WATERfrontISSUE 12 14• FEBRUARY• APRIL 2000 1999

A UNICEF PUBLICATION ON WATER, ENVIRONMENT, SANITATION AND HYGIENE

Table of Contents 1 Urban environmental sanitation: Urban environmental sanitation: What can be done to improve the living conditions of children in low-income urban settlements What can be done to improve the 3 Strategic elements in water supply and sanitation services living conditions of children in in urban low-income areas 7 Sanitation and child rights in poor urban areas of Harare low-income urban settlements? 9 The link between indoor air pollution and acute respiratory his issue of WATERfront focuses on urban changes in urban demographics will occur in infections in children environmental sanitation. In response developing countries, and the majority of these to a call for documenting good working people will live in low-income urban settle- 10 The struggle for water in urban T experiences with urban communities, UNICEF ments. From a rights-based perspective aiming poor areas of Nouakchott, Mauritania Water, Environment and Sanitation profession- ‘to reach the unreached’, governments, inter- als sent articles about projects supported in national agencies, donors and support organi- 13 Services for the urban poor: their countries. In addition articles have been sations have but one choice: not to ignore these lessons learned provided by institutions working in the sector. highly vulnerable children in such urban areas. 16 Rehabilitation of urban water The projects described take place in well- As far back as 1961,2 UNICEF’s position supply projects—experience known cities, such as Harare and Acapulco, as was very progressive: if need was the principal from Northern Iraq well as in cities more criterion for assistance, 19 Plight of poor living in Brazil’s difficult to locate on the there was no justification dump areas map: Resistencia (Argen- for excluding urban chil- The most rapid changes 22 The shift to poor urban areas: tina), Nouakchott (Mau- dren from its assistance. A strategic approach to cost- ritania) and Santiago in urban demographics will However it was not until effectiveness in water, (Cape Verde). Whether occur in developing countries, 1971 that UNICEF’s environment and sanitation they live in a metropolis urban area activities fully and the majority of these people 24 Integrated sanitation and or small town, the chil- started, with the develop- will live in low-income housing improvement in dren and their families in ment of the community- low-income communities in the case studies all have urban settlements. based Urban Basic Argentina something in common: Services (UBS) pro- 27 User perceptions in urban they are poor and live in grammes. UNICEF’s UBS sanitation provision: a briefing harsh conditions due to inadequacies in hous- programmes paved the way for many other paper ing, water, sanitation, drainage, solid waste agencies to take an approach that directly in- 28 ‘Prosperous’ Acapulco plagued disposal and vector control—often in combi- volved the communities. What was learned was by unplanned growth nation with poor health and education systems that without the involvement of the commu- and environmental pollution nity, water and sanitation service programmes 32 In Istmina, we women have st changed a lot At the beginning of the 21 century, about of almost any type were doomed. half of the world’s population lives in areas UBS programmes demanded that the com- classified as urban. By 2025, it is expected to munity establish priorities and that facilitating 1 grow to almost two-thirds. The most rapid continued on next page unicef 1 st 2 United Nations Children’s Fund Source: World Bank, Entering the 21 Century. Source: Cousins, William J., Urban Basic Services in Fonds des Nations Unies pour l’enfance World Development Report 1999/2000, Oxford Univer- UNICEF: An Historical Overview, UNICEF History Fondo de las Naciones Unidas para la Infancia sity Press, August 1999. Series, Monograph XIV, 1992. unicef WATERfront Issue 14 • April 2000

partners, such as local governments and ■ infants start life healthy and young water authorities, respond on a flexible children are nurtured in a safe and Due to limited space availability, we basis—making clear that the ‘software’ caring environment that enables were not able to include all the UNICEF part was more important for the success them to be physically healthy, men- country experiences that we received of a project than the actual hardware tally alert, emotionally secure, so- for this issue. These articles will be pub- installed. In spite of the good work done cially competent and intellectually lished in future editions of WATERfront, under the UBS programmes, there have able to learn; and will be made available on always been problems getting others on www.unicef.org/programme/wes ■ all children, including the poorest stream to bring the urban programmes and most disadvantaged, have access to scale. Even highly successful UBS to and complete basic education of ■ Nouakchott, Mauritania’s capital, projects such as the Tegucigalpa Model good quality; struggles for water. Its location at the in Honduras and the ‘El Mezquital’ edge of a desert makes water scarce, project in Guatemala have largely been ■ adolescents have opportunities to expensive and unfit for drinking failures in terms of large-scale replica- fully develop their individual capaci- purposes. At the request of the city’s tion in their respective countries. ties in safe and enabling environ- mayor, UNICEF supported the reor- Within the context of UNICEF’s ments and are helped to participate ganisation of the stand-pipe manage- Future Global Agenda for Children,3 and contribute to their societies. ment system, helping to improve describing the focus of UNICEF beyond living conditions for the urban poor 2000, three priority outcomes for chil- The challenge of coping with urban by stabilizing water prices and im- dren are that: water, environmental and sanitation proving the organisation of water problems beyond the year 2000 requires vendors. 3 UNICEF Executive Board Document an integrated approach (leaving the E/ICEF/1999/10, 13 April 1999. ‘sectors’ and vertical approaches behind) and it cannot be accomplished with- The way to proceed is by out multiple part- developing holistic approaches nerships. The way to dealing with the specific proceed is by devel- characteristics of urban oping holistic ap- proaches dealing low-income areas rather than with the specific by developing isolated characteristics of pilot projects. urban low-income areas rather than by developing isolated pilot projects. ■ In peri-urban Harare, a participatory The challenges process was used, with community are significant. How- members themselves identifying the ever, the experiences most significant problems in their of the UNICEF living environment. Women and Water, Environment children saw inadequate water supply and Sanitation pro- and full or unhygienic community fessionals, and the latrines as their greatest concerns. other partners in After these priorities, they recog- this issue, serve as nised the lack of formal employment reminders that even and the need for full day pre-school with limited funds, centres. there are feasible, ■ In northern Iraq, UNICEF was re- doable strategies sponsible for the rehabilitation of that can be under- urban water-supply projects dam- taken. As the follow- aged by the Gulf War. The experi- ing case studies ences gained, particularly regarding vividly illustrate, the process of planning, implementa- many scenarios can tion and management, will be useful address the subject.

UNICEF/90-0008/Ellen Tolmie continued on page 23

2 Issue 14 • April 2000 unicef WATERfront Strategic elements in water supply and sanitation services in urban low-income areas By Madeleen Wegelin-Schuringa, IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre, Delft, the Netherlands

Introduction in practice. Although it is clear that n many cities and towns in develop- some of these options are beyond a par- ing countries, access to basic infra- Many governments have come ticular programme to change, it may be I structure services such as water to realise they will not be able possible to convince a municipality to supply, sanitation, solid-waste collection to extend services to all adapt existing rules and regulations on a and drainage is inadequate for a major- urban residents with trial basis. If all have to wait until poli- ity of the residents, especially for those cies or management structures have conventional strategies. living in low-income urban areas. The changed, the conditions in low-income rapid rate at which the populations in urban areas will deteriorate even further. these areas are increasing compounds this situation and often leads to environ- the experiences built up over the years, a Legal and regulatory mental living conditions that endanger number of strategic elements can be framework the health of the residents, with conse- identified that affect the viability and Security and/or legal recognition of quent losses in productivity and quality sustainability of all activities aimed at tenure is often a prerequisite for the of life. improving basic service provision in investment of resources in basic infra- Many governments have come to urban low-income areas. These elements structure services for both the residents realise they will not be able to extend are legal and regulatory framework, the and the municipal authorities. The resi- services to all urban residents with con- social context, the institutional context, dents will not spend their money on ventional strategies. It is to this end that the financial context, the environmental infrastructure if they are not sure they innovative approaches are being intro- context, technology and service levels. can stay in the settlement. Municipal duced, not only with respect to technical A short introduction to these ele- authorities are often not allowed to solutions, but also in ways to involve ments is given below, as well as some provide services in areas that are consid- different stakeholders. On the basis of key options for actions to address them ered illegal, even though a high percent- age of their population may be living there. Yet, to obtain legal recognition not only requires lengthy formalities and complicated bureaucratic procedures, but is often also a hot political issue. In addition, it can easily result in increase in value of land and houses and there- fore may lead to expulsion of tenants and poor homeowners. Luckily, in many cities it has been demonstrated that de facto security of tenure can be as func- tional as legal recognition in mobilising low-income communities for infrastruc- ture improvements. A second issue is that legal recogni- tion of tenure may only be obtainable if housing and infrastructure services comply with the standards that are set in the regulatory framework. Often, these standards are set so high that they are neither functional nor beneficial to the

Madeleen Wegelin-Schuringa residents and tend to stifle rather than to Voluntary Health Group at work, Kibera Settlement, Nairobi, Kenya promote development. In Kenya, the

3 unicef WATERfront Issue 14 • April 2000 regulatory framework was changed to ment of economic conditions or the ■ Develop participatory hygiene-edu- incorporate a ‘deemed to satisfy’ regula- increase of employment opportunities. cation activities based on self-assess- tion, which enabled the municipality to Another factor of influence on moti- ment of existing conditions lower its standards for these areas. vation is the degree of urbanisation of the residents. If primary attachment is to The institutional context Options for action the rural home, any savings are likely to Municipal authorities have the main ■ Find ways to ensure de facto security be spent in the rural areas. When the city responsibility for the provision, opera- of tenure where legal recognition is acknowledged to be the home base, tion and maintenance of urban water- cannot easily be obtained, especially for the future generation, supply services. Their interest is the residents and especially resident owners smooth functioning of the water-supply ■ Introduce flexibility with regulations of structures are more inclined to spend service, low operating cost, adequate or other legal impediments that pre- effort and funds towards improving revenues and the possibility to expand vent service provision in illegal areas, their neighbourhoods and adaptations services if necessary. They are not neces- ■ Lower existing building and service to suit high-density living. sarily concerned with the provision of standards to ‘deemed to satisfy’ solu- services to low-income areas. Their tions, often poor performance is caused by internal problems (lack of management, ■ Make it possible for communities to …basic infrastructure services in financial autonomy, decentralisation of register as a legal entity, facilitating low-income urban communities decision making as well as lack of hu- community management and owner- have the best chance of being man resources and capacity) and exter- ship of WSS assets, sustainable if the community nal conditions (political influence, ■ Promote a regulatory framework that is motivated to improve the unclear and/or conflicting responsibili- stimulates private-sector operators or services, has been involved in ties at different government levels, cen- public–private partnerships to pro- tralisation of decision making). their planning from the start vide services. Few municipalities have a section in and has selected the technology their water and sanitation departments The social context and service level. in which staff is trained to work with Just like in rural areas, basic infrastruc- and for communities, while co-ordina- ture services in low-income urban com- tion with the departments that do have munities have the best chance of being In many cities, women head the this staff is usually weak. Yet participa- sustainable if the community is moti- majority of the households. These tory approaches to infrastructure im- vated to improve the services, has been households usually also belong to the provements require a specific attitude involved in their planning from the start poorest households in the community. within the municipal authorities in and has selected the technology and Yet males often dominate organisations which residents are seen as stakeholders service level. For this to happen, a com- and little effort is done to plan, imple- and clients rather than as receivers of munity needs to become organised and ment, operate and maintain basic serv- services. They also require longer time overcome internal differences. This can ices in such a way that gender-specific frames, more flexibility, a well-devel- be very difficult in urban areas as a re- and poverty-related concerns are taken oped information and communication sult of a heterogeneous composition in into account. This may affect the priori- strategy and training for municipal staff, terms of ethnicity, religion, occupation ties for development activities stated by different from conventional programmes. and economic conditions. This not only the community and hence may affect the The lack of performance of the mu- can create a lot of distrust between the degree of participation by women, and nicipal authorities has led to a situation different groups, but the common lead- therefore the sustainability of the systems. where a majority of residents in low- ership needed to overcome it, may well income areas is dependent on other be lacking. Options for action service providers for their basic services. In areas where the proportion of ■ Ensure that the different segments of These may be formal private-sector tenants and absentee landlords is high, the community (women, men, young, providers but they usually are informal, community organisation is very difficult old, rich, poor, etc), their leaders and such as individuals, families and small because tenants do not feel responsible their organisations are identified enterprises. They are engaged in similar for improvements, while the absentee activities as formal enterprises, but on a ■ Develop an information and commu- landlords do not suffer from poor envi- smaller scale and usually confined to nication strategy that addresses all ronmental conditions. Motivation for service provision in low-income areas. segments improvement of basic services can be low, The main interest of these enterprises is as the prime concern may well be a cheap ■ Ensure that all segments are involved income generation. Because they are and temporary place to live, the improve- in planning small, they are flexible and able to re-

4 Issue 14 • April 2000 unicef WATERfront spond to demand from the consumers, ■ Assess legal impediments for informal services is usually already a problem for while profits made are often reinvested service provision and if dysfunctional, the whole city and the lack of tax collec- in the same area, therefore contributing try to address them tion is therefore a welcome excuse for to improvement of conditions. non-service. ■ Promote environmental concerns A second form of informal service At the community level, financing and hygiene education activities with provision is generated through commu- and cost-recovery mechanisms are influ- informal service providers nity-based organisations and/or NGOs, enced by the degree of demand respon- who themselves may either become siveness, but also by the mechanisms in service providers or assist the communi- The financial context place for payments and contribution. It ties and their organisations in the devel- An often-used argument reasoning why needs to be noted that contribution in opment of a sustainable service. In many authorities cannot provide water in low- kind (labour or materials) may be diffi- cities, NGOs have developed a function income areas is that the residents cannot cult to organise because time is money as a mediator between the communities sufficiently pay for their water to operate and income opportunity lost. and the municipal authorities. There is a and maintain the system, let alone to get whole range of different types of com- a return on the capital investment. This Options for action munity-managed service provision rang- is not true in most cities, as most people ■ Promote the concept of water as an ing from group taps and in low-income areas depend on vendors economic good and the use of subsi- community-managed kiosks to com- for their water or buy water per bucket. dies, if at all necessary, to improve pletely autonomous community-based The prices paid for this are considerably access to services by the poor systems. Some of these systems suffer higher per unit than through a connec- ■ Promote a more equitable division of from local politics that are characterised tion to the water-supply system. The basic infrastructure services and by patronage relationships between differentials in the cost of water (ratio of adherence to cost recovery in princi- politicians and communities, in which price charged by water vendors to prices ple and in action provision of infrastructure becomes an charged by the public utility) vary from attractive political power tool. city to city (from 5:1 to 100:1) and are ■ Remove impediments to an open, dependent on various factors such as informal market as it drives up prices access to alternative sources and control for the poor and competition on the resale market. The lack of performance ■ Develop payment systems together A more valid reason why service of the municipal authorities with the community representatives provision in these areas is low is that has led to a situation where most utilities charge tariffs that are not ■ Ensure that there are mechanisms a majority of residents in based on cost-recovery calculations, but that allow access to services by the low-income areas is dependent are heavily subsidised. The determina- poorest tion of tariffs is a political issue and on other service providers ■ Develop approaches that help commu- governments profess to regard water as a for their basic services. nities to select a system and level of social good rather than an economic service that they want and can pay for good. However, since the higher- and middle-income residents are more likely Options for action to be connected to the water network, The environmental context ■ Establish a special section in the the subsidies and the social good benefit The environment in low-income urban municipality/utility to deal with them rather than the poor. The result is areas is often characterised by high den- service provision in low-income areas insufficient resources to extend the net- sities and location on land that is not work, especially to the badly located very suitable for residential purposes, ■ Promote training in municipal author- low-income areas. Of influence as well such as steep hills, riverbeds or swamps. ities on issues and approaches for on the resources—physical as well as The general lack of space in the areas service provision in low-income areas financial—are the high rates of water stresses the interdependency and inte- ■ Assess roles, responsibilities and insti- unaccounted for, common in many grated nature of all infrastructure serv- tutional relationships of all service cities in developing countries, reaching ices. Improvement of water supply providers and other stakeholders in extreme levels of 40–60% of the water necessitates improvement of drainage, the area, and involve and incorporate produced. which requires improvement of solid- them in planning for improvements Other basic infrastructure services waste collection; off-site sanitation op- (drainage, sewage and solid waste collec- tions require sufficiency of water supply. ■ Promote establishment of public– tion) are commonly funded through The condition and presence of roads, private partnerships and informal taxes, which people in low-income areas moreover, is connected to all these serv- sector operations often do not pay. The financing of these ices. Yet authorities work sectorally,

5 unicef WATERfront Issue 14 • April 2000 which makes integrated planning at between sectoral departments that Options for action community level very difficult. work in the same low-income areas ■ Develop an approach that ensures The hygienic disposal of wastes is the community has a choice in the ■ Assess what environmental problems more difficult than bringing in water, technology and the service level, while are linked to the supply or non-sup- while the provision of the water supply being aware of the cost implications ply of water and sanitation services has more priority with the residents and ■ Ensure that the technology selected is therefore more likely to be facilitated ■ Base activities on community assess- can be managed by the community by municipal authorities. The lack of ment of their priority environmental and does not have a negative impact attention for disposal results in environ- issue on the environment mental conditions that pose a threat to ■ Build on any activities that are already the residents’ health, especially because ■ Train local engineers and technicians being undertaken by the community, systems installed by householders them- in low-cost technologies or other actors, to ameliorate the selves often have a low technical quality problems ■ Support the development of tech- and contribute to deterioration of envi- nologies appropriate for conditions ronmental conditions. Technology and service levels in low-income areas Technologies appropriate for low-in- ■ Ensure that the technology and serv- come areas are those in which the tech- ice provision links up with the mu- While many aspects are nical and organisational characteristics nicipal-level network more difficult to address of the infrastructure system are adapted than in rural areas, to the socio-economic and environmen- Epilogue there are also aspects that make tal conditions in the community. The These strategic elements show how diffi- a sustainable provision easier. reverse is common as municipal service cult service provision in low-income providers are focused on conventional areas actually is. While many aspects are systems. The prevailing technical stand- more difficult to address than in rural ards and regulations often hinder the areas, there are also aspects that make a At a municipal and even regional application of appropriate technologies, sustainable provision easier. For in- level, the issue of water-resources man- and the systems are not adapted to ac- stance, there is a greater prevalence of agement is becoming more important as tual need and demand in low-income NGOs, facilitating a mediation role cities grow and demand surpasses sup- areas. Municipal engineers, moreover, between municipalities and communi- ply. Water resources are threatened not are not trained in low-cost technologies ties, and more civic organisations that only by increasing demand, but also by and regard these as substandard. can be prevailed upon for the manage- diminishing quality caused by pollution Many so-called appropriate tech- ment of systems. A money economy, and saline intrusion, as well as reduced nologies have been developed for the more access to spare parts and repair quantity caused by overexploitation of rural areas, but their adaptability for use services and the existence of a private water catchment areas. They are also and operation in low-income urban sector enhance sustainability in urban threatened by the competition for scarce areas is not always clear. Foremost, the service provision. Finally, the existing water between industrial, agricultural type of land and the densities of these municipal service network at least en- and domestic use, which is becoming a areas require specific technologies. Sec- sures one source of water supply. political issue in many cities. This has ond, operation and maintenance re- Time, flexibility and effective com- led to a cry for water demand manage- quirements for these systems by the munication in and between the munici- ment (defined as a strategy to improve community may be more difficult to pality and the community is crucial. efficiency and sustainable use of water organise as a result of the nature of the Moreover, capacity building is needed resources taking into account economic, urban communities. A third point is the not only in the municipality and the social and environmental considera- environmental impact of technologies in community but also in sectoral organi- tions) as the preferred alternative above the high-density conditions prevailing in sations or NGOs to ensure that, with the the development of new sources to meet most areas. Finally, appropriate technol- help of participatory approaches, com- increasing water demand. ogy options at community level will munity-based development is stimulated have to link up with the hierarchical and appropriate technologies are applied. Options for action network of the whole city and can there- The author of this article can be contacted ■ Establish co-ordination mechanisms fore not be developed in isolation. at [email protected]

6 Issue 14 • April 2000 unicef WATERfront Sanitation and child rights in poor urban areas of Harare by Mark Henderson, WES-officer, UNICEF-Zimbabwe

Introduction clear need to address them, prompted ernment built 803 log cabins, but this nformal settlements on the outskirts HEWASA to propose an urban poor proved inadequate for the population of of Harare, the capital of Zimbabwe, water and sanitation situation analysis 8,100; a great number of people have I have largely been fed by rural-urban that would shift the emergency focus of now built homes consisting of poles, migration during the 1990s. Such migra- the intervention to one of development. plastic sheeting, tin and thatch. In 1997, tion is expected to intensify throughout With UNICEF in the process of develop- the Ministry of Housing removed 16 the country, but especially in Harare. ing Country Programme 2000–2004, families to permanent housing sites on While government commonly refers there was also an opportunity for ex- another scheme. to these areas as ‘temporary holding panding the scope of the situation analy- camps,’ the Zimbabwe economy is in sis so as to contribute to the thrust of Situation analysis findings sharp decline, and alternative plans for community capacity building for child- IPA was contracted to research and these people are not in sight. In the rights protection. Three informal settle- produce a situation analysis of children meantime, basic services and infrastruc- ments were targeted for assessment and and women in three urban poor settle- ture to meet the needs of this rapidly intervention. ments in which key problem areas were growing population are alarmingly to be examined: insufficient and, in some cases, non- ■ Living environment (water, sanita- existent. None of the settlements tion and environment) As part of its strategy to advocate have adequate sanitation. with a wide range of partners for im- ■ Health and nutrition provements in the lives of urban poor ■ Socio-economic environment of dwellers around the country, UNICEF women and children Zimbabwe has been working with two Background local NGOs to take urgent action to The targeted settlements, all having a ■ Education address the needs of some of Harare’s majority of children, are: ■ Children with special protection most disenfranchised residents. ■ Porta Farm: 35 km. west of Harare; needs In 1998, the UNICEF Hygiene, Edu- population 4,200 cation, Water and Sanitation (HEWASA) Research within the settlements was programme supported emergency efforts ■ Dzivarasekwa Extension: 18 km. west carried out between September 1998 in the Porta Farm settlement to provide of Harare; population 3,200 and November 1998 by a team including basic sanitation facilities where none investigators and assistants from the ■ Hatcliffe Extension: 21 km. north of existed. Mvuramanzi Trust, an NGO University of Zimbabwe. Research Harare; population 8,100 with expertise in the promotion of methodologies included a literature family wells, household latrines and Porta Farm residents were forcibly review, a structured questionnaire for low-cost technology development, built moved from other ‘spontaneous’ neigh- heads of households and in-depth inter- 20 double-pit composting latrines and bourhoods in 1991. In 1992, the city views with key informants from govern- involved the residents in their construc- of Harare built wooden shacks at ment, donors, NGOs and other tion and continued maintenance. Dzivarasekwa Extension for those at stakeholders. PRA techniques enabled Mvuramanzi Trust also worked in coop- Porta Farm who were working or able the communities to identify and rank eration with another NGO, Inter-Country to pay rent. This was intended to be a their problems, to carry out mapping of People’s Aid (IPA) in improving school three-month temporary solution to the their respective areas, to produce charts sanitation and providing hygiene educa- overcrowding at Porta Farm while indicating seasonal activities and to tion in Porta Farm. proper houses were built, but nobody document the daily activities of women Despite the success of these service- has received houses to date. and children. An average of 60 women delivery activities, the persistent envi- Hatcliffe Extension was created in and children in each settlement partici- ronmental problems in Porta Farm and 1993 for people evicted from farms or pated in the process. other urban poor settlements, and the other neighbourhoods. In 1997 the gov-

7 unicef WATERfront Issue 14 • April 2000

Water and sanitation but one third do not wash their hands their families. Dzivarasekwa Extension and Porta Farm after visiting the latrine. Three quarters residents reported having an adequate wash hands using a communal bowl Summary of other findings water supply, although informants also without soap and only 14% wash under Socio-economic complained of long queues when water running water. ■ 30% of inhabitants are not Zimba- points are down and of low pressure at The living environment of each set- bwean communal taps. Hatcliffe Extension has tlement is poor. Dzivarasekwa Extension ■ 46% of heads of households are only four boreholes working out of a and Hatcliffe Extension do have council married and living with spouse and possible 14. Residents at Hatcliffe Exten- bins for refuse disposal, but the city of children sion, therefore, endure long queues at Harare only intermittently collects water points and spend one hour or more them. The population of Porta Farm ■ 35% of heads of households are un- fetching water at the expense of other depends entirely on communal pits, employed chores and income-generating activities. dumping or burning of refuse. ■ Girls, orphans and children living None of the settlements have ade- with step-parents were more burdened quate sanitation, in stark contrast to with labour formal urban areas in Harare where coverage rates for flush toilets is 94%. The top disease for ■ 13% have access to TV and 43% own Residents stated that communal latrines children under 14 is acute radios are too far away from their houses and respiratory infection. Education have no lighting, making them impossi- ■ Each settlement has a primary school ble to use at night. Dzivarasekwa Exten- that is not formally registered with sion and Hatcliffe Extension do not have the Ministry of Education latrines at their respective schools. Health Practically all residents (99%) use Two of the three settlements have clin- ■ Pre-school enrollment ranges as high communal VIP or pit latrines; only a few ics, but they are not fully staffed or func- as 400 children have their own latrine. Communal pits tional. About 70% of the population in ■ Majority of residents have attended in Hatcliffe Extension are full and most all three settlements stated that it takes at least primary school are closed. Their utilisation is also re- between one and five hours to travel to duced because elders are not comfort- the nearest clinic, receive treatment and ■ 45% cited lack of money for school able using a squat hole next to a young travel back home. One fifth reported fee and uniforms as the reason why person. Residents often defecate at home this time to be six to 10 hours. some children are not in school and discard the waste in plastic bags in The top disease for children under ■ None of the schools have adequate open fields. 14 is acute respiratory infection. The latrines A majority of the heads of house- main others are diarrhoea, skin diseases, holds wash their hands before a meal, injuries and eye diseases. For those aged Existing development activities by 15 years and above, NGOs and city of Harare STDs are the most ■ Basic education; adult literacy classes common infection. ■ Paper making; women’s sewing group Only 53% of house- holds reported ■ Staffing of clinic and community eating three meals a health workers day. ■ Provision of birth certificate Although health education is, or has ■ Training in nutrition gardens been, provided in ■ Mobile clinic service; HIV/AIDS each community, education more needs to be done to transform this knowledge into Primary concerns of women and practice. Women children requested more The most significant problems identified information on by women and children living in these HIV and AIDS in urban poor settlements included: Lightweight Blair-type latrines are light to lift when made of strong, order to protect thin-walled ferrocement. themselves and continued on page 15

8 Issue 14 • April 2000 unicef WATERfront The link between indoor air pollution and acute respiratory infections in children

cute respiratory infection (ARI) is provide a good indication of the health- or (4) protecting the child from smoke. the most important cause of damaging potential of air pollution. While these may appear straightforward, A death for children under five TSP levels during cooking with the central role that the fire or stove years in developing countries. The most biomass fuels typically range from sev- plays in the activities of the household, serious type of ARI is acute lower respi- eral thousand to over 20,000µg/m3. providing for cooking, warmth, light, ratory infection, most of which is due to Particulates of less than 10 microns in and social functions, makes it a challeng- pneumonia. At present, the main strat- diameter (PM10) are able to penetrate ing task. Practical, financial, environmen- egy for the control of ARI is the promo- into the lungs and are regarded as more tal and behaviour change issues must be tion of community-based early representative measure of health risk. considered when designing interventions detection and treatment, with follow-up. PM10 level in a poorly ventilated home to reduce human exposure to indoor air Recently, more attention has been using simple biomass fuel stove can be pollution. There is also a need to adopt a paid to the potential for prevention of 50 times higher than the standard rec- broader approach aimed at improving ARI through interventions that address ommended by the World Health Organi- the whole home environment. environmental risk factors such as air zation.1 Indoor air pollution has not received pollution, housing conditions, and over- Growing evidence strongly suggests sufficient research and policy attention, crowding. One of these risk factors is that indoor air pollution at these high given the extent of exposure of so many indoor air pollution. levels of exposure is an important risk of the world’s most vulnerable popula- The Integrated Management for factor for ARI. There is reasonable con- tions. One explanation is that histori- Childhood Illness (IMCI) strategy under sistency among various studies trying to cally and in the media, air pollution is leadership of UNICEF/WHO and oth- link indoor air pollution with ARI, al- seen as arising from traffic and industry ers, has been developed to reduce child though some have not found an associa- in the cities of the developed world. morbidity and mortality from five major tion. Most of the positive studies report Another is that the scientific evidence childhood diseases including acute res- that children exposed to a higher level of on the health effects of indoor air pollu- piratory infections (ARI), diarrhoea, indoor air pollution were between 2-5 tion in developing countries has been malaria, malnutrition and measles times more likely to develop ARI than regarded by many as insufficiently robust. through prevention and treatment. It those unexposed or exposed less. In addition, the poor, in particular aims to improve the skills of health A number of methodological weak- women and children, do not have a workers in case management improve nesses must be taken into account when strong voice in forums where global health system delivery and strengthen assessing the findings. Few studies have environmental policy is determined. family and community responses to directly measured exposure, using instead As with policy in other aspects of childhood illness. IMCI emphasises proxies such as type of fire, reported environment and health, action on prevention of disease through immuni- hours spent near the fire, or whether a indoor air pollution control needs to be sation, careseeking behaviour, improved child was carried on the mother’s back taken on the basis of imperfect evidence. nutrition, exclusive breastfeeding and during cooking. Also a number of the The appropriate action shall include the use of insecticide impregnated studies drew their samples from among more applied health research, opera- bednets. already hospitalised children. Others did tional research, policy research, program not deal adequately with confounding strategy development, and concrete Health effects of indoor socio-economic factors. stove and cleaner fuel projects. air pollution exposure (Extracted from Lowering Exposure of Studies in many parts of the world have Reducing exposure of children Children to Indoor Air Pollution to confirmed that open fires and simple to indoor air pollution Prevent ARI: The Need for Information stoves used inside small, often poorly Exposures can be reduced in four ways: and Action by Nigel Bruce, Department ventilated homes lead to some of the by (1) modifying the stove, (2) improv- of Public Health, University of Liverpool, highest levels of air pollution in the ing ventilation, (3) using cleaner fuels, Capsule Report no.3, Environmental world. While smoke from biomass and Health Project, January 1999 and with other domestic fuels contains thousands 1 WHO recognizes that relatively small in- input form the Health Section, Programme of chemical substances, total suspended µ 3 creases above the level of 20 g/m PM10 have Division, UNICEF New York) particulate (TSP) is generally thought to an impact on health.

9 unicef WATERfront Issue 14 • April 2000 The struggle for water in poor urban areas of Nouakchott, Mauritania by Arsène Azandossessi, WES-Officer, UNICEF-Mauritania

ater is scarce, expensive and geographical distribution of the stand- ity and production capacity. The project unfit to drink in Nouakchott, pipes further worsens the situation. was initially programmed to rehabilitate the capital of Mauritania. The 25 standpipes. The higher volume of W Organisation: There are no mechanisms city is located on Africa’s Atlantic coast- donor contributions than expected, to regulate or to control water distri- line at the edge of a vast desert. A well made that 51 standpipes spread over bution in urban poor communities. about 60 km from Nouakchott supplies eight of the city’s communities could be Technical norms for the standpipes, the city with water. The present capacity rehabilitated. regulations for the provision of services of the groundwater extraction station The project had two objectives: (1) (authorisations, statutes, specifica- has not been adapted to the city’s rapid to contribute to poverty alleviation in tions), financing mechanisms (muni- geographical and demographic growth, Nouakchott’s urban poor communities; cipal taxes) and the modalities of which has been boosted by rural migra- and (2) to ensure the access to water intervention or of partnership with tion to urban areas because of a severe conforming to technical, sanitary, social other actors are yet to be established. drought cycle. and economic standards. This lack of organisation affects both From 1970 to 1995, Nouakchott the management of standpipes and expanded fourfold, to more than 8,500 Strategies the price of water. hectares, and the city’s population in- With this in mind, two strategies were creased, from 5,000 inhabitants to Price of water: Commercial speculation implemented: 500,000. As a result, there is not only a in drinking water is rampant in ■ the choice of intermediaries struc- capacity problem but also a shortage of Nouakchott. As a result, the price of tures (NGOs, unemployed gradu- distribution networks, especially in the water is too expensive for poor people. ates) as relays between institutional city’s urban poor areas. Access to water Water sold by the National Water Soci- actors and beneficiary communities; in urban poor communities is scarce and ety at US$ 0.37/m3 is sold at the end of expensive. In addition the quality of that the distribution chain by donkey-cart ■ the establishment of User Committees water is poor. Water availability in these water vendors at US$ 3.71. A price that at the community level, representing communities is estimated at 10 litres per can even rise to US$ 17.32 when water the communities involved and moni- inhabitant/day, which covers less than shortage occurs. Water supply absorbs toring the cost and quality of water. 40% of the actual needs. 14-20 % of the budget of a low-income household. The results Assessment Management system Water quality: Control and monitoring Several factors make the water supply in A new standpipe management system of water quality, an essential health fac- these areas both precarious and expen- was established. New managers replaced tor, is not given much attention. Storage sive. They include availability, accessibil- the previous owners and managers, who and transportation conditions are gener- ity, organisation of the commercial were solely interested in making profits. ally poor. network, and water quality. The new managers are young previously In view of the above, the municipality of unemployed university graduates, Availability: The distribution network is Nouakchott and the local administra- mostly with an economics background. in bad condition. The water pressure is tions involved—with the support of In touch with the population’s daily too low given the water needs for indus- other partners, including UNICEF— priorities, the new managers are eager to try and vegetable gardens. decided in 1998 to entirely reorganise serve the interests of the community. In Accessibility: Only 179 standpipes were the management system of standpipes. addition, they are eager to demonstrate installed to cover the entire urban poor The experience of pilot projects previ- their abilities to future potential employ- area. This corresponds to a ratio of ously initiated by UNICEF in the neigh- ers. This management system is super- about one standpipe for 2,500 inhabit- bourhood of Dar Naïm was used as a vised by the Commission on Human ants; as compared to the national stand- reference model. Rights, Poverty Control and Insertion ard of one standpipe for 1,100 Standpipes were selected on the basis (CHRPCI). inhabitants. In addition the inefficient of geographical accessibility, water qual-

10 Issue 14 • April 2000 unicef WATERfront

3. In the last stage, the strategy con- sisted of establishing a water lobby at the donor level (French Develop- ment Agency, WHO, German Agency for Technical Cooperation, UNICEF) and at the national deci- sion-maker level (National Water and Electricity Society, National Hygiene Centre, Municipality of Nouakchott, CHRPCI). The aim was to spread one message: ‘Clean water at an affordable price for Nouakchott’s poor communities’. The strong will of national authori- ties to improve drinking water supply in urban poor communities, as part of the strategy to control poverty, was a deter-

A. Arseñe minant factor in the extension of the approach.

Lessons learned Prices Lobbying Stakeholders’ logic versus Prices are controlled at the source. De- The successes, so far, are the results of a Project’s logic spite the increased cost of water extrac- four-year negotiations between donors A major obstacle to extending the ap- tion (use of new equipment, ensuring an and the traditional water vendors. There proach was that the interests of all improved water quality), the price of were three stages in this process: stakeholders of the current distribution water was maintained and efforts are system (standpipe owners or managers, 1. Initially, pilot projects were estab- being made to lower it further. Where donkey-cart water vendors, users) did lished in the newest urban poor ar- storage tanks were constructed to com- not merge with the project’s objectives. eas. Far from the merchants’ pensate for the absence of standpipes, While owners and managers clearly ‘territories’. In these projects, a par- the price of water remains stable. understood and accepted the objectives ticipatory approach was imple- of price and quality, donkey-cart water mented, with management and Organisation of the water vendors, for their part, have no interest operation of the infrastructure being distribution in the communities in joining in an effort that would con- the direct responsibility of the com- Water-selling activities were organised, siderably reduce their profit margin. The munity. This led to a sense of owner- and roles were defined with more preci- only possible arbitrators in this debate ship for the users and to a growing sion. Young managers now have a are the users in urban poor areas, who, distance between them and a full clearer picture of the poverty profile. unfortunately, are difficult to mobilise. array of intermediaries. They are aware of the conditions and Even when user associations manage to tripartite chains of distribution (stand- 2. Next, significant changes were ob- establish themselves, they often become pipe, donkey-cart water vendors and served concerning the cost of water. the prey of politicians more eager to households), and they are familiar with The price of a cubic metre of water defend their own interests than those of the various political and social actors of decreased. This led to an increase in the majority. It is obvious that, if users the target communities. They have, for water consumption. To ensure this do not get involved in regulating the example, developed a social dimension result, a huge advocacy effort had to price of water, results will remain partial in the water distribution system by rely- be undertaken at all levels: decision and merely limited to the standpipe. ing on the network of local associations. makers, donors and communities. ‘Water houses’, serving as local reference The strategy was based on study- The standpipe: A strong alternative and concentration centres on the vital ing the water-supply mechanisms in The strategy of the household water question of water, were established in all Nouakchott’s urban poor communi- connection—allowing a larger number of the communities involved. NGOs ties. The conclusions have shed light of poor households to subscribe to the became involved in the training and on the existing management system National Water and Electricity Society— supervision of new managers during the and on the interests associated with guarantees an improved water quality first six months of the project’s imple- it, generating much discussion and allows control of the price of water. mentation. among development partners. However, it is not adapted to the current

11 unicef WATERfront Issue 14 • April 2000 urban dynamics, characterised by a rising The results recorded so far may not Since the greatest challenge is the and uncontrollable spatial and demo- be entirely satisfactory for the entire control of user prices, it is crucial to graphic growth, or to the economic and distribution system, where the cost of develop large-scale awareness activities financial incapacities of poor households. drinking water remains too high at the and to gradually eliminate intermediar- With this in mind, the standpipe household level. Yet, the new dynamic ies, such as donkey-cart water vendors represents an interesting alternative for initiated around the issue of drinking or private intermediaries whose only poor households: The investment costs water in urban poor areas—the estab- motivation is making profit, even if it it requires are modest and it concretely lishment of new standpipes, the new seems detrimental to the poor urban improves drinking water distribution management system, the control of populations. Hence, there are reasons to services in the city’s poorest areas. In- water quality involving users—repre- be hopeful that at the end of this ongoing deed, low retail prices are most adapted sents significant steps towards progres- effort, the struggle for water, so crucial to the limited savings capacity of poor sive regulation of prices and control in arid Mauritania, will finally be won. households. over the distribution network.

Aichétou: Women solving their water problems

“Here, water is a major urban issue,” says unhealthy and contaminated. possible for us to sell traditional toiletry Aichétou, a woman shaped by the passage “Today, thanks to the project managed articles.” of time and the harsh realities of a poor by our association, I can obtain good qual- • Community latrines and showers: urban life with the almost total absence of ity water at a reasonable price. We buy a “Here, in our community, it is difficult basic social services. Aichétou is the presi- 200 litre barrel of water for US$ 0.35. It to find a household with a decent dent of a co-operative association of 100 used to cost US$1.38. Which makes it pos- shower.” She bursts out laughing, “We female heads of households. The associa- sible for us to save money. For example, are of the desert, but a nomad who tion was initiated by UNICEF in Dar Naïm, I can go into town more often by using the stops wandering has to stop…and be- an area in the suburbs of Nouakchott. money saved for transportation.” gin to adapt to his new environment.” Dar Naïm, located northeast of the city, Her smiling face bursts with satisfaction mushroomed after the 1980s, which had as she takes out her calculator, loses herself • Garden: “The children’s garden will been years of drought marked by a large for a moment in discussion with her vice not only give education to our children rural exodus. Today, the area has almost president, then triumphantly declares: but will free us up to do more interest- 80,000 inhabitants with six primary “I save $0.40 per day, or $144 per year. ing, valuable work.” schools, one junior high school and two Apart from these savings, from now on I She continues, “This is why we think health centres. By organising themselves, can count on the solidarity of 99 women, it is necessary to construct these infrastruc- the women of the co-operative have de- for our fire hydrant project. There are no tures here, in order to enable the women cided to alter the course of their destiny by longer isolated problems. The group can in our group to improve their standard of taking into their own hands the area’s address all problems. If we do not find the living.” main problem: supplying drinking water to solutions, we send a delegation to speak When asked if everything is perfect in their families. with the mayor.” the co-operative, Aichétou seems to lose Aichétou, her face serene and dreamy, Filled with pride, she says: “The mayor her earlier eloquence and pauses before likes to tell the story: “In the beginning, we receives us anytime it’s necessary. It’s good saying, more convincingly, “Our main did not know exactly why we should get to be organised. Right now, despite the ab- problem at the moment is that the women’s together to sell water, which did not yield sence of direct profit on the water, we are level of knowledge is very low. I have a much direct profit for our members. But already mobilised to begin other activities.” secondary school education, and I can from early on, we understood that the future She then lists the endeavours: write more or less properly. But that is not of our households depended on selling • Shops. “We can sell basic necessities the case for my sisters, who have only water. For example, prior to the project, (tea, milk, sugar, oil, rice, wheat). We known Koran schools and, even then, only my expenses for water for my five-member will sell these products cheaper than a few have enjoyed this privilege. I think family were US$ 1.25, every two days. the local merchants, who take no pity that when all women can read and write, This was about a quarter of the total family on poor households like ours. And be- they will better understand their duties and budget. Even worse, not only was the sides, having more shops will make it rights with regard to the co-operative.” water insufficient for my needs, it was also

12 Issue 14 • April 2000 unicef WATERfront Services for the urban poor: lessons learned by Eduardo Perez, Urban Environmental Sanitation Specialist, USAID-Environmental Health Project

The Environmental Health Project (EHP) poor to field condi- continues to advocate for more attention to tions. In each loca- peri-urban environmental health and tion, demonstration plays a leadership role in the Water Supply projects provided and Sanitation Collaborative Council’s urban environmental Working Group on Services for the Urban services to families Poor. Both EHP and its predecessor WASH living in peri-urban have published reports documenting their areas. The projects project experience and providing guidance assisted in a range of and encouragement for other external environmental serv- support agencies involved in the challeng- ices, including water ing peri-urban environment. In peri-urban supply, sanitation, environmental health EHP has foccussed solid waste manage- on capacity-building for institutions ment and drainage. positioned to play an important role in In addition to fur- delivering environmental health services nishing technical in such communities. This article relates assistance during lessons learned so far. project implementa- tion, EHP contrib- Environment threatens life uted to monitoring and health and evaluation ef- UNICEF/Marcus Halevi n 1990, an estimated 600 million forts. EHP technical people in the developing world lived assistance to these I in urban environments that con- projects has ended, stantly threatened their lives and health, but the project activi- according to the United Nations Confer- ties continue. ence on Human Settlements (Habitat). These projects Inadequacies in housing, water, sanita- have shown that it is feasible to provide nities and the political will, the legal tion, drainage, solid waste disposal and cost-effective urban environmental serv- mandate, and the technical and institu- vector control, combined with poor ices and that urban environmental tional capacity of municipalities. EHP health care, create harsh conditions and health conditions, even the most dire, experiences show that NGOs can often contribute to a heavy disease burden in can be improved. In addition to these fill the gap. They are socially committed, such communities. The toll from infec- three projects, EHP has helped commu- flexible and able to improve their ability tions and parasitic diseases is particu- nities and local authorities in Tunisia, to work effectively with poor urban larly extreme, perhaps as much as 50 Zambia, Benin and elsewhere to adopt a communities. Key to this success is the times that of industrialized countries. more broad-based, participative ap- willingness they have demonstrated to Providing basic urban environmental proach to urban environmental man- set aside their normal NGO role as ‘im- health services—water supply, excreta agement. plementor’ for a new role as ‘facilitator’, collection and disposal, solid waste or broker, between the informal com- management, and drainage—to poor Lessons learned munities and the formal private and families living in peri-urban areas of the Lesson One: NGOs can play an public sectors. In all cases, EHP assisted developing world has remained an elu- effective role in providing the NGOs to experiment with their ap- sive goal. Yet, the number of families environmental health services in proach, to monitor their effectiveness living in peri-urban areas without basic peri-urban areas where municipal and to develop a sustainable model to services continues to increase. structures are weak or absent. serve as an example for the municipali- Through work with USAID missions A major constraint to providing envi- ties. Along the way, the NGOs were able in Jamaica, Haiti and Peru, EHP has had ronmental services to the urban poor is to identify policies and regulations in the opportunity to apply principles and the disconnection that exists between need of reform for NGO efforts to be approaches for work with the urban the urgent needs of peri-urban commu- replicated and scaled up.

13 unicef WATERfront Issue 14 • April 2000

Lesson Two: Providing environ- significant amounts of cash for water ties of the community, it is possible to mental health services to peri-urban from private vendors. Calculations create demand. In each of the three EHP communities requires a range of showed that the special water district projects, the NGOs provided informa- disciplines. being established could charge the same tion on the effect of environmental con- The traditional urbanization paradigm is amount, or even less, and provide more ditions on the health of families and, in based on the use of national or munici- reliable and better-quality water, and it particular, on children. Information was pal utilities overwhelmingly dominated could also operate and maintain the water made available on possibilities for im- by engineers. Too often, a problem is distribution system. When implemented, proving those conditions and what it considered as fundamentally a technical the resulting surplus was used to finance would cost. Demand for environmental services delivery problem requiring an other critical environmental health serv- services was thus created—even for serv- engineering solution. Experience has ices, such as solid waste collection. ices usually considered low-priority, such shown, though, that this paradigm does as solid waste collection and sanitation. not apply to peri-urban areas. The ur- Lesson Five: The level of banization process in such areas is more environmental health services in Challenges to success complicated. For example, families settle peri-urban areas should be Existing policies and regulations are (often illegally) on poor-quality land appropriate to income levels. constraints to providing services to the and put up houses before urban infra- NGOs in all three locations carried out urban poor. While these EHP projects structure is in place; in formal urban careful analysis of the community de- show that services could be effectively areas, the process is reversed. In peri- mand and willingness to pay for services provided, most NGOs had to reveal urban areas, families generally earn their and then provided services at those levels. creativity and boldness in ‘bending’ the living in the informal economy and may Charging for their services allowed all rules to achieve results. Political will to be unable to afford infrastructure and three institutions to recover costs and lower such barriers posed by municipal service levels designed for formal settle- become financially self-sufficient. or national policies or regulations is ments. In order to provide environmen- often lacking. The ultimate goal is to tal services in the peri-urban setting, Lesson Six: Demand for environ- change policies, not to bend them. planners must draw from a wide range mental health services can be Legal land title is the most promi- of disciplines, including institutional created among residents of peri- nent policy constraint because of the development, public health, social sci- urban areas. unwillingness of formal authorities to ence, law, urban planning, and finance, Environmental health experts generally address the question. Typically, peri- in addition to engineering. agree that service levels should be con- urban dwellers are considered squatters sistent with community demand and and they have no prospect for obtaining Lesson Three: Communities will willingness to pay for them, but they are legal title to the land on which they have provide the support needed to sceptical that demand can be created. built. Thus, a sense of impermanence make community-based institutions EHP’s experience shows that, if an reduces household incentive to make effective if the NGO gives them attempt is made to understand and improvements, such as latrines. full-partner status. respond to the perceptions and priori- Access to credit is still denied the Significant time was spent at the start of urban poor. In spite of repeated demon- each project consulting with the com- strations that the urban poor operate in munities about their needs, anticipated the cash economy and are willing to pay problems and ideas about realistic solu- for the services they want, ready access tions. The process insured that the solu- to credit remains a major obstacle. The tions were appropriate. And, more successful project activity in Jamaica importantly, the process created an provided households with market-rate effective relationship between the NGOs credit for the capital to build their sani- and the communities, helping to develop tary solutions. Nevertheless, this was an among the residents a sense of owner- exceptional case, and it is unclear ship for solutions. whether new sources of credit will be made available in the future. Lesson Four: Community-based Formal institutions must change institutions can provide quality significantly if they are to be able to serve environmental health services the urban poor. Even as municipalities in peri-urban areas at a and utilities begin to recognize the effec-

competitive price. Lucas Clavijo tiveness of a more flexible, interdiscipli- In Haiti, a careful pre-project analysis nary, community-based approach in revealed that households were paying peri-urban areas, they still resist devel-

14 Issue 14 • April 2000 unicef WATERfront oping the skills and management systems cies and new approaches to support and the relationship between natural needed to serve the urban poor. USAID objectives in child health and resource management and environmen- Disaggregated health data is neces- infectious diseases. There is an emphasis tal health, including a component that sary. Data on peri-urban or informal on reducing the burden of diarrhoeal will award small grants to developing urban areas should be separated from diseases, malaria and acute respiratory country NGOs. data on formal urban areas. Increas- infections in children under the age Several firms in the Camp Dresser ingly, anecdotal evidence suggests that of five. The five-year project will also and Mckee consortium have been part health conditions are significantly worse provide technical assistance to USAID of the team since EHP’s pedecessor, the in peri-urban areas than in formal urban programmes, addressing a range of envi- WASH Project, began in 1980 and areas, yet health and municipal officials ronmental health problems—from lead ended in 1994. These are Associates in devote little attention to peri-urban areas. pollution to occupational health to air Rural Development (ARD), Interna- A partial explanation for this inconsist- pollution—depending upon mission tional Science and Technology Institute ency is that health and environmental and bureau requests. (ISTI), Research Triangle Institute data on peri-urban areas are rarely USAID has charged the new EHP (RTI), and Training Resources Group disaggregated from urban data, or that with implementing and promoting new (TRG). The EHP team also includes data-collection systems may miss peri- or improved cost-effective and scaled- John Snow Inc. (JSI); the Manoff Group, urban areas entirely because they are up environmental health interventions. Inc.; Tulane University, School of Public neither rural nor urban. So long as the The challenge is to develop interven- Health and Tropical Medicine; and a urban poor and their health conditions tions that lead to maximal health results newcomer, the Harvard Institute for continue to be ‘invisible’, their problems for each dollar spend. International Development (HIID). will not be effectively addressed. Continuity and innovation will char- A new EHP Home Page is being acterize the new EHP. Basic approaches developed on line and part of it is already ‘New’ EHP for community-based activities and up and running. Visit the site to keep up In July 1999, the U.S. Agency for Inter- behaviour change will continue to be to date on EHP plans and directions for national Development (USAID) awarded employed and refined. Water, sanita- the future: www.ehproject.org the continuation of EHP to the consor- tion, hygiene behaviour and tropical UNICEF and EHP worked together in the tium led by Camp Dresser and McKee disease control will carry on as primary elaboration of the Handbook on Better International Inc. The ‘new’ EHP, im- technical areas. The new EHP contract, Sanitation Programming. At the moment, plemented through USAID’s Population, however, leads off in new directions, with they are investigating new areas of possible Health and Nutrition Center, conducts more attention paid to acute respiratory future cooperation. operations research and promotes poli- infections, infectious disease surveillance,

■ Urban poor Harare from page 8

■ Lack of formal employment organised for late 1999 for representa- tives from a broad spectrum of govern- ■ Lack of latrines, causing disease and While the Blair VIP latrine ment and NGO partners: City of Harare a polluted environment has long been the standard Health Services, Ministry of Local ■ Inadequate water supply in Zimbabwe, the special Government, Ministry of Health, com- conditions found in these three munity organisations, rights groups ■ Need for full-day pre-school centres settlements, particularly the and churches. ■ High levels of violence against limited space available and women, and prostitution Sanitation and child-rights project low income, have posed a Concurrently to the situation analysis, a Advocacy and action on challenge for innovation in project was developed to implement child’s rights waste-disposal technology. some of its most urgent recommenda- Launch of situation analysis tions, that is, to address poor sanitation Guided by the UNICEF Monitoring and conditions and to support community Evaluation Unit, the situation analysis urban poor residents to decision makers initiatives for child protection. Financed was reviewed, finalised and printed dur- and help mobilise resources for the im- by the UNICEF Child Rights Protection ing the first half of 1999. It will be used to provement of their health, education Unit under an existing agreement with publicize the plight of these marginalised and environment. A launch is being continued on page 21

15 unicef WATERfront Issue 14 • April 2000 Rehabilitation of urban water supply projects— experience from Northern Iraq By B.B. Samantha, WES-officer, UNICEF, Erbil, Northern Iraq

Background water distribution network resulted in northern Iraq since 1991, its activities in he years of military conflict lead- an increase of up to 35% to 40% water water and environmental sanitation ing up to the Gulf War in 1991 loss due to leakage, further reducing the (WES) have grown both in terms of T and the subsequent civil unrest quantity of water ultimately available to magnitude and complexity in recent caused considerable damage to all basic the people. Water quality also suffered years. As part of the humanitarian pro- infrastructures, including water supply due to the absence of adequate water gramme established by SCR 986 in 1995, in northern Iraq. Even before the Gulf treatment facilities and damage to the UNICEF has been identified as the lead- War there was widespread damage to a installations. Non-availability of water ing UN agency in WES sector; the other large number of villages, and new towns treatment chemicals like aluminium partners are UNCHS/Habitat and were created to accommodate this sulfate, chlorine gas and chlorine pow- WHO. Unlike central and southern Iraq, population. There were large-scale mi- der added to the problem. where the UN agencies are expected to grations of people to the cities. This re- play the role of an observer, their role in sulted in a skewed urban-rural Why the WES Programme in the north is that of an implementing population, with the urban population northern Iraq is unique: agency. This is unique for UNICEF in constituting over 70 % of an estimated 3 Although UNICEF has been working in WES when compared to most other million total population. This, in turn, put a lot of pressure on the urban basic services. The pressure was greater in three cities, viz. Erbil, Dohuk and Status of Urban Water Supply in 1996 and 1999 Sulemaniyah, where more than three (Northern Iraq) fourths of the urban population lived. Type of Scheme 1996 1999 The urban water supply Deep well scenario in northern Iraq No. working 709 737 in 1996 Total supply (m3/day) 13,712 17,319 While the number of urban centers increased from 79 in 1990 to 157 in % using chlorinator 36 64 1996, the estimated water supply from Water treatment plants water projects dwindled from 297,000 No. of treatment plants 10 10 m3 to 254,000 m3 per day. As per the No. of working pumps (intake) 24 41 multiple indicator cluster surveys No. standby 7 11 (MICS) of 1996, over 95% of urban dwellers (encompassing both urban and Intake (cum/day) 170,345 228,299 semi-urban) in north Iraq, consisting of No. of booster pumps working 28 33 three governorates, viz. Erbil, Dohuk Total supply (cum/day) 156,558 211,538 and Sulemaniyah, had access to safe Gravity water. However, a lowering of the water No. existing 23 26 supply indicated a low per capita avail- Total supply (cum/day) 21,072 23,232 ability of water in 1996 when compared to that in 1990. Due to the UN sanctions, % having facility for treatment 100 100 there was a ban on import of machinery Others (surface/shallow well) and equipment for water projects (new No. existing 7 7 and for replacement), and also on mate- No. of pumps working 39 44 rials for the distribution network. Many Total supply (cum/day) 49,300 53,750 of the pumps were old and worn out % having facility for chlorination 100 100 and were working much below their capacity. Lack of repairs to the existing Source: Local authorities

16 Issue 14 • April 2000 unicef WATERfront countries. Due to the embargo, every focus was more on the distribution of rapport with the local authorities, item to be imported to this region needs humanitarian supplies like food, medi- proper monitoring and following up. the approval of the sanctions committee cine and books, and initially it was not at the UN in New York, which makes realised that for WES, distribution of Water quality improvement: planning more complex. Under SCR materials is not enough. A multi-pronged strategy 986, the amount allotted to UNICEF for In order to overcome these difficul- During the first phase (1997), UNICEF WES has been close to US$125 million ties, at the beginning of phase IV was responsible for not only providing up to mid-1999. This constituted UNICEF undertook a quick assessment the water treatment chemicals but also around 60% of the total allocation made and prepared a distribution plan based monitoring the water quality, for which to UNICEF so far under SCR 986 and on the need instead of an action plan it had to procure chemicals for water makes the WES programme in northern based on the supplies received, as was testing as well. Subsequently, from the Iraq probably the largest in the world. done in the first three phases. The distri- second phase onwards, WHO took the Around 70% of this amount is earmarked bution plan for each phase was linked responsibility of water testing while for activities in the urban sector that with that of the previous phase to have a UNICEF continued to take the responsi- includes semi-urban areas as well; urban synergistic impact. For water produc- bility of providing water treatment water supply accounts for three fourths tion, a two-pronged approach was chemicals. of this with an estimated budget of adopted. First, an assessment was done In 1996, before the SCR 986 pro- US$80 million. of the potential for increasing the intake gramme was introduced, the percentage and the scope for phasing out the old of water samples in the urban areas The rehabilitation strategy in and worn-out pumps. Second, the engi- (including semi-urban) reporting bacte- urban water supply neering college of the local university riological contamination varied from Keeping in mind high coverage in terms was commissioned to carry out a map- 16% in Dohuk to 30% in Erbil of access to safe water and the worn-out ping exercise of the water distribution governorates; Sulemaniyah reported machinery, equipment and the distribu- network to identify the areas needing 22% contaminated water samples. tion network that need replacement and repair and extension. These efforts have Therefore, improving the water quality repair, the focus of UNICEF interven- resulted in more systematic planning became a priority for UNICEF. The tions in northern Iraq has been to reha- and speedier implementation, as may interventions included supply of water- bilitate the existing projects. This is to not be seen below. purifying agents such as aluminium only sustain the high coverage but also As of 31 August 1999, a total of 345 sulfate, chlorine gas and chlorine pow- to increase the per capita availability of pumps have been installed, 95% of these der and installation of powder chlorina- water by increasing the intake capacity during a period of 15 months preceding tors. Once the supplies arrived in early of the existing water projects. Simulta- this date. The population benefiting 1998, attempts were made to use these neously, care has to be taken to ensure from this is close to 1 million. Similarly, in a phased manner. During the initial water quality through the provision of over 200 kilometers of the water distri- few months—although these interven- water treatment facilities and by plugging bution network has been repaired or tions had a positive impact in reducing the leakage in the distribution network. extended during the same period, cover- contamination in all the three governor- Strengthening the capacity of the local ing around 600,000 people. In addition, ates—the impact was more pronounced authorities for greater sustainability also 146 pumphouses have been constructed in Dohuk (from 16% to 6%) and formed an important part of the strategy. or rehabilitated, increasing the pumps’ Sulemaniyah (from 22% to 11%). efficiency by reducing the breakdown As there was only a marginal decline Water production and time and improving water treatment in the level of contamination in Erbil distribution: A need-based facilities by providing space for the chlo- (from 30% to 26%), an investigation approach rinators. Keeping in mind the erratic was made to find out the reasons. It There were difficulties in the planning power supply, UNICEF has also pro- turned out that a multiplicity of sources, processes for water supply in urban vided generators to certain strategic illegal connections, lack of an adequate areas during the initial period. There locations. All these efforts have resulted number of pump operators, together were three major reasons for this: First, in increasing the supply of water from with the worn-out distribution network the local authority had no development 254,000 m3 per day in 1996 to over and inadequate monitoring of the water plan, which was mainly due to the fluid 320,000 m3 per day at the beginning of purification, had contributed to a high political situation. Second, due to the 1999, an increase of 25%. This was pos- level of contamination. Of the 737 deep- short-term nature of each phase under sible due an increase in the number of well pumps existing in all of northern SCR (each phase is of six months dura- deep wells from 709 to 737 and the Iraq, around 450 (more than 60%) are tion), it was difficult to take even a me- number of low-lift pumps (for intake) in Erbil governorate and half of these dium-term perspective of the urban from 31 to 52. These achievements were pumps are in Erbil city. The governor of water supply. Third, under SCR 986 the possible due to careful planning, close Erbil organised an inter-agency work-

17 unicef WATERfront Issue 14 • April 2000 shop in June 1998, at the request of istry of Municipalities and Tourism efforts will contribute to sustaining the UNICEF, to discuss the problems of (which is the nodal ministry for water gains already achieved. water contamination. Based on the de- supply and sanitation in urban areas) liberations of this workshop, the gover- spent less than US$300,000 on repair Summing up nor introduced several measures to and maintenance of both water and The humanitarian programme imple- check contamination that included in- sanitation systems. This was reduced to mented by the UN in northern Iraq is volvement of the religious leaders to a paltry US$120,000 in 1996. As part of unique both in context and complexity. educate people on water conservation, its strategy to sustain the water systems, As a lead agency for water and sanita- the adverse impact of illegal connections, UNICEF embarked upon a plan to im- tion, UNICEF is handling a large punishment for illegal connections, the port essential spares and also provided number of urban water supply projects, creation of around 200 pump operator the required cash for repair of water with an investment exceeding US$80 posts and wide publicity in print and systems. The total amount earmarked million. In spite of the fact that this is electronic media. UNICEF provided for this purpose was close to US$3 mil- relatively a new area for UNICEF, the mobility support to the DWS for better lion In addition, it was instrumental in progress achieved within a short span of monitoring of chlorination by the pump persuading the local authorities to in- 15 months has been considerable. While operators and ensured that all chlorina- crease the number of maintenance the rehabilitation strategy for water tors received were installed. A pro- teams to look after water treatment systems, both production and distribu- gramme was also launched to replace a plants, chlorinators, deep wells and the tion, has proved effective in maintaining sizeable length of leaking pipes. water distribution network. As a result, the high coverage, the coordinated ap- All these measures had the desired the number of maintenance teams in- proach adopted for improving water effect of reducing the level of water con- creased from 32 in 1996 to 40 in 1999. quality has paid rich dividends in reduc- tamination in Erbil city from 38% in The increase in the number of engineers ing water contamination. Strengthening June 1998 to less than 5% by March and technicians handling repair and the maintenance system is expected to 1999. This was possible due to proper maintenance is more impressive, from contribute significantly to greater sus- identification of the causes of contami- 78 to 118. tainability. Considering the require- nation, timely corrective action and Simultaneously, a massive training ments of the region, a lot of things are strong coordination between UNICEF programme for pump operators was still to be done. This makes the future and WHO, along with the local authori- taken up in 1999. So far, around 300 tasks of UNICEF equally challenging. ties. A similar approach has also been operators have adopted in Dohuk and Sulemaniyah been trained in governorates with successful results. As pump operation Status of Maintenance Teams for Urban of 31 August 1999, UNICEF supplied and maintenance Water Projects over 1,100 tons of aluminium sulfate, and in the use of 450 tons of chlorine gas and installed chlorinators. Project 1996 1998 390 powder chlorinators in deep-well Training on the Water treatment plants pumping stations. All the installations use of computers No. of Teams 4 6 have now adequate water purifying to facilitate project Engineers 7 9 agents. planning and Technicians 10 17 monitoring has Workers 37 57 Maintenance of water systems: been imparted to Chlorinator/laboratory A move towards sustainability the concerned No. of Teams 5 8 As mentioned earlier, most of the urban engineers. Ar- Engineers 2 3 water systems are very old and need rangements have Technicians 15 20 frequent maintenance, repair and some- also been made to Workers 12 13 times complete replacement. Also, most provide service Deep well/gravity of the equipment and machinery were of training to engi- No. of Teams 6 8 foreign origin. Non-availability of genu- neers and techni- Engineers 5 11 ine spare parts in the local market and cians in the Technicians 19 24 the formalities for importing spares operation and Workers 25 37 were a big problem. At times, items maintenance of Water distribution network requested for old equipment were re- pumps and control No. of Teams 17 18 portedly out of production. panels in collabo- Engineers 9 13 An analysis of the expenditure avail- ration with the Technicians 11 21 able from two governorates, Erbil and pump manufac- Workers 134 166 Dohuk, indicates that in 1990, the Min- turer. All these Source: Local authorities

18 Issue 14 • April 2000 unicef WATERfront Plight of poor living in Brazil’s dump areas by UNICEF-Brazil

In 1998, 1,500 Brazilian children and boys and girls do not attend school. The dos Indios and Petrolina) and two in the adolescents moved from a life in Brazil’s dump area is their classroom, their en- North (Manaus and Rio Branco). dump areas to a life that includes school- tertainment, their food and their source The lessons learned after half a dec- ing. How did this happen? For one thing, of income. Thousands of families eat ade of substantive work, are found in a startling incident took place in the early what they find in dump areas. And where the publication Child, Trash-Picker, 1990s. And more recently, an awareness there are families, there are children. Citizen, published by UNICEF-Brazil in process under way at the country’s Two studies were carried out over 1998. Reflection on this experience has national level, concerning the problem of the past two years. The first, by UNICEF, consolidated into the approach called waste disposal with a broader perspective, was organized by Institute of Water and ‘Participatory Management of Urban has the social dimension as a key element. Life and concluded in September 1998. Waste’. The difference from simple UNICEF is at the centre of this unprec- The second is the compilation of ques- urban cleaning services, which are edented phenomenon. tionnaires sent to all mayors in Brazil, purely an engineering service, is a far upon the launching of the campaign more comprehensive intervention that Background called ‘Children in Waste Dump Areas, involves the components of education, esearch indicates that nearly 45,000 Never Again’. 1,956 municipalities ac- health, environment, housing, income children and young persons live knowledge having children and teen- and employment generation, and the R and work in dump areas all over agers living and working in dump areas. promotion of rights. The actions this Brazil. Many were born in these places, Half are in Brazil’s Northeast region, approach takes can only succeed in the to parents who themselves were born in 18% in the Southeast, 14% in the North, presence of strong coordination among them. From an early age, these young- 7% in the Centre West and 12% in the various interrelated sectors: federal, state sters have been exposed to the movement South. Sixty percent of them live in and municipal governments; NGOs; of trucks and heavy machines, to dust, cities with up to 50,000 inhabitants. companies; workers’ unions; associa- to fire, to perforated and contaminated UNICEF’s work in the area of waste tions; and other segments of society. objects, and to rotten food. Most of these disposal dates back to 1992 and resulted Taking children and their families from an incident away from dump areas without addi- that drew the tional interventions is useless, concluded attention of the the National Forum ‘From Waste to entire country. Citizenship’: Either they return or others Several people replace them. working in the dump area of ‘Children in Waste Dump Aguazinha, in Areas, Never Again’ Olinda City, were The Forum, which consists of 42 NGOs poisoned and and Government Agencies working in hospitalized after waste, started in June 1998, one year eating hospital before the launching of the ‘Children in waste. There was Waste Dump Areas, Never Again’ cam- suspicion that paign. Coordination for the creation of human flesh was the Forum and the launching of the amidst the out- campaign to fulfil the goals of the Forum door garbage, were headed by UNICEF. The idea to

UNICEF/HQ97-0996/Jeremy Horner together with estanlish a Forum was the result of the other kinds of work UNICEF was carrying out in the waste. Five mu- Northeast and North. nicipal projects The National Forum has the follow- were developed, ing goals: three in the ■ eradicate child labour from dump Northeast areas; (Olinda, Palmeira

19 unicef WATERfront Issue 14 • April 2000

■ enroll all children living in dump and signed the Letter of Commitment. posit is supposed to alert the local au- areas at school; Most of them manage cities with up to thorities about the situation of families 25,000 inhabitants, which, taken to- living there. ■ reduce child mortality; gether, comprise 11,244 children and No monitoring and evaluation in- ■ generate employment and income adolescents working and living in dump strument has yet been applied in accord- for families living in dump areas; areas. Of these, 62% of the returned ance to the proposed model, and for this questionnaires came from the South and reason it has not been possible to deter- ■ recuperate regions degraded by Southeast regions, the most developed mine the actual results achieved. dump areas; in the country. Representatives of the institutions ■ elect trash-pickers as priority part- An overall assessment of the cam- that are members of the National Forum ners for selective waste collection; paign indicates that the mobilization ‘From Waste to Citizenship’ are enthusi- was successful, especially due to the astic about the results achieved so far ■ eradicate dump areas. following reasons: and the perspective that this type of To achieve these goals, the Forum coordination represents. There is gen- 1. The question of waste disposal is focussed on nine activities: a national eral agreement about the innovative closely related to everyone, as every- mobilization campaign; contest of manner in which this work is being one generates waste. experiences; coordination with the consolidated. The disputes that would Prosecutor’s Office; creation of a data 2. A child in a dump area presents a have otherwise hindered the coordina- bank; creation of a national training picture that raises indignation, re- tion of this group have given way to programme; coordination with funding gardless of a person’s place and po- collaboration and the gathering of ef- agencies; identification and recommen- litical vision. forts to implement the work proposed dation of solutions for social and educa- by the Forum. 3. UNICEF has high credibility both in tional inclusion; qualification of the UNICEF’s role of maintaining the the sphere of public opinion and of demand and diagnosis. focus on children is seen as a key one, the government and non-government The national mobilization campaign thanks to its neutral position and high sectors working in the social field. launched in June 1999 was very success- credibility. This approach facilitates ful. The media gave unprecedented broad professionals from various government coverage to the question of sanitation, Campaign results areas to work together, as they know with the subject appearing in the head- During the 12 months leading up to the beforehand that credit will not be given lines of the largest Brazilian newspapers writing of this article, UNICEF has sup- to one specific ministry only, or to an- and the issue discussed by the media. As ported 10 projects of the ‘From Waste to other. It can thus be stated that the Na- part of the ‘Children in Waste Dump Citizenship’ campaign, mostly in the tional Forum ‘From Waste to Areas, Never Again’ campaign, all of Northeast region, at a cost of US$ Citizenship’ is actually managing to Brazil’s mayors received a questionnaire 360,000.00. As a direct result of project break a rooted taboo and implementing on the situation of waste disposal in activities, it is estimated that 1,500 chil- a national plan in a smooth way. their city, as well as a Letter of Commit- dren and adolescents were taken out of At the request of the National Forum, ment by which they could adhere to the dump areas, given their birth certificates the Brazilian Institute of Geography and campaign. The mayors who returned the and enrolled at school. Statistics will include a number of ques- questionnaire and signed the letter then In addition to implementing com- tions about solid waste management in received a kit containing five publications: munication activities, disseminating the year 2000 census, set to begin in experiences, and meeting the demand, April 2000. The census is expected to ■ The Mayor’s Manual; the UNICEF Office in Brasília organized begin producing results during the first ■ Child, Trash-Picker, Citizen (the in August 1999, as part of the National quarter of 2001. Therefore, important publication mentioned above); Forum Workplan, the National Training and detailed information will become Programme in Urban Management in available about exactly how many and ■ The Trash-Picker’s Manual (pro- Brazil and a Monitoring and Evaluation which municipalities have dump areas, duced by the ‘Entrepreneurial Com- System for the Programme. the number and ages of children and mitment’ for Recycling, CEMPRE); The innovative aspect of the training adolescents who work and live in them, ■ The Selective Waste Collection Manual programme lies in its coordination with the living conditions, and so on. (produced by Institute Polis); the various sectors involved in waste Meanwhile, state and municipal management. Thus, each part continues ‘From Waste to Citizenship’ forums are ■ The Prosecutor’s Manual (produced to take on specific share of responsibility taking shape in various parts of Brazil, by the Federal Prosecutor’s Office). but also acquires an overall vision of the with different characteristics from place Of the 5,507 mayors, about 25% problem. For example, an engineer who to place. In the state of Ceará, the pro- filled out and returned the questionnaire prepares a plan for a sanitary waste de- gramme started as a UNICEF initiative.

20 Issue 14 • April 2000 unicef WATERfront

In the state of Santa Catarina, the Chil- recognition that UNICEF has carried portance of the theme, the ethical dren’s Court made the first step towards out most of the activities, ranging from dimension of the presence of chil- coordinating the institutions in support coordination at various levels to routine dren in dump areas, and UNICEF’s of municipal governments. In the states office tasks. But the mobilization result- widespread credibility. There is thus of Rio Grande do Sul and Minas Gerais, ing from the activities of the National a favourable environment for a basic the initiative was taken by the respective Forum ‘From Waste to Citizenship’ has cultural change in the country inso- Secretariats of the Environment. In generated an increasing level of demand far as social questions are concerned, every case, two underlying principles for which UNICEF is not prepared. based on an experience that resulted form the basis for work: an integrated There is no central office, administrative from combating the permanence and vision of the problem involving various support, or efficient communication work of children and adolescents in sectors, and the assurance of political system among the Forum members, the dump areas. support from the local government. ongoing projects and the public at large. 2. In addition to its valuable technical Challenges due to demand Conclusions cooperation, UNICEF plays an im- portant role in the establishment of The movement is expanding, and the The main lessons learned during this forums and programme implementa- present challenge is to face the demand process are summarized as follows: tion: It implements political coordi- generated by the campaign. A minimum 1. The approach to the question of nation. Being politically neutral with infrastructure has to be formed to meet waste management—with the focus no partisan viewpoint, and having the demand and coordinate the internal on children and adolescents and unquestionable credibility through- and external actions of the National involving various sectors in an inte- out the country, UNICEF has the Forum. The government staff who are grated manner—has been very well mobilization capacity that is funda- members of the Executive Secretariat of received by government authorities mental to the elaboration of a plan the National Forum are there because and institutions dealing in the issue. whose main goal is to put into prac- they were authorized, albeit informally, The press and public opinion also tice: ‘Children in Waste Dump Areas, by their supervisors to perform tasks noted the approach, due to the im- Never Again’. other than their regular ones. There is

■ Urban poor Harare from page 15 the city of Harare, the project again Extension and Hatcliffe Extension, cling waste as a precious fertilizer have draws upon the expertise of Mvuramanzi including: also directed the work. Trust in sanitation technology and ■ PRA research of key issues sur- During project implementation in hygiene education and of IPA in PRA rounding water, waste disposal Dzivarasekwa Extension and Hatcliffe and child-rights promotion. The project and community health, and com- Extension, several low-cost designs for period is to be July 1999 through Decem- munity workshops for planning households will be built and tested using ber 1999. implementation a variety of materials. Community ac- The project has two parts: ■ Training of community members ceptance, convenience and durability in environmental health issues will determine which options will be in 1. Child-rights promotion in Hatcliffe ■ Latrine design, testing and con- most demand. Extension, including: struction ■ PRA research to understand ex- ■ Water point rehabilitation and Conclusion isting community structures that training of management com- This project has incorporated the best promote child rights, and com- mittees principles of good programming: assess- munity workshops for planning Innovative latrine designs are a key ment and analysis of the situation of child rights interventions component of this project. While the children, participatory approaches, in- ■ Training of community leaders Blair VIP latrine has long been the ternal and external partnerships, inter- and rights committee members in standard in Zimbabwe, the special con- sectoral collaboration, advocacy, leadership skills and child rights ditions found in these three settlements, community capacity building and em- ■ Promotion of child rights in the particularly the limited space available powerment. It is hoped that such par- wider community and low income, have posed a challenge ticipatory approaches can be modeled 2. Sanitation, participatory health and for innovation in waste-disposal tech- for use in other marginalised communi- hygiene education in Dzivarasekwa nology. Concepts of eco-san for recy- ties throughout Zimbabwe.

21 unicef WATERfront Issue 14 • April 2000 The shift to poor urban areas: A strategic approach to cost-effectiveness in water, environment and sanitation By Antero de Pina, Assistant Project Officer, UNICEF-Cape Verde

Background government and UNICEF have started single community project supported by n archipelago of volcanic islands to pay more attention to the poor urban UNICEF-Cape Verde. off the Atlantic coast of West areas. The project, which concluded in A Africa, Cape Verde has a popu- April 1999, included the following com- lation of approximately 417,000 people ponents: (1998). About 50 percent live in urban Water coverage (1996) ■ Equipment for a bore hole (capacity areas. The population growth rate for 100 Rural Urban Total of 30 m3/hr) with a 40 KVA generator the entire country is estimated at about 80 and a submersible pump (SP 27-282). 2.5 percent. However, the growth rate for urban areas stands at 4.5 percent. 60 ■ Construction of a reservoir with a % 3 Water supply and sanitation coverage 40 storage capacity of 300 m (two cells) in rural areas has always lagged behind with control chamber. the urban areas of the country. The situa- 20 ■ Network of about 4.5 km of water tion has reached critical proportions on 0 Santiago Cape Verde lines. Santiago, the most populated island of the archipelago and home to more than ■ Construction of two major water 50 percent of the country’s population. The project implemented in the distribution points; rehabilitation of community of Chao Bom in the District one water point and connection to of Tarrafal in Santiago is a good example two old water points. Population growth and projection of effective partnership among the gov- ■ Water connection to two primary in Chao Bom (1970–2010) ernment, UNICEF, the municipality and schools and one kindergarten. 9,000 NGOs. Chao Bom is a urban poor com- 8,000 7,000 munity located about one kilometer 6,000 5,000 from the main urban centre of the 4,000 The project…is a good example 3,000 Tarrafal District. A large community, 2,000 Chao Bom’s population, bigger even of effective partnership among 1,000 0 than the urban center, numbers an esti- 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 the government, UNICEF, mated 6,500 people in the year 2000 and the municipality and NGOs. is expected to rise to about 8,000 in 2010. The government of Cape Verde and From the project’s inception, in UNICEF established the rural and poor 1997, the municipalities, the NGOs urban areas on the island of Santiago as representing the community, the central A public state enterprise and the priorities in the current Programme government and UNICEF were involved National Water Resources Management Cycle (1995–1999). So far, more than in the discussion of the Terms of Refer- Institute constructed the project. The 20,000 people, mainly in Santiago’s ence for the preparation of plans to municipality of Tarrafal, UNICEF and rural areas, have gained access to drink- execute the project. The process pro- NGOs monitored the implementation. ing water. gressed slowly, as many interests were at Community participation in the stake. At first, UNICEF was very con- project took place in the planning stage Intervention strategy cerned about the costing of the project, through two local NGOs (Association High per capita costs have presented because the costing would allow for for Promotion of Women/MORABI and major obstacles in efforts to increase the project sustainability. However, the Association of Friends of Chao Bom/ coverage in the widely dispersed rural discussion process was so successful that AACB). The two NGOs then represented areas. Because of the large migration of all partners were convinced that the the community in all the stages of the people from rural areas to cities, the preconditions existed to start the largest project. MORABI was able to gather

22 Issue 14 • April 2000 unicef WATERfront funds to construct a new water distribu- Considering the actual and the potential consideration. The drinking water pro- tion point, and AACB provided volun- coverage, per capita cost is estimated at vided to the community has increased tary labour on weekends in the rehabili- about $100, very low, considering that from 60 m3/day to about 200 m3/day. tation and enlargement of one major most of the water projects supported by Hence, per capita consumption has the water distribution point in cooperation potential to increase from 10 to 30 lpd. with the municipality. In addition, water connection in two Community participation in the major primary schools stands to benefit …there is great potential operation and maintenance costs will some 1,200 school children and to integrate a scheme to allow the NGOs to to improve coverage in strengthen hygiene education efforts. manage directly some water points un- urban poor areas of Santiago Due to the high operation and main- der a special contract with the municipal at lower than traditional costs. tenance costs of the existing system, the waterworks services. What’s more, the municipality has now established as a community is willing to pay for the priority the implementation of house- water production costs (water tariffs are hold connections. The community is estimated at US$1-$1.5/m3). UNICEF-Cape Verde need per capita willing to pay for water production Direct investment costs of the pro- investments of more than $200. The costs, estimated at between $1 and $1.5 ject totalled approximately $300,000.1 high population concentration was one per m3 on average. The waiting list for UNICEF contributed $85,000 (28 per- of the major factors in the cost reduc- household connection is so long that the cent); the government, $200,000 (67 tion. In addition, the effective participa- municipality is preparing a specific im- percent); and NGOs, $15,000 (5 percent). tion of other partners in all the project plementation plan. phases—planning, construction, moni- toring—was a major motivating factor Conclusion 1 All dollars are US. to speed up the implementation. This experience has shown that there is great potential to improve coverage in Results and urban poor areas of Santiago at lower impact than traditional costs. Furthermore, Five public water while the involvement of various part- points now serve the ners might slow down the planning community. The phase of the project, it is instrumental in municipality, in co- the construction and monitoring stages, operation with the as there is a synergistic and gap-fitting NGOs, takes care of effect that creates an inertia during the the operation and construction. This holistic approach to maintenance of the water projects in urban poor areas has system. A contractual given UNICEF a higher visibility with agreement with other major donors, and an opportunity NGOs for water- to leverage resources and take on the point operation and experience in the next Country Pro- Typical water distribution point that includes washing stands and showers. maintenance is under gramme (2000–2004).

■ Urban environmental sanitation from page 2

in handling urban water projects in ■ Despite its notoriety as a tourist des- gentina, UNICEF promoted the im- other areas with similar socio-eco- tination, Acapulco is a city with plementation of programmes in basic nomic and political environments. many disparities between rich and integrated health, including the pro- poor, and it is one of the most pol- vision of drinking water, environmen- ■ The Integrated Management of Solid luted cities in the world. Through the tal health and housing improvement, Waste Project taking place in Istminia, implementation of an ecological and training programmes. Colombia, has succeeded to em- sanitation project for the urban poor, power women and generate an in- ■ In Santiago, Cape Verde, the Govern- UNICEF has shown an alternative come for them. The programme was ment ‘learned’ through UNICEF’s solution to alleviating the environ- implemented with the participation example that water coverage in peri- mental health problem. of local and national authorities and urban areas can be increased and the community, in particular women. ■ In one of the poorest regions of Ar- continued on page 30

23 unicef WATERfront Issue 14 • April 2000 Integrated sanitation and housing improvement in low-income communities in Argentina by Martin Delucchi, Consultant, UNICEF Argentina

Background ment (the neighbourhood and commu- focus, making it possible to generate a haco Province, located in the nity). These activities make it possible to progressive and sustainable process to northeast part of the country, establish adequate conditions for the improve living conditions. C is one of the poorest parts of child’s growth in harmony with the The projects presented here were Argentina. The province was in the grip environment and give particular atten- undertaken with the basic intention of of a widespread crisis that was increasing tion to the influence that water and establishing a gradually evolving pro- already existing structural poverty. The sanitation have on child health. ductive process for housing and the crisis further worsened the living condi- environment. They begin with the nec- tions of large sectors of the population, essary territorial consolidation of the particularly the most vulnerable: women …the projects to provide population by means of land and urban and children. According to current indi- drinking water and regularisation mechanisms in order to cators, 48% of the population does not achieve the necessary legal tenure of environmental sanitation to have access to drinking water and 86% land and the optimum spatial organisa- does not have acceptable sanitation low-income suburban tion for use of the networks and services. systems. settlements [were] set out Through collective actions, the com- Faced with this situation and armed in an innovative proposal munity gains the ability to organise and with the objective of seeking alternatives with a traditional focus… manage so that it can participate and in order to improve living conditions make decisions to improve the neigh- and reduce health risks of these popula- bourhood (the provision of basic infra- tions, UNICEF, at the end of 1994, The provision of basic sanitation structures). The community signed co-operation agreements to pro- services, and adequate domestic equip- subsequently operates and maintains the mote solutions with particular attention ment to make the most appropriate use services installed according to the capac- to children. The first was signed with the of them, was identified as the most ap- ity and skills developed. Chaco Lottery and subsequently with propriate strategy in light of the high From the organisational structure the provincial government. In this con- level of unsatisfied demand and chroni- that develops through implementing the text from 1995 to 1998, UNICEF en- cally inadequate resources. basic sanitation project, it becomes pos- couraged implementing a number of The development of the projects to sible to extend these improvements to community experiences—in basic inte- provide drinking water and environ- the neighbourhood and family unit by grated health, including the provision of mental sanitation to low-income subur- introducing these services to every home drinking water supply systems, environ- ban settlements was set out in an and by constructing adequate sanitation mental health, housing improvement innovative proposal with a traditional and environmental installations for the and training programmes— most appropriate daily fam- in suburban areas in the LEGALIZATION OF URBAN HOUSING ily and domestic use of the PHASES southern zone of LAND RIGHTS IMRPOVEMENT IMPROVEMENT water recipients. This will be Resistencia, capital of the source of housing im- Informal settlements Under-serviced suburban Community and family Chaco Province. LEVEL neighbourhoods groups provement and sustainable social development. Urban consolidation of Provision of basic Home sanitation and Proposal criteria MAIN land and populations sanitation and progressive housing OBJECTIVES environmental repair development Methodology From a child rights perspec- Construction of integrated Development of particip. Community organization sanitation systems by tive, the activities developed management guidelines for construction the community guidelines Land and urban Articulation of actors Community improvement are aimed at generating SECONDARY regularization and resources and facilities for social A series of basic theoretical OBJECTIVES Neighbourhood and Self-management by the services social, economic, physical community organization community for the Solidary mechanisms to premises underpin the de- Development of training provision of the services improve housing mechanisms Health and environmental Productive, sustainable and environmental condi- training development velopment of a strategy to tions that promote child Organization of residents Local committees Local associations meet objectives that ad- Municipality Municipality Municipality health, both at the family Land legalization Public services company Financial organizations equately address the state of Ministry for health Housing department ACTORS Programme/NGOs level (the home) and in the Secretary for social Private companies chronic resource insuffi- Private owners development/NGOs NGOs/university Employment programme Employment programme child’s immediate environ- PRODUCTION PROCESS FOR PROGRESSIVE HABITAT ciencies and the historical

24 Issue 14 • April 2000 unicef WATERfront characteristics of the social context giv- The basis of an operational structure forms of inter-community conflict; and ing rise to such situations. The principal to best accomplish the established objec- varying degrees of need and available premises are the mobilisation of funding tives is found in a methodological plan resources in the communities. sources and the integrated participation aiming to create among the different The project started in mid-1995 with of all of those involved. actors involved the maximum space the installation of a drinking water net- Present conditions in society make it possible for concerted and mutually work in the five neighbourhoods. This necessary to promote actions that will agreed action on an equal level. involved the extension of water networks have a high impact on the life of its The underlying aim of the pro- to integrate the area into the urban in- members so that all sectors can develop gramme is to use the experience from frastructure, the adaptation of family by undertaking the construction of these projects to replicate and generate dwellings from unsafe methods of get- housing through shared efforts, partici- local projects. This will make it possible, ting and using water, and personal and pation, co-responsibility, sufficient in- using the organisational structure, to domestic hygiene training. formation and active participation. The establish a suitable technical and admin- From a social operations point of main objective—an acceptable quality of istrative network to respond to the view, the intervention method applied life—is achieved in two simultaneous, linked the components of the process in interactive ways: by satisfying basic an interactive manner as follows: inter- physical needs and by strengthening the The organisational model was institutional participation, inter-com- capacity of those involved to take action munity organisation (given the scarce developed on three interrelated appropriately according to the rules of a existing links among the neighbourhood democratic society. levels—financing, co-ordination committees) and undertaking public The organisational and operational and implementation…. works projects. The strategy of establish- structure of the projects was developed ing an inter-community organisation with this general direction. The struc- made it possible to increase the partici- ture also serves as an experimental needs identified, promoting efficient pation of the rest of the inhabitants in framework for a model of organisational institutional operational decentralisa- the various project components; to in- management, with a view to promoting tion and better use of social investments. crease the inhabitants’ confidence and the participation of the actors and the A preliminary survey of the area credibility with regard to implementa- mobilisation and optimisation of re- where over 4,000 inhabitants had no tion, such as in community and inter- sources on a community, public and access to safe drinking water or pur- community representation; to decrease private level. chased it from private vendors made it party political participation in the devel- The organisational model was possible to identify different situations opment of the project; and to incorpo- developed on three interrelated levels— in the settlements with varying degrees rate more democratic mechanisms financing, co-ordination and implemen- of complexity. These were land owner- established among the neighbours and tation—with the different actors ship; places where the environment had the Manzeras (‘woman in charge of the interacting according to their skill and been contaminated by excavation pits block’) Inter-Community Committee. competency levels in a participatory serving as dumps; the heterogeneous The existence of a settlement on management process to develop the socio-economic profiles of the families; illegally occupied government lands and various phases of the projects. contrasting levels of representation in the existence of a garbage excavation pit The Inter-Institutional Board, in existing formal organisations; various containing a high degree of environ- which the model finds its mental contamination were most complete expres- Management Model for Drinking Water Network Neighbourhoods: the determining factors for sion, integrates all the Don Alberto, Fecundo, Peron, Villa Nueva and Palermo 2 initiating land regularisation actors involved (techni- and the elimination Chaco lottery UNICEF cal, institutional and Community (landfill) of the dump. On community representa- Financing the one hand, it made it Ministry for Labor Fund tives). It is responsible for PROAS Programme possible to carry out a rede- conducting project op- sign experiment of the settle- erations, channelling UNICEF ment; and on the other, to communications and Coordination complete the water network management among the ICoHa and house connections. institutional and social Based on the premise of participants, resolving maximum participation and conflicts and promoting Provincial using the inter-neighbour- Implementation Community ICoHa Municipality of Ministry for organizations NGO Resistencia SAMEEP Health & agreement among those Social Action hood organisational struc- involved. ture established in the first

25 unicef WATERfront Issue 14 • April 2000 project, the task of regularisation of the constructed to build a small sanitary nity’s development of social organisation neighbourhood was carried out. Using unit (indoor bathroom). This would based on demand from neighbourhood participatory techniques, the necessary contribute to the dwelling’s development inhabitants, UNICEF, using donated space for negotiation was created be- in a way that would have been impossi- financial resources, established a centre tween the inhabitants and the techni- ble for the families to achieve with their for child development. The neighbour- cians (by the Municipality and IcoHa) in own resources. A decision was also taken hood community was actively involved which priorities, necessities and hopes to build houses with indoor bathrooms in its management and construction. were brought into line with spatial pos- for families living in unsafe dwellings. An area close to the previous inter- sibilities (number of families to be The neighbourhood improvement vention site was chosen because of the placed and land available) and legal scheme was based on the treatment and completion of the installation of the possibilities (municipal regulations for elimination of liquid sewerage, which, drinking water network in the southern the sale of government lands). together with the house-to-house instal- zone of the city and the territorial prox- The outcome of the participatory lations, made it possible to integrate the imity of all parties involved. This inter- design was: all families were mapped, as water circuit, introducing an innovation vention site presented physical agreed between the inhabitants and the from a technological point of view. The characteristics similar to those of the technicians, and the resulting mapping innovation was the design and imple- first project. was subsequently submitted to the Mu- mentation of a small-scale sewerage A preliminary study carried out in nicipality for its approval. The Munici- network with home septic tanks, whose the first phase of the project revealed pality of Resistencia carried out the upkeep is the community’s responsibility. many similarities in land ownership: the survey at the start of a second project, majority were, or were about to become, with community participation in man- tenant-owners; the remainder were non- agement and monitoring. Once this was Now, the community is in owner tenants; and a small proportion completed, steps were taken to legalise charge of the internal collection were occupying government lands that the process. to pay for the service. were about to be resolved. These simi- The project’s objective was to de- larities were also apparent in the socio- velop a pilot experiment in integrated economic profile of the population— (family and community) sanitation and With regard to social organisation, it relatively young and having few re- to contribute to a progressive housing was possible to strengthen the channels sources, with most of the population solution, based on the criteria of gradual and mechanisms for participation and actively employed, yet a high percentage development of the habitat through the organisation as a way of continuing unemployed. reinforcement of grassroots organisa- the process initiated in the first project The development of a social project tions managed in the first project. through an interactive and dynamic sys- similar to the first project was made Throughout the process, acquiring tem of group cohesion. This was adapted possible by applying an intervention the tools and skills to participate in for the inhabitants of each block and method. It brought together processes making important project decisions their block representative, who worked related to social organisation, inter- strengthened the community’s organisa- together at different levels of action and institutional co-ordination and the con- tion capacity. In this way, the people responsibility in the framework of an struction of a drinking water network. and technicians involved were able to inter-community organisational struc- However, this experience differed from carry out a joint evaluation of the area. ture and who had active participation the first projects in that the operational This made it possible to create space for in decision-making, management and work units were established through the the relationships necessary to negotiate project implementation. participation of ‘sector representatives’ and develop the proposal in order to Community representation on the (identified based on norms and criteria bring needs and hopes into line with inter-institutional level assigned par- of physical proximity adopted by their possibilities and financial realities. The ticipation according to the skills and own neighbours) replacing the ‘block result was a proposal for physical inter- dexterity acquired in decision-making, committee representative’. They became vention on two levels: the family and the negotiation strategies and reaching com- a link between each resident, the inter- neighbourhood. promises. As a corollary, the community neighbourhood organisation and the At the family level, a proposal was undertook responsibility for maintain- project. developed based on the criterion of ing the sewerage network through the Because of this community’s organi- equality in finding solutions. It involved collection and monthly administration sation, co-responsibility with the Water an effort to balance the situations ob- of an established minimum quota ear- Company was possible by developing a served so that all could arrive at a com- marked for the operation and mainte- system of macro measuring. Now, the mon solution. The proposal was also nance of the system. community is in charge of the internal based on progressive solutions. It enabled On completion of the project, as a collection to pay for the service. This families who had one or more dwellings further step in consolidating the commu- continued on page 30

26 Issue 14 • April 2000 unicef WATERfront User perceptions in urban sanitation provision: a briefing paper by Darren Saywell and Andrew Cotton, Water Engineering & Development Centre, Loughborough University, United Kingdom

In 1998, the Water, Engineering and pan latrines record by far the highest hold latrines is poverty, rather than Development Centre (WEDC) published levels of dissatisfaction; lack of available space on-plot. Pov- the findings from three years investigation erty, and/or the inability to save ■ Many users do not perceive there to into on-plot sanitation1 in low income funds to invest in longer term sanita- be a problem with their latrine. urban communities. This work raised some tion facilities are key constraints; Where problems are recorded, the interesting points regarding discrepancies most common include ‘emptying’, between user and sector professionals’ Plot size ‘smell’ and ‘insects’, although abso- assumptions about the appropriateness ■ Levels of user satisfaction were not lute figures are low; and efficacy of household latrine sanitation significantly affected by the incidence systems. This article discusses some of ■ Of these three problems, ‘emptying’ of small plot size; these issues. and ‘smell’ have the most impact on ■ There is little indication that plot size satisfaction levels and ability for the is associated with particular opera- Background user to use the latrine. tional problems. Where the most he most important feature of the common latrine problems were noted, investigation was that it focused they were spread across all size cat- on the perceptions of the users of T Householders’ decisions to egories. on-plot sanitation. All too often, assess- invest in domestic sanitation are ments and judgements on effectiveness typically driven by socio-cultural Discussion and appropriateness are made from a The assertion that on plot sanitation technologically biased and purely exter- rather than health factors. systems are inappropriate for low in- nal perspective. One can observe that come urban areas does not match with many evaluations are done by those who experience from the field. Findings from are hardly likely to themselves be regular Odour and insect nuisance this research indicate that a variety of users of improved pit latrines. Thus, ■ Only small percentages of house- lower cost systems are found to be per- most attention has focused on an at- holds perceive odour and insect nui- forming well on small plot sizes, with tempt to establish what the concerns of sance to be a common problem with limited odour/insect nuisance, without the users of on-plot systems were in their latrine (although nuisance of significant operational problems and to urban areas and to reflect these in guide- this kind does have a significant im- the satisfaction of the end user. How- lines for selection. pact on satisfaction levels); ever, there still exists a significant gulf ■ Key Findings Bucket/pan latrines register the high- between the perceptions of sector pro- est nuisance levels of all latrine types. fessionals and those of the community User satisfaction when regarding the appropriateness of ■ Householders’ decisions to invest in ■ Relative to other latrine types, VIP’s on-plot sanitation in the urban context. domestic sanitation are typically record higher than anticipated levels This in turn may limit the opportunities driven by socio-cultural rather than of odour and insect nuisance. There for widening sanitation options at the health factors; is little conclusive evidence to suggest local level. The findings from this work a link between odour and insect ■ In all but one case, users express high show that professionals’ understanding nuisance and height of vent above degrees of satisfaction with their of key issues such as insect/odour nui- roof line, presence of fly screens, vent latrine (in excess of 80% recording sance, or the operational problems asso- pipe colour and diameter of pipe; ‘satisfied’ or ‘very satisfied’). Bucket/ ciated with on-plot systems must be ■ Anecdotal evidence raises doubts advised by the opinions and perceptions about domestic latrines as the primary of those who actually use the system. 1 On-plot sanitation systems are those which source of insect nuisance on-plot. Clearly a participative exchange of are contained within the plot occupied by the dwelling. On-plot sanitation is associated with opinions and experiences is required household latrines, but also includes facilities Absence of household latrines between communities and local authori- which are shared by several households living ■ A key reason for the lack of house- together on the same plot. continued on page 29

27 unicef WATERfront Issue 14 • April 2000 ‘Prosperous’ Acapulco plagued by unplanned growth Environmental sanitation project turns into a multisectoral programme By Dirk Glas, WES Consultant, UNICEF-Mexico

Introduction group of counterparts formed a Munici- Furthermore, the system would keep Acapulco: the city known worldwide as a pality Committee to work together with on contaminating the bays of Acapulco prosperous holiday resort like many UNICEF on a second phase of the and need water to function, which is others suffers problems of unplanned project. The committee was made up of becoming scarcer. population growth. The migration of local entrepreneurs, hotel owners, indigenous people from rural areas to schoolteachers and representatives of The second phase Acapulco is one of the major causes. In the Municipality Office. After the pilot project was evaluated— search of a better place to live and an UNICEF wanted this private-sector looking at the costs per beneficiary of income that averages about US$80 per group’s involvement since it was the each latrine (US$50), the community month, ‘thanks’ to the tourist sector, only guarantee of continuity for the organization and the hygiene education they often end up residing in a house project, because Guerrero has proved to aspects—UNICEF produced a promo- made of tree branches and leaves, with- be politically unstable. In the previous tional video for fund-raising and dis- out access to safe drinking water or semination purposes. During a state sanitary services. This article relates a meeting where the results were presented first experience in a periurban ecological to the media, the Working Group offi- The project came to the attention sanitation project developed and imple- cially announced the start of the project’s mented in Acapulco, in the state of of the media when a reporter second phase, showing a video and mak- Guerrero, one of the poorest and most published a story of two ing an appeal to Mexican society to marginalised of Mexico. families who saved their lives donate funds to execute the project, The municipality of Acapulco is a by hiding in one of the latrines which comprises: fast-growing city with more than 1 mil- during the hurricane. ■ construction of 10,000 ecological lion inhabitants. Divided into 52 urban latrines in 25 target districts over a districts, it has about 130 rural commu- three-year period; nities. In 25 of the 52 districts, one can observe a growing and expanding terri- four years, three different governors ■ education of 50,000 people in domestic tory of indigenous immigrants from took the highest position in the state, hygiene; other states. Local citizens and govern- and Acapulco changed mayors three ■ training of local bricklayers; ments have traditionally closed their times, each with his own priorities. eyes to the problem. The project’s second phase gained ■ organizing of local committees to more urgency when it was decided that help organize community participa- Background $24 million would be invested in the tion and to be focal points for hy- UNICEF entered the picture in 1995, construction of periurban sewerage. The giene education. when it implemented a pilot project, impact of this system on the local natu- today referred to as a ‘learning project’. ral habitat and its ecosystems in general Additional objectives are: The objective was to draw the attention would be disastrous, and it was con- ■ design and implementation of a of governments as well as Mexican soci- cluded not to be a long-term sustainable model, which could be duplicated in ety as a whole to Acapulco’s problems. solution. In addition, a sewerage system other cities with similar characteristics; In one low-income urban district of of that dimension requires: Acapulco, in cooperation with the local ■ reallocation of federal, state and ■ a complex and cost-intensive infra- health jurisdiction and the State Health municipality funds. structure for its construction, func- Ministry, UNICEF planned and organ- tioning, maintenance and operation; Important project strategies are: ized the construction of 100 ecological and latrines to improve the living conditions ■ social mobilization and communica- of families there. When this pilot project ■ a continuous flow of maintenance tion content for the project’s self- was executed in January 1996, a small and rehabilitation costs. financing; continued on next page

28 Issue 14 • April 2000 unicef WATERfront

■ strengthening of the decentralization ■ Agreement for collaboration with of two families who saved their lives by process of the health sector; local university of medicine to place hiding in one of the latrines during the ‘disposal’ students at the projects, who hurricane. Project delays lasted for more ■ citizen participation in the organiza- will assist in the education at commu- than six months. Due to the misdeeds of tion, execution and evaluation of the nity level (seven district committees important politicians during the post- project; were created) and at family level. emergency situation, local and state ■ active private-sector participation governments changed and, again, local ■ Initiation of the second phase and in fund-raising and dissemination and state governments had to be con- actions; vinced to allocate funds to the project. Thanks to the private-sector committee ■ institutional capacity-building, be- The support of universities in and their influence in the municipality cause of the infrastructure and be- organization, it was agreed that the mu- cause the internal organization of the social development processes in nicipality would buy cement and other health jurisdiction is not able to co- general is invaluable… construction materials and that the State ordinate the project. Secretary for Social Development would The chronology of the different activities obtain funds for manual labour and for dissemination of this initiative. within the project cycle: education. ■ Constant process of monitoring by By the end of 1997, the project ex- ■ Analysis of the situation, data inter- community and district health pro- tended its target areas to some damaged pretation and problem setting. moters, who are responsible for ana- rural communities. Ecological latrines ■ Identification of possible solutions, lysing the impact of the project on the were built, water purification systems design, implementation and evalua- health status of the target population. were installed, open shallow water wells tion of the pilot scheme. were protected and improved. A strong Hurricane delays domestic hygiene education programme ■ Decision to continue the initiative, In 1997, hurricane Pauline blew through called ‘Health Starts at Home’ began, formulation of a second phase and the area, interrupting the project and and a domestic waste campaign to sensi- programming of start-up funds. leaving behind much destruction in the tize the people on how and why to ■ Dissemination of results and organi- coastal zone of Guerrero and Oaxaca. process domestic waste was organized. zation of a multisectoral working The project came to the attention of the Another important factor took place: the group. media when a reporter published a story local government decided to invest more

■ User perceptions from page 27 ties. The participation of communities which different stakeholders interact, are port, inappropriate organisational struc- in the development process has become critical to engendering wider stakeholder ture, skills, staff or systems to effectively a critical element in contemporary participation. Frequently, however, the integrate participation into the process project design and management. In institutional arrangements and working of delivering infrastructure services. To some cases, project financing is condi- culture of local government can con- compound this situation, many local tional on the application of participatory authority officials may fail to accept or processe. However, it is clear that misperceive the role and value of com- achieving effective participation, and munity participation in what was previ- bringing about a closer alignment of The assertion that on-plot ously the domain of technical staff. perspectives is more difficult to achieve. sanitation systems are The identification of differences The reasons for this are diverse, and inappropriate for low income between user and sector professional have been documented elsewhere urban areas does not match perceptions of technology choice and (Wright, 1997; Abbot, 1996; UNCHS/ performance is instructive as a reminder with experience from the field. CityNet, 1997). A key constraint is the of the need to constantly question in- practical problem of integrating two built assumptions. Beyond this, there stakeholders with different defining are wider and potentially more challeng- characteristics (i.e., the formal/rigid spire against effective communication ing questions to be asked about the most procedural nature of local authorities, between different partners. For instance, effective way in which the gulf between and the relatively more flexible and the capacity of local authorities as insti- these perceptions can be spanned. dynamic nature of community based tutions may be constrained by factors The authors can be contact through organisations) (Siddiqui and Rashid, including a lack of legislative or admin- [email protected] 1997). These interfaces, or points at istrative authority, limited political sup-

29 unicef WATERfront Issue 14 • April 2000 money in the investigation and moni- ■ Dry ecological sanitation is an appro- ■ Private-sector involvement in the toring of the project to be assured that priate answer for sanitation problems project, as well as in the dissemina- the latrines constructed were being used of low-income urban areas and re- tion and fund-raising activities, is a properly. Step by step, the project that sponds to the needs of the local key strategy for the sustainability of started as an environmental sanitation population. the project. project for periurban zones turned into ■ Evaluation and the dissemination of a multisectoral programme. Conclusions the results is an important tool for Although the project will not finish creating political will. Special agree- Lessons learned according to its time schedule and some ments with local media companies ■ Environmental sanitation is a objectives will not be reached, the facilitate this process. multisectoral issue: Aspects such as project is considered a success. It social-cultural environment, economic ■ The support of universities in social achieved the involvement of an ample environment, health environment development processes in general is representation of Mexican society, a and domestic environment are indi- invaluable, and they are normally strong collaboration with local universi- cators one can apply for feasibility willing to cooperate. Having been ties, reallocation of state and municipal- studies. involved in a UNICEF project often ity funds, expansion to other target areas means a step ahead for students who and, last but not least, it generated a ■ Dry ecological sanitation is becoming are at the point of finishing their demand from the local population for an important rival for conventional studies and applying for jobs. the latrines. solutions such as sewerage systems.

■ Urban environmental sanitation from page 23

made much less costly when using focuses on the opportunities and con- Workshop participants made a rec- ‘non-traditional’ approaches. The straints of working in services for the ommendation to intensify the collec- joint country programme now re- urban poor and writes about six lessons tion, compilation and dissemination of flects this shift in focus. learned through field testing of their experiences and best practices to build a approaches and principles. IRC high- knowledge base on the subject of urban ■ In Hyderabad, India, UNICEF urban lights strategic elements for water and environmental sanitation. This issue of basic services projects were so suc- sanitation services in urban low-income WATERfront represents part of that cessful that the local municipal cor- areas. And WEDC describes user per- effort and should be seen as a step porations and the state government ceptions in the provision of urban envi- towards increasing the attention given of Andhra Pradesh developed state- ronmental sanitation. to children living in high-risk circum- wide urban area projects along those stances in the cities of the developing lines to be implemented in all the UNICEF and Urban world. cities and towns. Environmental Sanitation These are just some examples. During the New York UNICEF Work- Clearly, there remains a long way to go shop on Environmental Sanitation and before we will be able to address all the Hygiene, in June 1998, urban environ- needs of the millions of people living in mental sanitation was one of four focus urban slums in a constructive manner. areas. Three important lessons learned for the success of urban environmental ■ Argentina from page 26 Also this issue sanitation projects were identified as the Other articles in this issue come from following: allows the company to reduce adminis- the USAID-Environmental Health trative costs, which benefits inhabitants, ■ Community management of sanita- Project (EHP, USA), the International and allows the community to maintain tion systems, deciding on technology, Water and Sanitation Centre (IRC, the the capacity it acquired for organisation. tariffs, speed of repayment and op- Netherlands), and the Water Engineer- eration and maintenance. This article is a short version of the very ing & Development Centre (WEDC, detailed article written by Martin Delucchi. UK). These institutions are important ■ Recognition of local solutions. For the complete version, contact the sources for new developments in urban ■ Funding by a mixture of public sub- WES-section in UNICEF-New York environmental sanitation. EHP’s article sidy and private funding. ([email protected])

30 Issue 14 • April 2000 unicef WATERfront

■ Istmina from page 30 rubber boots, began the pilot collection to prevent livestock from gaining access, phase in the Cubis neighbourhood. the hut’s design was adapted to make it approval of the project re-awakened a In the pilot phase, each collection possible to keep tools there, and so that long-standing dream in the municipality truck was assigned to a clearly defined the workers could change their clothes, with regard to waste management and area, a collection route, collection days and a shower unit with a lavatory and recycling, which were fundamental com- and a timetable. In each area a collection sink were installed. The site was also ponents of the basic sanitation work site was identified, where bags of waste sign-posted clearly. Three men, in shifts being carried out. were deposited for subsequent place- of 6 hours per day, manage the landfill. ment in the truck. Once the truck was Training, name change and full, it would proceed to the sanitary pilot phase landfill. Each collection site was kept “…they solved the two biggest So it was that in March, shortly after the spotlessly clean to avoid its becoming a problems in the municipality: project was approved, a large meeting rubbish dump. The neighbours, acting lack of income and inadequate took place and the training of 90 women as civil vigilantes, helped to keep it clean. was begun, with the support of SENA. As a result of their increased awareness, waste management.” Then, between June and July, Guillermo they strictly enforced the recommenda- Lozano, an expert in the field with expe- tion that garbage be kept in plastic bags rience in similar projects implemented (in the beginning, they provided them Comments in Ecuador, came to help outline the free of charge, to encourage the habit The population takes a positive view of project, which was re-christened among their neighbours), since the sys- the experiment. The most frequent, Núcleos Empresariales de Limpieza tem is not designed to cope with heavy simple and convincing comment is the Pública (NELP) (Public Sanitation Man- waste such as building debris, or rubble following: the waste that formerly agement Groups). The NELPs, as they from excavations, or heavy volume clogged up the river and the streets is are known, are small private companies items such as mattresses and furniture. now in a place where we can contain it. with a community spirit. The members The women involved in the project have of the groups are owners and workers. The sanitary landfill a wider vision: “The NELPs have been They all carry out the fieldwork and also The final disposal of waste in a technical very important because they solved the perform administrative duties (manage- and acceptable form, from an environ- two biggest problems in the municipal- ment, company representation, human mental point of view, is the last stage in ity: lack of income and inadequate waste resource management, finances) on a the integrated management of the solid management. Many of us are heads of rotation basis. No capitalist members waste and the people of Istmina chose a households and we think that if the sanitary landfill. Because we were deal- mother brings more income into the ing with a small population, the landfill home, her children will enjoy a better The approval of the project was largely maintained manually, and standard of living. There is also a very re-awakened a long-standing heavy equipment was only used to adapt strong desire to contribute to local de- the site for the excavation of protective velopment. We are beginning to get dream in the municipality with material, an operation that is carried out training in cooperation and we are hold- regard to waste management periodically, in accordance with material ing workshops to learn how to make and recycling… requirements and the availability of materials from glass and other recyclable machinery. products.” One of the young landfill The Istmina landfill is called El workers concludes: “With the collection are not allowed, nor are absentee or Borojó, named after a typical fruit in the of waste, we are all winners. The river inactive members. The sustainability of region, and is an Area Type landfill with wins because there is less pollution. The the NELP depends on their ability to stair-like banks and ditches that collect people win because we have fewer dis- provide a quality service to their own rain water and draw it away from the eases and less waste in the streets. And communities. landfill area. The ditches serve as drain- we win because it’s another source of In conjunction with the training of age channels when the waste reaches a income, and we have work, thank god.” women, a widespread initiative was certain level and vent pipes were also This is one of the three articles UNICEF- carried out among the community to constructed to allow gases to escape. Colombia prepared on their experiences with increase public awareness, with talks in The channels are filled with round stones Urban Environmental Sanitation. Due to primary schools and junior high schools, (boulders) and sealed with dry ferns to space limitations, only one could be printed presentations at meetings and radio prevent the waste from obstructing in this issue. The other two articles can be announcements. At the end of 1997, them and impeding the flow of the per- obtained through [email protected] or the women of NELP, with their yellow colated liquids. To complete the site’s can be found at www.unicef.org/pro- blouses, aprons and blue slacks, hats and adaptation, the area was also fenced off gramme/wes

31 unicef WATERfront Issue 14 • April 2000 In Istmina, we women have changed a lot by UNICEF-Colombia

efore, I did not speak to anyone heads of households in Istmina changed in collaboration with the UNICEF directly, and now, as you can see, the face of the town, and in the process, Water and Sanitation Programme and B I talk to everyone and have am took control of their own lives in order the Mayor’s office, we presented an not afraid to say what I feel. The training to improve them. urban cleaning and solid waste manage- makes you stronger….” Like someone ment project, which we named the looking in a mirror and taking stock of New women’s matters Núcleo Empresarial de Limpieza Pública the changes that have occurred, Rosa Since 1996, the Program for Local De- (NELP) (Public Sanitation Management Cruz Murillo tells her story of personal velopment, sponsored by UNICEF and Group) to the Solidarity Network. transformation, which took place in started by Cimder1, has been working tandem with the formation and consoli- with women in the poorest parts of the Plans on the table dation of her community group. municipality, providing training to help In a participatory exercise initiated Rosa lives in Istmina, a municipality them to take better decisions to benefit mainly by the Progamme for Local in the Department of Chocó on the their health and personal growth, and to Development, eleven employment gen- banks of the San Juan river, in a jungle find ways to increase their income. This erating projects were presented to the region that is one of the rainiest in the is a new experience for many of them, municipal board of the Solidarity Net- world. The municipality has 45,000 work, among which was one called inhabitants, 12,000 of whom live in the “Generation of Employment through inner city. They are mostly black, though …a large group of female heads Sanitation and Recycling”, presented by there are some indigenous people, some of households in Istmina this group of women, with the support of mixed race and whites who come changed the face of the town… of Miguel Angel Guerrero, Coordinator from the interior. 165 years ago, Istmina of the Programme for Drinking Water was a slave settlement. Today it is the and Sanitation. The garbage collection second largest city in the Department. It who are not used to leaving their homes component of the project was the first to is 75 km by well-kept road from Quibdó, to attend meetings, much less talking to be approved, with the following plan for the departmental capital, and 780 km other women about their situation and institutional support: contributions from Bogotá, the far-off capital of the seeking a solution to their problems. from the Network would be used to pay Republic. The San Juan river flows into Despite this, women from other neigh- salaries, the mayor’s office would supply the Pacific ocean, and travelling by both bourhoods gradually joined the initial the necessary materials (uniforms, bicy- waterways, one arrives at Buenaventura, group of women from San Agustín: they cles, bags and brooms) and UNICEF another key destination for the men and came from Eduardo Santos, Primero de would provide training and technical women of Istmina, and the country’s Mayo, Diego Luis Córdova, Cubis and support for the remaining activities con- most important Pacific port. Camellón. sidered in the sanitation project. The Istimina’s inhabitants are mostly “So”, they say, “we began to work continued on page 31 poor. The majority cannot read or write, both from the inside and outside of the there are few sources of work and the group. With other groups in the neigh- workforce is poorly trained. Many chil- bourhood and the municipality, we took WATERfront dren die from preventable diseases. There part in a workshop to analyze health A newsletter for information exchange on Water, are many female heads of households in indicators, comparing the general situa- Environment, Sanitation, and Hygiene Education situations of poverty and for most of the tion of Istmina with that of the San UNICEF population there is an abundance of Agustín neighbourhood. We also worked Programme Division Water, Environment and unsatisfied basic needs. Business— jointly with other groups, to discover Sanitation Section controlled by “paisas”, or people from the history of the neighbourhood. We Please send articles, illustrations and correspondence to: the interior—agriculture and mining, then took part in more workshops: com- The Editor, WATERfront are the principal economic activities. munication for assertiveness; human UNICEF Programme Division, WES Section Three United Nations Plaza, TA 26A Plantains, maize, yuca, yams, pineapples, relations; and prevention of drug de- New York, N.Y. 10017. U.S.A. borojó (a local fruit) and chontaduro pendency and alcoholism were some of Telephone 1-212-824-6000 (an abundant local plant) are grown. the issues discussed. In February 1997, Fax No. 1-212-864-6480 e-mail: [email protected] This article describes how, over the Web: www.unicef.org/programme/wes 1 Centro de Investigaciones Multidisciplinarias de past few years, a large group of female Printed on recycled paper la Facultad de Salud de la Universidad del Valle

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