Consequently, the area of urban land increased by of transportation and storage industry employees 548.55 ha during the first stage. accounted for total number of urban employees increased During the second stage, the urban land expansion was slowly and was much lower than in the urban areas in affected by the rapid growth of the regional coal economy Shanxi and China. Thus, there is still a lot of potential for (Cao et al. 2015a, b). The urbanization level increased developing the transportation and storage industry based around the coal enterprises and produced better services on the coal industry research area. with no guarantee of improving the transport industry (Jing The growth of urban employees during the second stage and Zhang 2005). The growth rate of coal production was mainly due to an increase in tertiary industry amount in research area was over 40 % on average from employees, which was influenced by coal manufacturing 2004 to 2013 (Cao and Bai 2015). The research area processing and servicing. Since 2009, the proportion of became the typical coal-based city. Meanwhile, coal-based tertiary industry employees accounted for total urban industries were upgrade and transformed and some new employees exceeded that of secondary industry employees. industries were breed in research area, as a result, the new The number and structure of changes can reflect the pro- industry pattern was formed into coal industry principal ductivity of the coal enterprises and the directions of connecting with new industry and high technological resource-based urban restructuring and development (Long industry supporting. By the end of 2013, the transformed et al. 2013; Li et al. 2013). The growth of urban land during product value was up to 8 9 1010 CNY, and the increased the second stage was mainly due to the demand for coal employees were more than 1 9 104 (Yu 2014). During the manufacturing, processing, and servicing, which was second stage, the population urbanization ratio increased to influenced by the coal industry and resulted in increasing 45.88 % in 2013, which was an increase of 11.95 % rela- employees and population urbanization ratio from 40.98 to tive to 2004 (Fig. 3). The GDP per capita was 1.04 9 104 45.88 % during 2004–2013 and boosted an increase in the CNY in 2004 and increased to 1.25 9 105 CNY in 2013, urban land area by 444.25 ha. 123 1191 Page 8 of 13 Environ Earth Sci (2016) 75:1191

Fig. 5 Matching among economy models, economy traits and land use traits

Economic development models and urban land changes number of secondary industry employees slightly increased. In the research area, the industrial electricity During each development stage, different economic consumption per GDP was 1221 kWh/104 CNY in 1996 development models show this development trait, and land and 1269 kWh/104 CNY in 2000, which showed a slow use is the direct presentation of the economic development growth trend. Overall, this stage is a transitional develop- trait (Cao et al. 2011; Echeverrı´a et al. 2012; Kovacˇicˇ and ing stage, during which the agriculture economy gradually Ravbar 2013). In each stage, the economic development transferred to the coal economy. The demand for industrial presented different models and traits, and the urban land land and urban construction land coexisted, and urban land use traits matched the economic models and traits (Fig. 5). expansion occupied the farmland surrounding the central During 1996–2013, we divided the study into four urban area. Affected by the urban reconstruction, a small stages: 1996–2000, 2000–2004, 2004–2009, and amount of urban land was converted to woodland, grass- 2009–2013. The urban land areas during each stage were land, and transportation land; thus, the amount of urban 65.69, 109.70, 194.65, and 249.60 ha, respectively. During land did not obviously increase. these four study stages, the non-agricultural population and The rapid development stage of the coal industry industrial electricity consumption reﬂect the economic occurred during 2000–2004, and the coal economy gradu- developing traits, which also affect urban land changes in ally become the dominant economy while the value of the corresponding stages (Zhu et al. 2009; You et al. 2010; industrial production increased 1.75 times. The non-agri- Cao 2015). cultural population sharply increased to 7.42 9 104 in During 1996–2000, the establishment stage of the coal 2004, and a large number of the rural population gradually industry system and the agricultural and coal economies became urban. For employment, the growth of the non- were parallel. With the development of the coal economy, agricultural population cannot match the increasing num- the non-agricultural population increased by 15.48 % ber of mining industry employees and several non-agri- during 1996–2000 from 2.52 9 104 to 2.91 9 104, and the cultural populations that work in the low manufacturing

123 Environ Earth Sci (2016) 75:1191 Page 9 of 13 1191 chain, processing, and retail service. The industrial elec- mainly occurred in the urban fringe area, and ecological tricity consumption per GDP was 1269 kWh/104 CNY in construction mainly included the construction of ecological 2000 and 1668 kWh/104 CNY in 2004, which indicated an corridors, or theme-based eco-parks connecting the eco- obvious increasing trend. Overall, this stage was a single logical reconstruction area of the Pingshuo mine area. developing stage in the coal economy, which formed the coal production economy. However, urban land expansion still obviously resulted in the occupation of farmland. In Discussion the industrialization and urbanization roles, rural settlements became urban land. Under the influence of coal Stage traits of urban land expansion output, transportation services gradually developed, and major corridors and transport stations were built around the Regarding the stages of urban land expansion, its expand- urban area. ing traits are closely related to the corresponding social and During 2004–2009, the coal production stage continued economic development stage (Poelmans and Rompaey to extend the industrial chain, which resulted in the 2010; Gao et al. 2014; Tsutsumida et al. 2015). In Amman development of the downstream industry and the recycling (Jordan), the physical geography of the urban area became industry. The industrial production value increased 33 the main driving factor of urban land expansion at outset, times, and the non-agricultural population increased to and then highly polarized social structuring became the 8.41 9 104 in 2009, which showed a slow increasing trend. main consideration for urban land expansion (Potter et al. Compared with 2004, the secondary and tertiary industry 2009). Gao et al. (2014) observed that a dramatic land use employees increased to 1.17 9 104 and 1.42 9 104 in change occurred in Jiangsu Province (China) that was 2009, respectively, which corresponded to growth rates of characterized by rapid urban land expansion. In addition, 98.31 and 140.68 %. Although the number of traditional urban land expansion had a temporal dimension and was mining industry employees slightly increased, the reliance mainly driven by local governments during the early stage on traditional mining decreased. The industrial electricity of reform, followed by marketization and, more recently, consumption per GDP was 1668 kWh/104 CNY in 2004 globalization after China’s entry into the World Trade and 246 kWh/104 CNY in 2009, which showed a sharp Organization. The urban construction land area increased decreasing trend. Overall, this stage was an extended much faster after 2000 in the urban area of Chongqing development stage of the coal economy and was mainly (China) due to policies, industrialization, urbanization, and dependent on coal mining. Next, a processing, transporta- economic development (Cao et al. 2015a, b). Guo et al. tion, and trading chain developed, which is considered a (2005) showed a high correlation between GDP and urban cyclic production economy. During this stage, the enter- land in the Chongqing urban area, with a correlation prises of coal processing, transportation, and trade sur- coefficient of 0.9730. The urban land expansion in the rounded the urban area and existed along the major traffic research area can be divided into two stages, each with its arteries. Urban land expansion mainly occurred on own obvious expansion traits. The first stage occurred farmland. during 1986–2004, which was also the urban land rapid During 2009–2013, the development stage of the coal growth stage and had an annual growth rate of 17.74 %. industry and its affiliated industries, including ecological The second stage occurred during 2004–2013 and was the agriculture, wind power, cultural tourism, and other urban land slow growth stage, with an annual growth ratio industries, developed. The industrial production value of 6.85 %. increased by 58.08 %, and the growth ratio decreased. The non-agricultural population increased to 9.36 9 104 in Relationship between population urbanization 2013 and showed a slow increasing trend. Compared with and land urbanization 2009, the numbers of secondary industry employees and tertiary industry employees increased to 1.22 9 104 and Based on the coordinated development of population 1.49 9 104 in 2013, respectively, with growth rates of 4.27 urbanization and land urbanization (Maxim and Naftaly and 4.93 %. The industrial electricity consumption per 2002; Deng et al. 2008; Yin and Xu 2013), the non-agri- GDP was 246 kWh/104 CNY in 2009 and 171 kWh/104 cultural population of the research area was 2.52 9 104 in CNY in 2013, which showed a slow decreasing trend. 1996, the urban land area was 676.30 ha, and the area of Overall, this economic stage was a pluralism developing urban land per capita was 268.37 m2. The non-agricultural stage, and green development had become a theme of the population of the research area was 9.36 9 104, and the research area. Urban renovation and ecological construc- area of urban land was 1164.56 ha. In addition, the area of tion were reinforced by upgrading the internal roads and urban land per capita was 124.42 m2. By contrast, although developing the service industries. Urban land expansion the area of urban land per capita decreased, it was still 123 1191 Page 10 of 13 Environ Earth Sci (2016) 75:1191 greater than that of China’s national average, which is 2009, and 2013, respectively (Fig. 6). When comparing 100 m2 per capita (Liu et al. 2008). Thus, the speed of land coal production and urban land areas, on the one hand, their urbanization was faster than that of population urbaniza- change trends were basically consistent, and the periodical tion. The local government in the research area introduced traits of coal production and urban land showed a high a policy to increase the population urbanization rate to degree of consistency; on the other hand, both the fitting 70 %; thus, the population urbanization rate will gradually curves presented quadratic functions and both the fitting increase in the research area during the next few years. The coefficients were bigger than 0.90 (Fig. 6). population urbanization rate in the research area was Regarding the coal reserves, the current coal resource is 16.25 % in 1996 and increased to 45.88 % in 2013; thus, in its peak in the research area (Bai 2010) and has not the area of urban land increased by 16.48 ha when the entered a recession stage. Considering coal production and population urbanization ratio increased by 1 %. Currently, the coal industry life cycle, 1996–2000 is the development the gap between the population urbanization ratio and the stage, 2000–2004 is the growth stage, and 2004–2013 is the target ratio is nearly 24 %; thus, urban land must continue maturity stage. From coal-resource-based urban land to expand by 395.52 ha. expansion, the urban land expansion stage must be further separated, with 1996–2000 as a gentle expansion stage, Life cycle of coal industry and urban land expansion 2000–2004 as an obvious expansion stage, and 2004–2013 as a sharp expansion stage. The research area is a typical coal-resource-based urban Regarding the relationships between the coal industry area. Coal production is constrained by local environment life cycle and the urban land expansion stage (Fig. 7), and technology conditions, which present a life cycle during the development stage, the research area focused on characteristic. With advances in mining, coal production building up infrastructure, coal production was low, the gradually increased in certain stages, which was followed development of processing and service industries that were by a recession and a gradual reduction in coal production dependent on the coal industry were relatively slow, and (Azapagic 2004). Regarding production economics, the the demand for urban land was low (Wan et al. 2015). marginal productivity of coal production will gradually During the growth stage, the coal industry enterprises had increase to a maximum before gradually decreasing (Aza- an enlarged production scale and coal production pagic 2004; Zhang et al. 2012; Li et al. 2013). The coal increased; the development of the coal processing service, industry life cycle can be divided into development, which was dependent on the coal industry, was gradually growth, maturity, and recession stages (Bradbury 1988; developed, which largely promoted urban employment Creedy et al. 2006; Yu and Sun 2006). In the coal industry (Halseth 1999). On the one hand, the demand for urban life cycle, the periodic variations will affect urban land use, land for coal processing service enterprises increased. On and the staggered coal industry will cause the land use the other hand, the urban population grew, and the demand changes to present a certain periodical trait. for urban residential land increased. In the maturity stage, In 1986, the coal industry was still in its infancy, and coal production gradually increased, the coal industry chain coal production was very low. Specifically, the production was extended, and industrial parks related to coal pro- of coal by local mines was 8.42 9 106 tons in 1996 and cessing service gradually appeared, which increased the decreased to 5.98 9 106 tons by 2000. Since 2004, coal demand for industrial land. In addition, the development of production increased steadily, reaching a coal production industrial parks resulted in a substantial increase in of 1.14 9 107, 1.23 9 107, and 1.82 9 107 tons in 2004, employment, especially regarding tertiary industry. Thus,

Fig. 6 Relationships between 2000 2 y1 = 87.143x - 263.26x + 958.4 1400 coal production and urban land

t) 2

4 R = 0.9097 (Coal production fitting) 1200 area 1600 1 1000

1200 800

800 600 2 y2 = 51.109x - 178.57x + 790.85 400

400 Urban land area (ha) Coal production (10 2 R2 = 0.9926 (Urban land area fitting) 200

0 0 Year 1996 2000 2004 2009 2013

Coal production Urban land area Coal production fitting Urban land area fitting

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land occurred 1–2 km from the urban centre at the beginning and then 4–6 km from the urban centre later. 2. The influences of the coal industry on urban land expansion can be divided into two stages: the establishment of the coal industrial system and the development of the coal industry with the promotion of urbanization. The first stage (1996–2004) was considered the first gathering of coal production, processing, and employment, which resulted in the higher proportions of secondary industry employees and mining industry employees. During the second stage (2004–2013), urban land expansion was influenced by the clustering of coal production enterprises and the development of coal processing service enterprises. 3. It was obvious that the characteristics of urban land expansion can match economy models and traits. There were four economy models including agricultural economy to industrial economy, coal production economy, cyclic production economy. and green production economy. The non-agricultural population and industrial electricity consumption can reflect how economic development affects urban land expansion. 4. Land urbanization didn’t match population urbanization in the research area, that is, the speed of land Fig. 7 Relationships between development stages of coal industry urbanization was faster than that of population urban- and urban land expansion ization. According to the life cycle of coal industry, it was obvious that the demand of urban land in different stages was different, which resulted in the differences the demand for urban land increased dramatically, and the of urban land expansion in different stages. urban land area quickly expanded (Zang et al. 2007;Du et al. 2009). During the recession stage, urban land expansion traits required further discussion. From a similar Acknowledgments The study was supported by the Public Welfare Industry Research of Ministry of Land and Resources of China situation of transforming resource-based urban areas, it is (201311088), the Key Special Projects of Shanxi Science and Tech- important to enhance the efficiency of resource use and nology (20121101007), the National Natural Science Foundation of develop green industries, such as ecological agriculture, China (41571508), and the Humanities and Social Science Project of ecological tourism, new materials, and new energy, which the Ministry of Education (15YJC630005). will partially reduce the demand for urban land (Huang et al. 2012; Long et al. 2013; Yu et al. 2015). References

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