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Powder Build-Up in Detergent Packing Lines Powder Build-up in Detergent Packing Lines by Christopher David Hewitt A thesis submitted to The University of Birmingham for the degree of Engineering Doctorate School of Chemical Engineering University of Birmingham 23/01/2015 1 University of Birmingham Research Archive e-theses repository This unpublished thesis/dissertation is copyright of the author and/or third parties. The intellectual property rights of the author or third parties in respect of this work are as defined by The Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 or as modified by any successor legislation. Any use made of information contained in this thesis/dissertation must be in accordance with that legislation and must be properly acknowledged. Further distribution or reproduction in any format is prohibited without the permission of the copyright holder. Abstract Powder build-up is a fouling process in which a small fraction of a powder becomes a non- porous film adhered to a surface. Build-up within powder packing processes is a significant problem for the detergent industry, leading to equipment downtime for cleaning, drives tripping due to high torque and reduced powder quality. More specifically, build-up has a tendency to form in auger fillers where agglomerate particles undergo plastic deformation, leading to the formation of build-up on the internal surface of the tube within which the auger is housed. To develop understanding regarding the process by which build-up is formed, a combination of macro scale auger filling experiments (with the auger/tube clearance maintained constant at 0.3 mm) and laboratory scale characterisation of the virgin powder has been undertaken. This involved a comparison of results obtained via uniaxial compaction followed by tablet diametric compressions, with the results of macro scale auger filler experiments. From this work it has been determined that the build-up forming powders have Kawakita b-1 parameters of 0.5 MPa or less, and form disc-shaped tablets with strengths below 0.5 MPa following compaction to 58 MPa. This may result from powders containing agglomerates failing via plastic deformation, with the Kawakita b-1 parameter being related to the agglomerate particle’s plastic yield stress [10]. Based on the work of Maugis and Pollock [31], it is proposed that the adhesive forces existing between agglomerate particles and the tube surface are a function of the agglomerate particle’s plastic yield stress. The fact that build-up-forming powders have low tablet strengths may result from the constituent agglomerate particles being formed from soft plastic materials, which agglomerate into tablets which are also soft and plastic. It seems probable that the cohesive forces within the tablets formed by build-up-forming powders are a function of their ability to undergo plastic deformation, with low yield stresses leading to low adhesive forces. 2 Based on the work of Crutchley and Bridgwater [29] and Calvert et al. [30], it is proposed that powder build-up forms as agglomerate particles pass through the clearance existing between the auger and the tube wall. They then experience large MPa scale stresses which are functions of the ratio of the powder’s particle size (quantified via the D90 measured via gravimetric sieving) and the magnitude of the auger/tube clearance C. To confirm this hypothesis experiments have been performed using an auger filler, varying clearances between 0.3 and 10.0 mm. This showed that build-up formation did not occur once C/D90 was greater than 3.5. 3 This thesis is dedicated to my wife and parents 4 “Time is the school in which we learn.” Delmore Schwartz, “Calmly We Walk Through This April’s Day” 5 Acknowledgements I would like to thank my supervisors Andrew Ingram and David Smith, who have supported me through the course of this project with both the experimental work and the organisation of two Institution of Chemical Engineers (IChemE) Particle Technology Subject Interest Group (PTSIG) meetings. Andrew consistently challenged my ideas and encouraged me to consider each item of work in sufficient detail, while David encouraged me to consider the real world implication of my findings, converting academic learnings into real work cost savings for industry. I would like to thank Richard Greenwood, Mark Ridyard, Andrew Patton, Andrew Dorset, Mojtaba Ghadiri, Hossein Ahmadian, Graham Calvert and Charley Wu for their periodic reviews of my work, giving some longer term perspective to the project and keep us on track to complete the project within the time allotted and to the required standard. I would like to thank Richard in particular for nominating me to edit an editorial for The Chemical Engineer magazine titled “The IChemE’s Secret Formulation Engineers”, discussing formulation engineering and the need for greater levels of research in this area. I would like to extend special thanks to Procter and Gamble (P&G) and the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) for funding the expenses associated with travel undertaken as part of this project visiting P&G plants in London, China, the USA, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and Spain, as well as conferences in China, Germany, Switzerland, Glasgow, Leeds and Birmingham. I would also like to acknowledge All-Fill International Ltd. and Mateer Burt Co. Inc. who have kindly supplied some of the figures within this thesis. Finally I would like to thank my wife and parents and friends for their continuing support throughout the course of this project. 6 Contents List of Figures ................................................................................................................................. 14 List of Tables .................................................................................................................................. 23 Nomenclature ................................................................................................................................ 27 1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 30 1.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 30 1.2 Laundry Detergents .............................................................................................................. 31 1.3 Packing ................................................................................................................................. 32 1.3.2 Powder Build-up in Auger Fillers ................................................................................... 37 1.4 Trends in Laundry Detergent Formulation and their Impact on Powder Build-up .............. 39 1.5 Business case ........................................................................................................................ 39 1.6 Objectives ............................................................................................................................. 41 1.7 Outline of Thesis................................................................................................................... 42 1.8 Publications Arising from this Work ..................................................................................... 44 2. Literature Review ................................................................................................................... 46 2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 46 2.2 Uniaxial Compaction ............................................................................................................ 46 2.3 Methods for Uniaxial Compaction Data Analysis ................................................................. 51 2.3.1 The Heckel model .......................................................................................................... 52 2.3.2 The Kawakita model ...................................................................................................... 53 7 2.3.3 The Adams model .......................................................................................................... 55 2.4 Particle Behaviour under the Influence of Shear Forces, and High Strain Rates ................. 59 2.4.1 The Impact of Shear on Particle Deformation............................................................... 60 2.4.2 The Impact of High Strain Rates .................................................................................... 61 2.5 Particle Behaviour in Small Clearances/Gaps ...................................................................... 62 2.5.1 Crutchley and Bridgwater .............................................................................................. 62 2.5.2 Calvert, Ahmadian and Ghadiri ..................................................................................... 64 2.6 Particle Adhesion ................................................................................................................. 67 2.6.1 Elastic Deformation ....................................................................................................... 68 2.6.2 Plastic Deformation ....................................................................................................... 70 2.6.3 Van der Waals Forces .................................................................................................... 74 2.6.4 Real Contact Area .........................................................................................................
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