The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals and Indigenous Peoples in Canada

THE UNITED NATIONS SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS AND INDIGENOUS PEOPLES IN CANADA

Omolara O. Odulaja and Regine Halseth

SOCIAL DETERMINANTS © 2018 National Collaborating Centre This publication is available for Citation: Odulaja, O., and Halesth, for Aboriginal Health (NCCAH). This download at: nccah.ca. All NCCAH R. (2018). The United Nations publication was funded by the NCCAH materials are available free and can Sustainable Development Goals and and made possible through a financial be reproduced in whole or in part Indigenous Peoples in Canada. Prince contribution from the Public Health Agency with appropriate attribution and George, BC: National Collaborating of Canada. The views expressed herein do citation. All NCCAH materials are Centre for Aboriginal Health. not necessarily represent the views of the to be used solely for non-commercial Public Health Agency of Canada. purposes. To measure the impact of For further information or to obtain these materials, please inform us of additional copies, please contact: Acknowledgements their use. National Collaborating Centre for The NCCAH uses an external blind Une version française est également Aboriginal Health (NCCAH) review process for documents that publiée sur le site ccnsa.ca, sous 3333 University Way are research based, involve literature le titre : Les objectifs de développement Prince George, BC, V2N 4Z9 reviews or knowledge synthesis, durable des Nations Unies et les peuples Tel: 250 960 5250 or undertake an assessment of autochtones au Canada. Fax: 250 960 5644 knowledge gaps. We would like to Email: [email protected] acknowledge our reviewers for their Web: nccah.ca generous contributions of time and expertise to this manuscript. ISBN (Print): 978-1-77368-183-2 ISBN (Online): 978-1-77368-184-9

Outer Cover Photo © Credit: iStockPhoto.com, ID 629786696 Inner Cover Photo © Credit: iStockPhoto.com, ID 505923688 CONTENTS

1.0 INTRODUCTION ------4 2.0 EVOLUTION OF THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS ------6 3.0 THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS AND INDIGENOUS PEOPLES ------9 Download publications at 4.0 INDIGENOUS PEOPLES IN CANADA ------11 nccah.ca/34/Publication_Search 4.1 The determinants of health of Indigenous peoples in Canada ------12 4.2 The SDGs and Indigenous Peoples in Canada ------14 Theme 1: Socio-economic Marginalization ------14 Theme 2: Promotion of Health and Well-being ------23 Theme 3: Equality and social inclusiveness ------26 Theme 4: The Environment ------33

4.3 The importance of partnerships ------35 Télécharger des publications à ccnsa.ca/524/Recherche_de_publication 4.4 Recommendations ------36 5.0 CONCLUSIONS ------39

issuu.com/nccah-ccnsa/stacks REFERENCES ------40 1.0 INTRODUCTION

In 2015, the United Nations’ (UN) collectively provide a promising better quality of life for Indigenous Millennium Development Goals environment for change. The 2015 peoples (Trudeau, 2017b). (MDGs) agenda, which set targets election of the Liberal government, Achieving this is a responsibility and deadlines in eight areas with the under the leadership of Prime of all Canadians. Within this aim of improving the lives of the Minister Justin Trudeau, brought a current political climate, achieving world’s poorest people, came to an new federal mandate to strengthen meaningful progress on SDG targets end. They were replaced by a new, “the nation-to-nation relationship and improving the quality of life more expansive, 15-year agenda, with Indigenous Peoples, based and health outcomes for Indigenous the Sustainable Development on recognition of rights, respect, peoples is possible. Goals (SDGs), which seeks to co-operation, and partnership” eradicate poverty in all its forms (Trudeau, 2017a). Demonstrating its This report aims to assess the and address the global challenge commitment to a new relationship, current state of progress on SDG of sustainable development. The the federal government fully targets for Indigenous peoples, and SDGs include issues that both endorsed, without qualifications, suggest some ways that the SDG low and high-income countries the United Nations Declaration on agenda can be used to improve need to tackle to be sustainable, the Rights of Indigenous Peoples socio-economic and health outcomes centered around the three pillars of (UNDRIP) 2 in 2016, and promised moving forward. It reviews peer and sustainability: poverty eradication, to meet its international obligations non-peer reviewed literature from economic growth and environmental under the Declaration (International governments, non-governmental protection (Gass, 2016). Governance Innovation, 2014). organizations, national and These events, together with international websites. This review The SDG agenda comes at the release of the Truth and underscores the role poverty plays a potential turning point for Reconciliation Commission’s (2015) in the health inequities Indigenous Indigenous peoples in Canada 1, Calls to Action, bring attention to populations face and the need to who have long experienced socio- the long-standing inequities and alleviate poverty to ensure they are economic marginalization and past injustices of Indigenous peoples not left out during the period of the poorer health outcomes than non- and highlight the actions that must SDGs. Indigenous Canadians. It comes be taken to correct these, advance during a period of events that reconciliation, and bring about a

1 The terms ‘Indigenous’ or ‘Indigenous peoples’ have been used throughout this paper synonymously with the term ‘Aboriginal’ to encompass First Nations, Inuit and Métis peoples inclusively. The terms ‘Aboriginal’ or ‘Aboriginal peoples’ are used when reflected in the literature under discussion. Whenever possible, culturally specific names are used. 2 UNDRIP, adopted by the United Nations in 2007, reinforced fundamental rights and protections of Indigenous peoples that were recognized by international law but often denied by states (Mitchell, 2014). Canada was one of four countries that voted against the declaration at that time. In 2010, the Canadian government reversed its position on UNDRIP, reaffirming its commitment to strengthening relations with Indigenous peoples of Canada. However, in 2014, as other countries moved to advance the position that states should actively engage in the implementation of UNDRIP, the Canadian government adopted a regressive position.

4 The report begins with a brief history of the SDGs, how they were developed, what they are, and why they are needed. It then introduces the reader to the Indigenous peoples in Canada, and provides a brief overview of the determinants that impact their health and well-being. The paper then examines the impacts of the SDGs on Indigenous peoples. Given the interconnectedness of the SDGs, this section will be organized into four themes:

1) socio-economic marginalization (SDGs 1, 2, 8, 9 and aspects of 10); 2) promotion of health and well-being (SDG 3); 3) equality and social inclusiveness (SDGs 4, 5, aspects of 10, 11, and 16); and 4) the environment (SDGs 6, 7, 13, 12, and 14).

Finally, the paper summarizes recommendations drawn from peer- reviewed articles, policy documents, and expert opinion on ways to address some of the SDG issues identified in this report that are of relevance for Indigenous peoples in Canada.

The SDGs have their origins in targets within each of the focus of opportunities and outcomes international agreements that areas; (or lack thereof); and to focus on resulted in the establishment of 3) expanding the scope to include the entrenched structural factors the MDGs in 2000. The MDGs both rich and poor countries, that lead to inequality (DSPD, involved a commitment by leaders and n.d.). This likely contributed to the from 189 countries to improve the 4) including a framework for expansiveness of the SDG goals. lives of the world’s poorest people ensuring accountability. through the setting of 8 goals, 18 The SDGs reflect a global shift targets and 60 indicators, with a Additionally, considering that from consumption of resources target achievement date of 2015 Indigenous peoples make up to sustainable development, (UN Statistics Division, n.d.). These a significant proportion of the in acknowledgement of the targets addressed poverty, hunger, world’s poorest inhabitants, one of interrelationship between the education, gender equality, child the most important shortcomings environment and development and maternal health, infectious of the MDGs was its top-down (World Commission on diseases like HIV/AIDS and approach and the failure to involve Environment and Development, malaria, the environment, and global Indigenous peoples in identifying 1987). Issues of concern were partnerships. With the lifespan of the issues that most affect their identified at the Rio+ 20 Summit in the MDGs ending in 2015, a new health and well-being, determining Rio de Janeiro Brazil in the summer framework was needed, not only to the goals and targets to address these of 2012. The conference identified further the vision of the MDGs, issues, and establishing the most poverty as the greatest challenge but also to address new global relevant indicators (International to sustainable development, as realities, including environmental Work Group for Indigenous well as other global concerns like threats to the health of the planet Affairs, 2016). The SDGs agenda hunger, gender inequality, the and the fact that the majority of the process encouraged Indigenous socio-economic capacity of states, poorest people live in middle-income peoples and civil groups globally and environmental conservation countries (Coonrod, 2014). As such, to participate in all stages of the (Canadian Council for International while the MDGs primarily involved process, including consultations and Cooperation, 2016; UN General rich donor countries aiding poor discussions around formulating the Assembly, 2012). The conference recipient countries and focused on agenda, development of indicators, highlighted the need to integrate goals aimed at eradicating hunger implementation, follow-up and economic, social and environmental and poverty, the SDGs expanded the review of the agenda (Canadian policies in order to achieve scope and scale of this initiative by: Coalition for International sustainable development, and Cooperation, 2016; Division for resulted in a non-binding agreement 1) including four dimensions of Social Policy and Development on a set of principles known as “The sustainable development (social [DSPD], n.d.). Indigenous peoples Future We Want” (UN, 2012). development, environmental highlighted the need for the new sustainability, inclusive framework to have human rights The SDGs, encompassed in the economic development, and and equality and its core; to endorse SDG Agenda Transforming our peace and security), the fundamental concept of world: the 2030 agenda for sustainable 2) providing a more development of culture and identity; development, built on the principles comprehensive set of goals and to focus more strongly on equality agreed upon at the Rio+20

6 Summit and renewed international TABLE 1 commitment to the vision of the MDGs (UN, 2015). Endorsed by 193 countries at a United Nations’ Number Goal Summit held in New York from September 25-27, 2015, the agenda Goal 1 End poverty in all its forms everywhere. officially came in to force on January 1, 2016. The SDGs are comprised Goal 2 End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and of a set of 17 goals, 169 targets promote sustainable agriculture. and 244 indicators (including nine repeated indicators) (United Goal 3 Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages. Nations Economic and Social Council [UNSD], 2016a). The SDGs Goal 4 Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote also urgently call for proper data lifelong learning opportunities for all. collection and disaggregation to measure the achievement of these Goal 5 Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls. goals, making it easier to address any identified inequities and measure Goal 6 Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and progress towards attaining the goals. sanitation for all.

Many of the SDGs are interrelated, Goal 7 Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy with the achievement of one for all. goal and/or target facilitating the achievement of another goal. Goal 8 Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive Employment and decent work for all. For example, efforts made to end poverty and hunger (Goals 1 and 2), Goal 9 Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable will improve healthy lives (Goal industrialization and foster innovation. 3), cannot be achieved without improving education, gender Goal 10 Reduce inequality in and among countries. equality and economic growth (Goals 4, 5 and 8). Likewise, steps Goal 11 Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and taken to achieve some targets can sustainable. be detrimental to other goals, so thoughtful work needs to occur Goal 12 Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns. nationally while implementing the goals to avoid widening inequities Goal 13 Urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts. within and among countries. For example, any progress towards Goal 14 Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources building economic infrastructure for sustainable development. in a country (Goals 8 and 9) could come at the detriment of the climate, Goal 15 Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ocean bodies and biodiversity (Goals ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and 13, 14 and 15). These connections halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss. and contradictions affect the ongoing realities Indigenous peoples Goal 16 Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable face on their lands. Table 1 left lists development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, the 17 SDGs. accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels.

Goal 17 Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global partnership for sustainable development.

The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals and Indigenous Peoples in Canada 7 The SDGs are especially important to Indigenous peoples, who come from all continents in the world and have a shared story of marginalization and poor health compared to their non-Indigenous counterparts.

The SDGs are especially important All 17 of the SDGs are relevant (UN, 2015). All states agree that to Indigenous peoples, who to the health of the Indigenous Indigenous peoples should have come from all continents in the peoples, though some are arguably inclusive and quality education. The world and have a shared story of more relevant than others. However, SDGs agenda identifies the need marginalization and poor health there are currently no standalone for Indigenous peoples to work compared to their non-Indigenous goals for Indigenous peoples at together with the government and counterparts. With their focus the international level, though various stakeholders to achieve on improving the health of all Indigenous peoples are referenced the 2030 agenda. Finally, the individuals of participating states six times in the resolution (United agenda encourages states to include and eliminating socio-economic Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous peoples at national and disparities, the SDGs represent a Indigenous Issues [UNPFII], 2016). sub-national levels in the progress vision for everyone to achieve a Specifically, Indigenous peoples evaluation of all SDG goals and high standard of health irrespective are mentioned in Goals 2 and 4. targets. of sex, age, gender, race, ethnicity In Goal 2, Indigenous peoples and country. They also represent an are mentioned alongside women, opportunity to eliminate poverty farmers, pastoralists and fishers in and improve the health and well- relation to doubling agricultural being of Indigenous peoples through productivity and the incomes of action on the social determinants low-scale food producers. In Goal 4, of health, while proactively curbing Indigenous peoples are referenced some of the negative impacts of with regard to equitable education globalization on the planet for future and elimination of gender disparities. generations. The SDGs thus partially In describing the new agenda in the embody Indigenous peoples’ holistic final resolution, Indigenous peoples view of health, which encompasses are also mentioned as a vulnerable the interrelatedness of all spheres of population that must be empowered life – spiritual, physical, social and environmental.

The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals and Indigenous Peoples in Canada 9 Indigenous peoples in Canada are a relatively young population, representing a rich resource for economic development as many Indigenous people can contribute to the workforce in their respective provinces or territories.

Indigenous peoples are a culturally diverse population living in regions all across Canada. There are three constitutionally recognized Indigenous peoples: First Nations, Inuit and Métis. According to the 2016 Census, there are approximately 1.67 million identified Indigenous peoples, representing 4.9% of the Canadian population (Statistics Canada, 2017a). The Indigenous population has seen a 42.5% increase since the 2006 Census, with the Métis experiencing the largest growth over this period (Statistics Canada, 2017b). Among the Indigenous population, 58.4% identified as First Nations, 35.1% identified as Métis, and 3.9% identified as Inuit (Statistics Canada, 2017a).

Approximately 44% of First Nations with registered or treaty Indian status lived on a reserve. While the largest number of First Nations people reside in Ontario, British Columbia and Alberta, they comprise a relatively small proportion of the population in these provinces and are more heavily concentrated in the Northwest Territories, Manitoba and Saskatchewan (Statistics Canada, 2017a). Most of the Métis live in Ontario (20.5%), Alberta (19.5%), Manitoba (15.2%), and British Columbia (15.2%), primarily in urban centres, while almost three quarters of Inuit reside in Inuit Nunangat, which encompasses the four regions of Nunavut, Nunatsiavut (northern Labrador), Nunavik (northern Quebec), and Inuvialuit (Northwest Territories).

Indigenous peoples in Canada are a relatively young population, representing a rich resource for economic development as many Indigenous people can contribute to the workforce in their respective provinces or territories. The average age for Indigenous peoples is 32.1 compared to 40.9 for non- Indigenous people (Statistics Canada, 2017a). This is due primarily to a high fertility rate and lower life expectancy compared to non-Indigenous Canadians (Morency, Caron-Malenfant, Coulombe, & Langlois, 2015). While the proportions of the population that are young (14 years and under) and old (65 years and older) are nearly equal in the non-Indigenous population, at just over 15%, children comprise a considerably larger proportion of the Indigenous population, outnumbering seniors by more than 4.5, 7.0, and 2.6 times in First Nations, Inuit, and Métis populations respectively (Statistics Canada, 2017a). This population pyramid (including higher rates of young populations compared to older populations) is typical of countries with emerging economies, and/or developing and underdeveloped countries (Nargund, 2009).

The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals and Indigenous Peoples in Canada 11 © Credit: iStockPhoto.com, ID 177492616 experience (Reading & Wien, &Wien, (Reading experience peoples Indigenous inequities health the for understanding framework provideagood health of Indigenous Course the such, As course. life across a intersect and interrelated, complex, are peoples’ health of Indigenous determinants The 2017, 1). para. Organization, Health (World life” of daily conditions the shaping forces systems and set of wider the and age, and live, grow, work, born, people are which in of “conditions health”, the are determinants “social the as described often factors, These well-being. and health influence of that factors due to anumber health ofburden ill adisproportionate experience Canada people in Indigenous Canada in health Indigenous of peoples 4.1 The determinants of 12 and and social determinants social Integrated Life Integrated Life models while these factors are considered to are factors these while 2013). &Wien, However, (Reading food security and education income, employment, like factors socio-economic as well as location; water supply,housing, geographic such as environment physical the of elements of diet; and exercise alcohol abuse, lack smoking, like behaviors health such as spiritual), and emotional mental, (physical, well-being of Indigenous dimensions the four influence directly that conditions are determinants Proximal distal. and intermediate proximal, as categorized are They and well-being. health influence that component factors on the focuses of health determinants social The individual. of that health of the determinants as act and cumulative events are These adulthood. in later implications have health can of development achild’s stages early in events occurring that articulates component Course 2013). Life The determination determination self- and exclusion, social and racism colonialism, visible. These include though they not are always of apopulation even influence on the health the mostexert profound to considered factors are ...d factors considered to exert the the considered to exert factors are determinants distal Finally, 2013). &Wien, peoples (Reading of Indigenous well-being overall to the impediments are health their affect that decisions over the of lack control and turnover, staff rapid services, appropriate culturally of alack systems, educational and of health 2013).Wien, Underfunding & (Reading continuity cultural and stewardship, environmental resources, and infrastructure of community availability the systems, or education care health the such as systems structural include They determinants. of proximal origins represent the determinants Intermediate issues. root causes of the these address not will they as inadequate be will isolation in them at addressing aimed strategies health, causes of the ill be 2013). &Wien, (Reading, istal determinants determinants istal most profound influence on traumatic historical experiences are have signed treaties. The federal the health of a population even passed on to subsequent generations, government commissioned a “Truth though they are not always visible. often through child abuse and Reconciliation Commission” These include colonialism, racism (emotional, physical or sexual). Some (TRC) to investigate the decades of and social exclusion, and self- Survivors of the Residential School abuse experienced by Indigenous determination (Reading, & Wien, System passed to their children the children who attended residential 2013). Colonialism is considered to abusive forms of discipline they schools across Canada. Over the be the root of all causes of ill health experienced in these schools. These five years of its mandate (2010- for Indigenous peoples, resulting historical stressors interact with 2015), the Commission documented in a loss of land, culture, language, contemporary negative stressors such the truth of survivors, families family values and spirituality, which as poverty, food insecurity, poor and communities, culminating in contributes to despondency, loss housing, and racism, perpetuating ill the production of a final report of self-esteem, and loss of pride health in the community, the family with 94 Calls to Action to redress in cultural identity. Colonialism is and for children. Greenwood, de the legacy of these schools and not simply an historic event, but Leeuw, Lindsay, and Reading (2015) advance the process of reconciliation continues to manifest in the present argue that factors beyond the social (TRC, 2015). In 2016, the Liberal day through various political and – including spirituality, relationship Government declared its full support social policies and institutional to the land, geography, colonialism, of the United Nations Declaration racism. Some of the major colonial history, culture, language and on the Rights of Indigenous peoples policies which have had significant, knowledge systems – are especially (UNDRIP), which its Conservative and intergenerational, impacts to the important to Indigenous peoples’ predecessor had failed to endorse in health and well-being of Indigenous health and well-being. It is therefore 2007 (Fontaine, 2016). Nevertheless, peoples in Canada include the 1867 necessary that strategies to address despite a historic Canadian Human Indian Act,3 the Residential School health inequities experienced by Rights Tribunal decision which system,4 the 1960’s Scoop,5 and Indigenous peoples consider factors the current child welfare system, beyond the social, as well as events in which Indigenous children that occur over the life course of the Colonialism is not simply are drastically overrepresented population. (Aboriginal Healing Foundation an historic event, but [AHF], 2005; Lee & Ferrer, While Indigenous peoples have 2014). In an attempt to assimilate experienced some improvements in continues to manifest in Indigenous peoples, these historical the determinants that affect their the present day through and continued processes have health in recent decades, they have contributed to many of the negative also experienced some setbacks. various political and social consequences associated with the There has been a significant enduring health disparities and poor reduction in the level of poverty policies and institutional well-being of many Indigenous and great strides have been made racism. peoples and communities. Bombay, in education. Some Indigenous Matheson and Anisman (2014) communities have won legal battles explain how collective stressors and over their right to lands, while others

3 The Indian Act of 1867, imposed on Indigenous peoples by the Canadian government, established new systems of governance and control over Indigenous peoples based on principles of paternalism and assimilation, removed Indigenous peoples from their traditional lands onto small parcels of land called reserves, and redefined Aboriginal identity. 4 The Indian Residential Schools were state and church run schools where children that were forcefully taken from their homes, families and communities were educated with the intention of assimilating them into Euro-Western culture (Aguiar & Halseth, 2015). 5 The 60’s Scoop is the period from 1960 – 1969 where new child protection legislation was created allowing for the mass apprehension of Indigenous children from their communities for adoption by white families or into foster care (AHF, 2005).

The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals and Indigenous Peoples in Canada 13 found the Canadian government to group the goals into four themes: resources necessary for survival) was discriminating against First socio-economic marginalization, or relative (in relation to some Nations children by underfunding promotion of health and well-being, average standard of living within child welfare services on reserve equality and social inclusiveness, and a specific region or community) and failing to implement Jordan’s the environment. terms (Collin & Campbell, 2008; Principle,6 Indigenous peoples Lamman & Macintyre, 2016). In continue to experience racism and Theme 1: Socio-economic Canada, the various measures that discrimination, as well as inequitable Marginalization have been used to monitor poverty funding and resources for social have included the Low Income and health services. They continue Socio-economic marginalization Measure (LIM) (50% of the median to remain a socio-economically is the relegation of certain groups family income adjusted for different disadvantaged group with health of people to the outer fringes of household types and derived from disparities across a range of physical mainstream society, both socially both before- and after-tax income) and mental health issues, including and economically. This process and/or the Low Income Cut-off diabetes, obesity, cardiovascular inhibits groups from gaining equal (LICO) (family spending on food, illness, depression, suicide, and access to resources and ignores their clothing and shelter which is 20% substance abuse, among others. needs and desires, relegating them more than the amount spent by the to positions of disadvantage, thus average family) (Collin & Campbell, 4.2 The SDGs and Indigenous preventing them from developing 2008). Several other tools have been Peoples in Canada to their full potential and becoming used to measure poverty in Canada, productive members of society including the Basic Needs Measure (Schiffer & Schatz, 2008). The (cost of basic necessities), Market The SDGs, with their expansive Basket Measure (the cost of a basket reach and comprehensive targets development goals that address this theme are Goals 1, 2, 4, 8, 9 and of goods for a family of two adults across multiple domains of and two children), and the Human sustainability, have the potential to aspects of 10. Some of these goals are discussed below. Poverty Index (which estimates more holistically address the health poverty as a measure of longevity, issues faced by Indigenous peoples education and a decent standard of than previous approaches. This End poverty in all its forms everywhere (Goal 1) living rather than on income alone) section will explore the potential (Collin & Campbell, 2008). All impact of the SDGs and their these have unique advantages and relevance for Indigenous peoples In the MDGs, poverty was framed as a problem for low-income disadvantages, creating a challenge in Canada, with emphasis on the in monitoring poverty. The most goals that influence socio-economic countries. The SDGs agenda makes it increasingly clear that poverty commonly reported on by the marginalization. While a number federal government of Canada are of the goals do not perfectly fit also exists and is unacceptably high in high-income countries. LIM, LICO, and MBM (Lamman & under one specific theme due to the Macintyre, 2016). integrated nature of the SDGs, this Poverty can be defined in either discussion will nevertheless endeavor absolute (the accessibility of

6 Jordan’s Principle emerged from a jurisdictional dispute involving a young First Nations boy, Jordan River Anderson, who was born with a rare disorder that required hospitalization from birth (FNCFCS, 2016). After two years of hospitalization, doctors felt he could receive care in a medically trained family home near hospital; however, a jurisdictional dispute between the federal and provincial governments over who should pay for his at-home care resulted in his dying in hospital without ever having spent a day in his family home. As a result of his death, the House of Commons passed a motion in 2007 that affirms Jordan’s Principle, a child-first principle meant to prevent First Nations children from being denied access to or experiencing delays in essential services as a result of jurisdictional disputes regarding payment. The principle affirms that the government department of first contact will pay for the services first, and once the service has been provided, the department of first contact can seek reimbursement from another department/government (INAC, 2017).

14 2016). If only Indigenous children children 2016). Indigenous only If &Wilson, (Macdonald children non-immigrant of non-Indigenous, 13% to only compared line poverty below the were living children Métis 23% of and 25% ofNations, Inuit, First of non-status 30% Nation, First on-reserve and of60% status 18% was rate 2010, in poverty child national the while example, For inequalities. demographic and show regional also rates Poverty 2015). &Capeluck, Sirag, Sengupta, Sharpe, (Kindornay, on average to 14.9%compared of Canadians 2011 low-income as in categorized people were of25.3% Indigenous estimated an distributions, income on current based is which LIM, the Using disabilities. people with and led families single-female like populations vulnerable other remote among as regions), well as and northern in living those (especially populations Indigenous among high remain nevertheless 2016b), (UNSD, rates poverty $1.25 aday on less than living is of states poverty,’‘extreme that of Nations’ definition United not does meet the Canada While (OECD).Development and Co-Operation Economic of Organization member of countries the be among the highest of all rate wouldchild poverty were considered, Canada’s If only Indigenous children Development Index (HDI) has been been has Development (HDI) Index Human the Internationally, required. may be measure multidimensional A by individuals. experienced is how poverty capture not fully on income/cost may of living, of solely based poverty, measure 2015), aunidimensional All, for (Dignity others among unemployment, and education, childhood early or inadequate poor food insecurity, health, poor homelessness, and housing including income insecurity, realms, different in manifests poverty Since perspective. appropriate aculturally from considered be mustPoverty also 2016). &Wilson, lowest at 37% (Macdonald the has which to Quebec compared 76% 69% respectively, and Canada, in rates poverty child on-reserve highest have the Saskatchewan and Manitoba (OECD). Furthermore, Development and Co-Operation of Economic Organization of the member countries of all highest the among be would rate poverty Canada’swere considered, child The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals and Indigenous Peoples inCanada Peoples Indigenous and Goals Development Sustainable Nations United The and Northern Development Canada Development Canada Northern and Affairs (Aboriginal population this in of well-being complete picture a not was HDI providing the that and communities of Indigenous well-being the in existed variability considerable that suggested evidence However, anecdotal 2007). Beavon, (Cooke & of Canadians other that lowerscore than consistently was HDI however their increased, had Indians of Registered well-being the 1981-2001, period the Over Canada. in Indians for Registered well-being to measure used been has HDI The 2016b). (UNDP, property and employment, land to education, related access to opportunities equal of them depriving discrimination, of because disadvantages experience populations, Indigenous including 2016a). However, some groups, [UNDP], Development Programme Nations 2016 in (United territories out10th of and 188 countries globally, index on this well ranked has Canada expectancy. life and income attainment, educational – of poverty dimensions on three progress compare to assessused and 15

[AANDC] 7, 2015a/b). In response, their CWB scores compared to 1) education is measured using the federal government developed non-Indigenous communities. For two indicators (years of the Community Well-being Index First Nations communities, the schooling, children enrolled); (CWB) to examine socio-economic decline began during the 1991-1996 2) health is measured using two well-being at the community level, period, decreasing from 82% of indicators (nutrition, child which necessitated a modification communities remaining stable or mortality); and of the original HDI to account experiencing an increase in their 3) living standards are measured for unreliable or unavailable CWB scores to only 64% during the using six indicators (cooking population data for small size 2006-2011 period (AANDC, 2015a). fuel, toilet, water, electricity, communities. The CWB includes While this decline started five floor, assets) (UNDP, 2016a). education, employment, housing and years earlier for Inuit communities labour force activity dimensions. compared to First Nations, with These indicators are used to Over the period 1981-2011, the the exception of one census period, calculate a household deprivation CWB score increased for First a greater proportion of Inuit score; if the score is 33.3% or higher, Nations, Inuit and non-Indigenous communities have seen increasing the household is classified as multi- communities; however, the gap or stable CWB scores compared to dimensionally poor, while scores between Indigenous and non- their First Nations counterparts 8 greater than or equal to 50% are Indigenous communities widened (AANDC, 2015b). classified as living in severe multi- over the 2001-2006 Censuses dimensional poverty. While the MPI and continues to be substantial In 2010, a Multidimensional Poverty has been used to calculate poverty (AANDC, 2015a/b). Further, over Index (MPI) was introduced in the for 102 developing countries in the the years a greater proportion of global Human Development Report. 2015 Human Development Report, First Nations and Inuit communities This index measures the intensity of a lack of relevant data has prevented began experiencing declines in poverty through three dimensions: its use in Canada (UNDP, 2016a).

7 The AANDC department was renamed Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada in 2015. 8 The exception to this was the 1996-2001 census periods, in which the 71% of First Nations communities saw increases or remained stable in their CWB scores compared to 70% of Inuit communities.

16 SDG 1 represents a unique securing Indigenous tenure over land Poverty alleviation for Indigenous opportunity for Canada to address will be a challenging task given the populations in Canada is also poverty within its own borders. political climate, this target is vital complicated by jurisdictional Targets set under this goal describe to addressing the socio-economic issues. The federal government has how Canada can end poverty by marginalization of Indigenous jurisdiction for the provision of adopting national social protection peoples in Canada, and to sustaining services (health, education, social, systems (Target 1.3), ensuring equal their culture and way of life. legal, etc.) for status and on-reserve rights to economic resources and First Nations and Inuit living control over land (Target 1.4), and Another challenge to tackling on their traditional lands, while building the resilience of vulnerable poverty in Canada is how to measure provincial and territorial jurisdictions populations and protecting them SDG 1 in the absence of a national govern the provision of services for from adverse climatic conditions definition of poverty. The lack of a off-reserve Indigenous people. This (Target 1.5). However, poverty national measure creates a tenuous has created an inequitable service alleviation for Indigenous peoples in policy environment for monitoring provision environment, where some Canada faces several challenges. poverty nationally and among Indigenous people are able to access vulnerable groups (Harris, 2016). specific services while others are Target 1.4 represents an opportunity A comprehensive measure should not, as well as ambiguity and conflict to tackle land ownership as a source be adopted so that a transparent, over which level of government of socio-economic empowerment measureable and comparable should pay for services. While the for Indigenous peoples. However, national antipoverty framework Supreme Court of Canada’s recent the 2030 Agenda fails to specifically can be developed. In the absence Daniels decision recognized the address Indigenous ownership of such a framework, provincial rights of Métis and non-status of land in their respective states. and territorial governments will be Indians and the federal government’s Instead, the target mentions only considered as having the primary constitutional responsibility for these the “proportion of adult men and responsibility for poverty alleviation, two groups, the ruling will have no women with secure tenure rights in spite of the many avenues by immediate impact on their eligibility to land.” This failure has been which the federal government can, for programs and services currently a huge disappointment to many and does, contribute in this area. targeted at Status Indians (INAC, Indigenous peoples globally and in For Indigenous peoples, poverty 2016). However, it does set the Canada. Indicators under this target alleviation requires collaboration starting point for negotiating rights, should have included an Indigenous between the federal, provincial, treaties, services and benefits with specifier so that all countries can and Indigenous governments, the federal government. report on this. While the wealth- scholars, and representatives generating capacity of land and its from civil society. On October End hunger, achieve food security, ability to provide food security are 17, 2016, the federal government improve nutrition and promote identified in the document, 9 of announced a decision to develop a sustainable agriculture (Goal 2) 10 provinces in Canada prohibit national poverty reduction strategy the sale of hunted meat, impacting (Khanna, 2016). Many poverty The second goal calls for an end the ability of Indigenous peoples alleviation strategies have been to hunger and many variants of to earn an income form their proposed; these will be discussed food insecurity. Food insecurity is limited landownership (British in the recommendation section. It the uncertainty and anxiety about Columbia Council for International is important to note that given the household food supplies which can Cooperation [BCCIC], 2017). multi-dimensional nature of poverty, result in altered eating patterns and Notwithstanding, Indigenous strategies must be inclusive of compromises to the quality and peoples’ legal rights to their lands issues on food (in)security (Goal 2), quantity of food consumed (Chen are enshrined in the Canadian housing and homelessness, education & Che, 2001; Tarasuk, Mitchell, Constitution and in numerous (Goal 4), employment (Goal 8), and & Dachner, 2016). In extreme Supreme Court resolutions to ensure ill health (Goal 3). cases, people miss meals and go this target is achieved. Though days without food. There are four

The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals and Indigenous Peoples in Canada 17 © Credit: iStockPhoto.com, ID 1009653530 Canada, with 60% of the territory’s territory’s of 60% the with Canada, in of rate food insecurity highest the has of Nunavut territory Inuit predominantly The Maritimes. the in and North the in found rates highest the with to food insecurity, peoples contributes of Indigenous location geographic The insecure. 7.9%and were food severely food insecure, were moderately 11.8% food insecure, marginally households, 6% were Indigenous the 2016). al., et Ofhouseholds (Tarasuk to 25.7%compared of Indigenous were considered food insecure, to be households of non-Indigenous 12% 2016). 2014, al., et In Tarasuk, 2001; (Chen &Che, Canada in populations most food insecure the among to be considered peoples are Indigenous severe of forms food insecurity. aprelude to more and or deprivation of loss income markers sensitive are of forms food insecurity marginal (2016) that emphasize of Canada 2016). Dieticians al., et The (Tarasuk severe food insecurity and moderate marginal, food secure, insecurity: of food security/ dimensions 18 reduce rates of food insecurity in in reduce of rates food insecurity to potential have the strategies alleviation poverty to co-occur, tend poverty and food insecurity Since peoples. Indigenous among malnutrition and insecurity root of at the food are disintegration, family and knowledge, cultural loss food, of ways of procuring traditional from adeparture with coupled poverty, widespread and 2016). Colonization of Canada, 2016; Dieticians 2001; &Che, Chen al., et (Tarasuk illnesses mental and physical of chronic to amyriad contributed has of food insecurity level 2015). This Canada, (Statistics people of non-Indigenous 7% only to compared insecure food severely older or were moderately and years 15% and people 12 of Inuit, Métis 27% ofof Nations, off-reserve First From 2007-2010,off 22% reserve. people Indigenous affects but also on reserves, people living Indigenous for and remote communities within not is just aproblem Food insecurity 2016). al., et households (Tarasuk food insecure in living children hunting, fishing, and gathering gathering and fishing, hunting, of forms such as food production Other to biodiversity. regard limited conducted with currently is production of agricultural scale However, industrial the expertise. and production, agricultural industrial resources, of natural abundance wealth, its economic of because internationally and nationally food insecurity to tackle positioned well is Presently, Canada effective. to be are they if alleviation poverty in involvement government or territorial level ofthe provincial as well as communities, Indigenous context economic of and geographic, cultural, unique to the adapted However, must be they Canada. Indigenous peoples. Indigenous among malnutrition and the root of food insecurity at are family disintegration, cultural knowledge, and food, lossprocuring of traditionalfrom ways of coupled with adeparture poverty, widespread Colonization and 2016). 1.4) (Target (Klassen, rights of land recognition necessitate the practices improve such food production that Policies techniques. production food these from economically to benefit ability have the should communities 2016), Indigenous and (Klassen, territories Indigenous in especially encouraged, be should Housing and Homelessness need compared to 12.5% of non- Indigenous Caucasian population Indigenous households (CMHC, defines homelessness as a lack The issues of poor quality 2015), and an estimated 35,000- of stable housing, Indigenous or inadequate housing and 85,000 new homes needed to meet populations define it as the absence homelessness are not encompassed the current housing shortfall and of social, cultural, and family within any of the standalone goals, demand in First Nations reserve supports (Klodawsky, 2006). likely because they are considered communities (AANDC, 2010). Urban Indigenous people are eight a consequence or manifestation Furthermore, many of the houses in times more likely to experience of poverty. However, Target 11.1 Inuit Nunangat are social housing homelessness than non-Indigenous specifically mentions that there units (80%), with very few privately people (COH, 2017). This means should be access to adequate, safe owned homes (7%) (Knotsch that 1 in 15 urban Indigenous people and affordable housing for all people & Kinnon, 2011). Poor housing experience homelessness compared by 2030 (UNSD, 2016b). The health quality and availability leads to to 1 in 128 non-indigenous people and well-being of individuals can overcrowding. (COH, 2017). In several studies of be affected by the physical, social, homelessness in major urban centres and/or environmental dimensions Indigenous people are also more across Canada, Indigenous people of housing, including the condition likely to live in overcrowded have constituted anywhere from of the housing, its availability and housing, defined by Statistics Canada 11 to 96% of the total homeless affordability, the number of people (2008) as more than one person population within selected cities living in the household, the nature per room (Statistics Canada, 2008). (Belanger, Awosoga, & Weasel Head, of housing tenure, the proximity of The highest cases of overcrowding 2013; Belanger, Weasel Head, & housing to essential services, and are among First Nations living on Awosoga, 2012; Patrick, 2014). There household exposure to ecological reserve (27.2%) and Inuit (38.7%), are multiple pathways to becoming contaminants, among others while Métis are less likely to live in homeless, reflecting the complex (National Collaborating Centre overcrowded conditions than the interaction of individual and societal for Aboriginal Health [NCCAH], non-Indigenous population (3.1% issues at play, including transition 2017b). compared to 4.0% respectively) from reserves to urban areas, (Statistics Canada, 2015). racism, discrimination, low levels of While Indigenous people in Overcrowding is associated with a education, unemployment, mental Canada live in households that myriad of poor health conditions illness, substance abuse, family vary in condition, composition such as the transmission of acute dysfunction, community violence and location, it is well recognized and chronic infectious illnesses like and unemployment (COH, 2017). that housing is a serious issue in influenza and tuberculosis (NCCAH, Notwithstanding, most issues related Indigenous communities. The 2017b). It is also associated with to homelessness among Indigenous vast majority of Indigenous homes poorer educational attainment, sleep people are structural and have their are unsuitable, substandard and deprivation, and an increased risk roots in colonialism, historical overcrowded (Canada Mortgage of child apprehension by the child and intergenerational transfer of and Housing Corporation [CMHC], welfare system (NCCAH, 2017b). trauma. Solutions to poor housing 2011, 2013, 2015, 2016). More than and homelessness will therefore be a third of Inuit houses in northern Indigenous people different for Indigenous people than regions and 43% of First Nations disproportionately experience for non-Indigenous populations on-reserve homes require major homelessness and constitute a and among the different Indigenous repairs, compared to only 7% of significant proportion of homeless groups (Patrick, 2014). These non-Indigenous homes (Statistics populations in cities. (Canadian solutions need to recognize the need Canada, 2015). Existing housing Observatory on Homelessness for cultural and social supports infrastructure has failed to keep [COH], 2017). However, Indigenous among homeless Indigenous people pace with the growing Indigenous people may define homelessness in addition to the presence of a population, with 33% of Inuit differently from non-Indigenous physical housing structure. The identified as being in core housing populations. While the non- solutions also need to recognize the

The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals and Indigenous Peoples in Canada 19 link between homelessness and the and decolonized so that the effects economic development (61.3% vs. contributory factors discussed above. of colonization “can be healed and 66.2%), signifying a willingness of While poverty reduction strategies transcended” (Cajete, 2000, p. 181; Indigenous peoples to contribute to could include initiatives that address see also Battiste, 2002, 2004, 2013; the economy (National Aboriginal housing for the homeless, given Wildcat, McDonald, Irlbacher- Economic Development Board the magnitude of the problem Fox, & Coulthard, 2014). In order [NAEDB], 2015). Data from the of homelessness in Canada (and for education to be inclusive of 2011 National Household Survey especially among Indigenous Indigenous peoples, Indigenous (NHS) and the 2012 Aboriginal peoples), it may be more effective learning and assessment methods Peoples Survey (APS) highlights the to address the issue of homelessness and culturally relevant curriculum association between education and separately from anti-poverty must be equally valued. Decolonized employment for Indigenous peoples. measures. education is seen as being critical Employment rates are considerably for restoring a strong sense of higher for Indigenous people with Ensure inclusive and equitable quality identity and pride in Indigenous higher levels of education compared education… and promote sustained, peoples, which is central to academic to those with lower levels (though inclusive and sustainable economic success (Schissel & Wotherspoon, the difference is not as great for growth, full and productive employment 2003). The Canadian Council on Métis as it is for First Nations and and decent work for all (Goals 4 and 8) Learning (CCL) put it succinctly: “if Inuit) (Kelly-Scott & Smith, 2015). decades of Aboriginal poverty and Education is the gateway to the marginalization are to be reversed, Education is also associated with acquisition of skills and knowledge there is an urgent need to re-examine income. The higher the level of and is instrumental for alleviating what is understood as First Nations, formal education, the narrower poverty. Goal 4 recognizes the need Inuit and Métis learning and how it the income inequity gap between for early childhood development is measured and monitored” (2007, Indigenous and non-Indigenous (Target 4.2) and curricula that teach p. 3). peoples. The overall median income about human rights, gender equality, in 2010 for all levels of education and the promotion of a culture of Education is associated with was $27,866 for Indigenous people peace and non-violence (Target 4.7). employment, as higher levels of compared to $38,657 for the non- However, this goal overlooks the education generally correspond Indigenous people, with incomes many barriers that affect learning for with higher employment rates, lowest for First Nations ($23,571), Indigenous peoples that are rooted more full-time work, and greater followed by Inuit ($29,047), and in historic and contemporary impacts employment stability (OECD, Métis ($34,915) (Statistics Canada, of colonialism on educational 2011a/b). In 2011, 75.8% of non- 2015). With a postsecondary attainment. Further, it emphasizes Indigenous people aged 25 to 64 certificate, diploma or degree, the the Eurocentric knowledge (reading years were employed compared earned median income was $33,134 and mathematics) that is reflected with 62.5% of Indigenous people for First Nations, $41,379 for Métis, within mainstream education – 57.1% of First Nations, 58.6% and $42,237 for Inuit, compared systems, while failing to reflect of Inuit, 71.2% of Métis (Statistics to $44,000 for non-Indigenous Indigenous methods of learning Canada, 2015). However, a smaller people (Statistics Canada, 2015). and Indigenous knowledges. There gap existed between Indigenous and While the median income gap is recognition among Indigenous non-Indigenous people (61.3% vs. between Indigenous and non- scholars that Indigenous education 66.2%) with respect to labour force Indigenous people appears to have must be completely transformed participation,9 a key contributor to decreased somewhat between the

9 The labor force participation rate is the share of the population aged 15 years and older that is either employed or unemployed and looking for work.

20 2006 and 2011 census years, in 2011 post-secondary education compared Indigenous communities, limited unemployment rates were much to 65% of non-Indigenous people school and educational opportunities higher for Indigenous compared (Statistics Canada, 2015). While rates may force many students to leave to non-Indigenous people (15% of education have been increasing the support of their families and compared to 7.5%), and a significant for Indigenous peoples, they have communities for further education, proportion of Indigenous people also been increasing for non- something that may be particularly (36.5%) relied on government Indigenous people and the education traumatizing for younger students. transfers as a primary source of gap between these two groups has, For example, a survey conducted in income (NAEDB, 2015). Since in fact, been increasing, from 12% in 2011 found that 31% of on-reserve Indigenous people participate less in 1996 to 17% in 2011 (Parkin, 2015). First Nations students must attend the labor market compared to non- off-reserve provincial schools due Indigenous people, policy makers Indigenous children face numerous to a lack of schools on reserve; most (Indigenous and non-Indigenous) barriers to equitable education, of these were students attending should be interested in strategies operating from the individual to secondary schools (Chiefs Assembly that improve the socio-economic broader societal and environmental on Education [CAE], 2012). Multi- infrastructure within Indigenous levels. They include: faceted and multi-sectoral strategies, communities, that create jobs and are needed to address these reduce the socio-economic gap, and ∙∙ racism, discrimination, numerous barriers. This includes that improve health and well-being and the maintenance of strategies within the education generally. stereotypes within the learning sector, as well as strategies focused environment; on addressing the many socio- Education is a key to economic ∙∙ inequitable control over the economic disparities Indigenous empowerment. In order to education system by the people face, including poverty, improve educational attainment dominant culture; housing, economic development, for Indigenous peoples, attention ∙∙ language and literacy barriers; among others. must be paid to a number of SDG ∙∙ curriculum and pedagogy targets related to Goal 4. Target 4.1 that is culturally unrelated to Federally supported Indigenous stipulates that by 2030, all boys and Indigenous students’ needs; educational systems have been girls should receive free, equitable ∙∙ socio-economic marginalization chronically underfunded for many and quality primary and secondary including poverty, years. While per student funding education. Canada currently leads unemployment, poor quality varies widely across Canada and the world in terms of educational or overcrowded housing, and across First Nations schools due to attainment; however, its education malnutrition; differences in funding agreements system appears to be failing ∙∙ geography; between the federal government Indigenous students (Parkin, 2015). ∙∙ the impacts of a legacy of and First Nations bands as well Indigenous peoples generally have intergenerational trauma, as provincial jurisdiction over lower levels of education compared including poor self-esteem, education for the general student to the general Canadian population. self-concept and self-worth, on population, federal instructional In 2011, 29% of Indigenous academic achievement; and funding for on-reserve First Nations people aged 25 to 64 years had is less than provincial instructional ∙∙ inequitable funding for no ‘certificate, diploma or degree’ funding in almost every one of education (NCCAH, 2017a). compared to 12% of non-Indigenous Canada’s largest provinces 10 (20- people, and 48% of Indigenous 50% less in some parts of the peoples (55% of Métis, 45% of First Many of these barriers stem from the country) (Drummond & Kachuck Nations and 36% of Inuit) had a historic and contemporary impacts Rosenbluth, 2013). of colonialism. In rural and remote

10 Provinces assessed included, Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta and BC. In 2009, only in Manitoba did federal instructional funding for First Nations school divisions exceed that of provincial instructional funding for the general provincial population.

The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals and Indigenous Peoples in Canada 21 lacked access to additional amenities Indigenous knowledges, considered essential for supporting perspectives and student learning in the modern era, including fully equipped playing or pedagogies must be indoor fields, kitchens, science labs, libraries, and access to technology fully integrated into (CAE, 2012).

educational curricula, As improving educational attainment with Indigenous must begin in early childhood to enhance children’s future physical, knowledge validated as cognitive, emotional and social development and maximize their a full and equal partner future well-being, Target 4.2, ensuring all boys and girls have rather than being treated access to quality early childhood as an ‘add on’ or ‘other’ development, is especially important for First Nations, Inuit way of knowing and Métis children. Programs like Aboriginal Head Start (AHS) (Battiste, 2002; Munroe, Borden, Orr, provide community-based, culturally Toney, & Meader, 2013; CCL, 2007). focused, education centred on fostering the spiritual, emotional, This funding disparity is one of the intellectual and physical growth most critical factors preventing the of young Indigenous children delivery of high quality education (both on and off reserve), while services for First Nations living on supporting parents and guardians as reserve. These inequities highlight their primary teachers. Indigenous- the need for additional Indigenous- specific early childhood education specific indicators to measure programs such as AHS have resulted progress on Target 4.1 in relation in positive outcomes for children to the availability of schools and in terms of school readiness, the adequacy of school resources to improved academic performance, ensure equity in accessing quality and health behaviours (Ball and education. Moselle, 2012; Government of Canada, 2012; Mashford-Pringle, There is also a need to pay specific 2012), as well as for parents/ attention to Target 4.4, which caregivers and community members emphasizes the importance of in terms of health status, health upgrading school infrastructure, promoting behaviours, improved which is a major source of concern parenting skills and knowledge, on First Nations reserves and in and a commitment to culture and Inuit Nunangat. For example, a 2011 linguistic revitalization (Mashford- survey of on-reserve First Nations Pringle, 2012). However, access education indicated that the majority to AHS programs is inequitable of First Nations schools on reserve across Canada, with gaps in services were in a poor state of repair, 32% for children living in the smallest lacked access to clean drinking communities that lack the resources water, and a significant proportion and capacity to initiate or maintain

© Credit: iStockPhoto.com ID 836351372 early childhood education programs. with Indigenous knowledge policies such as the residential school At present, there are 88 AHS validated as a full and equal partner system, adverse social and judicial projects focused predominantly rather than being treated as an policies, and the child welfare on First Nations children (serving ‘add on’ or ‘other’ way of knowing system, many Indigenous people approximately 55% of off-reserve (Battiste, 2002; Munroe, Borden, in Canada face prevalent adverse First Nations), 57 projects focused Orr, Toney, & Meader, 2013; CCL, socio-economic conditions and a predominantly on Métis children 2007). myriad of physical and mental health (serving approximately 19% of issues. While colonialism is not the Métis), and 31 projects focused Theme 2: Promotion of Health sole cause of disease and illness predominantly on Inuit children and Well-being among Indigenous peoples, it has (serving approximately 21% of Inuit) contributed to disproportionately (Public Health Agency of Canada Poverty (and its consequences of high levels of some illnesses through [PHAC], 2017). On-reserve First food insecurity, poor housing and the creation of social, environmental Nations communities also lack homelessness) is linked to poor and economic conditions which access to early childhood education health outcomes; however, people increase the prevalence of risk programs like the AHS, with a 2011 can still perceive their health as good factors for specific illnesses. These survey revealing that 67% of First in spite of adverse socio-economic illnesses include cardiovascular Nations communities had such conditions. This is because health is diseases (hypertension, heart programs, but only 22% accessed more than the absence of physical diseases and stroke), diabetes them due to long wait lists (CAE, symptoms, but includes mental and and obesity, infectious diseases, 2012). The presence of Indigenous- social well-being. For Indigenous communicable diseases (HIV/AIDS, specific indicators on the availability peoples, health and well-being tuberculosis, sexually transmitted of quality early childhood education is conceived of holistically (as a diseases [STDs]), and cancers (Earle, programs and the proportion of balance of the mind, body and 2011; PHAC, 2011a). Indigenous students participating spirit), and it is relational, based on in such programs is needed to an individual’s connections with Ensure healthy lives and promote well- effectively address Target 4.2. his/her family, community and the being for all at all ages (Goal 3) environment (Loiselle & Lauretta, Finally, Target 4.7 focuses on 2006). In Canada, health status is The third SDG and its targets ensuring learners acquire the often measured by ‘perceived health’, highlight the need for a reduction knowledge and skills they need to a subjective measure which captures in maternal and child mortality promote sustainable development, not only physical illness but also (Targets 3.1 & 3.2), communicable including, among others, reflects well-being across dimensions and non-communicable diseases appreciation of cultural diversity of health relevant to the individual (Targets 3.3 & 3.4), preventable and of culture’s contribution to (Statistics Canada, 2016a). From injuries from accidents (Targets 3.6), sustainable development. Indigenous the Canadian Community Health and the abuse of substances such as peoples, who have a deep connection Surveys conducted between 2011 alcohol, narcotic drugs and tobacco to the land and have used its and 2014, 48.5% of First Nations, (Targets 3.5). There are striking resources sustainably for centuries, 51.8% of Métis, and 44.4% of Inuit disparities between Indigenous and have much knowledge to offer on perceived they had good health, non-Indigenous birth outcomes, sustainable development. However, compared to 62% of non-Indigenous including macrosomia, perinatal, at present, mainstream education peoples (Statistics Canada, 2016a). and infant mortality rates (Gilbert, systems in Canada do not fully Auger, & Tjepkema, 2015; Smylie appreciate cultural diversity or Health perception is influenced et al., 2010; Xiao, et al., 2016), as the contributions of Indigenous by any illnesses an individual may well as postneonatal mortality cultures to sustainable development. have, his/her socio-economic (Smylie et al., 2010). While major Indigenous knowledges, perspectives circumstances, and/or resiliency gaps exist in the quality and and pedagogies must be fully to cope. As a result of the coverage of data on birth outcomes integrated into educational curricula, intergenerational impacts of colonial for Indigenous populations, the

The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals and Indigenous Peoples in Canada 23 available information indicates that high rates of participation in prenatal injuries, including those resulting on-reserve First Nations, off-reserve care, the majority of births occurring from suicide, motor vehicle status Indians, and Inuit have safely within local communities, accidents, drowning, fire, and rates of infant mortality ranging and low rates of some adverse birth homicide, though some of these from 1.4 to 4 times that of non- outcomes (Van Wagner, Epoo, deaths may also be attributed to Indigenous infants (Smylie et al., Nastapoka, & Harney, 2007; Van alcohol and drug use (Berthelot, 2010). The disparities are greatest Wagner, Osepchook, Harney, Wilkins, & Allard, 2004; Park, among infants for the postneonatal Crosbie, & Tulugak, 2012). This Tjepkema, Goedhus, & Pennock, period, attributed to factors such as suggests that additional Indigenous- 2015; Tjepkema, Wilkins, Senécal, congenital conditions, sudden infant specific indicators may be warranted Guimond, & Penney, 2009). They death syndrome, and infections, for Targets 3.1 and 3.2, such as are also more likely to die because infant health issues that have been ones focused on the number of of cancer, diseases of the circulatory disproportionately experienced communities with birthing centres system, diabetes mellitus, and by subpopulations of Indigenous or on the proportion of Indigenous infectious diseases like tuberculosis peoples (Smylie et al., 2010). women who are able to access or other respiratory illnesses (Park, prenatal care and give birth locally. Tjepkema, Goedhuis, & Pennock, One of the challenges in reducing 2015). They are at increased risk of adverse birth outcomes for Targets 3.3 and 3.4 also have premature mortality due in part to a Indigenous populations is the considerable bearing on Indigenous greater prevalence of health behavior shortage of maternal health populations who experience risk factors such as smoking, personnel for First Nations and disproportionately high rates of alcohol abuse, obesity, and poor diet Inuit women living in isolated HIV/AIDS, respiratory infections compared to the general population; communities, preventing them from such as bronchiolitis, pneumonia and the legacy of intergenerational accessing the same level of maternity tuberculosis, influenzas, hepatitis C, trauma on mental health; as well care as Indigenous women living in among other communicable diseases as residence in rural and remote urban areas (Lalonde, Butt, & Bucio, (Alvarez, Orr, Wobeser, Cook, & locations. Again, the role of poverty 2009). Pregnant Indigenous women Long, 2014; Kovesi, 2012; PHAC, in poorer health outcomes must are routinely evacuated from such 2011b, 2015; Uhanova, Tate, Tataryn, be acknowledged, as poverty is communities to urban centres at & Minuk, 2013). There is a need to associated with food insecurity, low 36 weeks gestation to ensure their address the social origins of many levels of education, low levels of safety and that of their newborns. of these illnesses, as well as enhance health literacy, and other adverse This separates mothers from the immunization and surveillance social conditions that increase the support of their families and social strategies (Kovesi, 2012). At present, risk for preventable communicable support networks and situates Target 3.3 lacks indicators related to and non-communicable diseases. them in unfamiliar environments, rates of immunization, as well as on causing stress which can negatively the incidence of water-borne diseases Target 3.4 includes a selected affect their health and well-being. and other respiratory illnesses number of indicators on mortality There has been a movement to beyond tuberculosis. rates attributed to cardiovascular return 11 maternal care services disease, cancer, diabetes, chronic back to Indigenous communities Indigenous people in Canada are respiratory disease, or suicide. through establishing a midwifery- also significantly more likely to die It does not, however, include led collaborative model of care in prematurely than non-Indigenous indicators attributed to other birthing centres. Evaluations have people. The leading causes of causes of premature mortalities for shown promising results, including death for Indigenous people are Indigenous populations, such as

11 Midwifery was a common practice among Indigenous populations historically, but declined in the mid 1800s due to the development of the obstetrics profession and shifting attitudes about the safety of midwife-attended births (Lalonde et al., 2009). The loss of midwives coupled with the closure or reduction of maternity care services in rural hospitals across Canada since 2000 (Kornelson, Kotaska, Waterfall, Willie, & Wilson, 2010) have resulted in a loss of local maternity services in many Indigenous communities.

24 Native Alcohol and Drug Abuse and Abuse and Drug and Alcohol Native National federally-funded to the have access challenges addiction with Inuit and Nations First to. For example, entitled are reserve on services accessing Nations First Registered that interventions abuseto substance treatment related level of same services the to people may not entitled be Indigenous abuse, many substance of treatment and prevention the for strengthening Target calls 3.5 while Further, illnesses. mental other depression, and disorder, stress post-traumatic addictions, of drug prevalence alcohol and the including populations, Indigenous in of rates suicide to high contributing may be issues that health mental scope of the toneeded capture of indicators breadth the it include Targetcovered nor 3.6), does under are accidents traffic road from resulting (deaths drownings or fires racism, discrimination, language language discrimination, racism, including system, healthcare the with experiences negative had have also people Indigenous many regions, remote and rural in care specialized access to comprehensive and limited to addition In languages. and practices, cultural peoples’ beliefs, Indigenous reflects that care relevant safe and for need a culturally also is where there communities Indigenous in 2015), especially & Zimmer, Moffitt, Kilpatrick, Kulig, n.d.; (Browne, remote communities and rural in challenge ongoing an is workers of retention healthcare and 3.c).workers (Targets Recruitment care of retention health and training financing, for improved health need the highlights also goal This populations. on-reserve to limited is services these accessing for however, eligibility programs; Youth National the Solvent Abuse The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals and Indigenous Peoples inCanada Peoples Indigenous and Goals Development Sustainable Nations United The Indigenous. is workforce that health of the proportion the and training safety cultural who have taken practitioners health of non-Indigenous proportion the include may indicators specific Indigenous- workforce. such, As health the in peoples’ participation Indigenous at improving aimed strategies through and practitioners health for non-Indigenous training safety cultural overcomebe through must to care barriers these being, well- and health to improve their order issues. In health for their to seek out reluctant care be and professionals healthcare western or distrust may fear they a result, 2017). al., et As 2014; Goodman, &Hungler, Bearskin, Bourque Salas, Santos Plazas, Carmargo Pilar 2015; del Cameron, & Smylie, (Allan behaviors judgmental and harassment, intimidation, difficulties, 25

© Credit: iStockPhoto.com, ID 585612334 © Credit: iStockPhoto.com, ID 472711634 access to education and employment and access to education inequitable and discrimination, racism, including inclusion, social and to equity barriers persistent face populations Indigenous 2013). (SSCSAST, opportunities access choice to and about having and isolated, about not feeling acknowledged, contribution that having and life community to aboutbut contributing also resources, financial sufficient having 2013, p. 6). It not is solely about Technology and [SSCSAST], Science Affairs, on Social Committee Senate Standing in 2007, cited as (CMHC, dimensions political and cultural encompasses social, and reside”, they which in society the involved in fully are demographic) and physical (both communities or individuals which in situation “the as defined is inclusion Social inclusiveness Theme 3: Equality and social 26 equal and full participation in in participation full and equal 5.4), work domestic (Target and of unpaid 5.3), recognition (Target of forced marriages elimination 5.2), (Target violence gender-based of forms of all 5.1), elimination (Target girls women and against to discrimination end for an 5calls Goal SDG agenda, the In all women andgirls(Goal 5) Achieve andempower genderequality themes. other in collectively captured is 11context for cities) Goal (inclusive Indigenous-specific any and section earlier an in education) discussed is in inclusiveness social and (equality 4 Goal peoples, as to Indigenous pertain they as societies) 16 (peaceful countries), and among and 10 (within equality), 5(gender on Goals focus will section This discriminatory. being as seen be can that policies and laws as well as opportunities, to for life achieve abetter or family environments them abusive to leave allowing determination, self- and empowerment independence, economic of for achieving ameasure and income critical are education issues to related equity addressing women, For many Indigenous cited in Carter, 1996; & McGrath Carter, in cited 1986, as (Jamieson, communities of their survival cultural and physical to the contributions vital made and decision-making, and resolution conflict involved in were leadership, determining in role,economic were crucial households, essential played an but of heads were often activities, out domestic not only carried they Before colonization, communities. Indigenous roles in played vital women Indigenous Historically, of forms discrimination. multiple face and Canada in populations most marginalized the among are women who to Indigenous respect with pertinent especially is goal 5.c). (Target This girls women and empowerment for and equality promote gender that legislation and of adoption policies the and 5.5), (Target spheres country of the public and economic political, them and their children. Stevenson, 1996). Women were and socio-economic marginalization, have not always translated into revered and respected in many have differentially impacted the gender equality in salaries paid, the Indigenous communities, and family health and well-being of Indigenous political discourse, or in the home. breakdown and violence against women. Indigenous women In spite of the positive proportional women were not commonly reported experience disproportionately higher relationship between the level of (Aboriginal Justice Implementation rates of violence and trauma in their degree earned and take-home pay, Commission [AJIC], 1999). However, homes compared to Indigenous men Indigenous women continue to historical circumstances have shaped and non-Indigenous women, and earn less than Indigenous men. In how Indigenous women are regarded they are more likely to experience 2011, Indigenous women earned in society, the social, political and poverty and disadvantage compared $7000 less than Indigenous men (a economic realities of their lives and, to Indigenous men (Halseth, 2013). gender gap that also existed between in turn, their physical, emotional and This makes it challenging to address non-Indigenous men and women) mental health. Following European the issues that affect their health and (NAEDB, 2015). They also received settlement in what we now call well-being and achieve equity with a larger share of their income from North America, colonial authorities Indigenous men and within broader government transfers than men (25% imposed a new social structure that Canadian society. Addressing the of women’s income compared with eroded Indigenous cultural values myriad of issues and inequities that 13% of men’s income) (NAEDB, and gender roles (Halseth, 2013). Indigenous women face will be 2015). For many Indigenous women, As a result of this new structure, critical to re-establishing healthy addressing equity issues related to not only were Indigenous people families and communities, as they education and income are critical for considered an inferior class of are the primary caregivers. The achieving a measure of economic people within Canadian society, but implementation and monitoring independence, empowerment and Indigenous women were considered of Goal 5 within Indigenous self-determination, allowing them to an inferior gender within that communities will therefore augment leave abusive family environments or inferior class (AJIC, 1999). The work that has already begun to to achieve a better life for themselves adoption of the Constitution Act address the inequities that women and their children. and subsections of the Indian Act face. replaced the matrilineal system A gender-based gap also exists with a patriarchal one, and stripped Presently, Indigenous women’s in political participation, with First Nations women of their role in the community is enhanced Indigenous women under- rights to land and, in some cases, by improved access to education, represented in governments and in their legal identity as First Nations employment and leadership local leadership roles. While some women.12 Even though some of the opportunities. In 2011, a higher Indigenous women have participated discriminatory aspects of the Indian proportion of Indigenous women in politics at multiple levels and Act have since been revoked, First had obtained a university degree made significant contributions to Nations women still face multiple compared with Indigenous men their communities, Nations, and forms of racism and discrimination, (Statistics Canada, 2016b). This Canada at large, there is a need and the damage done to their image included 11.1% of First Nations, to encourage more Indigenous and role in Indigenous societies 13.9% of Métis and 6.8% of Inuit women to participate in leadership cannot be easily corrected. women (Statistics Canada, 2016b). roles. Programs such as Ontario’s This means that Indigenous “Building Aboriginal Women’s The intergenerational impacts of women were twice as likely to have Leadership” aim to address healing colonial policies like the imposition a university degree compared to from the harmful historical and of the residential school system, past Indigenous men. Unfortunately, current conditions of oppression and current child welfare policies, these higher rates of education and racism that Indigenous women

12 Indigenous women who married non-Indigenous men were no longer considered Indians according to the constitution, but the reverse was not the case with Indigenous men who married non-Indigenous women.

The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals and Indigenous Peoples in Canada 27 © Credit: iStockPhoto.com, ID 73373619 for the complexity of violence complexity for the account do not fully also indicators and targets current The limited. very (employment, etc.) education, are opportunities in to equity related indicators and to pay equity related no indicator currently is there girls, women and exclusion for Indigenous social and of inequity dimensions multiple capture indicators current the While societies. inclusive and 16a to peaceful related Goal achieve to needed also is participation (2016), women’s meaningful noted by Woroniuk Lafrenière and As families. and women, children of well-being and health the impact that policies influence roles, they these In industry. care health the in and universities across Canadian employedwomen are scholars as Indigenous many Additionally, of influence. of positions womenrepresentation in under- the byface addressing 28 carried unique responsibilities that that responsibilities unique carried and communities Indigenous in honoured and respected widely people were two-spirited past, the people. In “two–spirited” to as referred typically are questioning or LGBQT as themselves identify who individuals Canada, people in Indigenous Among girls. and do women as marginalization socio-economic unique, albeit who similar, face often community, questioning the and (LGBQT) transgendered queer, gay, bisexual, lesbian, like populations minority it as omits era modern the in inadequate is lens gender This issue of the gender. address targets the which with nature binary the reflecting on girls, women and primarily 5is of emphasis Goal The challenging. may be abusive situation an leaving where communities, Indigenous remote and rural women in against to the need for gender equality. for need equality. gender to the ofgroup people refers but inclusively this for recommendation specific not does any make SDG agenda The suicide. and abuse, substance issues, health offorms mental violence, of rates multiple high including well-being, and health to their considerable left impacts has This 2016). (Hunt, Indigeneity their as and/or well as sexual identity gender on their based of marginalization forms intersecting and multiple it with replaced and society in position revered previously their have diminished colonization 2016). of However, impacts the of (Hunt, Nations well-being collective to the were important in non-inclusive societies. While While societies. non-inclusive in racism and discrimination, health, low poor of levels education, poverty, including to correct intends SDG agenda the inequities very by the affected people are spirited two- spite that fact of in is the This Public services on reserve, including education, health care, and social services, among others, have been chronically underfunded for years, resulting in considerable disparities in health and well-being for Indigenous children and families. © Credit: iStockPhoto.com, ID 508952990 © Credit: iStockPhoto.com,

the SDG agenda lacks reference policies and practices and promoting resulting in considerable disparities to LGBQT populations, LGBQT appropriate legislation, policies in health and well-being for activists nevertheless interpret the and actions in this regard.” This Indigenous children and families. In term “gender” to apply to the unique dimension of inequity is unique to response to inequitable funding in situation of this group of people. Indigenous peoples, as no other the child welfare system, in which It is hoped that at a national level, ethnic group in Canada has been, Indigenous children are vastly targets and indicators can specifically and continues to be, subjected to over-represented and constitute address their health and well-being such a long history of discriminatory almost half of all children in foster (Dorey, 2016). laws and policies, as well as human care (Turner, 2016), in 2007 the rights violations. First Nations Child and Family Reduce inequality within and among Caring Society [FNCFCS] of countries (Goal 10) Indigenous peoples in Canada have Canada and the Assembly of First had a long history of colonialism Nations (AFN) filed a human rights SDG 10 includes multiple which has left them socially, complaint against the Canadian dimensions of inequality, including economically and politically government. Despite the tribunal’s income; social, economic and marginalized. This includes the ruling on January 26, 2016 that political inclusion; participation in Indian Act of 1867, the forced the government had, in fact, decision-making, laws, policies and removal of Indigenous children into been discriminating against First practices; among others. Many of residential schools, the dispossession Nations children by underfunding these dimensions are targeted at of Indigenous lands and forced child welfare services on reserve underdeveloped countries, while relocations to reserves, and other and failing to implement Jordan’s others (such as aspects of income laws, policies and practices aimed Principle, the federal government inequality and social, economic at assimilating Indigenous peoples continues to fail to properly comply and political inclusion) have been into the mainstream and weakening with the ruling (AFN, 2016). discussed in other sections as they their societies, economies and pertain to Indigenous peoples in governments (Moss & Gardner- The dispossession of Indigenous Canada. This section will focus O’Toole, 1987; Orkin, 2003). Public peoples’ from their lands has also primarily on Target 10.3, “ensure services on reserve, including been a well-recognized contributor equal opportunity and reduce education, health care, and social to the inequities Indigenous inequalities of outcome, including services, among others, have been peoples face. Various Supreme by eliminating discriminatory laws, chronically underfunded for years, Court judgements have stipulated

The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals and Indigenous Peoples in Canada 29 that unceded Indigenous lands and Indigenous populations. It is hoped discrimination and racism that rights require specific legislation that a 2016 ruling by the Supreme Indigenous peoples experience or agreements to extinguish Court of Canada, known as the within economic, social and political them, and that they cannot be Daniels Decision, which declared settings; through federal and distinguished without consultation that Métis and non-status Indians provincial laws, policies, and services with Indigenous peoples and are ‘Indians’ under section 91(24) of provision; within law enforcement, their consent. Additionally, the Constitution (INAC, 2016), will justice, education, child welfare, and Aboriginal and treaty rights have rectify this contradiction and ensure health care systems; in the media; been entrenched into Section the federal government assumes its and elsewhere. This indicator also 35 the Constitution Act of 1982. fiduciary duty to them and ensures fails to account for the deep power Nevertheless, there have been they are consulted and negotiated imbalances which exist between many instances of failing to protect with in good faith on issues that Indigenous and non-Indigenous Indigenous peoples’ lands and affect them. peoples. Addressing these sources of resource rights in the face of natural inequity for Indigenous peoples will resource extraction and development The examples above are but a require structural change, as well as activities. Some scholars even select sample of the legal, policy, developing a deeper understanding argue that the intention of and practice context of inequities among non-Indigenous populations comprehensive land claims is not for Indigenous peoples in Canada of the underlying sources of socio- to recognize Indigenous rights, and highlight the importance of economic marginalization and health but rather to serve as another Target 10.3. However, there is only inequities for Indigenous peoples tool for dispossessing Indigenous one indicator by which this target and the role that power plays in peoples of their lands due to the is measured: “the proportion of perpetuating them. power resource development the population reporting having companies and non-Indigenous personally felt discriminated Promote peaceful and inclusive societies governments are able to exert against or harassed within the 12 for sustainable development, provide over economically disadvantaged months on the basis of a ground access to justice for all and build Indigenous communities seeking to of discrimination prohibited effective, accountable and inclusive enhance well-being for heir citizens under international human rights institutions at all levels (Goal 16) (see for example, Samson, 2016). law.” While this indicator may be Additionally, there is also the issue sufficient for capturing isolated Sustainable development is of recognizing Métis indigenous instances of discrimination and/ intricately connected to peaceful rights, something which continues or harassment as reported to and inclusive societies (UN, to be in contradiction with the Human Rights Tribunals or the 2015). When people are able to Canadian Constitution’s recognition justice system, it is insufficient for live without fear of violence or of Métis as one of three distinct capturing the scope and scale of discrimination, have equal access

30 © Credit: iStockPhoto.com, ID 180717498 © Credit: iStockPhoto.com,

to the resources they need to women having the highest rates of Girls. Supported by nearly $200 contribute to their communities gender-based violence in Canada million, the Action Plan supports and society at large, and when their (Amnesty International, 2014). a range of initiatives and measures communities enable them to flourish Indigenous women are three times aimed at preventing violence spiritually, culturally, emotionally more likely to report violence by supporting community level and intellectually, it creates an than non-Indigenous women, and solutions; supporting Indigenous environment where innovation is the forms of the violence they victims of violence by providing encouraged and economic growth experience are more likely to be appropriate services; and protecting can occur. SDG 16, with its 12 severe and result in injury or death Indigenous women and girls by targets, addresses human rights and (Brennan, 2011). Indigenous women investing in shelters and improving the ways political and legal systems comprise a disproportionate number Canada’s law enforcement and justice can protect them (Craig, 2016). In of missing and murdered women systems (Government of Canada, particular, this goal calls for an end cases in Canada. As of April 2015, 2014a). Funding for innovative to violence, child abuse (Target 16.2), 10% of all missing women were community-based and school-based as well as for non-discriminatory Indigenous, yet Indigenous women initiatives that reduce vulnerabilities policies and inclusive representation make up 4% of the female Canadian to violence and awareness and participation across all levels population (Arriagada, 2016). The activities aimed at breaking of governance (Target 16.7). The most common cause of violence intergenerational cycles of violence historical practices of European against Indigenous women is lateral and abuse affecting Indigenous colonial settlement have had major violence 13 (Royal Canadian Mounted women and girls is made available consequences for Indigenous Police, 2015), which is traced to through the Justice Partnership and women, children, youth, families the influence of colonization and Innovation Program - Violence against and communities in the form intergenerational trauma. Aboriginal Women and Girls initiative of high rates of violence against (Government of Canada, 2016a). Indigenous women, child abuse, and This issue has received considerable Nevertheless, it is clear that policies incarceration. policy attention. On September that address gender-based violence 15, 2015, the federal government must recognize the interrelated Violence against Indigenous women announced a five-year Action Plan nature of this form of violence with has been identified as a national to Address Family Violence and Violent poverty, housing, homelessness and human rights crisis, with Indigenous Crimes against Aboriginal Women and child abuse.

13 Lateral violence is a learned behavior where people abuse their own people in ways similar to how they have been abused in the past.

The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals and Indigenous Peoples in Canada 31 © Credit: iStockPhoto.com, ID 55600694 © Credit: iStockPhoto.com,

The impacts of colonialism have also of Canada, 2015; Green, 2017). are the result of intergenerational led to disproportionately higher rates Compared to non-Indigenous trauma (AHF, 2005; Government of exposure to the child welfare, Canadians, Indigenous offenders are of Canada, 2014b). To address these judicial and criminal justice systems. younger, have less formal education, issues, the criminal, judicial and Indigenous children account for less and are more likely to have a child welfare systems must be made than 6% of the child population in previous history of substance abuse more culturally appropriate and Canada, but comprise an estimated and/or addiction, a mental illness, sensitive (AHF, 2005; Government 26% of children placed in out-of- a previous youth sentence, and a of Canada, 2015). This requires home care (Government of Canada, history of domestic and/or physical utilizing more holistic approaches 2015). In some provinces and abuse and gang related offences that incorporate Indigenous territories, this percentage reaches (Government of Canada, 2015). worldviews and practices and 60% to 78%. In fact, First Nations These rates of incarceration are foster self-determination, such children are two and a half times expected to continue to rise because as Indigenous Justice Systems,14 more likely to be placed in out-of- they are predominantly youth- sentencing circles, family home-care than non-Indigenous driven. The unique circumstances conferencing circles, and kinship children (Blackstock, Brown, & and social histories of Indigenous care. However, there may be cases Bennet, 2007). Children placed in peoples, and their interaction with where Indigenous approaches out-of-home care are reported to colonial settlers, gives rise to higher may not be wanted or work well; experience cultural abuse, physical and unequal rates of offending and therefore, in cases where Indigenous abuse, sexual abuse and mental victimization. This is aggravated people must still interact with illnesses. further by child welfare, judicial, mainstream child welfare, judicial and criminal systems that are and criminal systems, there is a need Indigenous people are also dominated by the worldviews, for practices that will make their increasingly over-represented in languages and structures of the interactions more culturally safe the prison system. In 2015, they colonizer and fail to take into and improve trust and relationships, comprised 24.4% of the inmate account the root causes of high such as system-wide cultural safety population in federal penitentiaries incarceration and child apprehension training, use of interpreters, or compared to 4.3% for the Canadian rates – namely socio-economic Indigenous legal representatives. population, an increase of 50% over marginalization, substance abuse, the preceding decade (Government and family violence, all of which The SDGs are fundamental to

14 Indigenous Justice Systems or programs are community-based justice systems that offer alternative legal proceedings to mainstream justice processes to assist Indigenous people exert greater responsibility over the administration of justice in their communities (Department of Justice, 2017).

32 achieving equity and fairness in the brief description of the impact of (Levasseur & Marcoux, 2015). child welfare, criminal and justice Goals 6 and 13 on the health and SDG 6, and its associated targets, systems. Target 16.b requires the well-being of Indigenous peoples. is therefore an important goal for promotion and enforcement of non- Indigenous peoples in Canada over discriminatory laws and policies, Ensure availability and sustainable the next fifteen years. including reformation of the police management of water and sanitation for system and policies that address all (Goal 6) The Government of Canada is racism. It also requires addressing committed to providing safe issues of child and adult education, With approximately 7% of the drinking water and sanitation for meaningful employment, and world’s total renewable freshwater all its citizens, and to preserving accessible health and social services supply, Canada has an abundance waterways and ocean-based if Canada is to effectively decrease of available water (Government species. One of the goals in the the rates of Indigenous offenders of Canada, 2017a). Water is Federal Sustainable Development and make Indigenous communities very important to resource Strategy (FSDS) is the provision and Canada more peaceful and safe extraction, energy generation, of safe drinking water to affected for all (Green, 2017). Additionally, and manufacturing industries in Indigenous communities. The Target 10.3 and it associated Canada. It is linked to several SDGs, government hopes to do this by indicator, which focuses on the including sustainable production investing in water infrastructure, reporting of discrimination and of energy (SDG 7), infrastructure engaging in sustainable agricultural harassment, could also be used to and technology development (SDG practices, and protecting the lakes improve the monitoring of instances 9), economic growth (SDG 8), and waters in partnership with of the implementation of Jordan’s and sustainable production and Indigenous peoples. The target is Principle to enhance equity and consumption patterns (SDG 12). that by March 31, 2019 and March fairness in child welfare and health. Changes in the climate (SDG 13) 31, 2021, 60% and 100% respectively and marine and ocean biodiversity of the DWAs affecting First Nation Theme 4: The Environment (SDG 14) are also linked to communities will be resolved water conservation. Despite this (Government of Canada, 2016b). Economic growth, social issues and abundance of water, the availability Similarly, the federal government the environment are inter-related. of safe drinking water is not resolves to preserve lakes and Preservation of the environment equitable across Canada. rivers by reducing pollution at is an integral part of sustainable the source, limiting the use of development, as industrialization The availability of safe drinking phosphate in household cleaning and economic growth can water is a critical issue affecting agents, monitoring water quality, have detrimental effects on the the health of many Indigenous investing in infrastructure, and environment if not checked. The communities. Between 2004 and enforcing national regulations they environment in which people live 2014, 400 of 618 First Nations developed on sewage treatment in can also have detrimental effects on communities were under Drinking collaboration with the provinces their wealth and well-being. Water Advisories (DWA), which and municipalities (Government of required that they boil their water Canada, 2016b). SDGs related to the environment before drinking it (Levasseur & include SDG 6 (water and Marcoux, 2015). At the end of Nevertheless, achieving this goal will sanitation), 7 (energy), 12 (sustainable 2016, an estimated one in four be challenging in light of the federal consumption patterns), 13 (climate), First Nations communities were government’s acceptance of all but 14 (oceans, seas and marine under a DWA (Lui, 2017a). Some 11 recommendations proposed resources), and 15 (preserving communities have been under a by the Standing Committee on terrestrial species and ecosystems). DWA for a very long time; for Transport, Infrastructure and While a detailed discussion of these example, the Neskantanga First Communities related to the goals is beyond the scope of this Nation in Ontario has had unsafe Navigation Protection Act tabled in report, this section will provide a drinking water for over 20 years the House of Commons on March

The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals and Indigenous Peoples in Canada 33 23, 2017 (Government of Canada, Challenging decisions and tradeoffs In 2014, the Department of 2017b). In 2012, a decision by the like these need to be made over Environment in Nunavut released a Harper Conservative Government the course of the next 15 years. It report on the challenging situation to remove 99% of lakes and rivers is important, therefore, to realize posed by climate change for Inuit from the list of protected waterways that economic growth will come at in the territory (Government of was reflected in a renaming of the a cost not only to the environment, Nunavut, 2014). This report revealed Navigable Waters Protection Act but to the Indigenous communities that air and ocean temperatures in to the Navigation Protection Act living on and depending on the the region are rising at two times the (NPA). land. Preservation of our waterways global rate. This rise has resulted in should be seen as an action that changes to the distinctive features of Environmentalists hoped that the impacts all Canadians. the land, seas, ice and biodiversity, in new Liberal government would act turn affecting food security, shelter, on its campaign promises to restore Take urgent action to combat climate and the supply and availability of lost protections and incorporate change and its impacts (Goal 13) clean air and safe water. Inuit culture more modern safeguards (Lui, is also affected by this change, with 2017b). Rather than restoring Across Canada, adverse climate many Elders reporting that changes protections, however, the changes have led to a rise in global in climate do not fit with their federal government accepted the air and ocean temperature, rising traditional knowledge of the weather Committee’s first recommendation sea levels, and frequent and severe and land area, which is affecting to “maintain the Schedule 15 but wildfires, storms, heat waves and traditional activities such as hunting, rapidly improve the process of pest outbreaks. These climatic fishing, and gathering (Government adding waterways to the Schedule changes affect all Canadians, of Nunavut, 2014). Biodiversity loss by making it easily accessible, easy to but uniquely affect northern is exacerbated by the introduction use and transparent” (Government Indigenous peoples because of of new species or organisms that of Canada, 2017b, p. 4) This their remoteness and their strong can lead to new diseases. Unstable decision effectively indicates that relationship to the land. Climate ice roads resulting from a change in the government is choosing the change has the potential to impact temperature also increase the risk privatization of resources over traditional lifestyles, resource of physical injuries (Government of the preservation of ecology by development, and conservation, Nunavut, 2014). While much of the approving the activities like the as well as infrastructure related to research on climate change impacts Trans Mountain pipeline, the Site transportation, water and waste is focused on northern Indigenous C mega dam, and Trans Canada’s disposal, housing, and health people, southern Indigenous people NOVA gas pipeline (Lui, 2017a). (Ogden & Johnson, 2002). For are also greatly impacted by the This means that private industries example, in northern Ontario, a effect of climate change, including approved by the government can region of 24,000 people of whom increased safety risks resulting from extract resources and inadvertently 90% are First Nations (Government increased weather-related events pollute these waterways without of Ontario, 2017), warm winter like flooding and wildfires, loss of any recourse to their actions. weathers resulting from climatic traditional foods and medicines, loss This decision was made in spite changes have led to delays in the of Indigenous knowledge related to of the present government’s formation of ice roads, stopping all traditional food gathering activities, international commitments to development projects, reducing food loss of cultural sites due to rising sustainable development and over supplies and the provision of diesel sea levels, and other impacts on Indigenous peoples’ concerns that for use as energy, and blocking the traditional Indigenous economies the NPA violates their treaty and transportation of building materials which perpetuate poverty and water rights (and thus violates the required for building a nursing inequality (Center for Indigenous UNDRIP) (Suzuki & Barlow, 2017). center at Sandy Lake First Nation Environmental Resources, 2009). Community (Porter, 2017).

15 The ‘Schedule’ refers to the list of water bodies currently protected under the Navigation Protection Act.

34 Adapting to the impacts of climate settler allies to improve relationships For partnerships to be successful change is therefore a priority for within Canada. It was a recognition in tackling actions on the many Indigenous communities. of the abuse Indigenous peoples SDGs, there must be a collective Partnerships formed both locally and have suffered and a desire to foster acknowledgement of the past and nationally are integral to tackling the relationships to right the wrongs awareness of where the country impacts of climate on the health and done to Indigenous peoples over the wants to go; efforts must be made well-being of Indigenous peoples. previous decades. to engage and build consensus with Indigenous peoples; and 4.3 The importance of Partnership occurs when people community-driven and nation-based come together to advance mutual programs that involve working with partnerships interests through collaboration and Indigenous peoples rather than for cooperation. This collaboration them must be emphasized (Johnson, Partnership remains one of the cannot be based on “us” and Ulrich, Cross & Greenwood, cornerstones of the SDG resolution. “them” narratives, but rather on 2016). Furthermore, increasing Goal 17 aims to “strengthen the complementary actions to redress Indigenous peoples’ involvement means of implementation and poverty nationally and among in decision-making by increasing revitalize the global partnership Indigenous peoples, and to narrow their representation in leadership, for sustainable development.” the socio-economic and health along with a renewed commitment This includes partnerships gaps between Indigenous and to improving health and social within and between countries. non-Indigenous populations. Phil services for communities on reserve, In Canada, partnerships may Fontaine, a consultant on the off reserve and in urban areas, is include collaborations among national and international scene on key to achieving the 2030 agenda. different Indigenous Nations and Indigenous issues, a member of the Building effective partnerships will communities, and relationships Board of Directors of the Pierre also entail cutting across all levels between settler allies and Indigenous Elliot Trudeau Foundation, and a of government, health and social peoples. Partnerships between three-time appointed National Chief systems, and involving leadership Indigenous people in Canada of the Assembly of First Nations said and frontline workers. This system- and various international actors, that reconciliation: wide transformation is possible when or among different groups of respectful relationships are formed. Indigenous people, are beyond the includes knowing, it includes learning, it scope of this report; instead, this includes understanding and accepting the section will focus on partnerships truth of the situation…. we have to and collaborations among change our origin story, we have to Indigenous and settler peoples, and change the narrative, we must accept among various levels of government. reality, the reality that becomes part of As a result of Canada’s tragic history our history and that includes… with Indigenous peoples, we must addressing this notion of nation to go beyond the global targets set by nation relationship. (Fontaine, 2015) the UN to identify partnership goals that will foster our ability to achieve the SDGs for Indigenous peoples by 2030. The Truth and Reconciliation Commission set up by the Harper government in 2008 was a step towards establishing partnerships between Indigenous peoples and

The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals and Indigenous Peoples in Canada 35 4.4 Recommendations

A number of recommendations emerged from the literature, policy documents, and experts on how to address some of the SDG issues identified in this report of relevance for Indigenous peoples in Canada. Underscoring these recommendations is a recognition that poverty and inequitable access to services are crosscutting themes that resonate with the four major categories of SDGs. The recommendations include:

Poverty alleviation among Federal government spending Innovative solutions should Indigenous peoples should be for poverty eradication should be be developed to the restrictive redefined from the narrow, holistic, encompassing funding policies that prohibit the sale income-based, individualistic in early childhood education and of land on reserve areas 16 and perspective framed in the SDG care, food security in northern and other preventative measures that document to reflect community remote areas, housing, education, address homelessness such as poverty, and should be framed and transportation infrastructure, unemployment, low education and as a human rights issue (BCCIC, as well as income assistance the high rates of incarceration. 2017; Dignity for All, 2015) such for low-income individuals and that the strategies employed do families living below the poverty Indigenous-specific SDG not tackle poverty alleviation as a line (Dignity for all, 2015). targets and indicators should be charitable venture (BCCIC, 2017). developed, including targets on This national poverty framework In addition to a national poverty community poverty, food security, requires consultation with strategy, a national housing/ health and well-being, education, academia, civil society, vulnerable homelessness strategy is currently gender equality, water and populations, Indigenous peoples and under development. This strategy sanitation (UNPFII, 2016). communities which will be impacted should be framed as a human by the anti-poverty policy. rights issue (BCCIC, 2017; Dignity While the federal government for All, 2015). Additionally, has recently released its Strateg y Since all provinces and territories it should include increased to Address Gender-based Violence,17 have an antipoverty plan (with the accountability and collaboration it does not appear to focus on exception of British Columbia), this among government officials and the structural or root causes national anti-poverty framework corporate/NGO actors; improve of violence against Indigenous should be integrated into what and increase shelter standards; women, nor on the specific already exists within the provinces address capacity challenges and challenges they face in dealing or territories and complement lack of staffing; increase housing with, or leaving, abusive situations. existing strategies (Dignity for All, options for the homeless; and A uniquely Indigenous strategy 2015). incorporate a concerted public is needed to target gender- health response to alcohol and based violence in Indigenous drug use, such as promoting communities, which is a efficiently run alcohol and needle significant cause of poverty among exchange programs (Patrick, 2014). Indigenous women and children.

16 In response to “restrictive policies that put Indigenous Peoples at a disadvantage in the housing market (preventing them from buying or building their own homes), Six Nations First Nation has used Certificates of Possession (CPs) to allow community members to lawfully possess land tracts on reserves. CPs are then used to obtain home building or improvement loans under two housing programs administered by Six Nations (the Six Nations Revolving Loan Fund and the Bank of Montréal and Royal Bank On-Reserve Housing Loan Programs)” (Alcantara 2005 as cited in Patrick, 2014, p. 16). 17 See http://www.swc-cfc.gc.ca/violence/strategy-strategie/index-en.html

© Credit: iStockPhoto.com, ID 457755791 Self-determination (the right Social assistance to northern and All of the 94 Calls to Action to make decisions on activities, remote Indigenous communities identified by Truth and health and well-being) and self- must be increased. Reconciliation Commission must governance should be included in be implemented (see TRC, 2015). the measurement of indicators of Federal spending must be poverty among Indigenous peoples increased to address food Finally, efficient data systems (BCCIC, 2017). insecurity for First Nations, Inuit are needed to track the progress and Métis peoples. made to achieve the SDG The UNDRIP that was adopted in goals (UNPFII, 2016). This 2016, especially sections related to The beneficial gains of partnership involves building capacity within Indigenous peoples’ right to self- within and between Indigenous Indigenous organizations and governance, should be implemented communities, non-Indigenous standardizing the terms of data by the federal government (BCCIC, communities, governments, collected to ensure transparency 2017). universities, industries and and comparability among others must be harnessed to Indigenous communities and Effective strategies should be ensure sustainability. Examples across Canada. In order to developed to address the high school of successful partnerships track progress to achieving the dropout rates among Indigenous between Indigenous peoples and SDGs, there is also a need for a youth. governments include the “Haida centralized national system or Watchmen” and “West Coast website to highlight Canada’s Investments must be made to Trail Guardians;” two initiatives progress in meeting the SDGs. improve educational infrastructure that ensured responsible use of This platform can act as a one- on reserve to levels that are equal to resources (one a fishery, the other stop place to access all the links those off reserve. a national park) while providing for other websites that report on employment for the surrounding Canada’s progress in attaining the The fairness of judicial hearings and Indigenous communities (Lowan- seventeen goals. the overrepresentation of Indigenous Trudeau, 2016.18 peoples in prisons must be addressed by investing in Indigenous judicial systems and correctional services that offer a holistic approach to the reintegration of offenders.

18 Other partnership examples include the Whitecap Dakota, Muskeg Lake Cree, and Lac La Ronge First Nations who came together to develop a golf course and a casino (Government of Canada, 2010), as well as the many successful partnerships that various Mi’kmaq bands have established with their non-Indigenous neighbouring communities, other levels of governments and departments, universities, and industries to support economic development (Lori Ann Roness Consulting, 2010).

The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals and Indigenous Peoples in Canada 37 The goal of the sustainable development agenda is to leave no one behind.... In Canada, the legal precedence of a nation-to-nation agreement will need to be addressed seriously for effective negotiations and the development of partnerships to achieve this agenda.

The goal of the sustainable development agenda is to leave no one behind. While the agenda is comprehensive enough to address many of the issues faced by Indigenous peoples in Canada, it is clear that in Canada, this cannot be achieved without addressing the unique issues affecting Indigenous peoples. In particular, poverty has been identified as a recurring theme that has led to inequality within the country, and poverty alleviation strategies must be comprehensive enough to address the various situations that lead to and result from poverty. In Canada, the legal precedence of a nation- to-nation agreement will need to be addressed seriously for effective negotiations and the development of partnerships to achieve this agenda. While Canada has notably been a forerunner on environmental conservation, issues on environmental conservation and development must be critically addressed with reference to impingement on the rights of Indigenous peoples. International documents like the UNDRIP and the International Labour Organization’s Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989 (No. 169), as well as national documents like the Truth and Reconciliation Commission’s report and recommendations can help guide respectful and meaningful discourse nationally for Indigenous peoples in Canada. Over the next fifteen years of the 2030 SDG agenda, civil society will be an active force in monitoring and reporting on Canada’s progress to achieve the SDGs. However, a major drawback with this agenda is the silence it maintains on specific Indigenous issues like self-determination and governance, and on Indigenous land rights and ownership. These issues are the foundations for inequality and poverty among Indigenous peoples, and failing to address them will mean that strategies to alleviate poverty and address inequities will not be effective. It is hoped that on a national level in Canada, Indigenous-specific targets can be drawn to ensure that Indigenous peoples are not left behind in the sustainability agenda.

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