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Jewish Workers and the Labour Movement

A Comparative Study of Amsterdam, London and Paris, 1870–1914

KARIN HOFMEESTER

Translated by Lee Mitzman Prelims 20/1/04 12:35 pm Page iv

First published 2004 by Ashgate Publishing

Published 2016 by Rougtledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

Karin Hofmeester has asserted her moral right under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, to be identiﬁed as the author of this work.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

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British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Hofmeester, Karin Jewish workers and the labour movement: a Comparative Study of Amsterdam, London and Paris, 1870–1914. – (Studies in labour history) 1.Jewish labour unions – Netherlands – Amsterdam – History – 19th century 2.Jewish labour unions – England – London – History – 19th century 3.Jewish labour unions – France – Paris – History – 19th century 4.Jewish labour unions – Netherlands – Amsterdam – History – 20th century 5.Jewish labour unions – England – London – History – 20th century 6.Jewish labour unions – France – Paris – History – 20th century 7.Jews – Employment – Netherlands – Amsterdam – History 8.Jews – Employment – England – London – History 9.Jews – Employment – France – Paris – History I.Title 331.6’3924’04’09034

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Hofmeester, Karin, 1964– Jewish workers and the labour movement : a comparative study of Amsterdam, London and Paris (1870–1914) / Karin Hofmeester. p. cm. — (Studies in labour history) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0–7546–0907–3 (alk. paper) 1. Jewish labor unions – Netherlands – Amsterdam – History. 2. Jewish labor unions – England – London – History. 3. Jewish labor unions – France – Paris – History. 4. Labour movement – Cross-cultural studies. I. Title. II. Studies in labour history HD6305.J3H639 2004 331.88’089’92404–dc21 2002036103

ISBN 9780754609070 (hbk) ISBN 9781138251342 (pbk)

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Contents

General Editor’s Preface vii

List of Illustrations viii

List of Tables ix

Acknowledgements x

Note on Translation and Transliteration xi

List of Abbreviations xii

Glossary xiv

Introduction 1

PART ONE: Amsterdam

1 The Social Status of Jewish Workers in Amsterdam 13 2 Relations Between Jews and Non-Jews in the Early Labour Movement 32 3 A Jewish Social-Democratic Club and the First Jewish Members of the SDB 45 4 Jewish Workers See the Light 55 5 A New Jewish Trade Union and the Rise of Jewish Membership in General Organizations 66 6 Joint Organization, but What About Integration? 78 7Jewish Interests in the General Movement and Justiﬁcation for Speciﬁcally Jewish Labour Organizations 86

PART TWO: London

8 From Greeners to Settlers: Arrival, Reception and Everyday Life in the East End 105 9 The First Jewish Socialist Organization in the World 118

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vi Contents

10 Two Newspapers, a Club and Several Trade Unions: The Rise of the Jewish Labour Movement 124 11 Reactions to the Arrival and Presence of the Jewish Immigrants 138 12 The First Major Campaigns, and the First Efforts to Join Forces 144 13 The English Trade Unions Demand Immigration Restrictions 156 14 The Boer War, Nationalism, Anti-Semitism and the Adoption of the Aliens Act 169 15 The Rise of the Jewish Labour Movement: The Start of Integration 176 16 Working Together Proves Difﬁcult 191 17Integration put to the Test and Consolidated 198

PART THREE: Paris

18 ‘Lebn vi got in Frankraykh’: Arrival, Reception and Everyday Life in Paris 207 19 Responses to the Arrival and Presence of the Jewish Immigrants 220 20 Political Discussions at the Café: the Origins of the Jewish Labour Movement 227 21 The Dreyfus Affair and Relations Between the Jewish and French Labour Movements 233 22 The Joint Struggle Against Anti-Semitism and the First Jewish Unions 243 23 The Establishment of Jewish Branches of French Trade Unions 254 24 The Intersektsionen Byuro is Established 262 25 Jewish Branches and Trade Unions and their Interaction with the French Unions 270

Amsterdam, London and Paris: A Comparison 285

Bibliography 311

Index 341 Prelims 20/1/04 12:35 pm Page vii

Studies in Labour History General Editor’s Preface

Labour history has often been a fertile area of history. Since the Second World War its best practitioners – such as E.P. Thompson and E.J. Hobsbawm, both Presidents of the Society for the Study of Labour History – have written works which have provoked fruitful and wide-ranging debates and further research, and which have influenced not only social history, but history generally. These historians, and many others, have helped to widen labour history beyond the study of organized labour to labour generally, sometimes to industrial relations in particular, and most frequently to society and culture in national and comparative dimensions. The assumptions and ideologies underpinning much of the older labour history have been challenged by feminist and later by post-modernist and anti-Marxist thinking. These challenges have often led to thoughtful reappraisals, perhaps intellectual equivalents of coming to terms with a new post-Cold War political landscape. By the end of the twentieth century, labour history had emerged reinvigorated and positive from much introspection and external criticism. Very few would wish to confine its scope to the study of organized labour. Yet, equally, few would wish now to write the existence and influence of organized labour out of nations’ histories, any more than they would wish to ignore working-class lives and focus only on the upper echelons. This series of books provides reassessments of broad themes of labour history as well as some more detailed studies arising from recent research. Most books are single-authored but there are also volumes of essays centred on important themes or periods, arising from major conferences organised by the Society for the Study of Labour History. The series also includes studies of labour organizations, including international ones, as many of these are much in need of a modern reassessment.

Chris Wrigley Chair, Society for the Study of Labour History University of Nottingham

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Illustrations

1.1 Amsterdam around 1900. The Jewish quarter is circled. Amsterdam Municipal Archives 17

2.1 Diamond polisher. F. Leviticus, Geïllustreerde encyclopaedie der diamantnijverheid, Haarlem: De erven F. Bohn 1908 34

3.1 Henri Polak. International Institute of Social History 51

7.1 Cartoon from De Reuke der Liefde, ‘together we keep the party kosher’. International Institute of Social History 93

8.1 Map of the Jewish East London, C. Russell and H.S. Lewis, The Jew in London. A Study of Racial Character and Present-day Conditions, London: Fisher Unwin, 1900. Reproduced courtesy Guildhall Library, Corporation of London 108

12.1 Announcement of the garment workers strike 1889. International Institute of Social History 146

15.1 Rudolph Rocker. International Institute of Social History 178

18.1 The Pletzl of Paris. Adapted from Viviane Issembert-Gannat, Guide du Judaïsme à Paris, Paris: Editions de la Pensée moderne 1964, courtesy Editions Jacques Grancher and Nancy Green 210

22.1 Announcement of a lecture by Charles Rappoport on the congress of the Parti Socialiste Français. Bund archives, International Institute of Social History 245

23.1 Alexander Losovsky. International Institute of Social History 257

24.1 Announcement of ball on shabbes eve organized by the Parizer Bundistisher Ferayn Kemfer. International Institute of Social History 268

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Tables

1.1 Number of Jews in Amsterdam as a proportion of Amsterdam’s total population 15 1.2 Occupational distribution of the Jews in Amsterdam in 1906, compared with the occupational distribution of the overall population from 1909 18 8.1 Eastern European immigrants in Britain, 1871–1911 105 8.2 Percentages of East European Jews in several industrial sectors in London in 1901 110 18.1 Population of East-European Jews in Paris, 1881–1914 207 18.2 Occupational breakdown of Jewish immigrants in Paris, 1910 212

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Acknowledgements

The research on which this book is based was funded largely through a four-year grant from the Postdoctoraal Opleidingscentrum voor de Negentiende en Twintigste Eeuwse Geschiedenis [post-graduate educational centre for nineteenth and twentieth-century history] (PONTEG). The Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek [Netherlands organization for scientific research] (NWO) financed the English translation of the manuscript. Much of the work on this book took place at the International Institute of Social History, where the exceptional collections, the international ambience, and the inspiring contacts with my co-workers contributed greatly to its realization. In the course of my research in archives and libraries in Amsterdam, London, Coventry, Paris, Jerusalem, and New York, I found the staff at these institutions particularly helpful. I am deeply indebted to the researchers who discussed my work with me. I reviewed the section on Amsterdam with Dr Salvador Bloemgarten and Professor Selma Leydesdorff, the one on London with Dr David Feldman, Professor William Fishman and Dr Anne J. Kershen and the one on Paris and the international comparison with Professor Nancy Green. I very much appreciate the help I received from Dr Daniel Soyer from New York in deciphering several Yiddish sources that were difficult to fathom. My thesis advisors Professor Hans Blom and Professor Marcel van der Linden provided me with close supervision during my research and work on the previous version of this book. Their constructive criticism and inspiration were wonderful. Professor Wout van Bekkum, Professor Rena Fuks-Mansfeld and Professor Jan Lucassen supplied extremely useful comments for the previous version, and Professor Lex Heerma van Voss read and reviewed sections as well. Dr Hans Verhage read parts of the present version of the book. Both his valuable feedback and his loyal friendship were important in achieving this book. Lee Mitzman translated the Dutch version into English with great care. I am obviously responsible for any errors and misinterpretations that might remain in the text. My partner Nico Markus has listened to all the stories about Jewish workers for years, has helped me formulate ideas, and has enhanced my life in all kinds of other ways as well. I am immensely grateful to him for everything.

Karin Hofmeester

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Notes on Translation and Transliteration

All quotations taken from the Dutch, French and Yiddish sources have been translated. YIVO transliteration conventions are applied as far as possible for the transliteration from Yiddish. This would yield consistency of word images were it not that Yiddish comprises many dialects. The sources contain different versions of the word ‘Jewish’, which may be transliterated either as Yiddish or as Idish. Nor are the transliteration conventions applied consistently. Ofﬁcial transliterated versions of Yiddish titles of books quoted here appear as such, even if they do not conform to the conventions. The same holds true for authors’ names. Once included in catalogues under an incorrect transliteration, they remain retrievable under that spelling. In the text the names of the key players are transliterated as in the Encyclopaedia Judaica wherever possible. Names of individuals that appeared neither in this encyclopaedia nor in Yiddish texts are transliterated from Russian according to the English rules.

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Abbreviations

ADC Aliens Defence Committee AIU Alliance Israélite Universelle AJV Algemeene Juweliers Vereeniging [Jewellers’ association] ANDB Algemeene Nederlandsche Diamantwerkersbond [General Dutch diamond workers’ union] AST Amalgamated Society of Tailors BBL British Brothers’ League CGT Confédération Générale des Travailleurs HSU Hebrew Socialist Union HV Handwerkers Vriendenkring [Jewish association of manual workers] IB Intersektsionen Byuro ILP Independent Labour Party LAF Ligue Antisémitique Française JBG Jewish Board of Guardians LCC London County Council LTC London Trades Council MTA Master Tailors’ Association MTIO Master Tailors’ Improvement Organisation NAFTA National Amalgamated Furnishing Trades Association NDV Nederlandsche Diamantbewerkers-Vereeniging [Dutch diamond workers’ association] NIA Nederlands-Israëlitisch Armbestuur [Dutch-Jewish board of poor relief] NIK Nederlandsch-Israëlitisch Kerkgenootschap [Ashkenazi Orthodox Jewish congregation] NISTB Nederlandsche Internationale Sigarenmakers en Tabaksbewerkersbond [Dutch International cigar makers and tobacco workers union] NIW Nieuw Israëlitisch Weekblad NUBSO National Union of Boot and Shoe Operatives PIK Portugees Israëlitisch Kerkgenootschap [Portuguese–Jewish Congregation] POF Parti Ouvrier Français RvA Recht voor Allen SAF Sotsyalistisher Arbeyter Farayn SB Socialisten Bond [Socialist Union]

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Abbreviations xiii

SDAP Sociaal Democratische Arbeiders Partij [Social Democratic Worker’s Party] SDB Sociaal-Democratische Bond [Social-Democratic Union] SDF Social Democratic Federation SDP Sociaal Democratische Partij [Social Democratic Party] SDV Sociaal-Democratische Vereeniging [Social Democratic Association] SFIO Section Française de l’Internationale Ouvrière SL Socialist League SNV (Briljantslijpersknechts-Vereeniging) ‘Streven naar Verbetering’ [Journeymen brilliant polishers’ association] UPJ Université Populaire Juive TUC Trades Union Congress YAF Yidishe Arbeyter Farayn YAG Yidishe Arbeyter Grupe

Abbreviations of Archival Institutions

AN Archives Nationales APP Archives de la Préfecture de Police BPLES British Library of Political and Economic Sciences CAHJP Central Archives of the History of the Jewish People GAA Amsterdam Municipal Archives IISH International Institute of Social History MRC Modern Records Centre NEHA Netherlands Economic History Archive YIVO Institute for Jewish Research Prelims 20/1/04 12:35 pm Page xiv

Glossary

Unionized factories – factories where only union members were hired (cf. closed shop system) Bildung – enlightenment Bund – the East European Jewish labour party Bort – powder used for polishing diamonds (diamond shavings) brilliant – polished diamond cheder – Jewish primary school chertah – see the Pale chevre – religious organization where members gathered to pray and study chips – small diamond chips closed shop – workshop or factory where only union members were hired displacement – indicates that one group of workers displaced the other group from their jobs (job displacement) own-cost system – pay structure where production costs such as the rent for the mill, setters’ wages and employers’ fees were deducted from the piecework rates of diamond polishers independent producers – diamond workers who purchased and tooled small batches of stones independently fair trade – protection of national trade, national products, and ‘own labour’ ﬁxed-rate system – work at hourly rates free trade – free trafﬁc of goods, services, and persons friendly society – mutual aid organization rough products – large diamonds Day of Atonement – see Yom Kippur goy – non-Jew, plural: goyim greener – from the Yiddish word for ‘greenhorn’: newly arrived immigrant Haskalah – Jewish Enlightenment Yom Kippur – Day of Atonement, one of the High Holy Days. This day (which starts on the eve) is traditionally one of fasting and mourning on which Jews atone for their sins in the past year. landsmanshaft – association of Jewish immigrants born in the same place or region lernen – studying mandatory area of settlement – see the Pale megillah – scroll (especially in Esther)

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Glossary xv

melamed – teacher mitbirger – fellow countrymen Tabernacles (sukkot) – eight-day festival commemorating the forty-year trek through the desert. Because people lived in huts in those days, Jews build huts near their home and eat and sleep there for eight days. Ninth of Av – see Tisha b’Av the Pale – the mandatory area of Jewish settlement in Russia and Poland Pesach – Passover is the holiday that Jews celebrate around Easter that commemorates their lives in and exodus from Egypt. rose – a simple polished diamond Reform movement – a movement that aimed to adapt Jewish traditions to the modern era. This required adjusting religious services to local customs. Services were to be conducted in the national language, and choirs and in some cases even organs were used to make synagogues more like churches. shnorrers – beggars shivah (shive) – seven-day period of mourning strike-breakers – employees who work during a strike seat holder – somebody who has paid the congregation for a reserved seat sweating system – system of labour relations involving extensive subcontracting and deplorable working conditions that arose from the effort to keep production costs as low as possible in labour-intensive industries sweatshop – workshops where people labour under the conditions described above, often located in attics, basements or even living rooms Tisha b’Av – (ninth day of the month of Av) day of mourning to commemorate the destruction of the ﬁrst and second temples This page intentionally left blank Introduction 20/1/04 12:58 pm Page 1

Introduction

‘Future historiographers will attribute far greater importance to the foundation of the smallest labour association than to the battle at Sadova.’

In 1889 the Jewish socialist Benjamin Feigenbaum spoke these words of encouragement (in Yiddish) to the Jewish workers of Manchester when they established a Jewish workers’ club like their counterparts in London.1 This book is packed with stories of small Jewish labour associations. While the battle at Sadova appears to have been significant,2 each of these small Jewish labour associations is in fact covered more extensively than this battle between the armies of Austria and Prussia. Socialism and the labour movement certainly lured Jewish workers and intellectuals (who often served as their leaders). The movement seemed like a good way to help Jewish workers compensate for their dual disadvantage as Jews and as proletarians. The Jewish workers and their leaders considered joining the general labour movement the best way to achieve this objective. Sometimes they were successful, but at other times their situation was so specific that they were forced to set up separate Jewish movements. Regardless of the form of their organizations, the goal of virtually all these organizations was to work with or become part of the general labour movement. This strategy served to enable emancipation and integration of the Jewish workers. In Amsterdam integration in the general labour movement was a relatively calm process. In London and Paris more difficulties arose. The fact that the Jewish workers in Amsterdam were native residents, whereas their counterparts in London and Paris were immigrants from Eastern Europe, seems to explain this difference.3 More detailed examination of the collaborative efforts in these three cities, however, reveals other factors that may have little or nothing to do with whether the Jewish workers were natives or immigrants. Accordingly, this comparative study of the Jewish workers in Amsterdam, London and Paris revolves around the question as to why those in Amsterdam integrated into the general labour movement so much faster than their counterparts in London and Paris. I also attempt to explain possible differences between London and Paris and similarities between Amsterdam, London and Paris. The underlying idea is that comparative research is the only way to reveal which aspects are unique, and which are more general.

1 Introduction 20/1/04 12:58 pm Page 2

2 Introduction

Comparative Study: Why and How

In 1896 the social scientist and economist Leonty Soloweitschik examined the socio-economic position of Jewish workers. The unorthodox nature of such research at the time is apparent from the response of the professor at the University of Geneva that Soloweitschik approached with his proposal: ‘Are there Jewish workers? I thought all Jews were bankers.’4 Within two years Soloweitschik completed his pioneer study and convinced both the professor and many others that Jewish workers did indeed exist. The dearth of written sources on the subject led Soloweitschik to gather his information from the individuals themselves. He spoke with Jewish workers and with leaders of Jewish and general unions, visited social scientists and read their reports. Travelling to several countries, he compared the socio-economic position of Jewish workers in The Netherlands, Britain, the United States of America (USA), Romania and Russia. He added a few remarks about the position of Jewish workers in several other countries. His descriptions reflected the relationships between Jewish and Gentile workers and their joint or separate workers’ organizations. He charted the data and compared them. Soloweitschik’s comparison identified three categories of Jewish workers. In countries where they had no civil rights at all (Romania and Russia) Jewish workers were in the worst predicament. Jews there lacked legal rights, lived amid dire socio-economic conditions and had no contact or were on bad terms with the Gentile population. Organizing legally was virtually impossible for Jewish workers here.5 In countries where the Jewish workers were new immigrants (Britain and the USA), their socio-economic situation was initially worse than that of the native workers but better among subsequent generations.6 In Britain (London) the virtual absence of organization among Jewish workers was one of the reasons for the poor relationship between Jewish and Gentile workers.7 In the USA Jewish workers were organized but were viewed as competitors by their native counterparts. Consequently, relations between the two groups there also left much to be desired.8 The Jewish workers in The Netherlands (that is, in Amsterdam) were fortunate, according to Soloweitschik. He submitted that wherever Jews had been part of the population for an extended period, were assimilated and had full civil rights, their socio-economic position differed little from that of Gentile workers. Jewish diamond workers in Amsterdam were organized together with Gentile diamond workers.9 In addition to being the first to conduct thorough internationally comparative research on the position of Jewish workers, Soloweitschik long remained the only scholar to include The Netherlands (Amsterdam) in such a study. None of the subsequent studies about Jewish workers and their organizations address The Netherlands. This trend continues to this day: the catalogue of the major 1994 exhibition, Workers and Revolutionaries – The Jewish Labor Movement, makes no mention of Amsterdam.10 While ignorance might be a factor, the definition of the Jewish labour movement as intrinsically based in Eastern Introduction 20/1/04 12:58 pm Page 3

Introduction 3

Europe is probably the real reason:

One political subculture came into being in Vilna, Minsk, Belostok, the East End of London, and the Lower East Side of New York. Its lingua franca was Yiddish; its economic base, the clothing industry and the sweat shop; its politics, the running dispute and constant interaction between socialist internationalism and Jewish nationalism; its organizational expression, the Yiddish press, the public meeting, the trade union, the ideologically committed party, and (where relevant) the armed self-defense unit.11

and: ‘It is possible to view the Jewish labor movement as one whole; from its origins in East European Jewry it spread to western Europe and overseas, to North and South America.’12 These definitions of the Jewish labour movement cannot possibly include the unions and social-democratic parties of the Jewish workers in Amsterdam. These organizations originated in Amsterdam rather than in Eastern Europe, and the members were not from the Vilna area but from the Dutch capital or perhaps from the Dutch provinces. The movement’s economic base was not primarily the garment industry but the diamond industry, and the workers spoke the Dutch heard in Amsterdam rather than Yiddish (albeit with a Yiddish accent in many cases). Applying these definitions led the historians writing about the international Jewish labour movement to overlook the history of Amsterdam’s Jewish workers and their organizations. Nor did the historians dealing with the history of the Jewish workers in Amsterdam help integrate this history in international historiography on the subject. In most cases their studies omit any mention of Jewish workers elsewhere and their methods of organization. In a few isolated cases historians rightly noted that Amsterdam was the only city in Western Europe with a sizeable group of native Jewish workers. They wrongly concluded that Amsterdam, because it was unique in this respect, could not and need not be compared with other cities.13 Accordingly, Amsterdam is largely absent from international historiography on the Jewish labour movement. This omission is unfortunate, because the validity of the automatic inference that ‘Amsterdam’s Jewish workers were native and thus obviously organized with the Gentile workers’ remains unverified. Likewise, the assumption that Jewish workers who were originally from Eastern Europe organized separately simply because they were immigrants from Eastern Europe has never been challenged. One very fine recent book about Jewish workers in the modern Diaspora, compiled by nine different researchers and edited by Nancy Green, does include texts by and about Jewish workers in Amsterdam.14 A fleeting comparison at the end lists similarities and differences between communities of Jewish workers in London, Paris, Amsterdam, New York, Buenos Aires and Germany. The book is mainly a source publication, though, and is intended as ‘a stimulus to further analysis of these workers’ communities within a comparative perspective’.15 Introduction 20/1/04 12:58 pm Page 4

4 Introduction

Nathan Weinstock’s trilogy Le pain de misère about the history of Jewish workers in Europe is a welcome exception to the general omission thus far of Amsterdam’s Jewish workers from international historiography on the Jewish labour movement.16 In volume II Weinstock starts including Amsterdam in his comparison of the other cities and countries. Analogous to Soloweitschik’s classification of Jewish workers, Weinstock identifies three types of Jewish labour movements. First, he mentions the Jewish labour movement in Eastern Europe, where virulent anti-Semitism prevailed, along with an immense difference between the class-consciousness of Jewish and Gentile workers.17 The second type existed in countries where the Jewish workers were immigrants from Eastern Europe (for example, Britain and France), where the Jewish labour movement regrouped, acquired a transitional structure and was affiliated with the local labour movement. The third type, in Amsterdam, was unique in Western Europe by virtue of its native Jewish working class with no base in Eastern Europe and no inclination to organize separately.18 While Soloweitschik attributed the difference between the first two groups and the third one entirely to civil rights and the assimilation of Amsterdam’s Jewish workers, Weinstock’s explanation extends to Amsterdam’s ‘solidarity’. He attributes the failure of a separate Jewish labour movement to emerge in Amsterdam to the lack of a distinction between the class-consciousness of Jewish workers and that of Gentile workers and to the absence of organized anti-Semitism among the populace. Instead, he perceived strong solidarity between the Jewish and Gentile workers. Nor did he take the mixed Jewish and Gentile composition of the organizations in Amsterdam for granted (another departure from Soloweitschik): after all, Jewish workers in this city also lived separately and preferred to work for each other. Although Weinstock’s comparison reveals new perspectives, his explanation for the absence of a separate Jewish labour movement in Amsterdam is not entirely convincing. In the diamond industry Jewish workers certainly had a different sense of class than their Gentile counterparts did. The subject will be addressed extensively in this book. Moreover, anti-Semitism was no stranger to the early labour movement (although it was far less virulent than in Eastern Europe). Finally, the solidarity between the Jewish and Gentile workers acclaimed by Weinstock (he mentions the February strike of 1941 as the peak of this sentiment) was the result rather than the cause of joint action within the labour movement. Selma Leydesdorff, who wrote a pathbreaking study about Jewish workers in Amsterdam and devoted a few paragraphs to the impossibility of comparing the organizations of Jewish workers in Amsterdam with those in Eastern Europe, the USA, London and Paris, finds Weinstock’s reflections too one-sided.19 She submits that his idea that the organization of Amsterdam’s Jewish workers with their Gentile colleagues was less than self-evident ‘takes too much for granted the idea that Jews and non-Jews live apart, organize apart, hate each other, and that the Introduction 20/1/04 12:58 pm Page 5

Introduction 5

stronger inevitably persecute the weaker’.20 She also mentions the distinction between Jews and Gentiles in the Algemeene Nederlandsche Diamantbewerkers- bond [General Dutch diamond workers’ union] (ANDB) and the Sociaal Democratische Arbeiderspartij [Social Democratic workers’ party] (SDAP), as well as the presence of anti-Semitism in these organizations. Why was their merge so easy to achieve? She attributes the ease of this union between Jews and Gentiles to the identical class-consciousness between Jewish and Gentile workers alike. Both worked in industries, and the socialism that appealed to the Jewish workers emerged within this specific industrial tradition. Their dreams resembled those of the Gentile workers and their movement, which arose from the same industrial tradition.21 The question remains as to whether this like-minded class-consciousness (which, as stated, was initially far from like-minded in the diamond industry) transcended the barriers of their separate places of living and working. According to Leydesdorff, the dominance of the ANDB prevented ideas about a separate Jewish labour movement in The Netherlands from materializing.22 Here, like Weinstock in his argument about the solidarity between Jewish and Gentile workers and their joint organization, she confuses cause with consequence. The conditions had been established for the ANDB to be founded (albeit with minor resistance) as a joint organization. A separate organization for Jewish workers was thus no longer necessary. The main question was how this environment had arisen despite the separate places of living and working and despite the distinction between Jewish and Gentile workers and the anti-Semitism that surfaced from time to time in the labour movement. The idea that where Jewish workers were native residents they would automatically organize with the Gentile workers, may not be correct. The relationship is more complicated. What role did the East European origins of the Jewish workers in London and Paris play in their separate organizations? The literature on the Jewish immigrants in London and Paris attributes the separate Jewish labour organizations to language problems and the concentration of Jewish workers in specific sections of occupations with specific working conditions and different working methods. The tendency of Jews to work for other Jews also meant that disputes between bosses and workers could easily escalate into disputes within the Jewish immigrant community. Moreover, social-cultural differences existed between immigrant Jewish workers and the native Gentile ones.23 While all these explanations are plausible, they do not truly reveal why immigrant Jewish workers were on better terms with their native Gentile counterparts in some cities than in others. Increasingly, studies (articles at this time) are appearing that compare East European Jewish immigrants in different cities and clearly highlight the differences.24 These studies already qualify the impression of unity and self-evidence. Comparing Jewish immigrant workers in two different cities with Jewish native workers in yet another city may enhance the focus and yield new explanations. Introduction 20/1/04 12:58 pm Page 6

6 Introduction

Much has been written about the value of comparisons in historical research. Comparative theories from social sciences are often considered desirable.25 In practice, however, historians have difficulty applying these theories accurately.26 A vast gap separates the specific details retrieved from the archives and the impressive but infinitely abstracted models of the social scientists. This distance merits acknowledgement, as Aristide Zolberg has stated: ‘The process of abstracting configurations from historical reality and their treatment as variables entails a certain degree of intellectual make-believe, which is justified only to the extent that we remain aware that it is make believe.’27 Nonetheless, some inspiring examples concerning both labour history and the history of Jewish emancipation are available: namely, Working-Class Formation, an anthology edited by Ira Katznelson and Aristide Zolberg; and, Paths of Emancipation, Jews, States, and Citizenship, edited by Pierre Birnbaum and Ira Katznelson.28 In her inspiring and extremely useful articles, Nancy Green shared a few theoretical reflections based on existing, classical comparative theories that apply directly to immigration studies.29 Many of her observations also apply in comparisons of immigrants and native residents. Green submits that a comparison’s effect depends on the subject chosen and the unit of comparison (for example, a nation state or city) and the level selected for comparison. In this case the collaboration between the Jewish labour organizations and the general labour movement is the subject of comparison. The cities of Amsterdam, London and Paris are the units. Amsterdam was the only city in Western Europe with a substantial group of native Jewish workers, while London and Paris were the two West-European cities with the largest populations of immigrant Jewish workers before 1914. The fact that these three West-European cities experienced the same overall socio-economic and political changes minimizes the distortion attributable to differences in environmental factors. The comparison is conducted on a micro-level (that is, between organizations). Considering Jewish workers and their organizations from afar reveals similarities between London and Paris only and differences between these two cities and Amsterdam. Examining organizations, however, indicates similarities between – for example – trends in the Amsterdam ANDB and the London tailors’ union, whereas the Paris capmakers’ union differed considerably from the London shoemakers’ union. This book comprises three narrative sections, each one depicting a city’s Jewish workers, their organizations and their collaborative endeavours. These collaborative endeavours are described in the context of the respective positions of the Jewish workers in the three cities, their situation on the labour market, changes in the general labour movement, this movement’s attitude toward Jewish workers, prejudices and anti-Semitism and economic and political-social trends. The last part of this book is comparative. Here, the three stories converge, and differences and similarities are identified and analysed. Such a comparison (that is, conducted Introduction 20/1/04 12:58 pm Page 7

Introduction 7

by a single researcher) is possible only given sufﬁcient literature. In preparing this book, I deeply appreciated this resource.30

Notes

1. Letter from B. Feigenbaum to the Internatsyonalen Arbeyter Bildungsklub in Manchester, dated 8 February 1889, archive of William Wess, MSS 240/W/9. Modern Records Center (hereafter MRC). Feigenbaum was quoting Johann Jacoby, a German radical who joined the socialists in the 1870s. See E. Silberner, Johann Jacoby Politiker und Mensch (Bonn-Bad Godesberg: Neue Gesellschaft 1976) 410 on the quotation’s source. 2. In the battle at Sadova (Königgratz, Bohemia), which was fought in 1866, the Prussian army beat the Austrian army and ended Austria’s inﬂuence in Germany. 3. This book refers to East European Jewish immigrants for the sake of conciseness. Obviously, differences existed between the Jews from Russia, Russian Poland, Galicia and Romania. 4. Leonty Soloweitschik, Un prolétariat méconnu. Étude sur la situation sociale et économique des ouvriers juifs (Brussels: Lamertine 1898) 7. 5. Ibid., 86, 111 and 122. 6. Ibid., 122. 7. Ibid., 58. 8. Ibid., 77. 9. Ibid., 22, 121–122 10. T. Manor-Friedman (ed.), Workers and Revolutionaries. The Jewish Labor Movement. (Tel Aviv: Beth Hatefutsoth 1994). On page 20 of this catalogue the failure to cover Amsterdam is attributed to the lack of a ‘Hebrew historiographer’ on the history of Amsterdam’s Jewish diamond workers, which is not a truly convincing explanation. 11. Jonathan Frankel, Prophecy and Politics. Socialism, Nationalism, and the Russian Jews, 1862–1917 (Cambridge etc.: Cambridge University Press 1981) 3. 12. Lloyd P. Gartner, ‘The Jewish Labor Movement in Great Britain and the United States’, in Manor-Friedman (ed.) Workers and Revolutionaries, 76–113, esp. 93. 13. For the studies about the Jewish workers in Amsterdam that do not mention Jewish workers elsewhere, see the bibliography in note 30. Remarks about the impossibility of a comparison appear in Selma Leydesdorff, Wij hebben als mens geleefd. Het joodse proletariaat in Amsterdam 1900–1940 (Amsterdam: Meulenhoff 1987) 83–84. 14. Nancy L. Green (ed.), Jewish Workers in the Modern Diaspora (Berkeley, Los Angeles and London: University of California Press 1998). 15. Ibid., 237. 16. Nathan Weinstock, Le pain de misère. Histoire du mouvement ouvrier juif en Europe (3 vols, Paris: Éditions de la découverte 1984–1986). 17. In his study Weinstock notes that in Eastern Europe Jewish workers were far more sensitive than Gentile ones to class and politics. See Weinstock, Le pain de misère. Tome II. L’Europe centrale et occidentale jusqu’en 1914 (Paris: Éditions de la découverte 1984) 15 and 121. 18. Weinstock, Le pain de misère. Tome II, 14. 19. Leydesdorff, Wij hebben als mens geleefd, 82. 20. Ibid., 82. Introduction 20/1/04 12:58 pm Page 8

8 Introduction

21. Ibid., 83. 22. Ibid., 85. 23. On Paris, see Paula Hyman, From Dreyfus to Vichy. The Remaking of the French Jewry 1906–1939 (New York: Columbia University Press 1979) 93; Nancy L. Green, The Pletzl of Paris. Jewish Immigrant Workers in the Belle Epoque (New York and London: Holmes and Meier 1986) 187. On London, see V.D. Lipman, Social History of the Jews in England 1850–1950 (London: Watts 1954) 118; L.P. Gartner, The Jewish Immigrant in England 1870–1914 (London: Allen and Unwin 1960) 102 and W.J. Fishman, East End Jewish Radicals 1875–1914 (London: Duckworth 1975) 183. 24. See Anne J. Kershen, ‘Trade Unionism Amongst the Jewish Tailoring Workers of London and Leeds, 1872–1915’, in D. Cesarani (ed.), The Making of Modern Anglo- Jewry (Oxford: Blackwell 1990) 34–54; and Anne J. Kershen, Uniting the Tailors, Trade Unionism Amongst the Tailors of London and Leeds, 1870–1939 (Ilford and Portland: Cass 1995); Andrew S. Reutlinger, ‘Reﬂections on the Anglo-American Jewish Experience: Workers and Entrepreneurs in New York and London’, American Jewish Historical Quarterly, vol. 66, no. 4 (1977), 473–484. Roy B. Helfgott, ‘Trade Unionism among the Jewish Garment Workers of Britain and the United States’, Labor History, vol. 2 (1966) 202–214. 25. In ‘The Comparative Method and Poststructural Structuralism: New Perspectives for Migration Studies’, in Jan Lucassen and Leo Lucassen (eds), Migration, Migration History, History. Old Paradigms and New Perspectives (Bern: Peter Lang 1997) 57–72, Nancy Green (1998) reviews all these calls for comparative research, as does Marcel van der Linden in ‘Doing Comparative Labour History: Some Essential Preliminaries’, in Jim Hanagan and Andrew Wells (eds), Australian Labour and Regional Change. Essays in Honour of R.A. Gollan (Rushcutters Bay, NSW: Halstead 1998) 75–92. 26. Van der Linden, ‘Doing Comparative Labour History’, 76. 27. Aristide Zolberg, ‘How Many Exceptionalisms?’ in Ira Katznelson and Aristide R. Zolberg, Working-Class Formation. Nineteenth-Century Patterns in Western Europe and the United States (Princeton: Princeton University Press 1986) 397–455, esp. 401. 28. Katznelson and Zolberg (eds), Working-Class Formation and Pierre Birnbaum and Ira Katznelson (eds), Paths of Emancipation, Jews, States, and Citizenship (Princeton: Princeton University Press 1995). 29. Nancy L. Green, ‘L’Histoire comparative et le champ des études migratoires’, Annales ESC, no. 6 (November–December 1990) 1335–1350 and eadem, ‘The Modern Jewish Diaspora: Eastern European Jews in New York, London and Paris’, in Dirk Hoerder and Leslie Page Moch (eds), European Migrants. Global and Local Perspectives (Boston: Northeastern University Press 1996) 263–281. In ‘The Comparative Method and Poststructural Structuralism’, 57–72, Green reviews all comparative methods with respect to her own. 30. On London, see the pioneer work of Gartner, The Jewish Immigrant in England; Lipman, Social History of the Jews; David Feldman, ‘Immigrants and Workers, Englishmen and Jews: Jewish Immigration to the East End of London 1880–1906’, unpublished PhD thesis, University of Cambridge 1986, and idem, Englishmen and Jews. Social Relations and Political Culture 1840–1914 (New Haven and London: Yale University Press 1994). Speciﬁcally on the Jewish labour movement in London, see Fishman, East End Jewish Radicals. On Paris, there is a general work by Michael Marrus, The Politics of Assimilation (Oxford: Clarendon Press 1971) and by Hyman, From Dreyfus to Vichy. On the Jewish Introduction 20/1/04 12:58 pm Page 9

Introduction 9

workers and their labour movement, see Zosa Szajkowski, Etyudn tsu der geshikte fun ayngevandertn yidishn yishev in Frankraykh (Paris: Fridman 1937) and Zosa Szajkowski, Di profesyonele bavegung tsvishen di yidishe arbeter in Frankraykh biz 1914 (Paris: Fridman 1937), as well as Green’s far more recent work, The Pletzl of Paris. On Amsterdam, see Leydesdorff, Wij hebben als mens geleefd, the extensive biography of Henri Polak by Salvador Bloemgarten, Henri Polak sociaal democraat 1868–1943 (The Hague: Sdu 1993) and Bloemgarten’s articles on the early Jewish labour movement in Amsterdam: ‘De vlegeljaren van de Amsterdamse joodse socialisten: 1890–1894’ (Achtenzeventigste Jaarboek Genootschap Amstelodamum Amsterdam 1986) 135–176. On the diamond industry, the diamond workers and the ANDB, see C. van der Velde, De ANDB. Een overzicht van zijn ontstaan, zijne ontwikkeling en zijne beteekenis (Amsterdam: Algemeene Nederlandsche Diamantbewerkersbond 1925). H. Heertje, De diamantbewerkers van Amsterdam (Amsterdam: Centen’s Uitgeverij mij 1936) and Theo van Tijn’s articles on the ANDB and the diamond industry: Th. van Tijn, ‘Geschiedenis van de Amsterdamse diamanthandel-en nijverheid, 1845–1897’, Tijdschrift voor Geschiedenis, vol. 87 (1974) 16–69 and 160–201 and his ‘De Algemeene Nederlandsche Diamantbewerkersbond (ANDB); een succes en zijn verklaring’, in P.A.M. Geurts and F.A.M. Messing (eds) Economische ontwikkeling en sociale emancipatie II (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff 1977) 93–109. On the SDAP in electoral District III, see the articles by Luuk Brug: ‘Het district waar oprees hun burcht’, ‘Uit zorg voor “’t koosjere der Partij”’ and ‘Het jaar 1913’, in M. van Amerongen et al., Voor buurt en beweging. Negentig jaar sociaal-democratie tussen IJ en Amstel (Amsterdam: Bert Bakker 1984) 12–118. References ANDB Federatie Amsterdam SDAP Freedom H. Gerhard M. Nettlau C. Rappoport W. van Ravesteyn Rudolph Rocker SDAP SDB J.S. Snijders Socialist League David Wijnkoop Special collections: Nijverheidsstatistiek van Struve en Bekaar and the corresponding database 5186 Armwezen [poor relief] 5225 Amsterdamse Politie [Amsterdam police] PA 714 NIHS [Dutch Ashkenazi Orthodox Congregation] Volkstellingen [censuses] File of cards with data concerning Amsterdam SDAP and SDB members London Trades Council Minutes Workersâ Circle Memoirs Diary of William Wess MSS/240/W/1â18 William Wess MSS 240/T/3/1â24 Aaron Rollin MSS 240/WC/4 Workersâ Circle MSS 258/1/1/1â2 Ready-Made Trade Board F/7/12459 Mouvement antisÃ©mite F/7/12461 Ligues antisÃ©mites dans les dÃ©partements F/7/12519 Mouvement antitsariste F/7/12520 Organisation rÃ©volutionnaire russe en France et Ã lâÃ©tranger F/7/12838 LÃ©gislation des Etrangers F/7/12839 LÃ©gislation des Etrangers F/7/12894 RÃ©volutionnaires russes 1907â1912 F/7/12895 RÃ©volutionnaires russes 1917 F/7/12896 RÃ©volutionnaires russes 1918 F/7/13053 Partis et mouvements politiques: anarchistes F/7/13570 CGT ComitÃ©s Intersyndicaux F/7/13614 Bourse du Travail de Paris F/7/13740 Questions ouvriÃ¨res et revendications syndicales: Habillement F/7/13741 Habillement F/7/13880 GrÃ¨ves: Habillement F/7/13881 GrÃ¨ves: Habillement F/7/13943 Associations Bound Sionistes F/19/11158 Associations culturelles israÃ©lites. DÃ©clarations et Statuts 1906â1923 F/19/11160 Attributions de biens culturelles aprÃ¨s la sÃ©paration 1906â1923 C/5404-1206 Etrangers: taxe de sÃ©jour C/5524 B Travail dans les mines, usines et manufactures. Travail des enfants et 313 des femmes dans les Ã©tablissements industriels: documents transmis Ã la commission concernant les diverses industries. EnquÃªte sur le travail: rÃ©ponses des ouvriers en vÃªtement et accessoires et en ameublement et bois. BA 172 GrÃ¨ves des Ouvriers tailleurs 1873â1884 BA 173 GrÃ¨ves des Ouvriers tailleurs 1885 BA 182 GrÃ¨ve des ouvriers casquettiers 1886 BA 1144 Lawroff BA 1156 Liebermann BA 1301 Zetkin BA 1372 GrÃ¨ves des Ouvriers EbÃ©nistes 1891 Ã 1909 BA 1393 GrÃ¨ve dâOuvriers Tailleurs dâhabits annÃ©es 1897â1898â1900â1903â1904â1905 BA 1394 GrÃ¨ve dâOuvriers Tailleurs 1906 Ã 1918 BA 1406 GrÃ¨ves dans le DÃ©partement de la Seine BA 1423 Syndicat GÃ©nÃ©rale des Travailleurs dâHabillement 1909 Ã 1918 BA 1506 lâInternationale du 3eme arrt. BA 1811 241.155 A-B-B1-B2 F Pa 22 through F Pa 47 Chambre Syndicale des Ouvriers Casquettiers RG 1400 Bund Foreign Committees: 34 England 61 Paris RG 116 Frankraykh Bund afishn Alfred Wess , 29 August 1991 Fermin Rocker , 4 September 1991 Der Arbeyter Fraynd (1885â1914) Archives IsraÃ©lites de France (1880â1914) La Bataille Syndicaliste (1911â1914) The Commonweal (1885â1892) LâHumanitÃ© (1904â1914) Der Idisher Arbayter (1911â1914) The Jewish Chronicle (1880â1914) Journal of the Amalgamated Society of Tailors (1898â1914) Justice (1884â1914) Maandblad der Vereeniging Handwerkers Vriendenkring (1891â1895), later De Handwerksman (1895â1914) De Naaistersbode. Orgaan van den Algemeenen Nederlandschen Naaistersbond (1889â1901), later De Naaisters- en Kleermakersbode (1901â1907), still later Het Kleedingbedrijf (1907â1914) Di Naye Tsayt (1904â1907) Nieuw IsraÃ«litisch Weekblad (NIW) (1880â1914) Ons Blad (1893â1894) LâOuvrier chapelier (1890â1914) LâOuvrier de lâhabillement (1906â1914) Der Poylisher Yidel (1884) Recht voor Allen (1880â1895) De Sigarenmaker (1890â1914) The Tailor and Cutter (1890â1914) LâUnivers IsraÃ©lite (1880â1914) Het Volk (1900â1914) Weekblad van den Algemeenen Nederlandschen Diamantbewerkersbond (Weekblad) 1894â1914 ComitÃ© de Bienfaisance IsraÃ©lite de Paris, AssemblÃ©es GÃ©nÃ©rales La ConfÃ©dÃ©ration GÃ©nÃ©rale du Travail et le mouvement syndical (Paris 1925) ConfÃ©dÃ©ration GÃ©nÃ©rale du Travail. FÃ©dÃ©ration dâIndustrie des Travailleurs de lâHabillement de France et des Colonies, Compte Rendu des Travaux des CongrÃ¨sses. CongrÃ¨s des Syndicats Ouvriers ConfÃ©dÃ©rÃ©s du DÃ©pt. de la Seine 24 AoÃ»t 1913 Paris. Compte Rendu des Travaux (n.p. n.d.) Direction du Travail, Annuaire des syndicats professionnels industriels, commerciaux et agricoles 15e annÃ©e 1904â1905 (Paris 1905) EnquÃªte gehouden door de staatscommissie benoemd krachtens de wet van 19 januari 1890 (Amsterdam n.d.) FÃ©dÃ©ration Nationale des Travailleurs de lâHabillement, CongrÃ¨s national. Compte-rendus FÃ©dÃ©ration des Syndicats ouvriers de la Chapellerie FranÃ§aise, Congres national. Compte-rendus Jaarverslagen van den Nederlandsche Internationalen Sigarenmakers- en Tabaksbewerkersbond Jaarverslagen van de Afdeeling Amsterdam van den Nederlandschen Sigarenmakers- en Tabaksbewerkersbond Jaarverslagen van den Naaistersbond âAllen Eenâ Jaarverslagen van den Nederlandschen Bond van Mannelijke en Vrouwelijke Arbeiders in de Kleedingindustrie en Aanverwante Vakken Jaarverslagen van den Bond in de Kleeding-industrie afdeeling Amsterdam Jaarverslagen van het Nationaal Arbeids-Secretariaat in Nederland Jaarverslagen van den Amsterdamschen Bestuurdersbond De Kleedingindustrie te Amsterdam. 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