„Ætlarðu Að Varpa Sprengjunni Eða Hvað?“

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„Ætlarðu Að Varpa Sprengjunni Eða Hvað?“ Háskóli Íslands Hugvísindasvið Almenn bókmenntafræði „Ætlarðu að varpa sprengjunni eða hvað?“ Kjarnorkuváin í ofurhetjukúltúr kalda stríðsins Ritgerð til MA-prófs í almennri bókmenntafræði Eyrún Lóa Eiríksdóttir Kt.: 130480-4389 Leiðbeinandi: Guðni Elísson Desember 2017 Ágrip „Ætlarðu að varpa sprengjunni eða hvað?“ er vísun í lagatexta Forever Young með hljómsveitinni Alphaville sem kom út árið 1984. Í fyrsta versinu er orðuð spurning sem var á vörum margra í kalda stríðinu: Verður kjarnorkusprengjunni varpað eða ekki? Á óvissutímum kalda stríðsins kom kjarnorkuváin fram á margvíslegan hátt í dægurmenningu Bandaríkjanna. Í ritgerðinni verður ofurhetjukúltúr kalda stríðsins tekinn til skoðunar og leitað svara við því hvers vegna þörf var á nýjum ofurhetjum til að kveða niður vaxandi kjarnorkuótta lesenda. Litið verður til vinsælla myndasagna og þróun þeirra skoðuð í takt við tíðarandann. Því næst verður kastljósinu beint að vinsælu kaldastríðshetjunni, James Bond og kannað hvernig kjarnorkukvíðinn braust fram í dagblaðastrípum og kvikmyndum um hann. Að lokum verður litið til nýlegra ofurhetjusjónvarpsþátta og kannað hver arfleið kjarnorkukvíðans er, en kjarnorkuóttinn sem finna má þar virðist vera orðinn nokkuð miðlægur í samtímanum. Efnisyfirlit Ágrip.......................................................................................................................................... 2 Inngangur ................................................................................................................................. 4 1. Samfélagsvænar ofurhetjur: Uppruni, speglun og tilgangur ..................................... 6 Kjarnorkuyfirburðir bandarísku ofurhetjunnar: Superman á Bikini og nýi Flash .........................7 Þróun myndasögunnar: Nýjar hetjur í takt við nýjar þarfir .........................................................10 Kallað eftir ofurhetjum með raunveruleg vandamál á kjarnorkuöld ...........................................13 Vinsældarvísindi og myndasagan sem upplýsingatæki almennings ...........................................16 2. James Bond – ofurhetjutilburðir og kjarnorkubjargráð.......................................... 24 Myndasöguhetjan James Bond ....................................................................................................24 Ofurhetjan James Bond ...............................................................................................................30 Skáldskapur verður að raunveruleika ..........................................................................................36 Kjarnorkukrísa kalda stríðsins og James Bond kvikmyndirnar ...................................................39 Myndgerður ótti: Hvers vegna leita áhorfendur til James Bond og í ofurhetjuþemu? ................48 3. Arfleið kjarnorkukvíðans í dægurmenningu nútímans ............................................ 52 Vísindaskáldskapur: Hinn útvaldi póstmóderníski texti og menningarlegur kvíði .....................53 Lifað með kjarnorkusprengjunni: Vaxandi kjarnorkukvíði í kalda stríðinu ................................56 Ofurhetjur nútímans: Samfélagsmiðlar, kjarnorkuótti og kaþarsis .............................................60 Arrow: Nútímalegar ofurhetjur sem þekkja ótta áhorfenda og bregðast við honum ...................64 Supergirl – valdeflandi ofurhetja til höfuðs karlrembum ............................................................71 Legends of Tomorrow: Samstillt ofurhetjuátak sem stenst tímans tönn ......................................76 Samantekt ............................................................................................................................... 80 Heimildaskrá................................................................................................................................84 Inngangur „Ætlarðu að varpa sprengjunni eða hvað?“ er vísun í lagatexta Forever Young með hljómsveitinni Alphaville sem kom út árið 1984.1 Í fyrsta versinu er orðuð spurning sem var á vörum margra í kalda stríðinu: Verður kjarnorkusprengjunni varpað eða ekki? Kjarnorkuváin birtist á margvíslegan hátt í dægurmenningu kalda stríðsins, svo sem í kvikmyndum, sönglagatextum, sjónvarps- og útvarpsþáttum, vísindaskáldsögum og myndasögum svo fátt eitt sé nefnt. Fræðimenn eru sumir hverjir þeirrar skoðunar að kjarnorkuógnin hafi komið einna sterkast fram í myndasögum. Ástæða þess er líklega hversu útbreidd og aðgengileg myndasagan var, hún var auðveld aflestrar og upplagt tæki til að takast á við kvíðann sem fylgdi breyttum tímum. Ritskoðunartilburðir bandarískra stjórnvalda náðu yfirleitt ekki til myndasögunnar og talið er að almenningur hafi fengið dágóðan fróðleik um kjarnorkutengd málefni í gegnum myndasögulestur. Í ritgerðinni verður fjallað um kjarnorkuvána í ofurhetjukúltúr kalda stríðsins og leitað svara við því hvers vegna þörf var á nýjum ofurhetjum til að kveða niður vaxandi kjarnorkuótta lesenda. Auk þess verður litið til einnar vinsælustu hetju kalda stríðsins, James Bond og varpað ljósi á hvernig kjarnorkuótti samfélagsins braust fram í myndasögum um hann sem og í kvikmyndum. Einnig verður litið til nýlegra ofurhetjusjónvarpsþátta og kannað hver arfleið kjarnorkukvíðans er en kjarnorkuóttinn sem finna má þar virðist vera nokkuð miðlægur í samtímanum. Í fyrsta kafla verður leitast við að varpa ljósi á hvernig samfélag Bandaríkjanna breyttist samhliða myndasögunum, allt frá kaldastríðsárunum til 9. áratugarins en kjarnorkuógnin var þar miðlæg og kallaði á breyttar áherslur og efnistök. Í kafla tvö verður litið til hetju sem flestallir kannast við, James Bond, en færri hafa kannski leitt hugann að því að hann var kaldastríðshetja og skrifaður inn í ákveðið andrúmsloft óvissu og ótta. Hann varð fyrst til sem njósnasögupersóna en síðar myndasögu- og kvikmyndahetja. James Bond dagblaðastrípan (e. comic strip) kom út á hverjum degi í áraraðir í Bretlandi og aðrar tengdar myndasöguútgáfur slógu rækilega í gegn á Norðurlöndum og víðar.2 Ýmsir fræðimenn telja að James Bond sé fremur amerísk ofurhetja en enskur njósnari og verður fjallað um kenningar þeirra og ágreining. Einar átta Bond 1 „Are you gonna drop the bomb or not?“. Þýðing mín. Lagahöfundar: Bernhard Lloyd, Frank Martens og Marian Gold. 2 Dagblaðastrípa er þýðing Úlfhildar Dagsdóttur á „comic strip“. Sjá Úlfhildur Dagsdóttir 2014:15. 4 myndir fjalla um kjarnorkuvopn á árunum 1964 til 1999 og verður fjallað um þær í víðu samhengi við samfélagsástandið á þeim tíma sem þær komu út. Þriðji kafli tekur svo á arfleið kjarnorkukvíðans en ofurhetjufrásagnir endurspegla ástandið á þeim tíma sem þær eru skrifaðar og er því hægt að nota þær sem nokkurs konar sögulega heimild um atburði og tíðaranda í Bandaríkjunum. Margir fræðimenn fyrri ára fóru þá leið að greina ofurhetjur á sagnfræðilegan hátt þ.e. með áherslu á fortíðina fremur en framtíðina og settu punkt við umfjöllunina með stuttlegri lýsingu á stöðu ofurhetjunnar í nútímasamfélagi. Við nánari skoðun kemur í ljós að það er heilmikið að gerast í nútímanum, þar sem menningarlegur kvíði heldur áfram að krauma undir niðri sem vert er að rannsaka. Þróun ofurhetjunnar hefur verið sú að hún hefur tekið stökkið af blaðsíðum myndasögunnar og yfir í kvikmyndir og sjónvarpsþætti en heilmikil gróska er í myndasögusjónvarpsfræðum um þessar mundir. Metnaðarfullir sjónvarpsþættir hafa verið gerðir á vegum Marvel og DC Comics en gæðin jafnast á við kvikmyndir og ekkert lát virðist vera á vinsældum þeirra. Leitað verður svara við vaxandi vinsældum ofurhetjunnar og hvað áhorfendur fái út úr þessu áhorfi? Greindar verða birtingarmyndir kjarnorkukvíðans í vinsælum ofurhetjuþáttum á borð við Arrow, Flash, Supergirl og Legends of Tomorrow og reynt að varpa ljósi á hvers vegna kjarnorkuváin heldur áfram að vera miðlæg í vitund áhorfenda. Rannsakendur við Chapman háskóla reyna að mæla ótta Bandaríkjamanna á hverju ári en kjarnorkuótti hefur stigmagnast síðan Donald Trump tók við embætti Bandaríkjaforseta og hóf að munnhöggvast við leiðtoga Norður-Kóreu sem hefur hótað kjarnorkuárás á Bandaríkin. Eru rifrildi þeirra í myndasögustíl og mjög myndrænar lýsingar Trump á Twitter um hver eigi stærsta kjarnorkuhnappinn í anda þeirra.3 Óstöðugur leiðtogi kjarnorkuveldis vekur upp gamalkunnan kaldastríðsótta um hvort kjarnorkustyrjöld geti brotist út en það virðist vera mjög miðlægt í umræðunni, bæði hérlendis sem og í Bandaríkjunum. 3 Trump 2018. 5 1. Samfélagsvænar ofurhetjur: Uppruni, speglun og tilgangur Fræðimenn hafa löngum fjallað um hvernig ofurhetjur spegli samtíma sinn. Arthur Asa Berger var einna fyrstur til þess að koma með þessa kenningu árið 1989 en hún gengur út á það að myndasögur séu mikilvægar þegar kemur að því að varðveita hugmyndir og gildi Bandaríkjanna. Jeffrey K. Johnson skrifar á svipuðum nótum en honum er tíðrætt um hlutverk bandarískra ofurhetja í bók sinni Super-History: Comic Book Superheroes and American Society, 1938 to Present Day. Johnson telur að ofurhetjusögur séu mikilvægar sögulega séð og hægt sé að nota þær sem heimildir þar sem þær spegli samtímann sem þær eru skrifaðar á. Þessi spegill sýnir menningarleg, samfélagsleg sem og pólitísk áhrif ofurhetjunnar en einnig áhrif hennar á samfélagið.4 Einnig má nefna Rafiel York sem telur að fjölskyldumynstur Fantastic Four sé eins og spegill af kalda stríðs Ameríku. Ein fyrsta en jafnframt vinsælasta ofurhetja allra tíma, Superman, birtist á forsíðu Action Comics árið 1938. Hann var hugarfóstur tveggja ungra manna af innflytjendaættum, Jerry Siegel og Joe Shuster. Segja má að Superman hafi verið nokkurs konar
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