CHAPTER - 3: PASSES 52

Chapter 3 - Passes

Passes, like other geographical features of a region, contribute towards the placement of the trade routes. The frequent movement of people through these passes not only broadens the political horizons but also breaks the isolation of different ways of life and makes a men understand other cultures. A pass is ah opening more or less broad between two mountains, or ranges of mountains. In the past the natural breaks in between the hills served as natural roads (passes) to the traders and merchants in particular and the masses in general. The is connected with the Desh region by a number of passes which cut across the Sahyadris. The control of these passes was important for every ruler. Forts were the major means of controlling these passes (Map 8).

Communication Systems

Routes of transportation are to a large extent determined by geography. The topographic barrier presented by the to East-West movement meant that certain natural passes funneled movement through them. There are innumerable ways up and down the face of the , precipitous though these often are. Such ways range from wood cutter's paths to the main passes. Through these passes several roads linked the Konkan and Desh areas. Similarly there are innumerable routes to cross the divides between the river valleys. These North-South gaps in the divides link the different river valleys with each other. Thus these define two distinct communication systems. The first system includes those passes which run West-East across the Sahyadri. The second system includes the passes which run North-South across the ranges which stretch at right angles to the Sahyadri. In Map 8 a mention has been made of the main passes that connect the Konkan with the Desh. Hence the importance of passes along the Sahyadris as a means of communication between the Konkan and the interior and between different river valleys seems to have been exploited in the Early Historical and Mediaeval periods. One way of determining the lines of communication that existed in ancient or medieval times is to mark the location of caves of Buddhist and Jain sects. It will be observed that the lines 53 joining these sites are very close to the alignment of the later trade routes and still later the established highways.

West-East Communication System

The Sahyadri range or the Western Ghats runs North to South along the Western edge of the study area thirty to forty-five kilometers in width with average height of 900 to 1200 meters. The crest-line decreases in height from North to South. The mountains are the sites of deep valleys and deep ravines. Lying athwart the course of the South-West monsoon coming from the Arabian sea, the Western ghats bring about a striking difference in rainfall between the regions on their either side (Fig. 11). West of the ghats, the steep edge receives the bulk of the rains, while to the East, on the lee-ward side, is the rain- shadow region where the rainfall is scanty. Denudational surfaces form flat areas separated from the lower surface by a "" or step which has high gradient. The "stepped" nature of the landscape is infact behind the word "Trapp" which means step in Swedish and the Indian term of Ghat also means step. The passes from the plateau to the coastal region follow the drainage lines. Many of the plateau rivers appear to have a beheaded drainage due to the uplift of the Western ghats and have flat wide valleys right upto their source region. This is certainly the case with the Malsej ghat and Bor ghat.

Of these, the Thai, Nane and Bor passes have always been referred to as major routes of communication between the Konkan coast and the plateau. Some other notable passes include the Kondaibari pass in the North connecting an ancient route between Broach and the Desh, , Vagji ghat, Kumbharli ghat, and Phonda ghat in the South connect the ports to sites like Karhad and (Map 8).

As stated earlier the innumerable natural breaks in between the hills served as natural ways (passes) up and down the face of the Western Ghats are often precipitous. Only some of these passes were used by traders and merchants. Some of the features of the major passes are given below:-(Segment 1-7). 54

Table 3.1 - LANDSCAPE DESCRIPTION OF THE PASSES

PROFILE GHATS LOWEST PASS PASS ( REAST PLATEAU POINT ELEVATION DESCRIPTION LINE HEIGHT Segment - 1. Morkhada Ghat 300 M 550 M Broad Saucer 250 M 1050 M Dhul Glial 750 M Broad Shallow Jamla Glial 750 M Broad Saucer SaltiGhat 900 M Broad Shallow 300 M Deep Narrow- Segment - 2. Shir Ghat 400 M 400 M Deep Narrow Broad 300 M 1200 M Thai Ghat 850 M Shallow Saucer Broad Saucer Malscj Glial 700 M Narrow Shallow NancCihat 750 M Segment - 3. Bor Ghat 600 M 600 M Deep Narrow 600 M 1050 M Segment 4. Vaghli Pass 400 M 650 M Broad Deep Broad 450 M 900 M IjOidi Pass 625 M Deep Saucer Narrow Deep Tamhili Pass 450 M Narrow Deep Broad Varandha Pass 450 M Deep Narrow Deep Mara Pass 400 M Dope Pass 425 M Segment - 5. Ambinali Pass 300 M 800 M Broad Deep Narrow 300 M 900 M Par Pass 750 M Deep Broad Saucer Amhivali Pass 700 M Narrow Deep Thera Pass 650 M Narrow Deep Kumbharli Pass 300 M Broad Shallow Mala 1'ass 750 M Saucer Broad Deep Saucer South Tiura 450 M Shallow Saucer Pass Kimdi Pass 750 M Segment - 6. /Uuba Pass 200 M Nan-el 600 M Broad Deep 250 M 750 M Phonda Glial 625 M Narrow Deep Segment - 7. Amboli Pass 550 M 600 M Narrow Deep 600 M 650 M Ram Glial 600 M Broad Deep Saucer As can be seen in the profile 1, the crest-line decreases in height from North to South. This can be divided into three - the Northern portion, the Central portion and the Southern portions To get a better picture of the dissection of the Sahyadri range this profile has been divided in seven segments It is interesting to see that no major route passes from the area of the first segment of the profile. The second and third profiles have five routes passing through them. The gradient of these profiles shows high altitudes in the middle portion. The average gradient is .0019. Fourth and fifth profiles have seven routes cutting across in East West direction. The average gradient of which is .0039. Sixth and seventh profiles have only one route cutting it in Southwest - Northeast direction. The average gradient of this is .0029. There are 28 main passes traversing in West -East direction. Some of these are very broad and some are very narrow (Table 3.1). From the available historical data it appears that only nine passes were used frequently for trade purposes Traders used passes which were not at a great height and at the same time narrow. The lower pass was not necessarily used. In narrow passes it was easier to 55 provide safety at low cost The selection of passes was also determined by the location of ports and trade centers besides the landscape. As a result of these sometimes broader passes like Borghat, and difficult ones like and Kumbharli ghat were also chosen. The Northern most pass used for trade purpose was the 400m high Shirghat, which is deep very narrow, from which the Sanjan - Nasik trade-route passed. The next important pass was 850 m high shallow and broad Thalghat which carried the Sopara- Bahal trade-route Nasik lies near the top of the Thai Ghat proper In ancient times the route from Nasik, whether following the Sher Ghat or the Thai Ghat proper, made its way to the important port of Sopara, lying on the const just North of Bassein and the embouchure of Creek. Naneghat 750 m high narrow shallow, although very steep was the most important pass due to its form, carried the Kalyan--Paithan trade- route. This pass has on one side a very steep wall, other side is comparatively low. The deep narrow and 600 m high Borghat linked two ports, Thane and Chaul, to the inland trade-center, Ter. The deep broad Vaghli/Vagji pass which is 650 m high connected the port of Thane to Kolhapur. The caves at Nadsur and Karsamble were situated below the Vagjighat (Cousens, 1891: 1-11). This trade route ran on the Western Ghats. Chaul was linked with Ter via narrow deep 450 in high, Varandha pass. 750 m high narrow and deep Parghat linked the port towns of Chaul and Mandad to Kolhapur. The Parghat ascends to Lohari. Similarly the port towns of Dabhol, and Harnai were linked to Kolhapur by Kumbharlighat, 300 m high and deep-narrow. Mahad is connected with the Desh region through the Varandha Pass for which Pale is the only outlet to the Konkan in this area.

Chaul was connected via Varandha pass with Gomashi and Pale near Mahad, situated on the same river. Chaul must have played the same role in the southern part of North Konkan as played by Sopara and Kalyan in the Northern part.

Of these passes we are concerned with viz. the Thai Ghat, which ascends to Nasik; the Naneghat, which ascends to Junnar; and the Bor Ghat which ascends to Karle, the Kumbharlighat, which ascends to Karhad, the Phondaghat, which ascends to Kolhapur, (he Parghat, which ascends to Lohari, the Pimpri Ghat which ascends to Junnar, the Aniba Ghat, which ascends to Kolhapur from and Amboli Ghat (BISM Vol. 35.1-2). 56

The Northern most of these is the Thai Ghat. This must be regarded as combined with another pass known as the Sher Ghat, slightly North up, which is now a secondary road that leads back along the plateau edge to in the main Thai Ghat road at the top of the latter's ascent. The Thai Ghat proper is the pass near the top of which lies Nasik. At present the road from the foot of this pass swings off South-Westward and passes not far from Kalyan, to Thane and Dounga In ancient times the route from Nasik, whether following the Sher Ghat or the Thai Ghat proper, must have made its way to the important port of Sopara, lying on the coast just North of Bassein and the embouchure of Thane Creek. Sopara's importance shows that it was connected with a pass up the Ghats: that must have been the Sher Ghat and the Thai Ghat. A road via the Sher Ghat will obviously make for Sopara and goes nowhere near Kalyan as, Kalyan is on the South bank of the Ulhas. If the road from the Thai Ghat proper had made for Kalyan, the place would have been on the North bank. Hence Kalyan is not connected primarily with the Thai Ghat and Sher , whose outlet is Sopara. The Thai ghat connected the coast with Nasik.

The next main pass to the South is the Naneghat, which is no longer important: it carries no railway nor even a road for vehicles. Buddhist caves are situated at the head of almost every important pass in the region. Thus with 184 caves, Junnar, at the head of the Naneghat was the largest monastic establishment (Jadhav, 1981: 84). The location of Junnar is ideal for agriculture also. It lies in a broad flat valley on the right bank of the Kukdi, a tributary of the Ghod. To the South-East the valley opens into the wide Deccan plain. In ancient times, however, it can be judged to have been the most important of all. This is indicated by the caves with Satavahana monuments at its head. Then, it leads first to Junnar, whose Buddhist remains are important. From there, however, the road went on to a still more important place, Paithan; this lies almost due East of Junnar, so that the Naneghat provides the most direct route from the coast to Paithan. The foot of the Naneghat is almost due East and only at the distance of five kilometers from Kalyan. The connection of Kalyan with this pass was probably the principal factor in the importance of Kalyan in the first century AD. This pass even though very steep was used as it led to Kalyan which was at no great distance to its West. On the Eastern side it led to Junnar, which is situated in a very fertile valley. 57

The third pass is the Bor Ghat. Karle stands to the Bor Ghat as Nasik stands to the Thai Ghat and Junnar to Naneghat. As the Naneghat route went on from Junnar to the city of Paithan, so the Bor Ghat route led past Karle to a still more important place - Ter. A glance at the map shows that the most direct route from this important mart to the West coast is via the Bor Ghat. By this Bor or Pass the Bombay- road and railway track enters the Deccan. This ancient military road has ever been regarded as the key to the Deccan and on or near it lie the historic caves Karle, Bhaja and Bedsa. The caves of Nanoli, Shelarwadi, Bhamchandra (Johns, 1876. 252-2), Kondane (near the foot of the valley up), and Ambivale also lay near the Borghat and those at Nadsur and Karsamble were situated below the Vagjighat (Cousens, 1891: 1-11). The present village of Ambivale is situated on an ancient mound.

Next is the Pimpri pass transmitting an old route from Sopara and Kalyan to Nasik, and the Naneghat Pass between Junnar and the Konkan. Bhimashankar at the source of the , and Chakan are strategic strongholds.

The Amba Pass carrying the road from Ratnagiri to Kolhapur and the Rampass providing less important routes from Vengurla to .

There was a pass at the Amboli Ghat which connected Nasik with the smaller ports of North Konkan such as Dahanu and Chinchani. It ran via Javhar, Mokhada and Trimbakeshwar.

Nasik was also connected with the other ports of Konkan through another route which passed through Gorhe and Mannor. This route ran through the valley of Vaitarna. The Vaitarana river was navigable upto Gorhe and therefore this route was substituted by water routes also. The Sahyadri was crossed at Shirghat which was protected by a strong fort.

Besides the Naneghat pass which was the main linking point between Kalyan and Junnar, there were some other points also where the traders descended from the plateau into Konkan. The Malsej ghat is one of such important passes. The Malsej ghat ascents to Utar and then to Paithan. This pass is protected by the massive fort of 58 which was probably built by one of the feudatories of the Chalukyas of Badami. This route was probably used by traders going directly to Puri avoiding Kalyan

Other smaller ways up the face of the Western Ghats close to, and a little Southward from, these Bor Ghat ascents lead up to . If they are followed downwards, they lead South-West-wards without difficulty to Chaul. This place is the ancient Semylla, which is mentioned by Ptolemy after Sopara and Dounga. If therefore the route down the Bor Ghat to Kalyan were closed, traffic could be diverted to Semylla.

Sopara was the outlet for the traffic of the Thai Ghat which keeps North of the Ulhas. on the other hand, Kalyan lived on the traffic of the Naneghat for Paithan itself and of the Bor Ghat for the very important Ter and of the North-South coastal road; while Chaul must draw from the Bor Ghat and smaller passes like Varandha farther South. This, of course, must be taken as referring to the main bulk of the traffic at each place. The topography allows diversion of traffic from the foot of the Thai Ghat South-Westwards to Kalyan but such traffic should be regarded as secondary or abnormal.

There are no doubt a road up and down the coastal plain or Konkan. This is intersected by numerous rivers and streams, which are torrents after the monsoon arrives, but nearly dry for the rest of the year. One of the largest and most important of these is Ulhas. No doubt the point where Kalyan stands represents the point where the North- South coastal road crossed the river. The site was near the junction of the three river Murla, Kalu, and Bhatsa. It is also near the highest point where there is water enough for ships all the year round. These rivers were navigable upto Sapad, the node where the sea and the land meet.

The present study reveals that besides the main passes at Thai and Naneghat, there were several other passes to its South through which the cities of the Desh region were directly linked with the nearest port towns in Konkan. For example we had a definite evidence of such links between Karhad with Mandad via. Parghat, Karle with Chaul via. Borghat and Kolhapur with Vijaydurg via. Phondaghat. 59 Similar type of passes existed in South Konkan also (Thosar, 1988 Sept.). There are ninety-four passes in the . In the extreme south is Parpoli pass Out of these Amba, Phonda, Amboli are fit for carts or carriages Kundi, Devda and Prabhanvalii are foot tracts.

Harnai is related with the and Kolhapur regions through Khed and the Ambivle pass (BG: 3)

Vaghothan lies on the main route to the Desh region through the Phonda pass. Rajapur port led to Kolhapur via the Anaskura and Phonda passes Kolhapur was connected to Rajapur via Kajirda pass too.

Sangameshwar port on the bank of Shastri river was linked with Karhad via Nayari or Mala pass. Similarly it was linked with Brahmapuri via Amba pass.

Malwan was connected to Kolhapur via the Nardava - a small bullock pass Sivgad, Ghotge, Ranga and Phonda passes also connected Kolhapur to Malwan.

Vijaydurg was connected to Kolhapur via Bavda pass

Kolhapur was connected with Pale and Harnai ports through the Phonda and the Amba passes.

The Kumbharlighat led to the caves at Karhad and Patan from Chiplun. Another pass ten kms south of Patan is the Chandli pass The port towns of Vengurla and Reddi were linked with Kolhapur via deep and narrow 600 m high Ambolipass (Table 3.1). The port of Reddi and Vengurla were connected with Kolhapur via Hanmant, Ram and Talkhat passes too

The major passes such as Thai and Naneghat were used by traders whereas the other passes were used by other people traveling from the Desh region to the Konkan. It is further interesting to observe that throughout the length of the Sahyadri in , these passes were associated with rock-cut caves and forts. We have several examples that a majority of the caves were excavated by traders. The existence of such caves near the passes is a clear evidence of their use for trade purpose. These are situated on the prime 60 locations of the ancient trade routes Karhad, Junnar, Nasik, Paithan, Bhogavardhan, Chaul, Sopara, Kalyan, Vaijayanti all these trade centers were connected with one another in the Satavahana period. The trade route passing through the Ajanta pass had connected the capital city Paithan, trade center Ter with Ujjain, the trade center in Malwa region. The route going through Nasik caves had connected Govardhana and Nasik with Sopara. Similarly Naneghat had connected Junnar and Konkan ghat had connected Karle with Kalyan. Sopara, Dounga, Kalyan, Puri, Chaul, Mandad, Pale, Jaygad, Dabhol, Bankot, Harnai, Rajapur, Vijaydurg, Reddi were connected with each other and at the same time had contacts with the outside world. Forts are found almost on the every route. In the medieval period the passes continued to play an important role. To guard these routes, later on probably the forts were constructed.

The Sahyadri has connected the Desh region with coastal Konkan at different points But Sahyadrian range acted practically as a great barrier of communication between Konkan and the plateau, except for a few passes mentioned above. Most of the trade routes had to traverse naturally through such passes It has been recognized since long that most of the centers of rock-cut architecture are located on such trade routes linking cities on the plateau through the passes in the Sahyadris with the ports on the coast, or through the passes in the Satamala range with the cities in Northern . The distribution of sites on theses lines have been discussed in the next chapter.

Table 3.2 - LIST OF PASSES IN THE WESTERN GHAT

Sr. No. Gil AT TALVKA DISTRICT 1 Avhata Mokhada Thane 2 Amboli Mokhada Thane 3 Gonda Mokhada Thane 4 Shir Mokhada Thane 5 Ahupe Murbad Thane 6 Darya Murbad Thane 7 Nane Murbad Thane 8 Bail Murbad Thane 9 Malsej Murbad Thane 10 Sadhale Murbad Thane 11 Amboli Murbad Thane 12 Khuta Murbad Thane 13 Umbar Dara Shahpur Thane 14 Karoli Shahpur Thane 15 Guyaricha Dara Shahpur Thane 16 Chondya Shahpur Thane 17 Thai Shahpur Thane 18 Pimpri Shahpur Thane 19 Mendhya Shahpur Thane 20 Kananda Mahad Raigarh 21 Kavala Bavala Mahad Raigarh 22 Bopya Mahad Raigarh 23 Boche Mahad Raigarh 24 Shevatya Mahad Raigarh 25 Shinganapur Nali Mahad Raigarh 26 Varandha Mahad Raigarh 27 Kusur Karjat Raigarh 28 Ganesh Karjat Raigarh 29 Vandhre Karjat Raigarh 30 Kurvanda Sudhagarh Raigarh 31 Vaghjai Sudhagarh Raigarh 32 Sav Sudhagarh Raigarh 33 Savaslmi Sudhagarh Raigarh 34 Dhavala Poladpur Raigarh 35 Par Poladpur Raigarh 36 Bor Khalapur Raigarh 37 Vaghjai Mangaon Raigarh 38 Kumbha Mangaon Raigarh 39 Savade Karjat Raigarh 40 Amboli Savantawadi Sindhudurg 41 Karula Vaibhavawadi Sindhudurg 42 Rama Savantawadi Sindhudurg 43 Bavada Bhairavavadi Sindhudurg 44 Hanumant Kadkavali Sindhudurg 45 Phonda Kadkavali Sindhudurg 46 Anaskura Rajapur Ratnagiri 47 Amba Sangameshvvar Ratnagiri 48 Dakshina Tivare Sangameshwar Ratnagiri 49 Mala Sangameshvvar Ratnagiri 50 Amboli Khed Ratnagiri 51 Uttar Tivare Khed Ratnagiri 52 Parashurama Khed Ratnagiri 53 Hatalota Khed Ratnagiri 54 Kashedi Shahapur Ratnagiri 55 Hkadara Igatapur Nasik 62

56 Kanchana Manchana Chanvad Nasik 57 Savati Peth Nasik 58 Savada Peth Nasik 59 K at raj Haveli Pune 60 Dive Haveli Pune 61 Maish Chalisgaon Jalgaon 62 Autaram Chalisgaon Jalgoan 63 Bijasani Shirpur Dhule 64 Ambenali Satara 65 Pasrani Wai Salara 66 Khambataki Wai Satara 67 Tolar Khind Akola Nagar 68 Chandan Sangamner Nagar North-South Communication System

The side ranges or the off shoots of the Sahyadri run from the West to the Fast and South-East traversing the Desh region by rivers and hills Each major range is separated from the next by the river valleys. The main ranges are the Dhulia Hills, the Satamala-Ajanta range, the Balaghat range, and the Mahadev range. The Satpudas and Ajanta ranges enclose the Tapti valley. Similarly the Ajanta range in the North and the Balaghat range in the South encloses the Godavari basin. Bhima valley is enclosed by the Balaghat and the Mahadev ranges. The Mahadev range separates the Bhima and the Krishna valleys These ranges too had various passes to facilitate communication between the valley. Unlike the passes on the Western Ghat these had a vary low gradient.

Starting from the Northern most end, Babhulana is the important pass in Nasik district. Further 3 km South is the Mangania pass. About 13 km South to Mangania are two passes, viz. Umbarada and Kanchan. All these passes lead to Chinchali and Amali, the traditional timber collection center on the border of Maharashtra. Further South are the Chip, Morkhadi and Chiral passes connect Nasik and Gujarat through Surgand-Dindori area which are mentioned in the Chalukyan, Rastrakuta and Yadava copper-plates. Still further South are B ha mod, Palasvihir, Nansi, Mohaja and Savalghat passes These connected the places like Abhone, Kalwan, Wani-Dindori mentioned in 7-8'' Century copper-plates. Further South are the Ladchi, Vehela and Vagher passes connecting Nasik 63 with Gujarat region. Extreme South is the most famous Satti pass which is connected with Vaghera pass.

Some passes in the Thane-Nasik region are the Vaghera, Velunja through which the ports of Dahanu and Chinchani were linked. Other minor passes are Gheriachi Vat, Vaghola, Chulangana, Motiachi Vat, Dugara and Morphadi. Another important famous pass is Amboli-Ambal pass, still used by the Vanjaras and Thakurs. This lead to the Trimbak and Anjaneri plain on the East. Harish fort was built to control the Ghonda, Trimbak passes on which Ghargad, a early historic site, is located.

Other four passed namely Met Humbachi, Met Leniachi, Met Elyachi and Sirghat passes lead to Thane via Ambavari where the Vaitarna can be crossed as its very shallow at this place.

On the South from Igatpuri the and Navra-Navri passes run into the Akola region. Another route from Ghoti through Bori pass lead to the region of Ahmednagar district. From Sinnar via Dubere-Keli-Tahakari a rugged pass lead to Akola. Further East is the Karhe ghat from Sinnar to Sangamner between Nasik and Pune marked by many Mesolithic sites.

In Pune the isolated rocks of Koiri and Majgaon command the Ambauni and Amboli passes.

Twenty two kms east of Barsi in the Balaghat range is the Vadshighat through which runs the Kolhapur Ter route. Further this route crossed through two passes north of the Chincholi apex. One route from Kolhapur went towards via Taraskhind ghat in the Mahnimangad Panhala offshoot of Mahadev hill.

Chandor is the most important pass on the Nasik to Ter route via Aurangabad. On this route are the Ankai-Tankai Rastrakuta caves, on the Ankai-Tankai pass. Further there are two passes Rajapur and Somthan connecting Yeola and Nandgaon on the way to North-East. Kasari pass connects Nandgaon and Aurangabad via Ellora and Daulatabad Pardhadi pass or Lodhara (caves) route leads to Aurangabad. 64

At Aurangabad a route branched off to the North-West through the Kondaibari ghat to Surat and Bharuch. Again from Aurangabad a route went to Pitalkhora via Ellora through the Gautalaghat, 11.2 km north of Kannad. Outram ghat provided road communication from Aurangabad to Chalisgaon across the Satmala ranges situated about 7 km to the west of the Satamala hill.

The Pune Nasik road passed through the Chandnapuri pass in the Balashwar range. Wai - Karad road went via Khamatki pass The route from Paithan to North India, generally passed through the region of Ajanta hills and Markhinda pass and Bhogavardhana, a contemporary trade center The next important intermediary halt was the city of Burhanpur, adjoining the Tapti valley and the Satpura mountain. The next halt Mahismati, was situated at such a strategical point that both the ranges of Satpura (Saindva Pass) and Vindhja (Gujari pass) meet in a point. The Northern route from Ujjain, after crossing the river Narmada and proceeding towards modern Burhanpur came via Burhanpur gap to the ancient town Bahal from where the caravans either went to South towards Paithan or West to Nasik. The Ajanta, Pitalkhora and Aurangabad lay on the Bahal Paithan route which went through the Fardapur and Bari pass.

Table 3.3 - LIST OF PASSES IN THE SATPUDA RANGES

Si. GHAT Sr. No. GHAT No. 1. Aakarauni 6. Cchadsali 2. Katibori 7. Dudaya Baba 3. Kuti Bori 8. Deula 4. Cchabala 9. Dhulibari 5. Cchatri Pati 10. Sindava

Table 3.4 - LIST OF PASSES IN THE VINDHYA RANGES

Sr. GHA T Sr. No. No. GHAT 1. Outram 11. Balaghat 2. Ajanta 12. Bavara Bari 3. Ivota 13. Rajapur 4. Markinda 14. Revata Bari 5. Fardapur 15. Ranjan 6. Gautala 16. Larasingi 65

7. JariBari 17. Kasari 8. Chandori 18. Sula 9. Ganesh 19. Somatana 10. Pimpalgaon 20. Sola 21. Talakata in V & Sahya It will not be out of place to discuss the modes of communication before going to the hinterland sites as this region involved the transshipment due to the drastic change in the landscape of the region

Modes of Communication

The passage over the Ghats which are steep on the West side and more gently sloping on the East, involved a change from bullock carts on the East side to pack animals on the steep West As it is difficult to use a cart packed animals were used to carry goods, and the transshipment took place at the divide of the plain and the mountainous land The transshipment developed on the borders of ecological regions such as highland and plain e.g., the site of Nerla in taluka So the ancient and medieval route system depend much more on nature and human resources than on mechanical power.

Modes of Transport:

The existence of a flourishing trade pre-supposes an efficient system of transport and communication The progress of life and society of a country depends upon the extent of the facilities of communication. One point must be made clear, that traveling in ancient India was supposed to be a hazardous job. So much so, that a person had returned from a long journey was received with a special celebration. This clearly indicates that in those days there were no constructed roads or bridges. The carts and animals had to struggle slowly through the dense forests all along the routes. Roads were bad or non-existent according to the author of the Periplus, but he is probably over drawing the picture. They appear to be sufficiently good and workable This is proved as we find residents of Vaijayanti in Karnataka making donations at Karle, residents of Karhad and Nasik in Maharashtra making gills at Bharhut in Madhya Pradesh and citizens of Dattamitri in Sindh donating caves at Nasik According to I)r R.N Mehta, "as for facilities of communications, they were decidedly few and that too, the roads were not well 66 constructed and were infested with robbers, thus impending free communication" (1939), quoted by PC Prasad, (1977: 106). According to Travanier, Deccan was a country without roads, wheel carriages do not travel, the roads being too much interrupted by high mountains, tanks and rivers and there being many narrow and difficult passes. Only oxen and packhorses were available for the conveyance of men and for the transport of goods and merchandise Large palanquins were available in large scale Bullock carts, chariots, horses oxen etc. were the principal means of transport. However in the Deccan the goods had to be brought to Broach in wagons in great tracts without roads. It should be noted here that the 'ancient and mediaeval' route system had its own limitations which were not often realized by the chroniclers, who quite oAen referred to the 'bad' condition of the roads and 'lack of transport' in a particular area, without giving serious thought to the intricacies of the physical barriers and climatic conditions of any region in which the roads were, by and large, spread over the entire region with their 'spines', trunks' and 'limbs' grafted in the body line. In the plains the sites are located at a considerable distance from each other, where as in the Western Maharashtra they are located very close to each other. Easy communication in the plains and very difficult communications in the hills appear to be one reason for this state Thus the surface, the climatic condition and the mode of travel were some of the factors which determined the goodness or otherwise of a road. For various reasons we do not have a complete picture of the route system in our study region. We largely depend for it on the traveler's accounts, the movements of the army. These provide some clue to identify the direction of roads in our times. It is thus very difficult to have clear picture of the condition of the roads, of which we get different version in the accounts of travelers. The opinions of these travelc and merchants about the goodness or badness of the roads depend very much upon the area in which they traveled, the season during which they performed their journey and the way in which they traveled. Naturally movements on such paths entailed heavy strain. The roads were mostly nature-made paths and lanes generally created out of the signs of ruts and hoofs of animals. The common tracks, on the other hand, was rutted and holed by the use of loaded carts and heavy rains The travelers, therefore, were compelled to skirt it on one side or the other. That is why the direction of roads changed so often. We do not find references 67 to the street, that is , the paved road or the built road, although they must have been existed.

Inspite of these difficulties, traders and merchants traveled for long distances in connection with their trading activities The sailors and merchants of Maharashtra were competent in their professional life. We have references to routes, different types of vehicles and caravans in Ancient Indian literature which helps us to get an idea about the nature of the means of communication during the past. Naturally there must have been an efficient system of transport and communication throughout the historical and pre- mediaeval periods.

There were pathways and short cart-tracks Tavernier writes that shady trees were planted on both the sides of the roads at a distance of every five hundred paces, there were set up little heaps of stones, which the inhabitants of the next village were bound to white­ wash from time to time. The existence of trade and caravan routes affirm the means of transport also. The Divyavadana speaks of elephants and palanquins as carriers of merchandise (Cowelfs 1987: 501). The Jatakas mention carts or wagons which are ordinary Sakatas but there were also some carts of richer style like rathas drawn by horses. Oxen are mentioned in Amarakosa and in the Brihasamhila.

Vehicle was known by the term 'Yana' or 'Vahana' in ancient India. From this the system of transport and communication was designated as Yatayata. In this system of Yatayata, the means of transport was very important because the volume of the trade depended upon it. At the beginning of our civilization different animals were used for carrying loads, in particularly the Western part of India relied on camel (B.G. Vol. X: 3) as it proved to be a very useful animal because it could travel in desert as well as in the mountainous regions. Kathasantasagar also mentioned camels as the beast of burden - most useful to the merchants (Joshi, 1980. 172-3). Vasudevahimdi mentions that animals like the goat were used in mountainous regions The caravan included donkeys, mules and camels (Jamkehdkar, 1965) 68

A flourishing industry requires a good network of roads and improved methods of communication for carrying finished products to the distant markets as well as bringing raw materials from elsewhere. But as industry was yet in its primitive stage, people must have hardly felt any need for organized transport However communication has either been coastal or overland through well-defined passes in the hill ranges.

There is a close relationship between ancient modes of travel and the physical environment, even to the extent of suggesting that topography 'determines' the method of transportation, whether by beasts of burden or wheeled vehicles. The roads in the hilly areas of the Western Maharashtra though drier, were by no means easy for travel. The narrow lanes, the steepness of the roads and the hard stoniness of the surface forced the people to carry their corn and carriages on horseback. This led to the use of different modes of communication and transshipment. The cart is certainly useless in mountainous districts where travel is chiefly on mule back. Technically the cart is an advance on the pack animal, just as the pack animal is an advance on foot traveling, but each technical advance brings its own restriction. The wheeled vehicle were used only on the plains stretched in the Eastern part of the study area as the cart can travel freely only on fairly level natural surfaces-plains, steppes, plateaus. The pack animals was used on the level plain as well as in the mountain region.

The means of transport were ox, camel and horse, donkey, buffalo, bullock-carts and boats. Head loads were carried by men and women. In the Eastern part of the study area generally a cart use by the traders as a means of transport.

The oxen were generally used to carry heavy luggage, particularly through Ghats. Sacks filled with grains and many other articles were put on the bullocks and the caravan of merchants moved from one place to another. Each ox carry nearly 300 to 350 pounds load on its back. Sometimes a caravan might consist of a large number of oxen carrying goods to distant places. The ox seems to be the most important means of transport Even today oxen are used to pass the Naneghat. Other animals used for carrying goods were horse, donkey, buffalo and camel (SCS, 5: 919). Buffalo was used for carrying heavy 69 things (PSS, 2: 2183). Camels were used for carrying the luggage of persons. Tukaram mentions camels carrying goods to the market (Tukaram, 3070).

Human labour was often hired for carrying goods. They have been referred to as Begars in the Maratha period. Human labour seems to have been cheap. (SCS, 5: 919). Bullock carts were frequently used for carrying goods (ERS, 2: 115). In the Satavahana period the Lamanis kept pack-animals and did not followed any other business but carrying of gods to destination (Joglekar: 1956). Later on this occupation was adopted by the Banjaris in Maratha period.

• - • i Enough evidence is approaching in support from excavations. The discovery of the "Wheel" brought a revolution in the life of human being. It also revolutionized the transport system because along with animals, wheeled carriages could be employed for carrying goods. There were three types of wheeled carriages: Laghu Yana- a small vehicle like a chariot, Golinyana- a medium sized bullock cart, Shakata- a big cart for which several animals had to be employed (Prasad, 1977: 100-1). Cart {Sakata, Sagada) was also used for travel. In the bas-relief of Mathura, the bullocks yoked to the cart and the driver seated on the ground are shown (Joshi, 1980: 172-3). The evidence constitutes of model frames of toy-carts with and without wheels, wagon-vehicles, etc. Some are quite plain while a few of them are artistically designed. Some are covered vehicles, while others are open chariots drawn by possibly horses. The coverings were made of some solid material such as a frame work of light wood or leather. The wagons were yoked to horses, bulls and even-rams as the toy-models found at Taxila reveal.

Many of them are also identical or true to the modern types. Their salient features could be enumerated from the toy models, reported at Brahmapuri, Rang Mahal etc. They are made in copper and bronze and terra-cotta. The vehicle types consist of simple carts or lekka,' bullock-carts, horse-drawn chariots, light racing chariot, etc. They have transverse holes for axle underneath the body and another hole for the pole in front. The wheels show heavy and clearly defined hubs and fellies (Marshall, 1951: II, 452; III, Pi. 134-58). In 70 some of them, as those for instance from Rairh the yoke at back was left open and provided with curved mudguard-like projections on the sides (Puri, 44-45, PI. XXII.6). They have circular projections at the rear with eleven bars that not only kept the weight balances but also provided more space for sitting and luggage Brahmapuri has yielded interesting evidence of covered wagons of copper (Khandalavala, 1960: 67, PI. XX).

Marshall records at Sirkap a two-wheeled vehicle which "appeared to be a sort of light racing chariot". He interprets it to be a different type of vehicle introduced by the Parfhians. Similar type was already well known earlier at Brahmapuri. At Sirkap a few cart models represent light vehicles mainly, a cart furnished with two holes in front for the shafts and two grooved projections underneath for the wheel axle.

Most of them are known to be found during Mauryan to Satavahana times. Clearly, means of transport were well suited for both passenger and goods transport. For longer journey through rough and wooded countryside means of transport could have been the caravan of pack oxen.

Literary references testify that the traders moved in caravans with their commodities so as to avoid being attacked by robbers and highway human beings.

Bridles, Cheek-bars And Stirrup

Their availability suggests that horse-drawn chariots were in common use during this period.

Bridle-bits are found in large numbers mostly in the Megalithic graves of peninsular and central India (Ramachandran, 1960: 170-71).

The early ones from Megaliths are all made from iron. They belong to three types:

Simple bit with rigid mouth piece:

It is an iron bar bent double into one strip with a curvature and two holes at the ends for fastening rein straps Rivett Carnac (1879: 1-16) describes them as stirrups but they could as well have served the purpose of bits (Leshnik, 1970: 501). One of them at 71

Adichchhanallur is a plain rectangular bar with similar side loops to which reign strings were attached.

Horizontal rigid mouth piece with looped nose bands and its variants:

It is solid round bar with rectangular loops at ends. Some broken bits are known from Sanur and Guntakal, while variants occur at Janampet and Kunnathur all have rectangular loops for fastening rein straps (Ramchandran, 1960: 171-72).

Simple, plain or joined bits and the protected snaffle with a ring or check bar at each side:

It is a developed form consisting of a single bit with reined ends to which the control strings were tied Megaliths at Junapani (Rivett, 1879: 1-16), Khapa (Deo, 1970: 49, PI. XIV.32), and Mahurjhari (Deo, 1973: 52) have yielded such bits of iron.

A few historical sites have also reported them. Specimens at Rairh (Puri, 38, PI. XXII. 13) are made from bronze whereas those at Sambhar (Sahni, 42, PI. XIV d) and Taxila (Marshall, 1951: II, 550-1, III. PI. 165, 96-98) are of iron. Marshall suggests that the Greeks introduced the snaffle bits into India that was named Khalinci in Sanskrit and was according to him was borrowed from the Greeks. Prior to that, it was already known and used by the Megalithic builders in the latter half of the first millennium B.C.

Cheek-bars

All of them are from Taxila (Marshall, 1951: II 665, III, PI. 165) made in iron, ivory and bone, those made in iron comprise of figure '8' with two holes for rein-trap. Similar ones are known from sites of Central Asia which indicate their probable source. Some others are curved instead of '8' shaped. Similar ones also occur in horn and bone, curved in shape The cheek bar or cheek ring was used with the snaffle bit to prevent the rein slipping into the mouth. These are pierced with two holes in which an iron staple was fixed for the bit rings to pass through. They were decorated with incised parallel bands and chevrons. 72

Stirrup

So far none has been identified as stirrups Rivett Carnac (1879: 1-16) identifies one of them at Junapani as stirrup Another at Sambhar (Sahni 45, No 3202) has been identified as 'child stirrup' and is made of iron

These evidences testify that horse-drawn vehicles were also a mode of transport at some places. The bulk of the accessories come from Megalithic burials. Marshall states that at Taxila horse bits appear only from Parthian levels, but evidences at Rairh and Sambhar reveal however that horse bits were already in use in Western India a few centuries prior to the Christian era.

Paithan, Ter, Junnar, Karad, Nasik, etc., were the chief inland centers of trade. There were brought down to Broach from these market towns various articles, through bullock carts or on pack animals. This is further confirmed by reference in the Sanjeli plates to diiferent vehicles coming to the place such as carts, animals and vessels.